zakerytclarke/mini_squad · Datasets at Hugging Face

context stringlengths 3 1.12k	question stringlengths 1 25.7k	answer stringlengths 1 239
The fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints are called urs.	What are urs?	fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints
They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint.	When are urs held?	the death anniversary of the saint
The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing.	What genre of music is played at urs?	folk
The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.	Where is Buksh's shrine?	Lahore
The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.	Where is Zakria's shrine?	Multan
The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.	What is Punjab's biggest festival?	The national horse and cattle show
The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.	Where is the national horse and cattle show held?	Lahore
The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.	What happens at the national horse and cattle show?	sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions
The Anarkali Market and Jahangir's Tomb are prominent in the city of Lahore as is the Lahore Museum, while the ancient city of Taxila in the northwest was once a major centre of Buddhist and Hindu influence.	What famous tomb is in Lahore?	Jahangir's Tomb
(born at Nankana Sahib).	Where was Nanak born?	Nankana Sahib
Several important Sikh shrines are in the province, including the birthplace of the first Guru, Guru Nanak.	Who was the first Sikh Guru?	Guru Nanak
There are a few famous hill stations, including Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro.	What famous hill stations are in Punjab?	Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro
The province is home to several historical sites, including the Shalimar Gardens, the Lahore Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Rohtas Fort and the ruins of the ancient city of Harrapa.	What famous mosque is in Punjab?	Badshahi Mosque
Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known.	Who are some well-known Punjab poets?	Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah
Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known.	What is Allah Ditta Lona Wala's career?	folk singers
In the composition of classical ragas, there are such masters as Malika-i-Mauseequi (Queen of Music) Roshan Ara Begum, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan, Salamat Ali Khan and Ustad Fateh Ali Khan.	Who is the 'Queen of Music'?	Malika-i-Mauseequi
Alam Lohar has made significant contributions to folklore and Punjabi literature, by being a very influential Punjabi folk singer from 1930 until 1979.	When was Alam Lohar an important Punjabi folk singer?	from 1930 until 1979
For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known.	What kind of music does Malika Pukhraj perform?	Ghazals and folk songs
Folk songs and dances of the Punjab reflect a wide range of moods: the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons.	What do Punjab folk songs often reflect?	the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons
Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi depict the joy of living.	Who sings about the joy of living?	Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi
Love legends of Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahenwal and Saiful Mulk are sung in different styles.	What does Heer Ranjha sing about?	Love
For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known.	What kind of music does Roshen Ara Begum perform?	Ghazals and folk songs
Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals.	Of the huge amount of microorganisms, how many cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals?	relatively few
Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect.	Interplay between pathogens and defenses of hosts results in what?	Infectious disease
The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen.	What does the severity of a disease resulting from a pathogen depend on?	ability of that pathogen to damage the host
However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection.	What can a host's immune system do to a host?	cause damage
Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:	What do clinicians classify infectious microorganisms according to the status of?	host defenses
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.	What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious?	satisfy Koch's postulates
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.	What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?	patients and not in healthy controls
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.	What is Koch's second postulate?	patients who contract the agent also develop the disease
Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture.	Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases?	because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual
For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes.	What is the causative spirochete of syphilis?	Treponema pallidum
Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.	When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases?	when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person
Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted.	What is a contagious disease a subset of?	infectious disease
Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted.	What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease?	especially infective or easily transmitted
Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims.	Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation?	medical
However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.	What is not always respected in popular use?	specialized connotation of the word "contagious"
Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization.	When does infection begin?	when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies.
Most humans are not easily infected.	What group is not easily infected?	humans
Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections.	What group of humans have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections?	weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic
Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections.	What individuals are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections?	Individuals who have a suppressed immune system
Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.	What is it called when a pathogen grows within the host cells?	intracellular
Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.	What does wound colonization refer to?	nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound
Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.	What type of organisms exist and injure tissue in infected wounds?	replicating
All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host.	What are all multcellular organisms colonized to some degree by?	extrinsic organisms
The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance.	What's the difference between an infection and a colonization?	only a matter of circumstance
An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin.	What species colonizes the mammalian colon?	anaerobic bacteria
Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds are infected.	Why is it difficult to now which chronic wounds are infected?	Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization
Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs.	What is there limited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice?	symptoms and signs
A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection.	What is increased pain an indicator of?	infection
The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11-20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.	What does not rule out infection?	absence of pain
Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.	Disease can arise when an organism inflicts what on the host?	damage
Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes.	What can a microorganism cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of?	toxins
For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis.	What does the of toxin Clostridium tetani releases do?	paralyzes muscles
For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis.	What releases toxins which product shock and sepsis?	staphylococcus
For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease.	What percentage of people infected with polio develop disease?	less than 5%
Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection.	Why do persistent infections occur?	body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection
Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection.	What are persistent infections characterized by the continual presence of?	the infectious organism
There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body.	How can some viruses main a persistent infection?	by infecting different cells of the body
Some viruses once acquired never leave the body.	What never leave the body when acquired?	Some viruses
A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.	Where does the herpes virus hide?	in nerves
Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly.	What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying?	an infectious agent either directly or indirectly
In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent.	Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation?	clinical
In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent.	How are minor infectious diseases treated?	without knowledge of the specific causative agent
Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.	What can be identified given sufficient effort?	all known infectious agents
The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.	Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent?	greatly outweighed by the cost
Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination.	How is diagnosis of infectious disease almost always initiated?	by medical history and physical examination
More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient.	What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient allow?	detailed identification
Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype.	What features of an infectious organism does a culture allow examining?	microscopic features
Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype.	What can organisms be directly identified by?	its genotype
Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent.	What technique can be used to produce images of internal abnormalities?	X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR
Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease.	What type of culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease?	Microbiological
In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent.	What type of medium is provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture?	growth
Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water.	What are most pathogenic bacteria easily grown on?	nutrient agar
A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn".	What is it called when a visible mound forms on the surface of a plate?	a colony
In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque".	What is a region of dead cells resulting from viral growth called?	a "plaque"
In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals.	What are live animals required by?	some microbes
Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary.	What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum be grown in?	animals
Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs.	What type of eggs may some viruses be grown in?	embryonated
Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent.	What is Xenodiagnosis?	use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent
Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis.	What is it difficult to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease?	the causative agent
Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy.	What is microscopy used for?	diagnosis of infectious disease
Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent.	What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point?	microscopic examination
Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification.	What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under?	light microscope
Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen.	When is microscopy exquisitely specific?	when used in combination with antibody based techniques.
For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen.	What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do?	bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen
Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.	What do almost all cells readily stain with?	a number of basic dyes
Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.	Why do cells easily stain with dyes?	electrostatic attraction
Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.	What electronic charge do cellular molecules have?	negatively charged
Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells.	What is Geimsa stain?	a dye
Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease.	How many methods comprise standard approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease?	Two
The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease.	What needs to be isolated from infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease?	enzymes
For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections.	What enzyme's presence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections?	RNA replicases
The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.	What does the protein hemagglutinin bind together?	red blood cells
For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections.	Why are the presence of certain enymzes a tell tale sign of a virus?	humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase
Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms.	What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms?	Serological
These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen.	What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do?	bind specifically to an antigen
The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody.	What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually?	a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent
This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test.	What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways?	a chain of events
For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab.	What is the causative agent of "strep throat"?	S. pyogenes

The fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints are called urs.

What are urs?

fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints

They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint.

When are urs held?

the death anniversary of the saint

The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing.

What genre of music is played at urs?

folk

The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.

Where is Buksh's shrine?

Lahore

The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.

Where is Zakria's shrine?

Multan

The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.

What is Punjab's biggest festival?

The national horse and cattle show

The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.

Where is the national horse and cattle show held?

Lahore

The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.

What happens at the national horse and cattle show?

sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions

The Anarkali Market and Jahangir's Tomb are prominent in the city of Lahore as is the Lahore Museum, while the ancient city of Taxila in the northwest was once a major centre of Buddhist and Hindu influence.

What famous tomb is in Lahore?

Jahangir's Tomb

(born at Nankana Sahib).

Where was Nanak born?

Nankana Sahib

Several important Sikh shrines are in the province, including the birthplace of the first Guru, Guru Nanak.

Who was the first Sikh Guru?

Guru Nanak

There are a few famous hill stations, including Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro.

What famous hill stations are in Punjab?

Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro

The province is home to several historical sites, including the Shalimar Gardens, the Lahore Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Rohtas Fort and the ruins of the ancient city of Harrapa.

What famous mosque is in Punjab?

Badshahi Mosque

Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known.

Who are some well-known Punjab poets?

Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah

Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known.

What is Allah Ditta Lona Wala's career?

folk singers

In the composition of classical ragas, there are such masters as Malika-i-Mauseequi (Queen of Music) Roshan Ara Begum, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan, Salamat Ali Khan and Ustad Fateh Ali Khan.

Who is the 'Queen of Music'?

Malika-i-Mauseequi

Alam Lohar has made significant contributions to folklore and Punjabi literature, by being a very influential Punjabi folk singer from 1930 until 1979.

When was Alam Lohar an important Punjabi folk singer?

from 1930 until 1979

For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known.

What kind of music does Malika Pukhraj perform?

Ghazals and folk songs

Folk songs and dances of the Punjab reflect a wide range of moods: the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons.

What do Punjab folk songs often reflect?

the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons

Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi depict the joy of living.

Who sings about the joy of living?

Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi

Love legends of Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahenwal and Saiful Mulk are sung in different styles.

What does Heer Ranjha sing about?

Love

For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known.

What kind of music does Roshen Ara Begum perform?

Ghazals and folk songs

Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals.

