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why is it that the lenses on most cameras are round but when we view the pictures/video taken theyre rectangular? why dont we have square lenses? | generally the film or the digital detector is laid out in a square (edit: or rectangular) shape. the actual field of view of the camera is circular. a square lens would be terrible to engineer and would not actually make the field of view square. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do insects grow tired the same way as us? | for example, if i keep chasing after a fly in my home, will it eventually be too tired to keep running away from my attempts to kill it? (or end up slowing down). if an ant is stuck in a spider web, but the spider is away, does the ant "give up" after a while? | insects certainly do get muscle fatigue. however, they are built to greatly resist fatigue. for a fly, they have evolved to fly for hours upon end, they can't get tired from just a short flight. the big difference relates to [respiration and circulation](_url_0_). in humans this process is centrilized in our torso, whereas insects perform respiration all over their body through [spiracles](_url_1_). each segment acts somewhat autonomously to take care of these processes. insects and humans have scary similar parts, insect muscle fiber and activating neurons & junctions between the too are very similar. but in general the organization is very different. when an insect is caught in a spiderweb, the spider will let the insect fatigue before it goes in for the kill. the spider web's stickiness causes the insect muscles to try to do more "work" as it tries to break free, and this reduces the time it takes to make the muscles fatigued. edit: suggested spelling change | 29 | [] | [] | [
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do insects get tired? | like do they experience exhaustion? | like all organisms insects do not have access to unlimited energy. they cannot fly/run around forever because they need to consume food. whether or not they "feel" tired is nearly impossible to say as we cannot enter the "mind" of an insect. however, it is certain that insects will eventually cease activity when their energy reserves are low. insects do enter a sleep-like state and can suffer from sleep-deprivation. [popular source](_url_0_) [primary source](_url_1_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.popsci.com/blog-network/our-modern-plagues/do-insects-sleep",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627300808776"
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if identical twins are thought to not be hereditary (unlike fraternal), why do some families have so many through the generations? | as far as my basic research has taken me, it seems that fraternal twins are seen as hereditary since women can inherit the tendency to release more than one ovum per cycle. it all makes sense. but why are identical twins seen as mere matter of chance? couldn't there be an inherited tendency for the fertilized egg, or the blastocyst, to split and create identical twins? i find it strange that while the mainstream science does not consider that a hereditary trait, there are families out there who have seemingly hit the "chance" lottery and have sets of identical twins in almost every generation. is there any research that taps into what makes someone's chances better or worse? is it something that is not yet fully researched or is it truly a matter of chance and that's it? | there appears to be some hereditary element: a quick search revealed this document _url_0_ they cited two studies that found an increased chance of identical twins having more indentical twins. however, only in the maternal line... see in particular p. 183 and references to lichtenstein 1996 and parisi 1983 | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/2/179.full.pdf+html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin#Statistics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin#Incidence"
] | [
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are there any stars that aren't part of a galaxy or cluster of other stars? | yes, there are stars that aren't part of any galaxy. they are known as [intergalactic stars](_url_1_) or sometimes rogue stars, but usually they form large groups such as those in found by hubble in the virgo cluster. as for stars that aren't part of a cluster, they have been also. these are stars which have been ejected from their host galaxy, usually by a gravitational sling-shot from their local supermassive black hole. [these have been found in the milky way](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2012/04/rogue-stars-intergalactic-space/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergalactic_star"
] | [
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|
does the nutritional value of a banana change is it changes from greenish, to yellow, to brown? | does it have the same amount of sugar, potassium, etc.? is it the same for other fruit? | this [redditor] (_url_0_) gave a well informed answer, and in way more detail than i was going to give, so i thought i would pass it on. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/11ceyw/when_fruit_ripens_do_the_nutritional_facts_change/c6l8sjf"
] | [
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how does odor escape apparently air tight containers? | i'm currently at school working with bomb sniffing dogs and the more we talk about how odor moves and gathers the more i wonder about the science of it. our dog can find explosives sealed in a plastic bag placed in concrete and the buried. how the hell does a particle that is larger and heavier then air escape from a containment that is presumably air tight? is it just a false assumption that it's air tight or is there some voodoo going on here i am ignorant to? thanks in advance! | the only truly air-tight seals i know of are knife edge seals where even atoms of helium cannot go through. these seals are made by crushing a softer copper gasket against a very sharply machined, hard stainless steel edge. it is also possible that the dog is smelling some bomb residue that made its way onto the concrete block while the bag was being sealed up. in any case, mother nature's chemical sensors are incredibly, incredibly sensitive. we still have much to learn from these types of examples. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can smell travel through airtight containers? are odour molecules smaller than air molecules? | odour molecules are usually larger than air molecules, as there are a lot of small molecules like oxygen, co2 and nitrogen in the air. airtight usually means the pressure remains almost the same, even though almost every material has some level of porosity. for the pressure to totally diffuse through an airtight container takes an insanely long time, while some molecules could pass through, which you might be able to smell as your nose is quite sensitive to low concentrations of the odour in the air outside the material. it of course depends on the quality of the airtight material and which odour. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
humans replace the cells in their bodies very frequently. how come the new cells don't "remove" old scars or imperfections? | scars are mostly composed of protein, without much cellular content. to degrade this material and replace it with normal tissue is an energy expenditure without any real benefit, as the scar is doing a fine job of holding things together. furthermore, degrading the scar tissue could potentially render the injury more prone to re-opening. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can coke zero, a product with chemicals which will burn happily with o2, have 0 calories? | "calories" do not measure heat from burning in o2, they measure how much energy body can extract from something. protein for example releases significantly more calories (~5.5kcal/g) than label says (4kcal/g) if you actually burn it in o2, since human metabolism doesn't fully use nitrogen compounds. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how long before voyager is closer to another star than our sun? | according to [this article](_url_0_), voyager 1's encounter with another star will be in about 40,000 years. at that point it will come within 1.7 light-years from it. the star is gliese 445, which is around 17 ly's from the sun. i don't know exactly when the halfway point is but i guess that would be when it's closer. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.space.com/22783-voyager-1-interstellar-space-star-flyby.html"
] | [
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] |
|
how is autism diagnosed? | i know the the psychological effects but want to know the neurological effects. | in a recent /r/science ama about autism, dr. tristram smith [explained](_url_0_), "there is no lab test for autism, so the diagnosis is based on careful assessment of the person and getting a thorough history and ruling out possible other medical issues." | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/4dvyxy/science_ama_series_im_tristram_smith_phd_of_the/d1v4ot1?context=1",
"http://www.dsm5.org/documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf",
"http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html",
"https://www.m-chat.org/mchat.php",
"https://autism-center.ucsd.edu/what-causes-autism/Pages/fmri.aspx",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_Diagnostic_Observation_Schedule"
] | [
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how is autism diagnosed in adults? is it being overdiagnosed? | how is autism diagnosed in adults? is it being overdiagnosed? is there any research regarding the pros and cons of being diagnosed? | the two main reasons that an adult may be diagnosed is that they've had difficulties that have not been identified until that point, for example a person might have an intellectual disability diagnosis but then gets hospitalized as an adult and there is a thorough assessment where asd is diagnosed. or the person's asd is relatively low level, what used to be called asperger's and they've been functioning for a long time with no diagnosis. over diagnosis. kind of controversial, there is a lot of focus on increases in diagnosis over the last couple of decades, but there isn't much evidence of over-diagnosis. in my experience the risk is more for missing a diagnosis there doesn't seem to be a population of non-asd folk with wrongful diagnosis. hard to find research on the topic because how do you objectively assess not being diagnosed right? again in my experience, its highly dependent on the individual(s) and the context. for most people a diagnosis is a relief because it provides coherence for the difficulties the person experiences. i think there is this view among relatively "normal" folk that a diagnosis is 'finding out your crazy' whereas a more accurate portrayal is being are suffering or having difficulties which prompt a diagnosis. don't get me wrong there is stigma still. so the main pros of being diagnosed is having a point of call for a problem, it can open doorways to support and funding and a term to communicate difficulties to others in a helpful way. in the case of asd this is really useful because once you have that diagnosis it provides a lot of guidance around how to work with it the main cons, are self and other stigma, and that diagnosis doesn't necessarily provide as many answers/solutions as one might hope! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if i ran a microwave without a door on it and stood in the same room? | would it harm me to be exposed to the open machine from a few feet away? would it cause damage to the room itself? | you might feel a bit warm, but would probably be pretty safe due to several factors; loss of confinement of the rf energy, scattering, and dissipation. just like you can look at a red hot oven heating element from a few feet away, but would not enjoy the view from a few inches. the energy is spread at the inverse square of your distance. so if you go from 2 feet to 8 feet, you will have 16 times less energy hitting a given area. microwave ovens often have a scattering device between the microwave source (magnetron) and the cooking chamber. it helps evenly distribute the energy and prevent hot spots, which are areas that the energy has been concentrated due to multipath reflections, and is reinforced. but half a wavelength away the reflections could cancel each other out. at microwave frequencies that is only a few inches away. as a result of the scattering device, hot spots in your room will move around like light from a very fast disco ball. as for the room itself, some items will heat up a bit, and other will reflect the energy. all your 2.4 ghz wifi and bluetooth devices will probably be unusable while it is on, and may experience permanent damage some components depending on the gain and coupling efficiency of their antennas. if you really want to cause some microwave damage, you should get a nice large parabolic reflector and direct the energy directly from the magnetron. it will behave just like the reflectors in flashlights and headlights. it will concentrate the beam and allow significant heating at some distance. | 1,595 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19801010&id=OuNNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lYsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1132,3143594",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/SPG-53"
] | [
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how fast would a small meteor ( > 1 mile wide) have to go in order to cause a mass extinction? | could a small asteroid such as this possibly cause a extinction event comparable to the one which affected the dinosaurs? or does the earth have enough mass that it could shrug off a small but extremely fast meteor? | we cannot really generalize about mass extinctions. there have only been a half dozen of them, each different, and none observed directly by science. we know something about each of them, but i'm afraid there is not a good answer to your question. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would an extinction level meteor appear significantly brighter than a harmless meteor as it streaked across the sky? | as in, when i see a meteor, how do i know if i should pull out my phone to take a picture or to tell my family that i love them? :-) | well you'd probably find out first off because an extinction level meteor strike because it'd be in the news for months before it happened. astronomers are very good at figuring out what is where, and if it will hit earth. next thing is than an extinction level meteor would be much much larger than your everyday meteor shower meteor, so that would also be a dead giveaway. from this size there would also be more air resistance, which would cause the meteor to get much hotter, and in turn, much brighter. so the answer is yes, but you probably would know long before it hit the atmosphere anyway | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can humans pass on deadly viruses/parasites/pathogens to mosquitos and subsequently kill them? can mosquitos eventually die from the malaria that they carry? is there a virus/parasite/pathogen that is harmless for a human to carry but can kill a mosquito when passed on to them? | as a broad generalization, being the vector of a parasite is associated with metabolic costs, even if the action of the parasite is not to be directly detrimental to the vector. this interaction is complex and has been studied for some time. [the parasite is correlated to reduced reproductive rate in vector individuals](_url_1_): so just possessing the parasite does direct harm to the female mosquito vector. further, the [malaria parasite induces behavioral alteration in the vector mosquito](_url_0_): the interaction between parasite and vector carries both indirect behavioral costs and direct metabolic costs, which have been shown to increase situational mortality and reduce reproductive capacity. so, in a sense, a malaria infected human which is preyed upon by a non-vector mosquito *does* carry a potentially deadly parasite which can then infect the mosquito in order to carry out one phase of its life cycle. while both humans and mosquitoes do sometimes die as a direct result of the interaction with this parasite that is not the ideal scenario for the life cycle of the parasite, and so there is selective pressure to allow both host and vector to live and continue to spread the progeny of the parasitic community. this is the case with the vast majority of parasitic organisms, and the same could be said of liver flukes and other multi-host life cycle parasites. as for a parasite that is completely harmless to one vector, but still potentially deadly to one host, i am unaware of such a condition. this tends to be the nature of hosting a foreign organism, no matter how hard it tries it will still have to consume *something* from a host, however temporary a stay it is having. so while the costs may be very low, even imperceptible without close examination, there is likely a cost associated with nearly all host/vector-parasite relationships. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.malariajournal.com/content/13/1/164",
