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if the universe is expanding faster than than the speed of light, are very distant objects vanishing? | so from what i gather space is expanding at an ever increasing rate, the further objects are from each other the faster that rate of expansion is (because the space in between is expanding as well). should that not mean that once an object crosses the threshold of "moving away at the speed of light" that it would simply blink out of existence, at least from our frame of reference? | yes we won't be able to see objects which are moving away from us faster than speed of light. but they won't disappear instantly. because light they send to us before they move faster than light still on the way to reach us. they will slowly get red shifted to infinity and disappear. in a very distant future only objects we can see in the sky will be the ones in our galaxy. everything beyond would be gone from our perspective forever. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why (physiologically) do animals poop and pee when they are scared? | anal and urinary sphincters are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, therefore shouldn't the flight or fight response increase muscle tone and prevent the animal from urinating or defecating? | there is thought to be an initial shock when a threat is presented that causes disinhibition of the nervous system. essentially, you're limbic system is constantly receiving signals to void the bowels/bladder when full. mesocortical tracts via the frontal lobe tell your body to "hold it". however, when you get frightened, your attention (frontal lobes) allocates to the threat, leaving the limbic system alone to void the bladder/bowels. _url_0_ | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://mobile.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer_extra/2011/10/peeing_your_pants_why_do_people_urinate_when_they_re_scared_.html"
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when you delete something off a phone or computer, where does it actually go? | how can you put some data into a hardrive, then you can magically make it disappear for more room for data? | data is merely a series of bits (1s and 0s) and bytes (8 bits..more efficient in a lot of ways). so...you have this device which stores that information. well, you also have to store **where** you stored that information. let's say that you want to store a 2mb song on an 8gb device. there are somewhere near 4,000 places it could be put. how can you tell where it is? the same way you tell where a book in a library is. you create an index. so..what you do is you store the data then you tell the device where the data is. when you "delete" the file, you are just removing the references that that space is used: the index. whatever was written is still there until something writes over it. | 285 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.stack.imgur.com/oBZxy.png"
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does the night air change the way we hear? | i live about 25 miles from a fairly busy train yard in the chicago area. all my life i've always been able to hear train horns in the middle of the night. i never hear them during the day outside of them passing by my car, etc. i live in a quiet suburban area. is there something about the night that allows me to hear these things? | i would actually assume that this is due to noise pollution. during the day there are more sounds to be heard that would cause you to not hear the trains. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you get sunburnt behind glass? | now that i found the right subbreddit.. hey askscience :) it's coming up on summer her in australia and have always wanted to confirm the suggestion by a friend that you cannot get sunburnt behind glass, as properties of the wave are changed once they pass through the glass? when i drive around in my car on a warm day with the windows up i can quite easily feel the heat on my skin, however does heat on the skin always equate to sunburn? or is the fact i feel more heat behind glass to do with the change in the wave? | from the wiki uva isn't as harmful but over extended time will give you a sunburn. uva is 400-315nm. uvb is your main sunburn exposure and where most people get into trouble with skin cancer, it is 315-280nm. glass blocks the smaller half of this very well, but leaves a sliver in the large end. uvc is even higher energy, but the air itself starts to block most of this, it is a key component in the formation of the ozone in the ozone layer. so yeah, you can get a sunburn from behind glass, but it will take a lot longer and it will be from larger wavelengths of uv compared to direct sunlight, so your cancer risk is lower (note: not gone). obviously treated or tinted glass can be made to block all the uv. | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=actinic%20keratoses%20commute"
] | [
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is there any way to prove that space is infinite? | by direct observation: i'll say no. the problem is that we can only see the observable universe: the sphere of space whose most distant edges are as far away in lightyears as the universe is old in years. why? if it takes light 14.5 billion years to get here, it was created 14.5 billion years ago 14.5 billion lightyears away. that's the nature of light and the speed of light is the ultimate limit. perhaps we will find an underlying theory in physics that will point to a limit on the total volume of the universe including that which we cannot observe, but we still will never be able to observe the entire universe directly, so we can't directly observe whether or not the universe is actually infinite in volume. not a definitive answer, but i hope it helps a bit! (b.s. physics) | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do carbonated liquids go flatter quickly in a narrower or wider glass? | what properties of a drinking glass make a carbonated liquid go flatter quicker or slower? is it the height of the glass? the neck size? the base area? or some combination of all these and/or other properties? | i would hypothesize that the wider glass would lose carbonation faster. it has a wider air-to-liquid interface area, and more internal area (more nucleation points) | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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to which 'space' is space expanding? | can someone please give an answer intuitive for the layman? | it's not expanding into anything. rather, space is getting added between the space that already exists. the standard explanation is to imagine blowing up a balloon. the surface of the balloon gets larger and larger, but isn't expanding in to anything. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do plants have longer lifespans than animals? | plants can live for ~10,000 years. turtles can live ~250 years. is there some sort of microbiological/biological explanation? also what causes changes in lifespans across different species? | differences in life spans across species, or even kingdom, boundaries is a pretty fascinating topic of research. i've had some exposure to a researcher whose done some work with animals, but i'm not very up to date with the current state of the research. but i can talk about plants. one of the big differences between plant and animal cells is totipotency. plant cells are totipotent, meaning that an individual cell, if isolated and grown on a suitable culture medium, can grow into a plant that is genetically identical to the mother plant. you can't really do that with animal cells. granted, plant cells in the wild aren't necessarily exposed to some of those same conditions, so perennial plants retain stem-cell like meristematic tissue (e.g. dormant buds) that can be activated in case of damage to the rest of the tree. the ramifications of this for longevity is that any damage done to a plant can be fixed relatively easily. it's not like limb regeneration in some reptiles or other animals, it's like limb substitution. you can see the results after a big storm that removes a lot of limbs from a tree, where the tree then starts to grow very bushy with lots of new stems. the animal equivalent would be like cutting off your arm and having a new one grow out your chest. so damages done to a perennial plant aren't necessarily "fixed", but circumvented through creation of new structure. the other important thing about how plants respond to damage is that they have a sectored vascular system so that part of a tree (or other type of perennial) can survive even if the whole plant can't. if a human's peripheral limbs can't survive, we can amputate and the person will survive, but if any organs can't survive, the human dies. the other issue for some plants is the ability for clonal growth. a good example is aspen forests, where you might be looking at an entire forest of trees that originated from the same mother tree. if the original tree dies, the same genetic material from that tree persists in genetically identical clones. some of my genes persist in my daughter, but not all of them, so she's not identical to me in a genetic (or even physical) sense. of course, there's other factors that play major roles in determining life span that have to do with metabolism, resistance to factors that affect senescence, etc. i'm not sure if you can access [this article](_url_0_), but it describes in pretty basic terms why trees can live so long relative to other organisms | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568163702000259"