Of the huge amount of microorganisms, how many cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals?

relatively few

Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect.

Interplay between pathogens and defenses of hosts results in what?

Infectious disease

The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen.

What does the severity of a disease resulting from a pathogen depend on?

ability of that pathogen to damage the host

However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection.

What can a host's immune system do to a host?

cause damage

Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:

What do clinicians classify infectious microorganisms according to the status of?

host defenses

One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.

What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious?

satisfy Koch's postulates

One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.

What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?

patients and not in healthy controls

One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease.

What is Koch's second postulate?

patients who contract the agent also develop the disease

Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture.

Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases?

because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual

For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes.

What is the causative spirochete of syphilis?

Treponema pallidum

Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.

When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases?

when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person

Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted.

What is a contagious disease a subset of?

infectious disease

Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted.

What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease?

especially infective or easily transmitted

Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims.

Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation?

medical

However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

What is not always respected in popular use?

specialized connotation of the word "contagious"

Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization.

When does infection begin?

when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies.

Most humans are not easily infected.

What group is not easily infected?

humans

Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections.

What group of humans have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections?

weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic

Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections.

What individuals are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections?

Individuals who have a suppressed immune system

Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.

What is it called when a pathogen grows within the host cells?

intracellular

Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.

What does wound colonization refer to?

nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound

Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.

What type of organisms exist and injure tissue in infected wounds?

replicating

All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host.

What are all multcellular organisms colonized to some degree by?

extrinsic organisms

The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance.

What's the difference between an infection and a colonization?

only a matter of circumstance

An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin.

What species colonizes the mammalian colon?

anaerobic bacteria

Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds are infected.

Why is it difficult to now which chronic wounds are infected?

Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization

Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs.

What is there limited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice?

symptoms and signs

A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection.

What is increased pain an indicator of?

infection

The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11-20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.

What does not rule out infection?

absence of pain

Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.

Disease can arise when an organism inflicts what on the host?

damage

Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes.

What can a microorganism cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of?

toxins

For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis.

What does the of toxin Clostridium tetani releases do?

paralyzes muscles

For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis.

What releases toxins which product shock and sepsis?

staphylococcus

For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease.

What percentage of people infected with polio develop disease?

less than 5%

Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection.

Why do persistent infections occur?

body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection

Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection.

What are persistent infections characterized by the continual presence of?

the infectious organism

There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body.

How can some viruses main a persistent infection?

by infecting different cells of the body

Some viruses once acquired never leave the body.

What never leave the body when acquired?

Some viruses

A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.

Where does the herpes virus hide?

in nerves

Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly.

What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying?

an infectious agent either directly or indirectly

In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent.

Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation?

clinical

In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent.

How are minor infectious diseases treated?

without knowledge of the specific causative agent

Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.

What can be identified given sufficient effort?

all known infectious agents

The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.

Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent?

greatly outweighed by the cost

Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination.

How is diagnosis of infectious disease almost always initiated?

by medical history and physical examination

More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient.

What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient allow?

detailed identification

Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype.

What features of an infectious organism does a culture allow examining?

microscopic features

Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype.

What can organisms be directly identified by?

its genotype

Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent.

What technique can be used to produce images of internal abnormalities?

X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR

Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease.

What type of culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease?

Microbiological

In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent.

What type of medium is provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture?

growth

Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water.

What are most pathogenic bacteria easily grown on?

nutrient agar

A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn".

What is it called when a visible mound forms on the surface of a plate?

a colony

In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque".

What is a region of dead cells resulting from viral growth called?

a "plaque"

In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals.

What are live animals required by?

some microbes

Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary.

What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum be grown in?

animals

Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs.

What type of eggs may some viruses be grown in?

embryonated

Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent.

What is Xenodiagnosis?

use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent

Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis.

What is it difficult to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease?

the causative agent

Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy.

What is microscopy used for?

diagnosis of infectious disease

Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent.

What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point?

microscopic examination

Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification.

What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under?

light microscope

Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen.

When is microscopy exquisitely specific?

when used in combination with antibody based techniques.

For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen.

What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do?

bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen

Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.

What do almost all cells readily stain with?

a number of basic dyes

Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.

Why do cells easily stain with dyes?

electrostatic attraction

Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye.

What electronic charge do cellular molecules have?

negatively charged

Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells.

What is Geimsa stain?

a dye

Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease.

How many methods comprise standard approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease?

Two

The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease.

What needs to be isolated from infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease?

enzymes

For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections.

What enzyme's presence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections?

RNA replicases

The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.

What does the protein hemagglutinin bind together?

red blood cells

For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections.

Why are the presence of certain enymzes a tell tale sign of a virus?

humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase

Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms.

What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms?

Serological

These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen.

What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do?

bind specifically to an antigen

The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody.

What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually?

a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent

This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test.

What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways?

a chain of events

For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab.

What is the causative agent of "strep throat"?

S. pyogenes