"http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=B7BC9D4254C26D6A93C1D0EE5772C628.journals?fromPage=online&aid=405652"
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] |
|
how do scientists determine the age of a star? | i was [reading this article](_url_0_), and it mentions that the stars are "nearly 12 billion years old." how do they know? | while i agree with the other responses that composition can tell a lot about the age of the star, one needs to be careful. for example, in the large magellanic cloud, the metallicity is 1/3 that of the solar metallicity, meaning that a star in the lmc may appear to be "older" than those in the milky way, though they very often aren't. [30 doradus](_url_1_) is a mecca of starburst activity, generating new stars that have lowish metallicity. a cute way to figure out a star's position in its life is by comparing it with an evolutionary track on what's called an [h-r diagram](_url_2_). evolutionary tracks are generated with theoretical models from modern and somewhat older ([salpeter imf](_url_0_)) astronomy, and can be plotted on the h-r diagram to compare with the stars. these models are called [isochrones](_url_3_). this is one of the most common research approach to figuring out stellar ages. | 10 | [] | [
"http://news.discovery.com/space/rare-earth-element-discovered-inside-ancient-stars-120221.html"
] | [
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955ApJ...121..161S",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarantula_Nebula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram",
"http://stev.oapd.inaf.it/cgi-bin/cmd",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0704.3068"
] | [
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] |
how is the age of a star determined? | we’ve looked at enough stars that we can figure out how big, how hot and what’s in it. from that and current theories on stellar evolution (and looking at a lot of similar stars) we can work backwards to how old it is. look up “main sequence” to get an idea for how stars change as they age | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if sound travels faster and farther in water, then why is our hearing muffled when submerged? | i'm confused, as whenever i go underwater my hearing is extremely limited even though in theory i am supposed to hear better. edit: thanks for all the information! | impedance matching. our ears are adapted to the acoustic impedance of air (~415 rayls), but the acoustic impedance of water is much higher (~1.5x10^6 rayls). the middle ear, specifically, is to blame. the middle ear's purpose is to match impedance between the air on the ear drum to the fluid of the middle ear. without the middle ear, the impedance matching wouldn't be a problem. there is another problem: transferring between acoustic mediums. this can show up in two ways. the first way is if you are in the water and are trying to hear something above the water. in that case, most of the sound will bounce off of the water surface. the second way is if you have a water bubble trapped in your ear canal, which often happens. in that case, sound will reflect off of the bubble. acoustic reflection is also based on acoustic impedance. if z1 is the impedance of the first medium, and z2 is the impedance of the second, then r (the pressure transmission coefficient) is given by r=(z2-z1)/(z2+z1). note that reflection ranges from -1 to 1, but transmitted energy maxes out when r is close to 0. the closer z1 is to z2, the lower the reflection. hopefully that all makes sense. cheers! | 50 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if sound travels about 4 times faster through water than it does through air, why do underwater voices sound so muffled? | from: _url_0_ "sound under water travels at a speed that is five times greater than in the air. one might expect that hearing under water is easier but this is not so. the volume does not depend on the speed of sound; rather, it is dependent on the amplitude of sound waves and on the perceptive capabilities of the audial organs. there are two methods of perceiving sound waves; the first being air conductivity (outer audial opening, eardrum or tympanum, audial bones of the middle ear) and the second being bone conductivity (the vibration of the bones of the skull). air conductivity is prevalent in the air, whereas bone conductivity is prevalent under water. this peculiarity is due to the fact that the acoustic resistance of water is close to that of human tissues and the loss of energy for the transition of sound waves into skeletal bones is less under water than it is in the air. air conductivity under water disappears because the outer audial opening is filled with water and there are no conditions for normal vibration of the eardrum. it has experimentally been proven that bone conductivity is weaker than air conductivity by 40%. consequently, hearing under water is impeded. the distance within which sound can be heard depends on tonality rather than on the volume of sound. sounds of greater tonality can be heard at greater distances than those of lower tonality. sounds that are being emitted under water are usually inaudible above the surface of the water and vice versa." | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://library.thinkquest.org/28170/36.html"
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|
is it possible for a comatose woman to become pregnant? | i was watching kill bill and i randomly thought of this i guess continuing on, would she be able to give birth? | first off, note that ['coma' is a very vague term](_url_1_) that encompasses a wide range of physiologic states. but there's no intrinsic reason why a 'comatose' woman would be unable to conceive (unless whatever caused the coma is also affecting her endocrine function). there have been numerous [case reports](_url_2_) of [pregnant women receiving injuries that lead to coma](_url_0_), and subsequently delivering a healthy baby. the literature does note that some cases result in fetal demise shortly after the onset of coma (though of course we cannot say anything about causation based on just case reports). also note that delivery must be by cesarean section, if women are unable to participate in labor for a spontaneous vaginal delivery. | 155 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22805738",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glascow_Coma_Scale",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002294/",
"http://www.uihealthcare.com/depts/medmuseum/galleryexhibits/factsoflife/childbirth/instpainless.html"
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] |
how exactly does rubbing alcohol kill bacteria? | i am curious as to what actually kills the bacteria. does the alcohol burst their cell walls? also, why does the alcohol apparently not affect our skin or tissue in a cut? | so, i think tom answered it already, but i'll try to elaborate a bit based on what my old lab safety course taught me (i didnt listen too much though, so i could be wrong). the ethanol can permeate through the cell membrane and displace the water inside the cell. ethanol also happens to evaporate very quickly. what happens is the ethanol enters the cell, then nearly instantly evaporates, shriveling up the cell and breaking it apart. the reason why you can swab your skin with rubbing alcohol and not destroy yourself is because your skin is actual made of many layers of dead skin. this dead skin is dry and does not need any water. therefore, when the ethanol gets absorbed and subsequently evaporated, pretty much nothing happens to your skin. now, if you pour rubbing alcohol on an open wound, that's a different story. that burning painful sensation that you feel is the alcohol killing your cells and the bacteria. this is why modern medicine does not typically use alcohol, iodine, or peroxide based disinfectants. these chemical disinfectants are designed to destroy everything living, including human tissue. hope that helps. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the universe expanding due to angular momentum? | is that a logical explanation for why objects at great distances are moving away faster from our position? is there a better hypothesis than some mysterious force/vacuum/etc. and would there ever be a way for us to test it? | this is one of those questions where the answer is just no. perhaps you could elaborate on why you think angular momentum would cause the universe to expand? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the closest stars to kic8462852 and how far away they are? | [deleted] | i do not agree with your logical conclusion. the structure doesn't necessary has to be between the planet and the star. it could for example orbit on the opposide side of the star. it is indeed more obvious to try to gather the energy of your star than the energy of another one. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why isn't the edge of the observable universe ~13,8 billion light-years away? wikipedia says it's further than that. how is this possible given the universe is ~13,8 billion years old? | due to the metric expansion of space large scale distances can expand faster then the speed of light. the edge of the observable universe is roughly 46~ billion lightyears away, and total size is 93 billion lightyears across. outside that sphere everything is moving to fast the light will never reach us. in reality the objects we see that are 13.7 billion years old and emitted there light then, the light traveled 13.7 billion light years, to ask where that same object is, it'd be roughly 46 billion light years away today. the universe initially expanded several times it's size rapidly expanding during inflation, afterwards it slowed but is speeding up again. it's not really correct to talk about how "fast" things were moving during this inflation period, but if you had measured two objects separated during the initial inflation and afterwards, in a few seconds those objects would of been light years apart. this doesn't violate speed of light because the particle isn't moving, space is expanding. space can expand faster then light, particles that are inside said space will be "carried" faster then light. i put it in quotes because it's really hard to talk about those things as i just made it seem like space is an ether(it's not) and a few other problems but in general that helps understand things. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can a planet rotate on its major axis while simultaneously rotating on its minor axis? | if it is possible, are there known examples? does it happen naturally during the course of planetary evolution? if not, what kind of catastrophic event would trigger it? also, if it were to happen to a place like earth, how would it affect the climates, seasons, magnetosphere, atmosphere (composition and such), time keeping, etc.? sorry, i know this is a loaded question, but answering any portion of the above would suffice. i've been really curious about this for months! thanks | what iorgfeflkd is talking about is called "precession", all planets have it to some extent, and it is exactly what you're talking about. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the cold weather doesn't make you ill/sick, why does it give you a runny/blocked nose? | the purpose of the nose when breathing is to add water to the air you breathe in. this is better for your respiratory system as it prevents cells and mucous drying out and stops your body getting cold. cold air can't hold much water so your nose produces excess fluid in an attempt to add as much water to the cold air as possible. this is why you find your nose running in cold air. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is a dead, dry leaf a pale brown color? | we were learning about the carotenoids and how they make the leaves different colors. i asked the teacher this question, and he told me to google it. all i got was "my plants are brown, help me!". if the leaf is red and yellow, and it falls off a tree, it eventually dries up and turns pale brown. why does it not stay red and yellow and just dry up? | the pigments that give leaves their color are used in photosynthesis to convert light energy into electic potential. there is quite a bit of energy in the photons and not all of it is transmitted onto the electrons that will end up making the biomass of the plant. this energy ends up breaking up the (typically) iron containing pigments, and living photsynthetic organisms have to constantly replace the dead, broken pigments with new ones. when the leaf dies, it can no longer make new pigment, and what's left over from the once-functional iron-containing compounds is oxidized iron. as you know, oxidized iron is mighty rusty... hence the brown/red color of dead leaves. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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1 why do pressed/dried leaves retain most of their bright colors instead of turning brown? | i pick an especially colorful leaf each year to save from autumn/fall and they've always stayed the same color once dry. why do leaves keep their "autumn" patterns and colors if you put them between book pages or dry them upside-down, and not just die and turn brown? why do all the leaves on the ground die and turn grey/brown before winter? bacteria? *edit* just noticed the classy "1" at the beginning of the title--too late to change now and i'm still curious. | the pigments in plant leaves are of organic origin. these differ from pigments that are of mineral origin. most organic pigments have double bonds with delocalized electrons primarily between carbon atoms...such as c=c=c, and the nature of these bonds determine to a large extent the color of the pigment. mineral pigments derive their color from presence of various metal ions. photons of energy from the sun and oxygen in the atmosphere can break the double bonds between the carbon atoms found in organic pigments. these processes cause the degradation of the various colored pigments. when all colored pigments are lost (e.g., green, red, yellow, etc.) the leaf takes on a brown color. now to your question...the reason pressed leaves, if stored properly , lose very little color is because they are placed in a dark environment and kept away from photons of light energy. the level of oxygen in a isolated box kept in the dark also would lessen, but not completely, thus the reason all pressed leaves do gradually lose some color and begin to fade. i think you can now determine why leaves on the ground all turn brown before winter. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how or why are yawns 'contagious'? | would like to know the actual science behind it. if there is any. just an answer would be nice. | a hypothesis suggests that [contagious yawning](_url_2_) is connected to the activity of [mirror neurons](_url_0_), found in primates. a quick search also turned up [this](_url_1_) paper. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neurons",