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] |
why does staring at a bright light help you sneeze? | i've always wondered why this happens whenever you get the feeling like you have to sneeze and you look at a light it makes the sneeze happen faster. can someone please explain what causes this? | [it's called the photic sneeze reflex, it's not well understood, and only about 1/5 to 1/3 of the population has it.](_url_0_) i know i don't. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_sneeze_reflex"
] | [
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why is helium-3 more prevalent on the moon than it is on earth?? | why is helium-3 more prevalent on the moon than it is on earth?? also what is the difference between helium-3 and the helium that we use in balloons. | it gets spewed out by the sun, and when it reaches the moon it gets embedded in the soil but when it reaches the earth it circulates through the atmosphere, moves around through geological and meteorological processes, etc and any helium in the upper layers of the soil would quickly be loosed by erosion. the main difference is that helium-3 is lighter than helium-4 (the regular kind), and also more technical differences like it's a fermion and he4 is a boson. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the fundamental difference between solids, liquids and gas? | to be more precise, what makes the molecules in a liquid pack densely and stay in a container, in contrast to gas molecules which just "float around"? | to answer this, we first have to understand why molecules and atoms should be able to stay together at all. different atoms and molecules can form bonds together. there are different kind of bonds and ultimately they are not trivial to understand because they are rooted in quantum mechanics. since you are talking about liquids, lets consider bondings between water molecules. water consists of two hydrogen and one oxygen atom. the oxygen atom drags the electrons of the two hydrogen atoms slightly towards it such that there is an electric field within the molecule. therefore, the oxygen atom is slightly negatively charged and the two hydrogen atoms are slightly positively charged. if two water molecules come close to another the slightly negatively charged oxygen atom from water molecule 1 feels the attraction of the negatively charged hydrogen atoms in water molecule 2. ([_url_0_](_url_0_)) & #x200b; this way multiple water molecules can bond together. now, what is the difference between ice, liquid water, and water vapor? if there is no or very little movement of the individual water molecules this bonding between the water molecules is relatively strong and you get ice, i.e. a solid material. now you heat that up and the individual molecules start to move, wiggle around, rotate a little maybe. relatively speaking, the bonding between the molecules becomes weaker. the molecules are less tightly bonded together but still stay kind of bonded. you increase the temperature further, the water starts to boil and vaporize. a gas of water molecules is so warm that the energy of the individual movement of the water molecules is greater than the bonding energy of the water molecules. this way they freely float around and do not "feel" the attraction between each other. the temperature where gases become liquids or solidfy tells a great deal about the nature of the interatomic/intermolecular bonds. heliumatoms for instance, form extremely weak bonds between each other. that's why helium remains a gas for very low temperature and is a liquid only below - 270°c. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://fastly.kastatic.org/ka-perseus-images/60f5834b8b3234e6482e0f201cca84c3a4271b63.png"
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where does gravity come from? planets are round because of gravity i get that. but what makes gravity pull to the center? in other words what's at the core of planets that makes them round? | okay. you've asked two questions. gravity is a terribly complicated subject that some people dedicate their entire lives to studying. there's a lot to it is what i'm getting at. *but* there's a very simple thing we can take from all of these smart folks' hard work to tell us why planets are round. gravity has a really awesome property that it only cares about how far apart two things are. if you're, say, a planet in orbit a few million miles from a star, then the star is pulling on you with gravity. it doesn't matter if you're above it, below it, to the left, or to the right. you'll feel a tug based only on distance and not orientation. so, what shape looks the same no matter which way you look at it? a sphere! and that's it. planets form into balls because gravity doesn't care if you're coming from left, right, up, or down--only how far away you are. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are we sure all elements heavier than iron are made in supernovae? | i was watching a show on high energy physics, and i realized we build particle accelerators to simulate cosmic rays basically... now, we make artificial elements like californium by bombarding a relatively large nucleus with smaller ones hoping that some stick together long enough to measure wouldn't the same process occur naturally in space? given the amount of radiation wouldn't this result in a significant portion of heavier-than-iron atoms being a result of this? are we really star stuff? or rather are we more like the gold on the inside of nuclear reactor lead lining? | whilst not a direct answer to your question, it is worth noting that the claim that all heavy elements are made in supernovae is wrong. see [this answer from our faq](_url_0_) for some in-depth details on the main sources of heavy elements, with the s-process in particular being somewhat similar to your proposal (albeit not due to interstellar radiation). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1l99tx/how_did_elements_heavier_than_iron_form_given/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B2FH_paper",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1l99tx/how_did_elements_heavier_than_iron_form_given/cbx18lh"
] | [
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are there any practical uses for the concept of infinity? have any real-world applications been necessarily derived from mathematics that uses infinity? | yes. infinity is the key ingredient to calculus. using infinity you can define limits, and using limits you can define derivatives (rates of change) and antiderivatives/integrals (the inverse of a rate of change). everything in science/engineering/mathematics that studies the rate at which things change (which is most of science/engineering/mathematics, and anything revolving around [differential equations](_url_0_)) uses these concepts. common examples in the sciences are population growth (ecology/social science), motion (physics), and probability distributions (anything with statistics). | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"
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|
why is it we can see through water clearly from the outside but can't see well while opening our eyes underwater? | the angle at which light bends at an interface depends on the refractive indices of both materials. this is snell's law: sin θ_1 / sin θ_2 = n_2 / n_1. since your eyes are designed to function in air, with a refractive index of about 1, when you immerse them in water, with a higher refractive index, light entering your eye isn't bent as much, which means it isn't focused properly. this is why you can see just fine when you put goggles on - they mean your eyes are in air, not water, so light is focused as normal. (the interface between air and water in goggles is (usually) flat, so it doesn't affect the focus of the light.) | 67 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how do we know the size of stars that are thousands of light years away? | [this is the picture that sparked my interest.](_url_0_) is this picture accurate? if so, how do we measure the sizes and distances of these stars? | size is usually measured by [interferometry](_url_0_). you may know that the angular resolution (i.e. how fine the details are that it can distinguish) depends on it's size, bigger being better. by using two telescopes and interfering the light from them, you can have them act like one much larger telescope. this technique can directly measure the angular diameter of the star. as for distance, that's a bit harder. we can measure the distance to stars nearby using [parallax measurements](_url_1_). after that, we need to use standard candles, which are objects of known brightness. if we know how bright they really are, and how bright they appear to us, we can work out how far away they are. for objects that are very distant (i.e distant galaxies), we can use cosmological redshift. this is due to light being "stretched" by the expansion of the universe, and light thats travelled further will have been stretched more. edit: missed out an important noun. | 11 | [] | [
