zakerytclarke/mini_squad · Datasets at Hugging Face

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Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays.	What are immunoassays?	Complex serological techniques
Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation.	What type of signal do immunoassays produce?	electro - magnetic or particle radiation
Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen.	What allows quantitation of the target antigen?	unknowns can be compared to that of standards
To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent.	Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins?	generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent
Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons.	What does the acronym PCR expand to?	polymerase chain reaction
Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons.	What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future?	PCR
First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified.	What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of?	virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified
Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease;	What must an infectious agent do to cause disease?	grow within the human body
Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.	What are primers derived from the genomes of?	infectious agents
Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available.	What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available?	ability to detect any infectious agent
The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable.	What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?	cost and application
The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism).	What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods?	clostridial diseases
A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.	PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur?	significant proliferation of the infectious agent
For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options.	What is used in the treatment of AIDS?	AZT
For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options.	How was the course of AIDS followed?	monitoring the composition of patient blood samples
By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections.	What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted?	resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk
The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis.	What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable?	geographical origins of the virus
Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection.	What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes?	Molecular diagnostics
Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another.	What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent?	infections from being passed from one person to another
Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms.	What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?	Frequent hand washing
There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise.	Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what?	prevention
There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise.	Why is it important to cook foods well?	prevention
Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.	What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time?	avoiding
One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases.	Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what?	prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases
Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness.	What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated?	virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness
The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after.	What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them?	Ebola
Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging.	Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious?	victims experience only internal hemorrhaging
Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.	What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do?	travel long distances
Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks.	Recognizing the effects of small-world networks allows one to decrease what?	transmission rate of infectious diseases
In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals.	What type of interactions happen within groups of infected individuals in epidemics?	extensive interactions
However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs.	What is a way of drastically reducing infection rates?	focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps
The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method.	What is an example of a success implementation of preventing transmission jumps?	needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users
Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.	When was vaccination used to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus?	2001
Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.	What is resistance to infection known technically as?	immunity
Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.	When may immunity be acquired?	following a disease
Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens.	What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for?	primary pathogens
There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.	What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity?	a measure of protection
Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.	Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired?	immunity
The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients.	What can the clearance of pathogens be influenced by in an individual?	genetic variants
For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus.	What is the brand name Pegasys for?	Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b
This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others.	What are patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene more likely to achieve?	sustained virological response
When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection.	What type of drugs can suppress an infection when it attacks the body?	anti-infective
Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted;	How many broad types of anti-infective drugs exist?	Several
Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically.	What depends on the method an antibiotic is given?	severity and the type of infection
Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics.	How are severe infections of the brain usually treated?	with intravenous antibiotics
Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria.	How do antibiotics work?	slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria
The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria.	What are the top three killer diseases?	HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria
While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold.	How much have deaths due to HIV/AIDS increased?	fourfold
Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus.	What are some popular childhood diseases?	pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus
Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths.	Who makes up a large percentage of diarrheal deaths?	Children
1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.	What is the number 4 leading cause of death in the world?	lower respiratory infections
The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology.	What medical field does the treatment of infectious diseases fall into?	field of Infectious Disease
The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology.	Disease propagation can fall under the purview of what field of study?	Epidemiology
Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists.	Who tends to initially diagnose an infection?	primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists
For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician).	What is the non-medical mumbo jumbo term for pulmonologist?	lung physician
The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.	Who works with both patients and general practitioners to identify a disease?	infectious diseases specialist
A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior.	What have a number of studies found a correlation between?	pathogen load in an area and human behavior
Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area.	What is higher pathogen load associated with?	decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area
This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture.	What does avoidance of other groups reduce?	pathogen transmission
Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission.	What does more restricted sexual behavior result in?	Higher pathogen load
Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.	What may poor socioeconomic factors ultimately in part be due to?	high pathogen load preventing economic development.
Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms.	What profession finds evidence of infection in fossil remains to be interesting?	paleopathologists
Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms.	What do paleopathologists study?	occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms
Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs.	What has been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs?	Signs of infection
A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone.	What dinosaur's skull had pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone?	Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis
The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.	How did tyrannosaurs become infected?	being bitten during a fight
Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.	What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal?	Hunting
Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade.	Why do humans most commonly hunt wildlife?	food
In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.	What is there a distinction between lawful hunting and?	poaching
In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.	What is poaching?	illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species
The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.	What is the species which is hunted referred to as?	prey
Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.	What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal called?	Hunting
In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.	When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?	2010s
In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.	Illegally killing, capturing or trapping an hunted species is called what?	poaching
The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.	Hunted species are usually referred to as what?	game or prey
The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.	What animals are usually hunted?	mammals and birds
Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.	What is it called to kill or trap an animal?	Hunting
The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.	What species are usually hunted?	mammals and birds
Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade.	Why do humans hunt?	food, recreation, to remove predators
In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.	When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?	2010s
The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.	Species hunted are referred to as what?	game or prey
Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.	What does evidence suggest hunting may have been a factor in the extinction of?	holocene megafauna
North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.	What was the North American megafauna extinction coincidental with?	Younger Dryas impact event
However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.	What are humans thought to have played a significant role in, in Australia?	extinction of the Australian megafauna
However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.	When was Australian's megafauna widespread?	prior to human occupation
Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.	What along with multiple environmental factors led to the extinction of the holocene megafauna?	hunting
Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.	What replaced the holocene megafauna?	smaller herbivores
North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.	What event was coincidental with the North American megafauna extinction?	Younger Dryas impact event
However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.	What is thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna?	humans
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.	What is undisputed about early humans?	were hunters
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.	Hunting was important for the emergence of the Homo genus from what?	earlier Australopithecines
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.	Production of stone tools and control of fire were also pushed forward by what?	hunting
With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.	What became a theme of stories and myths?	hunting
With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.	Hunting allowed what type of rituals?	dance and animal sacrifice
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.	What is undisputed about earlier humans?	humans were hunters
With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.	What did hunting become a theme of?	stories and myths
While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.	Stone tools and control of fire are emphasised in what hypothesis?	hunting hypothesis
Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the New World, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery.	What type of lifestyle was prevalent in Siberia until the European Age of Discovery?	Hunter-gathering
They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline.	Where does the hunter-gathering lifestyle persist, though in decline?	some tribal societies
Peoples that preserved paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples.	Indigenous peoples of the Amazonas preserved what until the recent past?	paleolithic hunting-gathering

Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays.

What are immunoassays?

Complex serological techniques

Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation.

What type of signal do immunoassays produce?

electro - magnetic or particle radiation

Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen.

What allows quantitation of the target antigen?

unknowns can be compared to that of standards

To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent.

Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins?

generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent

Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons.

What does the acronym PCR expand to?

polymerase chain reaction

Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons.

What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future?

PCR

First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified.

What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of?

virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified

Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease;

What must an infectious agent do to cause disease?

grow within the human body

Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

What are primers derived from the genomes of?

infectious agents

Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available.

What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available?

ability to detect any infectious agent

The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable.

What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?

cost and application

The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism).

What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods?

clostridial diseases

A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur?

significant proliferation of the infectious agent

For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options.

What is used in the treatment of AIDS?

AZT

For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options.

How was the course of AIDS followed?

monitoring the composition of patient blood samples

By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections.

What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted?

resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk

The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis.

What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable?

geographical origins of the virus

Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection.

What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes?

Molecular diagnostics

Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another.

What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent?

infections from being passed from one person to another

Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms.

What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?

Frequent hand washing

There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise.

Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what?

prevention

There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise.

Why is it important to cook foods well?

prevention

Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.

What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time?

avoiding

One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases.

Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what?

prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases

Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness.

What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated?

virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness

The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after.

What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them?

Ebola

Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging.

Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious?

victims experience only internal hemorrhaging

Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.

What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do?

travel long distances

Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks.

Recognizing the effects of small-world networks allows one to decrease what?

transmission rate of infectious diseases

In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals.

What type of interactions happen within groups of infected individuals in epidemics?

extensive interactions

However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs.

What is a way of drastically reducing infection rates?

focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps

The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method.

What is an example of a success implementation of preventing transmission jumps?

needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users

Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.

When was vaccination used to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus?

2001

Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.

What is resistance to infection known technically as?

immunity

Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.

When may immunity be acquired?

following a disease

Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens.

What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for?

primary pathogens

There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity?

a measure of protection

Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination.

Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired?

immunity

The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients.