"http://www.christofflab.ca/pdfs/2009/01/platek-et-al-2005.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawn#Contagiousness",
"http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/family/question5722.htm"
] | [
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what is the difference between embryonic and fetal stem cells? | in addition, how are they both extracted/obtained for research background: i'm a student and am working on a project about the ethics of stem cell research. i'm trying to get a half decent understanding before i have to write my paper :) | [embryonic stem cells](_url_1_) are recovered from the blastocyst stage of an embryo, from extra embryos created during an in vitro fertilization process. thus, esc lines are generated from extra materials left over from ivf treatments, and were not implanted within a person. [fetal stem cells](_url_0_) are stem cells recovered from fetal tissues, such as fetal blood, bone marrow, liver, etc. they are typically extracted from deceased/terminated fetuses. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1521693404001208",
"http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/pages/chapter3.aspx"
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how can the universe be 150 billion light-years across and only 13.7 billion years old? | a coworkers and i had this discussion friday and we may very well have confused ourselves into missing something obvious. taking the fact that the universe is 150 billion light-years across and estimated to be 13.7 billion light-years old how is this possible? knowing that a light-year is the distance traveled over a year it should just be a 1:1 ratio correct? couldn't the max radius of the universe be 13.7 billion light-years while the full universe would be 27.4 billion lightyears? we spent a half an hour in passionate debate about this and i went as far as to convert distances, calculate the speed of light in miles/year and find out how many actual miles light would travel during the age of the universe. the more we discussed the topic the more we were stumped...it seems so straight forward and yet so illogical, we could very well just both be missing something obvious. this all started with this article, _url_2_ and my coworker asking the age of the the universe then stating "how can anything be 18 billion light-years away if there have only been 14 billion years of expansion?". so what obvious conversion or explanation did we miss? sources: _url_0_ _url_1_ | light rays can reach us from a distance greater than 13.7 billion light-years because the universe has been expanding while the light ray has been travelling. while the ray of light itself can't have travelled further than 13.7 billion light-years, the universe is still expanding *behind* it, so by the time it reaches us, the distance between us and the object it came from is greater than 13.7 billion light-years. | 56 | [] | [
"http://www.universetoday.com/36469/size-of-the-universe/",
"http://www.universetoday.com/36278/age-of-the-universe/",
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/11/black-hole-disk/"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nVysrZQnOQ"
] | [
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what are greenhouse gases? what percentage of them are natural (not caused by man)? how do they impact the world? | if there was no greenhouse gases the earth would not be able to support life. like pretty much everything to do with the earth nothing is absolutely good or absolutely bad (for example only of the largest mass extinction events in the history of the planet happened due to plants starting to produce oxygen). what is important is that there is a basic equalibrium that rises and falls over hundreds of thousands of years. the issue with the man made greenhouse gasses isn't the amount its the speed they have been introduced to the system. it's worth bearing in mind that from a geological point of view the earth isn't fragile, species like humans are fragile. for example greenhouse gases have been higher in the past, temperatures have been higher too and life has been abundant. modern humans and society in any form have only been around in the current interglacial period and the almost the entire history of the evolution of the homo genus happened in the current ice age. in geological terms an ice age is defined as a period of time with a permanent ice sheet at both poles. the current ice age has lasted a little over 25 million years and, no matter how we reduce our greenhouse emissions, will end within 50 years with a complete summer thawing of the artic ice sheet according to most models (there debate about how small the greenland ice sheet will need to get to stop being one). there have been 4 other major ice ages, 3 of them lasted 100to300 million years and one for 30 million so 2.5 million years is very short and quick. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are solar systems moving towards or away from the center of a galaxy? more detailed question inside. | afaik our solar system is pretty much outside of the milky way, is it possible our (or any other) solar system might be flung out or get near to the core over billions of years? | our solar system actually isn't outside, [we're right in the meat of the galaxy.](_url_2_) but yes, solar systems can move all around within a galaxy. because of the way mass is distributed in the galaxy, their orbits aren't necessarily nice circles, [but can weave closer and farther from the center](_url_1_). furthermore, when stars get close to each other, they can cause large changes in each other's orbits. just like how planets can slingshot space probes, stars can slingshot other stars out of a galaxy or toward its center. also, galaxies collide with each other from time to time, [and that can fling large numbers of stars away.](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/images/hs-2002-11-d-large_web.jpg",
"http://supernovacondensate.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/galactic-orbits.jpeg?w=640",
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how does momentum affect a flying insect inside of a moving vehicle? | let's say that a car is driving in a steady straight line at 80km/h, and there is a fly on the armrest, which then takes off and hovers a few inches in the air. would it be able to float there indefinitely, as the momentum from moving vehicle would stay with it? or would it eventually lose momentum, and move further back in the car, even though it's only attempting to hover and not move? and if the car slowed down very gradually, would the fly slow down as well, and/or would it get pushed to back of the car? | the fly is working against the air currents in the car, which accelerate along with the rest of the car assuming you have the windows closed. if you jam on the gas, luckily the air in the car doesn't all pool at the back. it's similar how we can walk around on the earth even though it's travelling ~30km/s. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens if you take antidepressants and you're not clinically depressed? | prozac is an ssri, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. serotonin is a neurotransmitter, which means it's a chemical that is released by a presynaptic (sending) neuron across a gap between neurons, or a "synapse." the serotonin slots into receptors on the postsynaptic cell, which then relays the signal down the line. some of the received serotonin is then lost, but most is released by the postsynaptic receptors and returned to the presynaptic cell. this is called "reuptake." what prozac and other ssris do is block the reuptake of serotonin so there is more serotonin floating around in the synapse. this seems to help many people who suffer from depression, as many types of depression seem to be dysfunctions in the production or uptake of serotonin. however, there also appear to be types of depression that can be caused by too much serotonin in synapses, as presynaptic receptors can become flooded, which in turn causes a reduction in serotonin production. this is why people who take ssris are gently weaned off them by reduced dosing rather than abrupt cessation. best case scenario is that a non-depressive would suffer sexual side effects and perhaps headaches. worst case is that said non-depressive would actually become depressive, either temporarily or indefinitely. **do not take any prescription medication unless it has been prescribed to you by a responsible physician. even then you should do your own research into prescribed drugs.** | 487 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are hybrid fruits, like a pluot, genetically modified? | yes, they are genetically modified, but not by scientists in a lab. instead they were artificially bred through years of work. downvote me for getting political, but this is why people ought to stop trashing gmo's. we've been genetically modifying things for millennia, but only now its come under criticism because scientists can do it more quickly and commercially. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is hybrid fruit produced? | last week, i bought some grapefruit/tangerine hybrid fruit at the grocery store. this led me to wonder, how does hybrid fruit get produced when plants do not mate with each other and it is bees that pollinate the flowers? is this caused by mistake by bees or something? | if you pollinate a grapefruit tree with tangerine pollen (which can easily be done on small scales — just rub a small paintbrush on tangerine anthers and dab it on grapefruit stigmas), you won’t immediately get intermediate fruit: any *seeds* produced will be hybrids, but *fruit* phenotype is determined by the mother tree, not the seeds. in that particular situation you’ll get ordinary grapefruits. if you plant the seeds from one of those grapefruits, however, the hybrid tree that grows from them will produce hybrid-type fruit, regardless of what manages to pollinate it. bees will move pollen between it and any other citrus trees in the immediate area, and each tree will grow fairly uniform fruit. as for how you can cross a grapefruit with a tangerine in the first place, citruses hybridize really easily. in fact, the vast majority of citrus are hybrid species. before humans started breeding them, there were only a fee types of citrus tree: all our commercial fruit comes from various hybrids of the [pomelo](_url_2_), the [mandarin orange](_url_1_), and the [citron](_url_0_) *(citrus maxima, c. reticulata,* and *c. medica* respectively). sweet oranges, sour oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, buddha’s-hands, tangelos, clementines, bergamot orange... [all hybrids and backcross-hybrids.](_url_3_) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_medica",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_reticulata",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_maxima",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus#Taxonomy"
] | [
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why do some stars in the night sky rapidly change colour from red to blue to white and yellow? | by 'star' i mean a bright object in the sky, might be a planet for all i know. is it the atmosphere or is the star actually changing colour rapidly. | as suggested already, if the color changes are very intense, it might actually be some kind of flying vehicle, such as an airplane or helicopter. otherwise, you're probably looking at a bright star (sirius) or planet through a very turbulent atmosphere. due to the uneven conditions, light gets refracted and dispersed. the colors appear through the same mechanism that splits sunlight in a prism and generates colors out of white light. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do artificial sweeteners aid in weight loss, inhibit weight loss, or do they not come into play? | i know there are studies that indicate only changing to diet drinks doesn't aid weight loss, because people tend to consume the same number of calories that they did before the change, but if somebody is strictly counting calories, do artificial sweeteners come into play? | if we are talking about the effect of artificial sweeteners on the hormonal response then the answer is complicated and probably different for each type of sweetener. there are a lot of factors that could affect body composition here apart from other eating behaviour (such as what was observed in the diet soda study done in texas) such as effects on insulin sensitivity, blood glucose levels, satiety and so on. i am no expert in the area, but based on what i've read, there is a definite pathway for hormone response via taste receptors but it doesn't seem that artificial sweeteners stimulate an insulin response. this study looked at peptides associated with satiety secreted in the gut: ["our data demonstrate that the secretion of glp-1, pyy and ghrelin depends on more than the detection of (1) sweetness or (2) the structural analogy to glucose."](_url_2_) this one looked at stevia, aspartame and sucrose and their effects on post-prandial blood glucose and insulin as well as self-reported satiety.["...participants did not compensate by eating more at their lunch and dinner meals when they consumed stevia and aspartame versus sucrose in preloads...self-reported hunger and satiety levels did not differ by condition. stevia preloads significantly reduced postprandial glucose levels compared to sucrose preloads (p < .01), and postprandial insulin levels compared to both aspartame and sucrose preloads (p < .05). when consuming stevia and aspartame preloads, participants did not compensate by eating more at either their lunch or dinner meal and reported similar levels of satiety compared to when they consumed the higher calorie sucrose preload."](_url_3_) this one was looking at sucralose compared to maltodextrin: ["sucralose ingestion did not increase plasma glp-1 or pyy. msf of sucralose did not elicit a cephalic phase response for insulin or glp-1. maltodextrin ingestion significantly increased insulin and glucose compared with water (p < 0.001). appetite ratings and energy intake were similar for all groups. conclusions: at this dose, oral ingestion of sucralose does not increase plasma glp-1 or pyy concentrations and hence, does not reduce appetite in healthy subjects. oral stimulation with sucralose had no effect on glp-1, insulin or appetite."](_url_0_) here's another one on insulin response as it relates to the sweet taste:["these results suggest that nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners in solution are not adequate stimuli for the elicitation of cpir."](_url_1_) edit: fixed broken link | 67 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21245879",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7652029",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21255472",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20303371",
"http://jn.nutrition.org/content/142/6/1163s.long",
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1203034",
"Examine.com",
"http://examine.com/faq/is-diet-soda-bad-for-you.htm"
] | [