"http://img.chan4chan.com/img/2010-05-22/1274558056445.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parralax#Stellar_parallax"
] | [
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] |
how do scientists estimate the distance away some stars are? how do we know there are stars millions and billions of lightyears away? | parallax works for things close by, out to several hundred light years. take an angular measurement in january, and another in june, and check the difference. the difference in angular position and the size of the earth's orbit can be used to make the trigonometric calculation of distance. [see this graphic](_url_2_). beyond that, there are a lot of different methods, and some work better for certain distances. type ia supernova give off distinct [light curves](_url_1_), and we know how much light they give off, so we can use them to figure distance. check out the [cosmic distance ladder](_url_0_) article for more info and examples. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ia_supernovae#Light_curve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stellarparallax2.svg"
] | [
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|
(astronomy) if the sun will eventually turn into a red dwarf and expand, will the orbits of the planets change? | yes. the sun will lose a significant amount of mass, which will mean the planets would orbit slower and further out. but there will also be air resistance from all that solar wind, which will keep them from going out too far. they'll still orbit slower. and several of the planets will end up inside the sun, where the'll slow down and fall toward the center. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if you are lactose intolerant do you gain the same amount of calories from dairy as you would if you were lactose tolerant? | no. lactose is a disaccharide (two sugars linked together). to absorb and then use molecules like that, we break them down into their component monosaccharides (like glucose and galactose and fructose). we do not have a transporter in our guts to move lactose into our cells--only its components, glucose and galactose. people who are lactose intolerant do not continue to make the enzyme that does this breakdown after childhood. the lactose in milk thus cannot get into their guts, so they do not get nutrition from it. dairy in which most of the lactose is gone (such as yogurt and some cheeses) would not have the same issue. in theory, the fat in dairy would not be affected, only the sugar. however, lactose consumption in the lactose intolerant usually causes intestinal...issues of varying severity. in very severe reactions, this can lead to disruption of normal gut function for a while. liquid is pulled out of the intestinal wall and into the gut itself, and often transit through the intestine is hastened. this can decrease the absorption of nutrients from anything else that's in the dairy (including the fat) and anything else that you ate recently as well. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
during a full eclipse, the moon and sun have the same apparent size in the sky (roughly). is this just a coincidence, or did some natural combination of factors cause the distance and size of the moon to work out that way? | it's a coincidence. both the sun and the moon vary by a few percent in apparent size, and they have a range that overlaps. over very, very long times the sun will become bigger and the moon farther away, so eventually this will no longer be the case. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
it seems to me that maintaining orbit around the sun requires a planet to possess a massive amount of kinetic energy. how did this happen? why did the clouds of gas and rock that eventually coalesced into planets have so much momentum? and why was it all going the same way? | i pretty much asked it in my title, but i'll try and expand. there was a bunch of hydrogen and helium and whatnot, and it formed a star (the sun.) then there was a bunch of gases and rocks and stuff that was shot into space when other stars exploded, and for a while it floated around in the general vicinity of the sun. and then, instead of just falling towards inwards, towards the sun, as seems like the natural progression to me, all that stuff started to coalesce and now there are 8 planets flying through space in orbits that barely expand or degrade. i obviously don't know the science behind it or i wouldn't be asking, but my intuition tells me that the current state of affairs is very unlikely. why did all that stuff possess so much, and such uniform, momentum? or did it somehow happen later? tell me! | stars form out of huge gas clouds as you correctly pointed out. these gas clouds have some natural motion (swirling), this is where the initial motion comes from. as the cloud collapses to form a star, the radius of the cloud decreases. conservation laws tell us that the angular momentum before the collapse and after the collapse must be the same. since the radius of a collapsed cloud is so much smaller, it must spin much faster in order to have the same angular momentum. the solar system forms during the process of star collapse, so the bodies in the solar system will rotate in the same direction for the same reasons mentioned above. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why shouldn't food be frozen again after it has been thawed? | don't know if this is just an old wives' tale, but i've heard after thawing frozen meat it shouldn't be frozen again as this can affect the quality of the meat and/or taste. is this true, and if so, why? | ice crystals damage cell walls much like shoving pins through a balloon. thawing and refreezing something damages the item further, and in most cases, reduces it to just a mass of proteins with no real structure. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when frozen foods thaw, do they spoil faster than when fresh? | let's say you purchase two identical perishable foods, place one in the freezer and refrigerate the other. after 3 weeks in the refrigerator, the food spoils. then, you place the frozen food in the refrigerator. would that spoil faster than the originally refrigerated food? | i can't give a yes or no answer, since it depends on the food, the way it is frozen, etc... even when frozen, chemical reactions are still taking place, though very slowly. fats are oxidizing (rancid), vitamins are going to break down, and food is desiccating. if the freezing process creates ice crystals, which rupture cells, the food item will probably be more vulnerable to microorganisms, and mixing the contents of all the cells and different compartments within the cells will allow things to break down more quickly. on the other hand, the desiccation of the food will reduce bacterial activity, and freezing could kill some organisms within the food. so, my best guess is that yes, food will spoil more quickly, but i can't say how much faster. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the solar system revolves around the galaxy, does it mean that future human beings are going to observe other nebulas in different zones of the sky? | edit: front page, woah, thank you. hey kids listen up the only way to fully appreciate this meaningless journey through the cosmos that is your life is to fill it. fill it with all the knowledge and the beauty you can achieve. peace. | **short answer:** yeah! **long answer:** ... except the galactic orbit takes about 250 million years, so the last time the earth was on the other side of the galaxy was when the dinosaurs were doing whatever it is they do. i wouldn't count on humans surviving that long. but if you want a different sky, you don't have to wait that long! there are different nebulae and stuff popping up all the time - supernova are bright and leave remnants in the sky that have been observed and recorded for centuries by [chinese astronomers](_url_4_), [europeans](_url_1_), and possibly even [native americans!](_url_2_) on timescales a little bit longer than human lifetimes, the constellations shift! the stars in the visible constellations are all at different distances, have different brightnesses, [and are moving relative to the earth and each other,](_url_8_) changing constellations over thousands of years! for example: * [ursa major, the big dipper, might someday be renamed ursa saber, the big ass knife!](_url_3_) * [leo, the lion, used to look like leo, the sorta fucked up lion!](_url_7_) * [orion, the hunter, when viewed over thousands of years, becomes orion, the disco dancer!](_url_5_) my favorite fact though, is that polaris wasn't always the north star! due to the motion of stars and the precession of earth's axis, the star thuban (alpha draconis in the constellation draco) was the closest to the pole around the time the pyramids were built. [the northern shaft in the great pyramid may therefore point toward thuban's position in the sky at the time the pyramid was built,](_url_0_) allowing astronomers to calculate the age of the pyramids with [significant precision!](_url_6_) if confirmed, this bit of astronomy can inform modern archaeology and egyptology! of course, there's an obvious way to challenge this interpretation - over thousands of years, pretty much any line of site will have a star on it. maybe thuban is a coincidence? space! | 2,207 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.soulsofdistortion.nl/images/Star%20alignment%20Great%20Pyramid.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova",