What can the clearance of pathogens be influenced by in an individual?

genetic variants

For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus.

What is the brand name Pegasys for?

Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b

This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others.

What are patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene more likely to achieve?

sustained virological response

When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection.

What type of drugs can suppress an infection when it attacks the body?

anti-infective

Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted;

How many broad types of anti-infective drugs exist?

Several

Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically.

What depends on the method an antibiotic is given?

severity and the type of infection

Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics.

How are severe infections of the brain usually treated?

with intravenous antibiotics

Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria.

How do antibiotics work?

slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria

The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria.

What are the top three killer diseases?

HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria

While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold.

How much have deaths due to HIV/AIDS increased?

fourfold

Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus.

What are some popular childhood diseases?

pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus

Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths.

Who makes up a large percentage of diarrheal deaths?

Children

1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.

What is the number 4 leading cause of death in the world?

lower respiratory infections

The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology.

What medical field does the treatment of infectious diseases fall into?

field of Infectious Disease

The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology.

Disease propagation can fall under the purview of what field of study?

Epidemiology

Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists.

Who tends to initially diagnose an infection?

primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists

For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician).

What is the non-medical mumbo jumbo term for pulmonologist?

lung physician

The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.

Who works with both patients and general practitioners to identify a disease?

infectious diseases specialist

A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior.

What have a number of studies found a correlation between?

pathogen load in an area and human behavior

Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area.

What is higher pathogen load associated with?

decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area

This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture.

What does avoidance of other groups reduce?

pathogen transmission

Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission.

What does more restricted sexual behavior result in?

Higher pathogen load

Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

What may poor socioeconomic factors ultimately in part be due to?

high pathogen load preventing economic development.

Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms.

What profession finds evidence of infection in fossil remains to be interesting?

paleopathologists

Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms.

What do paleopathologists study?

occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms

Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs.

What has been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs?

Signs of infection

A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone.

What dinosaur's skull had pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone?

Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis

The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.

How did tyrannosaurs become infected?

being bitten during a fight

Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.

What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal?

Hunting

Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade.

Why do humans most commonly hunt wildlife?

food

In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.

What is there a distinction between lawful hunting and?

poaching

In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.

What is poaching?

illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species

The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

What is the species which is hunted referred to as?

prey

Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.

What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal called?

Hunting

In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.

When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?

2010s

In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.

Illegally killing, capturing or trapping an hunted species is called what?

poaching

The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

Hunted species are usually referred to as what?

game or prey

The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

What animals are usually hunted?

mammals and birds

Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so.

What is it called to kill or trap an animal?

Hunting

The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

What species are usually hunted?

mammals and birds

Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade.

Why do humans hunt?

food, recreation, to remove predators

In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species.

When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?

2010s

The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

Species hunted are referred to as what?

game or prey

Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.

What does evidence suggest hunting may have been a factor in the extinction of?

holocene megafauna

North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.

What was the North American megafauna extinction coincidental with?

Younger Dryas impact event

However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.

What are humans thought to have played a significant role in, in Australia?

extinction of the Australian megafauna

However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.

When was Australian's megafauna widespread?

prior to human occupation

Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.

What along with multiple environmental factors led to the extinction of the holocene megafauna?

hunting

Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.

What replaced the holocene megafauna?

smaller herbivores

North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.

What event was coincidental with the North American megafauna extinction?

Younger Dryas impact event

However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.

What is thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna?

humans

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.

What is undisputed about early humans?

were hunters

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.

Hunting was important for the emergence of the Homo genus from what?

earlier Australopithecines

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.

Production of stone tools and control of fire were also pushed forward by what?

hunting

With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.

What became a theme of stories and myths?

hunting

With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.

Hunting allowed what type of rituals?

dance and animal sacrifice

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.

What is undisputed about earlier humans?

humans were hunters

With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.

What did hunting become a theme of?

stories and myths

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity.

Stone tools and control of fire are emphasised in what hypothesis?

hunting hypothesis

Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the New World, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery.

What type of lifestyle was prevalent in Siberia until the European Age of Discovery?

Hunter-gathering

They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline.

Where does the hunter-gathering lifestyle persist, though in decline?

some tribal societies

Peoples that preserved paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples.

Indigenous peoples of the Amazonas preserved what until the recent past?

paleolithic hunting-gathering