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is it the case that the photon hitting my eye when i look at a star in the night sky originated in a star hundreds or thousands of lightyears away? | sorry if this is a dumb question, but this is truly bending my melon. i can't quite wrap my head around the fact that something traveled that far across the galaxy and ended up in my eye. | yes, as to see the star the photon must have been either emitted by the object (either by absorption/remitting or through a process that releases energy like nuclear fusion). the photon hitting your eye is the same photon (being emitted/remitted a couple of times along the way) that came from the object hundreds or thousands of light years away. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://d.lib.ncsu.edu/adore-djatoka/resolver?rft_id=ua023_025-003-bx0005-002-007&svc.level=5&svc_id=info%3Alanl-repo%2Fsvc%2FgetRegion&svc_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajpeg2000&url_ver=Z39.88-2004"
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if we weren't in the outer band of the milky way but instead free floating above it, would we see a giant spiral galaxy in our sky at night instead of the strip of stars we see now? | you know when you go outside in a really dark area and see this across the middle of the sky? _url_0_ yeah, the milky way. from what i understand, since we are in one of the outer bands, our vantage point is from the outside looking in at the galaxy laying down flat. like if you laid a pancake down on a table and turned your head sideways you would only see just that little half inch of the pancake: its height. anyway, my question is: if our solar system wasn't located in one of the outer bands looking at the galaxy from a flattened angle but instead was "above" the milky way, would we see a giant spiral galaxy in our sky at night? would the galaxy be bright enough to see during the day? | not likely. galaxies are quite dim no mater what distance you are looking at them from because the star density is not that high and the brighter center is blocked by gases. take andromeda galaxy as an example, it's dim even if you look at it through large telescopes. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/6MIQj.jpg"
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why is graphene so strong? | from my very basic understanding, graphene is a 1 molecule thick layer of carbon. this material is claimed to be the strongest known substance in science. my question is why is this so strong? why would using multiple layers not create an even stronger "sheet"? | lots of layers of graphene make up graphite. now within a sheet of graphene all the atoms are bound to each other strongly by covalent bonds. to break the sheet you have to put in lots of energy to break the bonds. however the layers aren't connected together with localised bonds. the layers can slide over each other without any bonds breaking. this means that the layers can slide over and off each other. this is how the lead in your pencil works. layers of graphite come off the pencil and stay on the paper. in diamond all the carbon atoms are joined together with strong covalent bonds. this is why diamond is stronger than graphite edit: adding some images [graphene](_url_0_) [graphite](_url_1_) [diamond](_url_2_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Graphen.jpg/300px-Graphen.jpg",
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why is graphene so strong? | i have read the following statement a lot of times on the internet, "graphene is the most strongest material ever." but i still don't know what makes graphene so strong. can you please help me? also, why is graphene conductive? | honestly a lot of the things you read about the material properties of graphene are overhyped and not applicable to real materials. in reality, basically any graphene system will be destroyed if you breathe near it*, it is extremely sensitive to environmental perturbations, and if you have a big enough sheet by itself it will just stick to itself in messy ways and not be graphene anymore. these measurements are done for example by having a graphene surface over a small hole and then poking the graphene and seeing how much it bends. it is pretty resistant to bending, but then that measurement (a modulus, measured in units of pressure) is compared to the bulk property of a material like steel and, which it is bigger then. but for graphene, it is not a bulk property, there is no bulk, and if you compared graphite to steel then steel would win. if you were to do a similar measurement with an extremely thin layer of another material, it would be closer to what you get with carbon monolayers. this is in part due to the fact that bulk materials deform not just due to stretching of atomic bonds, but due to the interaction of different grains of the material (smaller crystals within the crystal), and a nano-sized material doesn't have grains. carbon nanotubes have a similar material strength on the molecular scale, where a single nanotube is said to have a stretching modulus like 5 times that of steel, but if you actually make a material out of it by weaving it into a yarn, it is again comparable to more conventional materials. tl;dr comparing an atomic scale measurement with a bulk property is not an apples-to-apples comparison. *slight exaggeration | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a mirror reflect radiation from a nuclear disaster? | the first picture of the elephants foot at chernobyl had to be taken using a mirror so that the radiation would not wipe the film clean. so yes i assume it would greatly diminish any radiation that you would otherwise receive. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would a mirror reflect radiation? | like if i boxed myself in mirrors and went to chernobyl 20 years ago, would i be ok, or would i receive less radiation? | simple answer: not with conventional mirrors, and with great difficulty regardless. so gamma radiation (the type of radiation most people refer to) is made up of photons, just like visible light, except of much higher frequency (and thus energy). their wavelength is so short they will pass through material, or be absorbed by it due to the high energy. the thing is, conventional mirrors typically only reflect radiation around the visible light range (and as an unintended consequence some lower and higher frequencies (ir, uv)), as they're not built to reflect gamma radiation. you can get mirrors that reflect gamma radiation but they are prohibitively large as the angle of incidence has to be almost 0 degrees. best way to get in and out of chernobyl 20 years ago was inside of a thick lead box. regardless of this, extra layers of anything would block **some** radiation. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are a non-planetary nebulas created? | gravitational collapse. you’ll have to specify what you’re asking about in particular though. ‘planetary nebula’ is a notoriously bad name, coined before we knew what they were and for some reason not ditched. they are actually ionized gas expelled highly evolved (meaning nearing the end of their lifecycles) stars. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does head hair and facial hair continue to grow long while hair on other parts of the body stop growing at a maximum point (arm, chest, armpits, etc.)? | also, there isnt any possible way that the armpit hair i grew when i was going through puberty is the same armpit i have today, right? | i just added this one to the sciencefaqs here - _url_1_ the reason is because of hair follicle cycling - _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_follicle#Hair-follicle_cycling",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/ier8x/how_does_hair_know_when_to_stop_growing/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gsdem/why_does_some_hair_on_the_body_grow_so_long_as/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/i4loe/how_does_hair_know_when_to_stop_growing/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/geu1a/many_hairs_on_the_body_on_the_arms_say_or_the/"
] | [
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do astronauts get sick in space/stop getting sick over a period of time? | basically, if you sent astronauts in a sterile environment (ideally) into space - would they ever catch a cold? get the flu? would their immune systems eventually be able to fight off all contaminates within this environment over time? there are two scenarios here: send one person into space, in a sterile environment - does he ever get sick? send multiple people into space, in a sterile environment, they may catch bugs from each other because humans aren't entirely sterile, but over time, would they get immune to each others germs and stop getting sick all together? thanks! | well you've pretty much answered your own question, eventually they would become immune to all present bacteria and viruses assuming that the people had good immune systems that completely removed the pathogen from their system. you do have to allow for mutations in the pathogens which could cause another infection. however, astronauts don't just stay isolated in space for long periods of time, they get deliveries from earth all the time bringing possible new bacteria. in my non professional opinion, i think they would get just as many colds etc as normal people on earth | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can astronauts get sick while they're in space? | i'm talking about viruses and things of that nature, or i guess really just in general. but if these illnesses aren't present when they go up into space, does that mean they never get sick? if they do get sick, what's the protocol? | you're right, the iss is an isolated environment and so they cannot get a disease if they didn't take the pathogen with them. however that's not the only way to get sick. there are lots of microorganisms that aren't pathogenic under normal conditions but can get activated when your immune system isn't working properly. they are called [opportunistic infections](_url_0_). they can happen on earth for a variety of reasons, but they are more common in imunocompromised patients. in long-duration spaceflight, the immune system is weakened by microgravity effects, giving a chance for pathogens to start reproducing out of control. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunistic_infection"
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how do plants absorb oxygen from their roots? | i’m well aware that leaves get oxygen from photosynthesis, and i’m also aware that the roots get oxygen from the air pockets in soil, that’s why land is plowed anyways. my question is how exactly do the roots absorb the oxygen in soil? do they have special pores or is it through diffusion. | specifically, most roots exchange air through lenticels, similar to how air exchange occurs in above-ground tissues that aren't leaves. air exchange does occur through the soil to some extent (as soil isn't completely air-tight in most cases), but most of the oxygen required by plants comes through the above ground plant parts. what kills some plants is when their roots are submerged for too long (like during a flood) and they can't get enough air exchange (release of co2 from cells, uptake of oxygen) because of the water surrounding their roots. wetland plants whose roots are constantly submerged get around this by having specialized air-exchange cells called aerenchyma in their stalks or leaves that allow for greater air exchange between tissues that are exposed to the air and tissues that are submerged in the water. other plants that are constantly submerged have developed means of exchanging gases that are dissolved in the water. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the color of a plant affect its need for sunlight? | the color of a plant depends on what wavelengths of the visible spectrum it reflects, while the rest of the spectrum is absorbed into the chloroplasts to give energy for photosynthesis. therefore, it would make sense to me that a red plant, for instance, would need less sunlight to do all the work the plant needs. i'm sure there's something i'm missing since the majority of plants are green, but i can't seem to think of it! | as you have probably been taught before, plants use chlorophyll to absorb light. specifically, there are two types of chlorophyll used by most plants, called chlorophyll a and b. these pigments have slight differences in the wavelengths of light they absorb, but as [this figure shows](_url_2_), they both absorb mostly blue and red light, which is why plants appear green. as far as i'm aware, pretty much all plants absorb the same wavelengths of light, so there isn't really variation in how much sunlight they need per unit of chlorophyll. though of course, there is variation in the amount of chlorophyll plants produce and in the efficiency of other parts of energy production, like c3 vs. c4 plants. there are some red plants that exist (most obviously the red algae or [rhodophyta](_url_3_), though this depends on your exact definition of what is a plant), but they get their colour from a different pigment (phycoerythrin). notably though, these plants only have chlorophyll a, rather than both a and b, and are likely [worse at absorbing light](_url_0_) than green plants, but have conversely found [other mechanisms](_url_1_) to improve photosynthesis efficiency. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2147479/",
"https://www.astrobio.net/also-in-news/red-algaes-superior-photosynthesis/",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg/800px-Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg.png",
"https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html"
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when a person suffers a severe case of amnesia, will they have interests in the same things that they had before their amnesia? | it depends. retrograde amnesia (the most common type of amnesia) only impairs ones memory for events. skill related memory (muscle memory) is not affected. that is why a person with amnesia can still speak english. so, if ones preferences come from a particularly traumatic event, then they might not have the same hatred for that thing because they may not remember this event. on the other hand, if a particular preference has been had since birth because of a genetic predisposition, it will not be affected. | 242 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100324113418.htm",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1391092/"
] | [
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|
why does the mucus in the nose "freeze" & become nosecrap? i thought we need the mucus for filtering air. | it "freezes" because it becomes dehydrated as it humidifies air. mucus functions not only to trap the bacteria in air, but also to humidify (add water) the air we breathe. the nose, sinuses, pharynx, and respiratory tract is lined by something called respiratory epithelium (epithelium meaning it is at the interface between the body and the outside world). the epithelium is composed of cells that are ciliated, which means they have rod-like motile structures that project into the respiratory tract. these cilia beat in a synchronous wave-like pattern (imagine a dense crowd of people with their arms straight up in the air parallel to their bodies suddenly moving their arms so they are perpendicular to their bodies in a synchronized movement) that propels the surface mucus secretions toward the upper airway to either 1) be swallowed and allowing the stomach acids to kill the bacteria or 2) be blown out the nose or mouth. the process is termed mucociliary clearance. the mucus secretions are produced by goblet cells in the respiratory epithelium and mucus and serous glands in the layer below this epithelium. the diseases cystic fibrosis is caused by mucus secretions that are too thick due to defective chloride channels that cannot secrete chloride effectively into the respiratory tract. with defective chloride secretion, water cannot passively flow into the respiratory tract and the mucus becomes thick . this mucus is difficult to propel out of the respiratory tract. the result is chronic pneumonias which is the number 1 cause of death in people with cystic fibrosis. other diseases such as kartagener's syndrome (aka primary ciliary dyskinesia) have abnormalities in the genes in that create the motile cilia and cannot clear debris out of the respiratory tract using the coordinated motion. they also have chronic pneumonias. as an interesting fact, people with this syndrome also have something called situs inversus, which is when some of the internal organs are located on the opposite side of where they normally occur. they also are infertile because the structures that allow the cells of the respiratory tract to push out mucus are the same structures that allow sperm to swim effectively. references: [wheater's functional histology](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Wheaters-Functional-Histology-Colour-Atlas/dp/044306850X"