"http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/archeo/outside/chaco/nebula.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txJH8RlIoXQ",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1054#Historical_records",
"https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Orion_2.gif",
"http://jha.sagepub.com/content/32/26/S1.extract",
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how would a quantum computer with qubits that are in superposition have greater computational ability compared to classical computers? | in quantum computing, many science articles for laymen describe how quantum computers have superior computational ability because their bits, called qubits, can be in a superposition between 0 and 1. however, the way i understand it, attempting to read these qubits causes their "wave function to collapse." in other words, these bits lose their superposition and become either a complete 0 or a complete 1. however, if we can make computers that perform operations on these bits without reading them, we can somehow make them do multiple computations at once (i think?). my questions are: 1. what are my misconceptions about how qubits work, as i'm sure there are some. 2. how does being in a superposition of two states allow greater computational power? at what types of problems would a quantum computer be better at solving compared to a classical computer? at what types of problems would they be the same. if possible, it would be great if someone could walk me through the logic behind solving a basic math problem the way an actual quantum computer would thanks in advance!! | so, one of the most common misconceptions about quantum computers is that they somehow work by checking all possible solutions at once. this is stated in almost every popularization about them. and it is wrong. the easiest way to see how this is wrong is searching in a black box setting. suppose you have a needle in a stack of n haystacks. so, classically you can get find this needle in n searches (just search the entire stack), and on average you need to do close to that many searches assuming you just go through and randomly pick new elements of your haystack each time to see if they are the needle. so in some sense, this algorithm takes time about n to find the needle. but, it turns out that for a quantum haystack you can, if you can place your haystack in superposition do this in time at most n^(1/2) times a constant. this is [grover's algorithm](_url_2_) and it is at the heart of many quantum algorithms. here's the thing though: if you could look for all solutions simultaneously, this wouldn't take time n^(1/2) but would be much faster. and it turns out that we can actually prove that one can't do better than grover's algorithm (that is one cant do better than n^(1/2) time times a constant, although the constant may be sustantially smaller than that you get as an upper in grover's algorithm), but would be able to do this much faster, although how much faster depends on what exactly you mean by search everything at once. so the upshot is that thinking about quantum algorithms in terms of doing everything at once isn't quite right. so, how should one think about them? one thing that helps is to forget particles and waves and all that fancy physics. just think of quantum mechanics as an abstract generalization of probability. in this context, probability involves numbers between 0 and 1. so we have some set of possible outcomes and we represent how likely each possible outcome is in a vector (that is an ordered list of numbers) and we insist that since exactly one outcome must happen, that the sum of the entries in our vector must sum to 1 and we can't have any values below 0. we call such a vector a stochastic vector. for example (1/5, 1/5, 3/5) is a stochastic vector because 1/5+1/5+3/5=1. but (1/2, 2/3) is not because 1/2 + 2/3 != 1. we can look at linear transformations take stochastic vectors and always output stochastic vectors. these linear transformations can be described as a set of matrices, called [stochastic matrices](_url_0_). these show up in a lot of areas in math that have to with probability. if you've ever worked with markov chains, you've likely encountered these matrices. so let's make a computing system with these. let's allow you to make some set of inputs involving easy to describe stochastic vectors and then make an algorithm that manipulates these vectors using some set of stochastic matrices, and then to give you an output takes the resulting vector and selects randomly from the allowed outputs at their respective weight. so, for example, if one had as one's final vector (1/4,1/4,1/2) then one would with probability 1/4 return "first entry", with probability return 1/4 return "second entry" and with probability return "third entry". then to get a good understanding of what the result actually is, you just run the algorithm a large number of times and keep track of what your outputs were. now, this is a little different from a usual algorithm, since it allows randomness, that is a usual algorithm involves no random chance but fixed processes at each point. to get back to the usual notion of algorithm just insist that your stochastic matrices only have entries that are 0 and 1 (this isn't quite true, but this is very close to true. there are some technical details i'm glossing over). now, it turns out if you do this, you get something which looks at first glance is more powerful than a regular algorithm. that is, that this can do things very quickly that a regular algorithm can't do quickly. but it is strongly believed by most experts today that in fact this isn't the case. it is believed that [bpp](_url_3_) (the set of things one can efficiently compute with some randomness allowed) is equal to p, the set of things one can efficiently compute, where by efficiently we mean one's algorithm terminates in time bounded by a polynomial of the length of the input. this isn't quite the same as the claim that we can't get anything new with stochastic matrices, but they are closely related. ok. so far we haven't had anything involving quantum mechanics come in. where's that come from? well, one of the things mathematicians love to do is to generalize. earlier we used probabilities that were only between 0 and 1, and this was necessary to get them to make sense. but what if we allow probabilities to instead of being between 0 and 1, let them be complex numbers? well, we're going to need to still make sense of what happens when we look at any vector and try to "measure" it. so to get this to make sense, we'll declare that for any complex number z, we'll convert it to a probability by looking at |z|^2. so, we'll make complex vectors where we insist that the sum of the squares of the absolute values of each entry sum to 1. this let's us make sense of them. so, now we want to look at what transformations we can do to those vectors. the matrices that turn out to take such vectors to each other are [unitary matrices](_url_1_). it turns out that this is essentially quantum mechanics. everything else, photons, neutrons, etc. is just put on top of this system. so now, to perform a computation, we input in some vector, we do some set of unitary transformations, and then we measure it by picking an entry by treating each entry of the vector as having a probability equal to the square of its absolute value. (there are a fair number of details i'm skipping over here, such as the fact that you can't really pick any unitary matrix just as you can't pick any stochastic matrix. you can't use them to smuggle in extra precomputation, or use unitary matrices that contain non-computable information or the like, and you need to be able to decide roughly midway in the process if you want to actually do something to only part of a vector, and it turns out that this is tough and not always doable. to make this precise one need to talk about quantum logic gates and require that you have a fast process for specifying your logic gates.) it turns out that the computations one can do with this are stronger than what one can do just with stochastic matrices as long as one is trying to do one's computations quickly, including doing clever things like factoring integers quickly. (note that this is again, conjectured but widely believed.) making this more precise, the set of things you can do with such a system which are bounded in time which is polynomial in the input should include things that you can't do on a classical computer with time bounded by the size of the input. now, why are these quantum computers faster? well, the rough idea is that they can do something the stochastic case cannot: they can have cancelation. a high probability in one entry can be canceled out by a negative probability in another entry when one applies a unitary matrix. and one can do clever things with this cancelation. if one wants to read a good book on quantum computing, i recommend scott aaaronson's "quantum computing since democritus". it isn't exactly a popularization, but is aimed at non experts who have a dose of math background (linear algebra and calculus, and some willingness to do actual exercises), but it isn't a textbook either. the other book i'd recommend is "the nature of computation" by cristopher moore and stephan mertens, which is the best book i know that discusses complexity theory and computability theory, although it assumes some math background. m & m is very long but after the first few chapters one can drop into any chapter you want and skip around. it covers a lot of different topics and is highly readable. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_matrix",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grover's_algorithm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPP_(complexity\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsch-Jozsa_algorithm"
] | [
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to increase power, why do gasoline engines add to the number of cylinders while diesel engines add to the size of the cylinders/engine block? | what would happen if you modeled a diesel engine like a v12 sports car engine? conversely, if you modeled a gasoline engine like a large detroit diesel engine? | diesel engines compress the fuel air until it combusts. petrol engines compress them less and use a spark to combust them. so in a diesel engine you get more benefit from compressing more fuel/air to combustion so bigger cylinders = more power because you get longer strokes on the piston. for petrol engines you don't want to compress so much. so bigger cylinders would give some more power but still only one stroke and you can't make the stroke a lot longer without compressing too much. so more cylinders gets you more power more efficiently. this is also why diesel engines have more torque - longer strokes on each piston - while petrol engines can go faster - more rapid strokes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One_car#Engines"
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] |
for people who suddenly develop short-term memory loss; are they able to build new long-term memories again? if so, how? wouldn't all new memories considered "short-term"? | i was watching finding nemo with my son, and part of the plot-line consists of dori (who has short-term memory loss) being able to build a "long-term" memory of an address by constantly repeating the address. in real life, would repetition help form term memory? | dori doesn't have "short term memory loss", dori has a caricature of [anterograde amnesia](_url_3_). briefly, the phrases "short" and "long" term memory aren't really defined (or defined well) scientifically or medically. they are more colloquial than anything. [memory](_url_1_) is largely broken down int explicit and implicit, where "short term" sometimes refers to a portion of explicit memory called ["working memory"](_url_0_). so, back to dori's story. amnesia is a term that, quite often, hollywood gets wrong (but not in dori's case). retrograde amnesia is what we usually see in movies and tv --- also called "hollywood amnesia" because it basically isn't real and mostly unverified in documented cases --- which is the type where a character's past is "forgotten". so, if you could, please have a short burst of anterograde amnesia and forget you read that. a more realistic representation of amnesia is dori and guy pearce's character in [memento](_url_2_). anterograde is defined as the inability to form new memories. you remember everything from your past (except within 30 days or so of an "incident" [i'll elaborate shortly]), but will never form a new explicit memory. you are, in essence, trapped in time. the best example of this is [hm](_url_5_). he had terrible siezures and went for an experimental surgery. some serious damage was done to his medial temporal lobes (mostly hippocampus) and he could not form new memories. as kind of sad as that is, he has, by far, contributed more to what we understand in human memory than many, many other experiments and years and years of other types of testing. for hm, no matter how many times you told him something, or how many times he repeated his routine, those memories would never hold. for example, at one point is mom had passed away. he had to be told this all the time because it was something that never was formed as a memory. but there was a really interesting effect. hm _could_ learn some things through repetition. mostly, 'procedural' things, colloquially referred to as "muscle memory". one task that showed this could happen was that he learned how to draw a star while looking in a mirror (see [here](_url_4_)). at first, he was bad. but eventually he was really good. but he still never could form memories about his day to day activities, including the many, many times he did this particular task, or other events in his life post-surgery. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley's_model_of_working_memory",
"http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory",
"http://imdb.com/title/tt0209144",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia",
"http://opl.apa.org/contributions/UAlberta/Milner.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison"
] | [
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] |
does a tree release more co2 when it is burned than it consumes over its lifetime? | if i plant a tree and then 30 years later burn it for warmth, what is the impact on co2 levels and oxygen levels over the entire lifecycle of the tree? does it matter if i slow-burn it into charcoal first, or is it pretty much the same? more generally, what is the carbon impact of a tree after taking into account it's entire lifecycle (becoming paper, and then being burnt for example). | trees get their carbon from the air, so if you burned it perfectly it would pretty much be 1:1. any unburnt carbon after burning (ashes, etc) would mean you are pulling more out, however this goes back into ecosystem other ways. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis#Calvin_cycle"
] | [
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can trees live indefinitely or do they eventually die from "old age"? | all living things eventually die, including trees. the oldest known tree is a bristlecone pine in california, which is 5 to 6 thousand years old. however, depending on your definition of a single individual, certain clonal species are known to be much older than this. a clonal stand of quaking aspen in utah is considered by some to be a single individual, which is over 80,000 years old. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are there ginger/very light brown hairs in a lot of men's beards? | even when a man has dark hair and no close relatives with the same hair colour, it still appears. it also only seems to appear when the beard is a certain length, i've not seen bits of ginger stubble. | beard hair is quite different to head hair; it is coarser, curlier and doesn’t fall out when we get older. comparatively little work has been done on the genetics of human hair colour, but it is believed that in order to have a ginger beard you must be a carrier for the recessive gene on chromosome 4. with two copies of this gene you will have ginger hair all over, but with just one, the hair on your head will be brown or auburn and your beard will be ginger. – bbc focus magazine, #199 february 2009 hope this answers your question, at least partially! | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can smoking cause cancer years after the smoker has quit? | i understand the risk of cancer caused by smoking decreases after cessation but never completely, how is this? | ok is your question why smoking causes cancer after years of cessation or are you asking why the risk of cancer from smoking decreases drastically after cessation? for the first question, cigarettes contain hundreds upon hundreds of carcinogens (stuff that damage your cells) that wreaks havoc in your lungs, mouth, etc (anywhere the smoke hits). it also increases your risk for cancer in other parts of your body such as the bladder, as those carcinogens travel in your blood to those organs. in a non smoker, cells in the body make lots of “mistakes” over the course of a persons lifetime naturally. one of the reasons why we age. however, when you smoke on top of that, you are introducing many more “mistakes” a cell can make when it is reproducing itself. these “mistakes” accumulate and remain with the smoker even if they stop smoking. one day, long after a person might have stopped smoking, a natural mistake can occur in one of those cells that push it over the threshold line causing cancer. fyi these “mistakes” i’m talking about are genetic mutations that occur in the cells, usually stem cells. with enough accumulation of these genetic mutations, a cell might not be able to function normally or worse not recognize that it is functioning abnormally. hope this helps. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[mathematics] what is the practical value of prime numbers and uncovering their properties? | securing your personal information when you buy something online is pretty practical. huge chunks of cryptography work because we understand prime numbers so well. the [rsa algorithm](_url_1_) functions because of primes and is secure because factoring is hard. outside cryptography, i don't know of any further use for primes. as for finding patterns, figuring out their distribution or something else, there's really no practical reason. this is good though. math is typically associated with application because of administrators thinking they need to justify teaching math by telling you it's practical. but application problems are the most useless part of a math course! math is much more than practical. math should be grouped in with art and music more than it is with science and engineering, because art is what most mathematicians do. it's just the art of reason, rather than the art of oil on canvas. doing math is intrinsically valuable, because it is fun and because it challenges humanity to better itself. see [lockhart's lament](_url_0_) for an overview of how our education system has effectively castrated math. take, for instance, the [prime number theorem](_url_2_). this says that you can expect the nth prime to be somewhere near the value n\*log(n). this, as far as i know, has no practical uses whatsoever. however, it is one of the greatest results in math because of the ideas that had to be explored and created in order to prove it. it forced us to think of primes in brand new ways, ways that we are still trying to grasp. the prime number theorem is the *starry night* of math. it's beautiful, it's complex, it was ahead of it's time, it challenges artists to do something new, we still learn things about it today, and it's nice to just sit and absorb it, even if you already know it. practicality is, nice. but it's not always interesting or substantive beyond some extrinsic use. a sign of an advanced civilization is that most of it's citizens have the opportunity to not worry about doing things because they are bound by the shackles of practicality, they are free to explore things that have unique intrinsic value. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.maa.org/external_archive/devlin/LockhartsLament.pdf",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wXB-V_Keiu8",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number_theorem"
] | [
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|
how does drinking alcohol affect bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract? | if there is a correlation, what is the effect on the health of the git? will digestion or any other normal bodily processes be affected? | if i remember correctly, the alcohol doesn't have massive negative effects on intestinal flora as most bacteria can metabolise the alcohol as an energy source. it does, however, effect the efficiency of the uptake of nutrients into the blood stream leading to the bacteria using more of the energy in the food than usual. any gi medics or microbiologists want to jump in and correct me? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is glass so chemically stable? why are there so few materials that cannot be handled or stored in glass? | here is a heuristic answer. glass is mostly made of silica, with silicon and oxygen atoms combined in a 1:2 ratio. suppose you looked at the heat of formation for the glass under standard temperature and pressure conditions. this is the energy difference between arranging the two elements in their native states, versus that in glass. approximately 1000 kj of energy is released for every 60 grams of glass you make. this is about the same energy as 250 grams of tnt and is a very large amount of energy compared to many other chemical reactions. this tells you that the set of chemical bonds in glass is exceptionally stable compared to those present in a block of silicon, and oxygen gas. this is one reason why glass is so inert. in order for glass to be reactive, it must combine with some other chemical such that the new set of chemical bonds is even more stable than the original set. we will explain next why this is hard to do, at least for glass. in order for this to happen, you must convince the glass that the silicon-oxygen bonds that are in it should be broken down and made into new bonds. if you look at the position of the oxygen atom in the periodic table, it is in the upper right hand side where all the very electronegative elements are. in the vicinity of oxygen is really, only one more element that can compete with it. that element is fluorine. sure enough, the silicon-fluorine bond is one of the most stable and strongest single bonds you can form in all of chemistry. so how might one dissolve glass? a common industrial etchant for glass is solution of hydrofluoric acid. the fluorine atoms will attack the glass, break open those silicon-oxygen bonds, and make silicon-fluorine bonds. this will volatize the glass and turn it into silicon tetrafluoride gas. the oxygen atoms in the glass react and turn into water by combining with the hydrogen atoms that are in the acidic solution. the ability to form si-o and si-f and bonds in a controlled way is arguably one of the most important steps required for the manufacturing of computer chips. but we'll leave that story for another askscience post. i also want to briefly point out some important advantages glass has and why it is so prevalent in a chemistry setting. in addition to its inertness, it is also transparent. this allows you to monitor what is happening inside the glassware. it's also robust and relatively easy to manufacture. the reasoning in this post is based on thermodynamics. however, there is another very important consideration in chemistry too, which is kinetics. it is possible to find many examples of chemical reactions that do not proceed even when you take into account all the relative bond energies and heats of reaction. in many of these cases, these reactions are hindered. for example, there might be an atom that is blocking the way towards some chemical reaction. that atom has to move out of the way before things can proceed further. you want better fuel cells for the future? solve the extremely difficult kinetics problem that involves the chemical reactions at the anodes and cathodes. generally speaking, each reaction has its own unique set of kinetic barriers. this is one reason why acquiring an understanding of reaction mechanisms and their accompanying motifs is so important in chemistry. it is one foundation for rationalizing how atoms and molecules behave. ---- *edit*: some followup comments are getting buried. that glass is thermodynamically stable with respect to its elements does not imply that glass is a robust and inert material. there are other considerations too. the structure of glass consists of silica units connected together in a vast molecular network solid. this already makes it very hard for molecules to diffuse into it and weaken its structural integrity. hf is not the only substance that can etch glass. strong bases like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide do that as well. an alkali base is a key ingredient in "base baths" used to clean laboratory glassware. i chose to reference hf so i could make a brief reference to the periodic table, silicon etching, the fact that the si-f single bond is very strong, but also, to give a nod to some breaking bad fans who will undoubtedly recognize that a bathtub is not a suitable container for hydrofluoric acid. it's not often such an opportunity springs up in askscience! jokes aside, small quantities of hf can be stored in polyethylene bottles. for those wondering about metal containers, in a laboratory setting they are passivated against fluorine attack via controlled exposure to fluorine gas. the metal reacts with the fluorine to form a thin passivating layer of metal fluoride. platinum and nickel are examples. for those working in the si etching industry -- the fact that many silicon etchants are so harsh has not been lost to chemists. the race is still on to find etchants that work under milder conditions. ---- *edit 2*: i was just told that "a redditor liked your comment so much, they gave you a month of reddit gold. shiny!" -- thank you so much! i just caught a big mistake which i've corrected above. here is the detailed calculation of the tnt equivalents that i used. the heat of formation of sio*_2_* is -911 kj / mol, which i've rounded to -1000 kj / mol just for ease of calculation. 