] | [
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|
is it at all beneficial to blow your nose when you have a cold? are you reducing the net amount of mucus in the sinuses or is more just produced to replace what was expelled? | i am not aware of any good clinical studies looking at the benefit of nose blowing. there are case studies showing that doing it vigorously can cause injury, but these are only individual case studies. however, it is a good idea to get the accumulated mucus out of the sinuses, as when it doesn't clear it can become a nice home for bacterial infections. you do need to clear it, and the disgusting truth is that our respiratory tract is set up for you to do it the other way....that is, swallow it. you know how you just kind of reflexively swallow from time to time? that's mostly mucus that has come up from your lungs or down from your nasal area. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/10/health/10real.html?_r=2&em&",
"http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/313661"
] | [
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|
in social settings, i stutter because i get anxious, and get anxious because i think i'm going to stutter. why? | its a never ending loop. when i'm with my friends or very relaxed, you cant even tell i have a slight stuttering problem, but the minute my anxiety is high, all hell breaks loose, and the main reason i get anxious is at the thought of me stuttering in front of somebody that i don't know. why does that happen? and how/why does anxiety affect stuttering? | this could be caused by the anxiety triggering yourself to start physically giving commands to your mouth to say. i know that failure under pressure (what i would call "choking under pressure) is very often caused by you physically trying to do the actions yourself, instead of letting your body naturally doing it. for example, a baseball pitcher can pitch in practice fairly well without "trying", but when he enters a game, he will be in the mindset of being extra careful and cautious, so he will start to "try" to pitch well. this causes him to perform worse because he isn't following the same form and motions that work well. as he begins to do worse, he will continue to "try" more and more, leaving any form that he naturally had that worked for him in practice behind. hope that helps, i'm no expert, but i read an article in my paper a while back that related to this. i might be able to answer questions if my explanation was bad. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i know hiccups are caused by a muscle spasm, but what causes the spasm? | hiccups are the result of an action the body takes to protect itself. hiccups can start because hot food has irritated the phrenic nerve near the esophagus, or when gas in the stomach presses upward against the diaphragm. the diaphragm separates the chest from the stomach. the diaphragm tightens and pulls air into the lungs. but air can't get through and we feel a "bump" at the moment the air is stopped. so hiccups are a reflex action of the body trying to get food or gas out of the stomach, thereby irritating the diaphragm. this in turn, affects the passage of air in and out of the lungs. we feel this as a "bump" and say we have the hiccups. [link](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/9896.php"
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|
what is going on inside my head that gives me a headache? | also, how do pain relief medicines like advil, tylenol, and aleve help? | there are many types of headaches. tension headaches are usually caused by tight muscles that surround your head and neck. stress or overwork can exacerbate these types of headaches. migraines, another type of headache, are still being researched to determine the exact cause, but it likely has to do with altered blood flow and irritation of nerve fibers, and perhaps perturbation of underlying brain chemistry. migraines can be triggered by stress, certain foods, and environment factors like bright lights. cluster headaches are sudden and severe - and seem to have to do with the brain's release of histamine and serotonin. they are typically rapid in onset, severe, and often occur 2-3 hours after sleeping - usually in bouts at the same time every day. a "thunderclap" headache is marked by instant onset and excruciating pain. it is usually an outward manifestation of a hemorrhage or a thrombotic stroke and requires immediate medical attention. the medications you listed are mostly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents that work by inhibiting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and decreasing platelet aggregation. edit: here's a [great review article from the lancet](_url_0_) if anyone wants a more technical overview of the pathophysiology, epidemiology or treatment of migraines. | 121 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mediafire.com/?pqc0ocr9xw3r2sp"
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what exactly regenerates in a person during a coma? | hello i heard stories of people waking up from a coma after years at a time, and i was wondering, what is it in their bodies that regenerates during that time? also, how come the body developed the means to regenerate from injuries that take years of being in a coma to regenerate from, considering that in the wilderness it would have a zero chance of survival while being in a coma for a days, let alone a few years. thanks! | there are so many different causes of coma that there isn't a single answer to your question. some are quite easy to reverse, for example hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar) whereas others are slightly more tricky due to the physiological sequelae of the injury or treatment (e.g. cerebral hypoxia). generally people that are comatose for long periods of time have some kind of brain injury. with respect to what causes these people to wake up, the short answer is that nobody really knows. recovery depends exactly what portion of the brain was damaged, the mechanism of the damage and its severity. in this kind of case there is no kind of 'regeneration' as unlike peripheral nervous tissue, central neurones do not regenerate (for very good reasons to do with personality and memory). brain injury produces a host of inflammatory processes that affect the remaining healthy neurones which take time to settle down and recovery might be explained by the cessation of those processes. there is also some evidence that the brain has the ability to reassign the workload of injured tissue to healthy tissue (known as neuroplasticity) which could also contribute. that said, coma medicine is very much an inexact science and most treatments are aimed at supportive care and reducing the initial insult to the brain as much as possible. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the difference in shampoo and conditioner? | shampoo is used mainly for its detergent/cleaning effect of removing oils and dirt from the surface of your hair. conditioner is adding a coating of shiny oils/waxes/polymers to your hair to make it look and feel smoother. neither is better nor worse as they are for different purposes. a good mini-recap is about halfway down [here](_url_0_). hope that helps! | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4249",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mpxj6/are_different_brands_and_types_of_shampoo_and/c32wkdp"
] | [
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|
how does shampoo/conditioner work? | it's just one of those things that everyone uses but nobody understands how it works. thoughts? | the purpose of shampoo is to wash and remove dirt, oil buildup and other adsorbed compounds (e.g. smoke) that you don't want in your hair. conditioner is used to change the properties of your hair, usually in some favorable way. they are separate products, because in some cases they counter each other in purpose. that is to say that conditioner wouldn't work properly in the presence of shampoo and vice versa. all-in-one products are a compromise of the two processes. i think of shampoo as stripping away compounds from hair and conditioner as building it back up, but that's a little simplistic. shampoo has a pretty good definition on wikipedia: the list of [conditioner](_url_0_) ingredients on the wiki page describes some of the ways that conditioner can modify your hair (copied directly from the conditioner link): * moisturizers, whose role is to hold moisture in the hair. usually these contain high proportions of humectants. * reconstructors, usually containing hydrolyzed protein. their role is supposedly to penetrate the hair and strengthen its structure through polymer crosslinking. * acidifiers, acidity regulators which maintain the conditioner's ph at about 3.5. in contact with acidic environment, the hair's somewhat scaly surface tightens up, as the hydrogen bonds between the keratin molecules are strengthened. * detanglers, which modify the hair surface by ph as acidifiers, and/or by coating it with polymers, as glossers. * thermal protectors, usually heat-absorbing polymers, shielding the hair against excessive heat, caused by, e.g., blow-drying or curling irons or hot rollers. * glossers, light-reflecting chemicals which bind to the hair surface. usually polymers, usually silicones, e.g., dimethicone or cyclomethicone. * oils (efas - essential fatty acids), which can help dry/porous hair become more soft and pliable. the scalp produces a natural oil called sebum. efas are the closest thing to natural sebum (sebum contains efas). * surfactants - hair consists of approximately 97% of a protein called keratin. the surface of keratin contains negatively charged amino acids. hair conditioners therefore usually contain cationic surfactants, which don't wash out completely, because their hydrophilic ends strongly bind to keratin. the hydrophobic ends of the surfactant molecules then act as the new hair surface. * lubricants, such as fatty alcohols, panthenol, dimethicone, etc. * sequestrants, for better function in hard water. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_conditioner",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shampoo"
] | [
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how fast is the universe expanding in relation to the speed of light? | is the universe expanding slower or possibly faster than the speed of light? is it possibly going faster? if not wouldn't that mean light is extending beyond the edge of the universe before that part of the universe is filled with mass. i can only think that the universe would have to be expanding at exactly the speed of light or greater. | so first, "metric expansion" (the proper term for the expanding of the universe) is like a scaling over time. for every light year, after some amount of time, it becomes 1.001 light years. (also this is only true on the large distance scales of the universe, for smaller things like galaxies, there is no metric expansion) thus if something was 1 light year away, and after that time it is now an extra 1/1000 light year away, something 1000 light years away after the same time is 1 light year away additionally now. and something a million light years away is now 1000 light years away and so on. of course i'm just using a convenient number to illustrate, it may not be the actual scale rate as we know it, we'll get to that in a bit. so anyways, suppose that the amount of time between 1 and 1.0001 light years is 1 year. that thing that's a thousand light years away appears to have moved 1 light year in one year, so we could say it's moving at c. and the thing a million light years away appeared to move 1000 light years in 1 year, so it's apparently moving at 1000c. why is this allowed? because nothing (on these large scales) is actually moving. think of them as "embedded" in space time with space stretching between them over time. it's not exactly a force pushing on anything, or a velocity, it's just.... more distance after some time passes. so [the current rate](_url_0_) is about 63.8 (km/s)/mpc. that is to say, for an object one megaparsec away (about 3.3 million light years), every second adds 63.8 kilometers between us. so since c is ~300000 km/s, that means that stuff ~4.7 *giga*parsecs away appear to be receding away from us at c. and all the stuff more than 4.7 gpc away is receding faster than light can travel. 4.7 gpc is about 15.3 billion light years, and the universe only having been around for 13.75 billion years means that our "observable" universe hasn't yet been affected by the recession limit. (note i am using instantaneous distance measures not comoving distances, etc. etc. ie, i am intentionally neglecting these measures and how they would have changed over time with metric expansion themself. i think this is a permissible exchange, but i don't feel like working it out mathematically) | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Constant"
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can single-celled organisms get cancer? | well, let's look at the six hallmarks of cancer: * self-sufficiency in growth signalling - already present * insensitivity to anti-growth signals - not really applicable * evasion of apoptosis - probably possible * enabling of a limitless replicative potential - already present * induction and sustainment of angiogenesis - nope, can't happen * activation of metastasis and invasion of tissue - nope, can't happen so, you see, they can't. can they get something similar? sure, a virus infection can be analogous to cancer to a single cell organism. but they can't get cancer | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can single-cell organisms get cancer? | [_url_0_](_url_0_) no, not "cancer" by definition, but they could get a mutation that makes them "immortal" and reproduce without limit. such a colonly would probably kill itself off by using up all its resources too quickly, though. | 417 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3657hz",
"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1010.985&rep=rep1&type=pdf",
"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/122/9/1418"
] | [
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|