1 mole of sio*_2_* is about 28 + 16 + 16 = 60 grams. so it takes about 1000 kj to make 60 grams of glass. now, burning 1 g of tnt releases about 4 kj of energy, using [tnt equivalents](_url_2_). so 250 g of tnt releases 1000 kj of energy. i originally wrote down 0.25 g, which is off by a factor of 1000. i wanted to answer some more chemistry questions here. even though the si-f bond is strong, it is not indestructible. as a result, the volatile product from glass etching, sif*_4_*, is still chemically reactive. among the single bonds, i believe the si-f bond is the strongest. it takes about 580 kj / mol to break it. you'll have to start looking at double and triple bonds to find something stronger. for example, the triple bond between the carbon and oxygen atom in the molecule carbon monoxide is 1070 kj /mol. the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms of nitrogen gas is 945 kj / mol. the chemistry of these small molecules is very important. nitrogen fixation requires splitting this nitrogen-nitrogen triple bond, and in fact a number of nobel prizes have been awarded to work related to ammonia synthesis which requires breaking this triple bond. ---- *edit 3*: someone suggested that i post a tldr and an eli5 version. [here it is](_url_1_). ---- *edit 4*: more information about glasses in [this comment](_url_0_) by /u/gergek. ---- *edit 5*: thank you anonymous redditor for the second bit of reddit gold! i'm glad you liked this askscience post. see you around reddit! | 2,455 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1894b8/why_is_glass_so_chemically_stable_why_are_there/c8d3cv4",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1894b8/why_is_glass_so_chemically_stable_why_are_there/c8d0ern",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_equivalent",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_change_of_formation",
"http://www.acros.com/MyBrochure/Organosilanes_Brochure_EEM.pdf",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmktRTHL1NA&feature=youtube_gdata_player"
] | [
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|
can an egg hard boil by hot air temperature? | we know you can fry an egg on a hot sidewalk, but if you left a shelled egg sitting in extremely hot temps, would it be hard boiled? (i know hard boiled isn't the correct term, since there is no water involved, but i can't think of another word) | the reason we boil eggs (and double-boil chocolate and boil other things that don't need to get wet) is because it prevents us from over heating the very thermally dense egg. it takes time for the heat to transfer to the inside of the egg and cook the middle. when it's in boiling water, it can't get hotter than the boiling temp of water and ruin the outer layers of egg while undercooking the inside. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is seawater salty and does the salt content of the change from ocean to ocean? | why is seawater salty? does the salinity of seawater change from ocean to ocean? has seawater always been salty or did it start off as fresh water? if so, is the saline content expected to continue to rise? | replenishment of water in the oceans comes in large part from surface runoff and groundwater flows. (groundwater flows from aquifer into ocean depend largely on dissolved solids concentration differences, similar to osmosis, sometimes it flows backwards) that water has has a significant amounts of solids ("salts") dissolved into it. this is basically solids washed off the land by rain and rivers. that joins with the oceans. that on its own doesn't do it. despite the dissolved solids content, it's still really fresh water. the concentration of salts isn't high enough. the next step is that ocean water is constantly evaporating. water leaves the ocean as vapor, forming clouds and eventually rain storms that happen over land. this leaves the salt behind, increasing the concentration of salts in the oceans. this has been happening for as long as there have been oceans on earth, and this is why they are all very salty. "different oceans" have different concentrations of salt based on the jet stream, the gulf stream, and other major ocean currents. these dictate the movement of water on earth, and thus the areas that receive the highest or lowest concentrations of salt. source: i am an environmental engineer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can some spores and bacteria survive in 100% alcohol, but not at 70% alcohol? | isopropyl and ethanol sanitizers are diluted to around 70% alcohol-level to kill most bacterias, but at 100% alcohol, it is not nearly as effective. why? | pure alcohol triggers defense mecanisms in bacteria that cause them to close their pores, preventing the alcohol to enter and ravage them. 70% alcohol is the "golden" ratio in the sense that it fools bacteria into thinking there's water (the remaining 30% is in fact water) so that they keep their pores open, while maintaining the highest alcohol concentration to dissolve them from the inside out. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if air is made up of 78% nitrogen and only 21% oxygen, why do all living creatures need oxygen in order to live and not nitrogen? | oxygen is much more reactive than nitrogen. you can get energy out of combining oxygen with carbon to form carbon dioxide, or by combining it with hydrogen to get water. carbon makes for a great building block for life since it is so versatile in its bonding. life needs a lot of complexity which carbon facilitates better than any other common element. when you have a carbon-based life form it makes sense that it'll be using carbon molecules like glucose or lipids for energy storage, as those are also carbon-based molecules. you can't combine those with nitrogen and get energy out of the process. just because you have a lot of something doesn't mean that it's useful. | 34 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe",
"http://84d1f3.medialib.glogster.com/media/42/426e04624ce94fea89dd70aa1d3aca752bc2402f04eda6a0b02713097e60197e/electron-transport-chain-aerobic-cellular-respiration-000-png.png",
"http://www3.syngenta.com/country/uk/SiteCollectionImages/LearningZone/KS345_new/Chemistry/ISE/photo1.png"
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|
why don’t the largest stars have impossibly short lifespans (a few millennia or less)? | i’ve been fascinated with the most massive stars for some time, and i was looking at their life spans. they didn’t seem as short as they should have. i went ahead and plotted a bunch of stellar lifespans. below 3 solar masses (m☉), they seemed to follow approximately the formula 12gyr/m☉³, but between 3m☉ and 30m☉, it seems to transition to something much less extreme. above 30m☉, the formula appears to be closer to 100myr*m☉²′³. going from the 3rd power to 2/3’s power seems like a lot. is this transition real, or am i doing something wrong? is this caused by convection currents carrying additional hydrogen to the core to be burned? is it the eddington limit and mass loss preventing the stars from shining as brightly as they otherwise would? | larger stars ( this runaway radiation pressure is also responsible for the eddington limit, beyond which a star will blow off mass, as you mentioned. as far as we can tell, this sets an upper limit for main-sequence stars at about 150 m☉. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do duster cans (keyboard cleaners, etc.) get cold when you use them upside down? | they seem to almost ice up as well as icing whatever surface the spray comes in contact with. | the "gas" (often difluoroethane) is chosen specifically because it becomes a liquid under relatively little pressure within the can. scenario 1 (not quite what you asked): when you open the can's valve right-side-up, you release the gaseous difluoroethane at the top of the can. the gas expands under pressure and cools off in accordance with the ideal gas law pressure * volume = mass of gas * adjusted constant * temperature. so, increase volume, you must drop temperature. scenario 2 (what you asked): when upside down, you release the liquid in the can. the liquid does not really expand any significant amount. this liquid can be thought of similarly to liquid nitrogen: it is a liquid that cannot exist at room temperature and pressure because it's boiling point at standard pressure is much lower than room temp. as such, it begins to boil when it is released from the can. but boiling takes energy, and this energy (think: [heat of vaporization](_url_0_)) comes in the form of temperature from the surrounding. so as it boils, the liquid cools until it reaches the equilibrium that is it's boiling point at the pressure of the room (about -25 degrees c). it will continue to slowly boil as energy from the room enters the cup in the form of heat. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization"