does a ball ever stop bouncing? | so when i drop a ball, it will bounce back to half of its original height, then back to the ground, and then half of the previous height and so on, going half of the previous height. my question is, how can half of any number/height ever equal a height of 0? is it that the ball never stops bouncing, but is bouncing at such a microscopic height that you think it is actually still? | yes, it does (even if we live in a perfect world where such a ball can exist)! consider a ball that bounces to exactly 50% of its original height each time. to calculate how long the ball will take to reach the peak of a bounce when it goes up to a height h, we use the formula h = (t_rise)^2 (you might recall the formula d = .5at^2 . here we simply presume that we're on some planet where the .5a cancels out. the math ends out working out the same, but this requires less bookkeeping.) this can be rewritten as t_rise = sqrt(h) as the time spent in ascent is equal to the time spent in descent, we have t_fall = t_rise and for the total hangtime t we simply use t = t_rise + t_fall thus, the total time each bounce takes is simply t = 2*sqrt(h) now let's come up with a formula for how long it takes for us to complete n bounces. assuming that the first bounce goes up 1 meter (again, for simplicity), the first term t_1 will just be t_1 = 2*sqrt(1) = 2. the next bounce is half the height, so t_2 ends up being t_2 = 2*sqrt(1/2). then, t_3 = 2*sqrt(1/4) which can be simplified to t_3 = 2*sqrt(1/2)*sqrt(1/2) = 2*sqrt(1/2)^2 notice that thus far, we've had t_k = 2*sqrt(1/2)^(k-1). this ends up also being true from here on out, meaning that bounce m will take time t_m = 2*sqrt(1/2)^(m-1) so how long do *all* of the first n bounces combined take? if we quickly let r=sqrt(1/2), we notice that the time taken for the first n bounces is 2 + 2r + 2r^2 + 2r^3 + ... + 2r^(n-1) with each term being exactly a factor of r (which we set equal to sqrt(1/2)) as large as the previous. this is called a [geometric series](_url_0_), and we can compute its sum (using the formula found in the wikipedia article, which is easily derived) as (2-2r^n)/(1-r) = (2-2*sqrt(1/2)^n)/(1-sqrt(1/2)) why did we just compute this? well, notice that no matter what positive number n is, the value of (2-2*sqrt(1/2)^n)/(1-sqrt(1/2)) will always be smaller than that of 2/(1-sqrt(1/2)) since it has that extra negative factor in the numerator. thus, we can conclude that even a huge number (say a trillion) bounces will take no more than 6.83 seconds (or whatever unit of time we were using) to complete. since for any finite bounce number you give me i can tell you exactly when we reached that bounce number (and that it happened before the 6.83 second mark), we can conclude that the ball is no longer bouncing after 6.83 seconds, meaning that it did in fact stop bouncing (although it might have gone through an infinite number of bounces in that short period of time!). | 68 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series"
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why does a bouncy ball ever stop bouncing? | lets say the ball bounces back 50% of from where it was dropped. the bounce should just get smaller forever right? are conditions possible for a ball to bounce forever? | well if a collision with the ground were truly elastic (the physics word for no energy being lost) than it would bounce back to 100% of its height. however, it would make no noise (sound is energy being carried off) and the ball itself would not deform in any way (also a diversion of energy from "bouncing" kinetic energy). no real ball will do that. it'll lose a bit to sound and heat and "re-arrangement" of the ball material on each bounce. because a ball actually compresses on each bounce it is not like the ball is a perfect unchanging circle that collides with the floor and then bounces up. if the bounce up isn't higher than the amount the ball has compressed upon hitting the floor than it is "done bouncing" and will just start rolling at that point. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
where do mosquitoes go when it rains? | i ask this because i would like to know where i can spray poison next time it rains to try and kill the billions of them that live around my house. i can't even walk my dog without coming home with at least 5-10 new bites. i bought a bat house to try and attract some bats since they feed on mosquitoes, but no bats came. any other suggestions? | apparently they go where ever they want. _url_0_ if you are having problems with mosquitoes, you really need to destroy where they are laying their eggs. empty out any standing water containers near your place, even little ones, and forget about the poisons. they won't help. | 68 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWyoy44oV3Q",
"http://www.google.com/products/catalog?q=electric+bug+zapper&hl=en&prmd=imvns&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1297&bih=810&um=1&ie=UTF-8&tbm=shop&cid=14549370793806186942&sa=X&ei=6hnjT4ugBISi8gTX59yGCA&ved=0CI8BEPMCMAA",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/nathan_myhrvold_could_this_laser_zap_malaria.html",
"http://spectrum.ieee.org/consumer-electronics/gadgets/backyard-star-wars",
"http://www.npr.org/2012/06/05/154300189/splish-splat-why-raindrops-dont-kill-mosquitoes"
] | [
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where do mosquitos hide during the rain? | mosquitoes have quite hard exoskeleton that helps to protect them from raindrops. their exoskeleton and low mass makes them *almost* impervious to falling raindrops. to put this achievement into perspective, a single raindrop can weigh 50 times more than a mosquito. during downpour, they take shelter in grooves or holes in tree trunks or hide under things like leaves or rocks. mosquitoes in cities do the same thing as their counterparts in rain forests - take refuge under rocks, in people's homes, in knots of trees etc. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is honey bee colony collapse affecting other insects? | although a lot is still being learned about colony collapse i haven't heard if other insects are suffering similarly. it might make some sense that others don't since bees might be exposed more to pesticides and fungicides due to their behavior and social structure, but i'm curious if there's anything on this. thanks! | there isn't any evidence that the collapse of honey bee colonies per se adversely affects other organisms. its important to keep in mind that in most parts of the developed world, honey bees are an introduced species (originated in africa, domesticated in egypt/the levant/europe in ancient times). they are often brought to agricultural areas for pollination services (literally a truck full of hives) and removed afterwards. they are not natural members of the ecosystem. if anything, they are invaders who displace native pollinators. in terms of pesticides/fungicides affecting other insects, there have been many studies showing the adverse effects of pesticides on native pollinators. in general, intensive agriculture is damaging to natural ecosystems. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the body create some much mucus when you have a cold/are sick? | i've been sick for about five days now and i think i've blown my nose over 500 times :( why is it that your body produces so much mucus and snot during these times? | mucus contains many compounds that help to fight the infection like antiseptic enzymes, immunoglobulins, proteins, and glycoproteins. these compounds work together to protect the cells in in your body that are under attack (epithelial cells of respiratory system in your case). the mucus works by protecting the tissues from the attacker or offensive particle (bacteria, virus, etc). the body creates mucus constantly but increases production when you are sick to try and trap the intruders and flush them out of your system. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how powerful is the radiation from a phone/wifi compared to everyday objects such as an electric stove, hair dryer, microwave, the sun? | i have a friend getting into the whole wifi-hating-fad, would like some facts. would be good to compare in the 2.4ghz spectrum, otherwise there will be an argument like "yeah but uv frequency is not as dangerous as 2.4" | ghz frequency radiation is within the microwave region of the em spectrum. on a quantum level, microwave energy photons carry less energy than visible light. this means that microwave radiation is far too unenergetic to cause ionization of atoms and therefore cannot induce chemical reactions. ionizing radiation is the dangerous stuff. the microwave radiation from a wifi router is thousands of times less intense than the microwave radiation produced by your microwave over. microwaves can heat dielectric materials (insulators) however. this means that microwave radiation at a high enough intensity may destroy biological materials which are sensitive to heat: proteins. because this is a heating process, this does not mean that sitting around your wifi transmitter for days on end will produce the same effect as sitting in a microwave oven for a few minutes. you body has the ability to dissipate heat from your body through blood flow. those would be my arguments against the dangers of wifi, the biggest point being that microwave is not ionizing radiation. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_absorption_rate"
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why do some people experience clinical depression when other people don't? (plus more questions inside) | after seeing [this](_url_0_), it got me wondering: what is the cause or combination of causes which lead to clinical depression instead of a temporary downturn? are people prone to clinical depression from a pre-existing deficiency in their endocrine or neural systems? or is there some semi-permanent biochemical change that can arise from normal reactions to stress or tragedy (and what would that be)? sometimes depression can be cured without treatment- how? it's not like the immune system can attack it. | depression is heavily intertwined with stress, specifically your stress "resilience". how people deal with stress is part biological and part learned coping skills. stress is damaging, some consider it to cause a micro-inflammatory event in the brain (more specifically, the hippocampus) if it turns into chronic stress. something is happening in most depressed people that this chronic stress state cannot be undone without intervention. this is why unchecked depression generally just spirals deeper and deeper. certain people can definitely get out of it on their own through their own coping mechanisms, but if it truly is major depressive disorder...this is often very difficult. one of the major theories of depression is the "neurotrophic hypothesis", which states that chronic stress overwhelms your normal levels of neurotrophic support. this is your neuroplasticity, heavily tied with neurogenesis. to tie into this, there is a lot of current research that neurogenesis is heavily linked to how stress is "buffered" ([source](_url_0_)). your chicken or the egg question is still unanswered. we don't know if depressed patients have less neurogenesis from the start (less ability to adapt) or more severe stress reactions (stress causing way too severe of a reaction that overwhelms neuroplasticity). let me know if i need to clarify things, it's a bit much. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/le56v/some_people_just_dont_get_it/"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v476/n7361/abs/nature10287.html",
"http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/157/10/1552",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2888856/"
] | [
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why do we become depressed? why do we get 'clinical' depression? | not much else to say on the matter, besides the fact that i am currently in the middle of severe depression and would like to know more about what causes it. thank you. | there are lots of answers to this question. i'll share a few interesting ones with you. first off, there are the usual "biological" explanations like "neurotransmitter imbalances" and stuff. i don't find these explanations very compelling; the more meaningful explanations tend to be relatively distal. and besides, which neurotransmitter systems are out of whack? dopamine? serotonin? norepinephrine? there's mixed evidence for each of these and more (e.g. endogenous opioids). so let's not fuss too much over the underlying biology for now. suffice it to say though that genetics does play a role. for instance, a quirk in the sert gene can [predispose you to depression](_url_4_). nevertheless, genetics alone does not explain depression; it may serve as a [vulnerability that activates under conditions of stress](_url_3_). the [corticosteroid hypothesis](_url_1_) is an argument that chronic stress leads to symptoms of depression through stress hormone overload, essentially. this ultimately leads to damage in parts of the hippocampus. there's a fair summary in the link, and you're encouraged to google further if you want to know more. the [control theory of depression](_url_2_) offers a similar, interesting perspective: that depression stems from a failure to control your life and the environment you're in. this leads to a state of learned helplessness, withdrawal, and the experience of depression. i would be remiss if i did not mention the perspective held in cognitive-behavioural therapy: that depression is the product of [irrational beliefs](_url_5_). they argue that the negative feelings are perpetuated by maladaptive beliefs (i.e. assumptions about the world) that are slowly shattered over the course of therapy. there's also the [hopelessness theory of depression](_url_0_) which hypothesizes that a pessimistic view of the world leads you to believe that your circumstances are hopeless. hope has been conceptualized as way-power (as opposed to control and willpower), hence depression may be argued to stem from an inability to find a will and an inability to find a way. now that we're done with the science, i want to encourage you to seek therapy, or at least counseling. i assure you that you cannot *think* your way out of depression; rumination is not the answer! all the people i know who have seen a (competent) therapist share the same sentiment: therapy is a transformative, life-changing experience. get help, friend. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_style",
"http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_08/a_08_m/a_08_m_dep/a_08_m_dep.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness",
"http://www.bhcmhmr.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12998&cn=5",
"http://psychiatry.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/1008/1",
"http://www.stressgroup.com/12IrrationalBeliefs.html"
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how much critical mass would be required to create a planet in the asteroid belt? | first of all i assume an accretion process is under way in the asteroid belt. but with relatively low mass bodies and huge distances between them, the process is excedingly slow and perhaps it has even become a stable system by now. so is it within the realm of possibility to send a space craft out there that were capable of nudging smaller bodies closer together to form a proto-planet that was in turn of sufficient mass to sweep up other smaller bodies? it would take a lot of energy, but let's set that aside for the sake of this discussion. btw, i'm in a hurry, if the space craft was there now, how long do you think it would take to make any noticable difference? | there isn't that much mass in the asteroid belt to make a decent-sized planet, but further out, in the kuiper belt, there are quite a few dwarf planets. corralling them together would be a mega project; how ho you move about objects the size of earth's moon. have a look at this article by ethan siegel _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://medium.com/starts-with-a-bang/throwback-thursday-the-surprising-king-of-the-kuiper-belt-802cd9f0a3e8"
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why can we see fire? isn't it just heat? | hydrogen and carbon burn invisible. when you see a flame, say on a candle, the actual visible flame is made up of small particles of non-combusted soot that's glowing brightly due to the heat. | 49 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how much time do we have to build a telescope large enough to observe the events immediately following the big bang, and how big would that telescope need to be? | we don't need particularly fancy telescopes to detect the cosmic microwave background, and recent missions like wmap have given us pictures of it with extraordinary resolution. too see farther back than the cmb (about 400,000 years after the big bang), we can not longer use light (or any em radiation) because the universe was opaque. neutrino or gravitatioonal wave observatories could bypass this, but our capability in those areas is much much worse than with light telescopes. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would a hot object retain its heat longer in space? | i would think it's because there's nowhere for the heat to transfer to since space is a vacuum. | its not *quite* a vacuum, there are still errant molecules wandering around, even if there might be miles between them. but alas, this wouldnt make for very effective cooling. so you will also express heat through ir radiation. this is the method that space craft use to diffuse all of that heat generated by its electrical devices. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/PY5Kryq62SQ?t=403"
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why do fluorescent things glow under uv light? | fluorescence is the ability of an object, or rather the material it's made of, to absorb light and then re-emit them. they way this works is usually via the absorption of photons by the material to promote electrons into higher energy levels. then, these electrons relax back to ground state, emitting photons in the process. in a normal case, one high energy photon will be absorbed and then a lower energy photon will be emitted. this is because when the electron relaxes back to the ground state, some of the energy will be lost as heat. this is why uv light (high energy) is usually used to shine fluorescent objects that will then emit visible light (lower energy) back to us. there is also another mechanism in which 2 photons are absorbed in order to promote a single electron. in this case, the emitted light can be of a higher energy than the absorbed light. however, not very many photons can be absorbed this way and the absorption is much lower than the typical case above. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
the sun emits uv rays, so why don't fluorescent things visibly glow in sunlight? | i'm probably fundamentally misunderstanding something here, but why do fluorescent things that glow under uv/black light not glow in sunlight? or do they? | you are misunderstanding a lot. not all flurophores need uv light to fluoresce. gfp for example uses blue light to emit green. rfp uses green light to emit red. the reason we typically can't see fluorescence is because of light saturation that makes seeing the fluorescence impossible. remember the scene in apollo 13 when jim lovell talks about seeing the algae (or something) fluorescing after his cockpit lights failed? you can see fluorescence when there is no ambient light flushing it out. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't/don't primates hibernate? | i was wondering about this this morning; when it's cold, i always feel much sleepier in the morning and tend to want to go back to sleep. it's most likely not related to hibernation at all, but that's what made me think of this question! | you may find [this nytimes article](_url_0_) interesting. apparently in medieval europe, peasants would hole up for the winter with their livestock and sleep most of the time as a way to conserve energy. it's kind of like hibernation. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/opinion/25robb.html?scp=1&sq=graham+robb&st=nyt"
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autism is a spectrum. is there a spectrum for people with sociopathy and psychopathy? | i'm not an expert or a psychologist, but the way we talk about pathology is different than the way we talk about autism. there are people with autism we call functional. there are people with autism who need a lot of outside help. is it the same for anti-social disorders? are there people with small amounts of psychopathy? what about ones that don't commit full on murder spree but they do leverage economic power for their personal gain? what about that horrible mother in law or bully from high school? are there small amounts of pathology leaking into their peaceful everyday existence? or is pathology simply "on" or "off" in each person? | the only correct answer to this question is we don't know. mental processes and diseases just aren't well understood. the standard for defining mental illness is a book called the dsm. they are on the fifth edition of the book, you can see it here _url_0_ the biggest complaint with that is that it classifies mental illness in terms of its symptoms. it would be like if we said that a heart attack is similar to heartburn, they just lie on different ends of a spectrum. an alternative to classifying mental diseases is being developed by research scientists, called the research domain criteria. this effort is trying to classify mental diseases using genetics, imaging, biomarkers and other quantitative tools. here's a good article about it _url_1_ | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm",
"https://www.nature.com/news/mental-health-on-the-spectrum-1.12842",
"http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2016.00346/full"
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diluted red wine changes color at a certain concentration. what's happening here? | while doing dishes, i noticed that a couple of glasses containing 1/4 teaspoon or so of dark red wine did a nifty color changing trick. if you slowly fill the cup with water, the red wine dilutes and becomes a barely detectable pink color. at a certain point, it seems somewhere around 6-10oz of water for 1/4 teaspoon of wine, the water rather abruptly takes on a faint blue tint. i can replicate this at will with clean glasses and clean water, so it can't be contamination from dish detergent or the like. is this a trick of chemistry, or light? **edit**: i did a bit more experimenting, and i noticed an interesting detail. i tried it with three different wines, a blush, a cheap blend that is very much brick red in color, and another red wine that's more of a very deep purple/burgundy. only the burgundy colored wine worked. i also tried it in a glass from dinner last night that just had the dry residue from some of the burgundy wine left in it, and it worked. this excludes the alcohol from being a potential factor. ~~so i've conjured a hypothesis. i'm thinking that there are tannins or other components that reflect both red, and blue light in red wines, hence the purple appearance of the wine that worked. in the wine that's more brick red color, the blue tannins are less prevalent, hence the more pure red color. perhaps the agent responsible for the red coloring requires a higher overall concentration than the blue, or is more affected by the water in some other fashion, so once the solution gets to a certain point, the blue color becomes predominant.~~ **edit 2: at the suggestion of a couple of friends, i dropped some vinegar in there to see if it's a ph thing, and it is! the vinegar turns the mixture back to pink.** the tap water here must be a base, and at a certain ph, something in the wine turns from red to blue. i can juggle the colors back and forth by adding a little vinegar or baking soda, so i've obviously got a ph indicator here. i'm dying to know what the chemistry behind this is now! some googling suggests that phenols can do this, at least some of them, and red wine is rich in phenols. the color seems to be backwards from phenolphthalein though. | you wouldn't be comparing against phenolphthalein - rather, you should be comparing it to [litmus](_url_0_) - which belongs to the same class of chemicals found in your wine, known as anthrocyanins - which is red in acidic solution and blue in basic solutions. the main concept behind a dye as a ph indicator relies on the electronic structure of the protonated and deprotonated states. organic dyes consist of large, conjugated systems, and the general rule is the larger the system, the larger the wavelength of light it will absorb. a benzene ring generally absorbs in the uv region, and larger rings will push the absorption down to the visible range. the conjugated system will be disrupted, either from being protonated or deprotonated, thus shifting the peak absorption wavelength and producing a colour change. for example, in [phenolphthalein](_url_1_), in acidic solutions (excluding ph < 0) it is colourless. if you examine the structure at those ph, you'll see that the three phenyl rings are separated. however, when deprotonated, you can see a double bond on one of the rings that link to the central carbon, connecting the conjugated systems and shifting the absorption maximum down from uv to blue/violet, leaving the intense pink colour you observe. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litmus_paper",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolphthalein",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law#Deviations_from_Beer-Lambert_Law"
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] |
how come clouds alone are white but a sky full of clouds is grey? | the darkening of clouds is caused by shadows, either from other clouds or the cloud itself being thick enough to extinguish more light than the surrounding skies. of course, this depends on the angle of the sun relative to the clouds and your direction of observation. if you're looking at distant clouds and the sun is generally behind you, those clouds will appear white because they are scattering sunlight back toward you. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did early humans (and neanderthals) survive cold winters without clothing? | a display i saw at the smithsonian museum said that europeans developed light skin because they were living in a cold climate with little sunlight. (i think it said during the last ice age?) developing lighter skin allowed early europeans to better survive, because their skin could absorb more vitamin d. but how did we survive living in cold northern europe back then without the clothes we would probably need to survive today? i also read once that before humans wore clothing all the time, we were better able to regulate our body temperature. i've always wondered if that is true. and if so, how? would our bodies develop differently if we were all raised to walk around all the time without clothing - or very little clothing - in cold weather? | i don't know of any evidence that indicates people were living in cold climates without protective clothing, and in fact the evidence indicates the opposite is true. the divergence of body lice from head lice in humans is thought to be [associated with the development of clothing](_url_1_). molecular clock techniques place this divergence at about [107,000 years ago](_url_2_), which indicates humans started wearing clothing at or before that time. this coincides with the earliest know migrations of *homo sapiens* out of africa. we have evidence of [tools used to treat leather](_url_0_) from neanderthals in europe that date to between 41,000 and 51,000 years ago, so they were also making clothes ([peer-reviewed article](_url_4_)). [here is an overview](_url_3_) of what we know about prehistoric clothing. it doesn't indicate that *homo sapiens* or *h. neanderthalensis* were ever living in cold climates without clothing, and in fact supports the idea that clothing was developed as these species moved into areas with colder climates. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-08/13/neanderthal-bone-tools",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982203005074",
"http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(04)00985-6#References",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/09/130911-neanderthal-fashion-week-clothes/",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/08/08/1302730110"
] | [
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how did pre-clothes era humans survive temperature changes? were they capable to survive winter naked? | the idea that nature made us manufacture clothes to survive seems strange, because as far asi know,other species don't need toamufacture anything artificial that allows them to go on living, everything is taken care of by instincts (knowing owto drink mother's milk) or surroundings (existence of food). have humans really been always dependent on killing other animals in order to keep warm in their fur? or did we start making first clothes just for a simple small way tomake our lives better, and have become so dependent on it after generations of being clad, that now when we're nude we feel cold for most parts of the year? | we didn't survive in cold temperatures without clothes, actually! it's important to note, also, that our ancestors had a lot more body hair than modern humans do. even now, people who have historically lived in colder climates tend to be more hairy than people in warmer climates. but that's pretty much why we started wearing clothes. we started off in africa and were only able to survive in colder climates after we started making clothes. our ancestors who wore clothes survived the colder temperatures and reproduced, and the ones who didn't make clothes presumably died off. i doubt that ancient humans bothered to kill animals solely for fur - it's more likely that while they were already killing or scavenging them for food, they also used the inedible fur to protect themselves from the cold. *edited for clarity | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does my sub-zero beer turn solid after i've opened it? | i opened a can of beer left outside in -10c, and it was entirely liquid. i took a sip and set it down, beginning to listen to an online lecture. a few minutes later, i notice that ice-cold beer is dripping all over my feet, is all over the desk, and an ice tentacle composed of frozen beer has pushed itself out of the mouth of the beer can. i've watched this process happen in frozen bottles as well, where ice forms before my eyes after the cap has been popped off. what's going on, here? | the carbon dioxide is the main reason this occurs. when the beer is closed the carbon dioxide is under pressure which forces it to dissolve in the beer. this reduces its freezing point. when you open it the co2 is no longer under pressure and now can escape from the beer. (which usually gives beer its foam) this does three things for the system. first the act of removing co2 from the solution cools the beer because the co2 takes energy with it as it changes to the gas phase. second by removing the co2 you remove impurities in the water which in turn removes raises the freezing point (look up freezing point depression for more about this). thus with the combination of effects you have ice form. third the co2 escaping typically is very chaotic which "stirs" the beer heavily. this aids nucleation. the reason it overflows is when you start freezing the beer, ice expands which pushes the remaining liquid out of the bottle. you can easily do this with other drinks containing co2. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jk9DZ2Xewsc"
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does most atmospheric oxygen come from plants or bacteria? | both bacteria and plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis. how does the biomass of photosynthetic bacteria compare to plants, and which produces most of the oxygen that we breathe? | actually, in terms of simple volume the vast majority of the atmospheric oxygen on earth (70-80% of it ) is created by marine algae. there are around 7,000 different species of algae on earth and they collectively produce over 330 billion tones of oxygen each year. since water covers about 71% of the planet it is not surprising the volume of oxygen produced is proportionate. however, when you consider the vast areas of land that support little to no plant life, it is clear that, on a basis of volume, the algae in the ocean is more productive than the plants and trees on land. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ecology.com/2011/09/12/important-organism/l",
"http://www.ecology.com/2011/09/12/important-organism/"
] | [
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why do i sneeze if i look into the sunlight/a bright light? | there is something called the [photic sneeze reflex](_url_0_). best answer: the reason why photic sneezes occur is unclear. the linked wiki page gives a nice overview of the different theories. \- ice | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_sneeze_reflex",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_sneeze_reflex#Photic_sneezing"
] | [
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|
how come my urine color isn't affected by drinking colored drinks? | are the colorants present in drinks consumed, eliminated in other ways or are they building up inside the body? (the specific drink i'm referring to is coca-cola but it might not be relevant) | largely food additives which are used for colouring follow one of three paths; they are either digested in your gut (broken down in to constituent bits which can be absorbed as food), absorbed as-is and later broken down by the liver, or they pass straight through unaffected (either not being absorbed by the gut at all or once in the blood stream being filtered out by the kidneys). so, no they are not 'building up inside' you. with regards coca-cola, this is principally colored with "caramel color" a golden to brown food colouring additive. this colouring is made by acid oxidising simple sugars, this gives them a dark, burnt appearance and flavour. they can then be added to food in small amounts to make them brown. the long and the short of it is that you simply digest the colouring as you would other sugars. at the other end of the spectrum are the yellow to red betalains pigments present in beetroot and other vegetables. these are only minorly absorbable in your gut and they mostly pass through totally unchanged and will make your stools quite red. occasionally you can/do absorb significant amount of betalains in the gut but this is filtered out by your kidneys giving you pink urine (beeturia). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there stars that are not part of any galaxy? | rogue stars? | our models show that it should be possible for stars to get ejected from their galaxies. for instance, this might happen as a star orbits a black hole and is slung shot away near the speed of light. as far as i know, we have yet to observe such a star. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is it that if you look directly at some stars you cannot see them? | but if you look away/next to them you can see that they are there. -with the naked eye -this happens with some other dimly lit things too (ex: small sliver of moon light coming in through blinds, light under a door) | because the center of your vision has high resolution and color sensitivity, but poor light sensitivity (compared to your peripheral vision). see _url_0_ and _url_2_ for more. using [averted vision](_url_1_) to observe very dim objects in darkness is a well known technique. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averted_vision",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell"
] | [
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why do celestial bodies form an orbit instead of falling directly into its source of gravitational pull? | [there was a recent post](_url_0_) illustrating how the nature of gravitational fields would function (in a 2 dimensional field, so to speak) nothing new, really. what irks me is that in most of these demonstrations of how gravity works, a heavy object is placed in the middle of some fabric of some sort, and smaller objects are introduced to the surface, only to be pulled directly towards the heaviest object. directly pulled toward the object... and yet in almost all forms of natural phenomena an object of lighter mass forms an orbit of some sort around an object of greater mass. what is the cause of this orbit? and why arent the planets in our solar system (or any other form of astral system) not falling directly towards their source of greatest mass? | actually they are falling ! circular orbits would be such that, in the time it takes the satellite to fall a certain distance down, it has also moved another distance to the side such that the distance to the center has remained constant. elliptic orbits are deformations of circular orbits, and are such that this is slightly false most of the time, with the satellite sometimes gaining and sometimes loosing in distance. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTY1Kje0yLg"
] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Orbital_motion.gif",
"http://www.gumball.com/images/products/display/coin-funnel.jpg"
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can someone with autism be a psychopath or a sociopath? | i had a look on scholar and couldn't find any papers looking at the comorbidity of autism with antisocial personality disorder (the diagnosis that psychopathy falls under in the dsm). this probably reflects the diagnostic differences between these disorders. [this paper](_url_0_) found that the lack of empathy observed in children with autism and children who exhibit psychopathic tendencies are actually quite different. the lack of empathy in autism comes down to the difficulty in understanding what others think (lack of [theory of mind](_url_1_)). the psychopathic tendencies appeared to be underpinned by an inability to reason about others' emotions. the main conclusions of [this paper](_url_2_) are the same. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.drru-research.org/data/resources/72/Jones-A.-P.-et-al.-2010..PDF",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind",
"http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=556672&fileId=S0033291706008853"
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|
is there a spectrum to psychopathy as there is to autism or are you either a psychopath or not one at all? | yes there certainly is a spectrum, there isn't even a clear 'flag' that can diagnose psychopathy. it's formed by personality traits that don't necessarily stand out as 'bad', but when it interferes with normal functioning and social interaction (or more popular known, causing criminal behaviour) it becomes a 'disorder', with all the ambiguity other mental disorders can have like ad(h)d and autism. i would recommend this excellent ted talk on the subject: [strange answers to the psychopathy test](_url_0_) | 39 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/TLPQ765VS6E"
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|
when people say the universe is expanding do they mean empty space is being created or the actual "fabric of space time" is expanding? | i mean like is everything becoming larger? | if everything was getting bigger, we wouldn't be able to tell that anything was happening! space is stretching but objects are not. objects are pulled along by the stretch, but they are only pulled *apart* if they are not stuck together by sticky forces such as gravity or electromagnetism. | 44 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how is it possible that the big bang expanded faster than the speed of light? | it didn't. the universe doesn't have an expansion speed - it doesn't make any sense to say the universe is or isn't expanding faster than the speed of light. by [hubble's law](_url_0_), what happens is that the further away two galaxies are from each other, the faster they expand away from each other. so there are always some galaxies receding less quickly than the speed of light, and some expanding more quickly. that was true in the early universe and is still true today. this doesn't violate the laws of physics because nothing is moving *through* space faster than light, but rather, space itself is expanding. that circumvents the usual prohibition against faster-than-light motion. one way to think of it is that you're not allowed to send a *signal* faster than light, but you can't use the expansion of the universe to send a message, so it's alright. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%27s_law"
] | [
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|
how environmentally friendly is recycling? | something i've been thinking about. i really don't know that much about the process of recycling but to what extent does it really help reduce waste on earth vs how much energy is needed to actually reuse the plastic/glass/paper etc. | i did a paper on this for a graduate class on environmental economics. so this comes from a non-expert understanding, though it was bolstered by reading of a lot of journal articles on waste management. unfortunately there is no easy answer and it depends drastically on the material being recycled and the procedure being used to recycle that material. as a gross simplification, aluminum is really 'easy' to recycle. the smelting process (according to the international aluminium institute) for creating aluminum from scrap is 5% as energy intensive as that of smelting it from ore. also, recycled aluminum is very pure. once melted down, aluminum is just aluminum (more on this for glass and plastic). this holds for other metals as well i believe. alloys can be seperated out due to the differing relative densities of various metals. even absent government incentives, 85% to 95% of aluminum is recovered from building demolitions due to this instrinsic ease of re-use and resulting profit (again from that same institute). plastic is significantly harder. plastics are commonly divided into 7 differing categories based on their resin identification code (ric). commonly municipalities are equipped to only handle a select subset of those categories. in addition, currently it is dificult for machines to sort by ric (optical scanning was being worked on at the time i wrote the paper). so people have to sort it. this makes it labor intensive. and it is confusing for people to figure out if their city accepts ric3 but not ric5, and what ric an unlabelled material has. so they either don't recycle, or they just dump any and all plastics into the recycling stream. and the resulting plastic produced from this messy stream is often much worse than virgin plastics, even if it also takes less energy to produce. so it is often re-used in areas where appearance and such doesn't matter as much (plastic lumber was an example from the literature i read). glass is really sort of a mess to recycle. if you can re-use the bottle in its entirety via a bottle deposit or the like, it is super since it cleans up nicely and there are small energy costs to doing so. if you have to deal with aggregated bottles from unknown sources, it creates a lot of problems. similar to the ric system above, glass needs to be seperated by color. again, automation isn't available for this really, or is in its infancy. then you crush the now uniform and cleaned glass into small pellets called cullet. that cullet can be resmelted into glass. according to the glass packaging institute you save 2-3% in energy use for every 10% substituted when you choose to use recycled glass over virgin. the raw material for glass production of not scarce either. in addition it is chemically inert, so it doesn't vent methane from landfilling. on top of this meager energy savings, introducing glass into single stream recycling systems causes problems since unfortunately glass is fragile and when glass breaks it is sharp. so you need a way of protecting sanitation workers from the dangers of encountering glass shards in the recycling stream. of all the materials i reviewed, glass was the one material i felt was often simply not worth recycling. finally paper. paper is pretty easy to recycle. you bale it up after sorting it somewhat into various grades. from there it is soaked in a solution at the mill, and pulped. from there the pulp is screened to remove any impurities such as paperclips. the ink is chemically removed and then the pulp can be re-formed into paper. when this is done the resulting paper is usually of a lesser quality, but that isn't a huge deal for most paper products, hence the commonplace nature of post-consumer recycled paper. the main problem here is again sorting (this is a common theme) and the presence of contaminents in the recycling stream (food mostly). so that covers the basics of type. but you also need to examine the process used to encourage recycling since that has impacts on energy use and participation rates. single stream is the most common system in the us if i remember correctly. what single stream means is that all of the recycled materials are placed in one container and they intermingle. the garbage trucks then just place all the material together for transport to the recycling center, where they are then sorted. it is nice because you get more consumer buy in since it makes recycling easy, and you can re-use existing trucks. it is bad because it introduces contamination in the recycling stream, increases glass breakage rates and means that the recycling center needs to sort a lot more. multiple stream is where each recycled material goes into its own bin and the collection trucks have seperate storage areas for each type. it is harder on the consumer and lowers participation rates because they have to self-sort. it also requires new capital to implement since the truck design is different. but it makes the resulting recycling process at the plant much easier. you also have bottle deposits. these can be done in addition to the above methods and involve paying a small fee when you purchase a container and then gaining that fee back when you bring back the (now empty) container for re-use. these are awesome for environmental gains, but consumers tend to hate them so they are harder to implement. so the answer is complicated based on what we are talking about. generally though, once you have public buy-in, recycling is fairly environmentally friendly. for the record the takeaway from the paper was that the government should have a role in furthering technological innovation in recycling to reduce the costs of sorting. so basically trying to improve scanning technology to make it 'more friendly' by reducing loss and improving the quality of the outputs. | 72 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.worldcentric.org/sustainability/manufacturing/bagasse",
"http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/withouthotair/c15/page_95.shtml"
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is recycling good for the environment? | yes, aluminum recycling requires 10% of the energy to extract from ores. and it depends how it is done. throw a beer carton off aluminum cans and a box of newspaper and driving 30 miles accross town to a recycling because it makes you feel good is a negative contribution. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
since there are gaseous planets, can there be gaseous moons? | [removed] | the issue is that small bodies don't have the gravity to permanently trap gas around them. unless the body is at least a certain size, ie very large, you'll get a rocky body instead of a gas giant. at which point is it really a moon or is it a binary planetary system? | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_dwarf"
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