] | [
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] |
do all stars have some sort of planetary system? | if not, then how frequent is there a star with planets, and what circumstances cause the star to be that way? | no, not all stars have planets around them. there are population i and population ii stars, and theoretically population iii stars (non observed yet to my knowledge). pop i stars are like our sun. they are stars formed with heavy elements in the cloud they formed from and thus they can have planets. pop ii stars tend to be older stars that formed with much less heavy elements. they are much less likely to have formed planets with them. due to the lack of heavy elements they will lack earth like planets. they could have gas planets around them though so i guess they could have a sort of planetary system. pop iii stars are theoretical stars that were made with basically no heavy elements at all. the original stars. with advancements in technology astronomers hope to be able to find some of these stars, but since they were the original stars they will far from us. there are a lot of other factors that go into having a solar system. did the initial cloud have rotation? does it have a lot of heavy metals? is it a binary system? hope this helps give you an idea of what is out there. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1301.0842",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1005.3084v2"
] | [
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if dragonflies see almost 360 degrees how come they don't go blind looking at the sun? | ...and most other insects for that matter. | first a side note about insect vision, many insects, including dragonflies and damselflies, have ocellus. these are single lens eyes and are located on the top of the insect's head. so many different insects have "eyes" point up at the sun. to answer your question: i'm not sure. [scholarpedia](_url_0_) makes a brief mention of changes in the nerve synapses with changes in light intensity meaning the nerves change the signal that they send to the ganglia (one of the insects brain's). this [book](_url_1_)(page 426) mentions that the pigments change in adjacent ommatidia so, i believe, that the amount of light entering any given lens is diminished, decreasing the intensity of the light. i'll rummaged through my general entomology text book when i get to work and see if it has any thing else helpful to add. edit: the text book didn't say much more except that the light sensitivity of ommaitdia isn't that great due to their small diameter (nocturnal insects have a slightly different eye physiology to help compensate for this) so that may aid in their ability to deal with direct sunlight. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Function_of_compound_eye",
"https://books.google.com/books?id=rYI4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=ommatidia+bright+light&source=bl&ots=QK2P67oWAr&sig=IGBCqp-tnwwsgMjZVg7_qkm1VFo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBWoVChMIvObDwY_ExwIVAZoeCh2SnAzx#v=onepage&q=ommatidia%20bright%20light&f=false"
] | [
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did all winged insects evolve from a single ancestor? or has flight evolved independently in several taxonomic families/genera of insects? | is the anatomy and physiology of flying insects more or less the same, and hence traceable to a common ancestor? i know insects have been around for a very long time, but is seems as though the mechanics of flight are quite different between a butterfly and a dragonfly. | this question has been asked before, but the answer amounted to 'probably'. with any luck someone can shed light this time, but here is a link for reference: _url_4_ this is also an interesting point: _url_0_ a lot of insects share common mouthparts, but over time they have evolved very very differently (the wiki has a great diagram). strong evidence for (more recent) common ancestry. which brings me to the point that go back far enough and most things share a common ancestry, even if it is an ancient ancient single celled organism just after when life evolved. so i guess in many senses (being a pedant like i am) the answer to the first part of your question is a yes, but perhaps not in the sense you intended to ask. for reference/interest: _url_3_ so all life on earth can be traced back to one organism 3.8 billion years ago. also found this as a decent read discussing the insect flight origins: _url_1_ which mentions: the rhyniogatha hirsti is the oldest known insect and emerged about 400 million years ago and is thought to be winged and a major ancestor to most insects. this would certainly be a potential answer to your question, or at least would be quite close to any possible answer. source: _url_2_ unfortunately the full article is locked, but the abstract tells enough. hope this helps. not my field and hopefully someone more specialised can look over this and provide a little clarity. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent#Insect_mouthparts",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_insects#Origin_of_insect_flight",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6975/full/nature02291.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2cknxy/do_most_flying_insects_share_a_common_ancestor_or/"
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why do we feel headaches in our heads? | i know that sounds like a silly question but i was contemplating it the other day. i have heard that we don't have sensory nerves in our brain, which is why they can do brain surgery on people who are still semiconscious for example. so why then, if our brain is unable to feel pain in itself, do we feel like when we get a headache that our brain itself is pounding or in some way under pressure or in pain? | posted this about 2 days ago. it depends on the cause. not all headaches have the same source of pain. but the basic answer to your question is that other structures in and around the skull do have sensory innervation pressure, sinus pressure, vasospasm, vasodilatation, hypertension, pain from nearby structures (eg deep eye pain), infection with meningeal irritation, muscle spasm. these can all produce 'headache' in varying circumstances. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does wounds and skin lesions itch when they heal? | feels like evolution failed here. i mean, if you scratch it will take longer time to heal. is there any pro's to this? just got a tattoo and it reminded me. annoys me as hell. | inflammatory response involves increased permeability of capillaries (to allow more immune cells to reach the vulnerable area). pooling of fluid at the site causes the swelling you observe. this swelling pushes against the nerve endings, causing the awkward tingling sensation. so in a sense it's sort of an unavoidable side effect. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could a right handed person be taught to use their left hand as proficiently as their right hand (and vice versa)? or is it hardwired into our brain & unchangeable? | taught? i can't say, given the option to use your dominant hand it's extremely hard to not use it. forced? yes. it's been policy at various times in history and in various parts of the world to punish children that use their left had to write or draw and to force them to work right handed. while this hasn't worked out very well for many left handed people, it has been the case that left handed people have ended up being able to write and draw well with their right hand. if the creation of art through craft skills is a demonstration of proficiency then you also have examples such as [this man](_url_0_ "video, 48seconds, application of gold leaf") who was a right handed sculptor, jeweller, and glass blower prior to an accident which caused a brachial plexus injury that resulted in the complete loss of motor control and sensation in his right arm. he was able to retrain to become a proficient one armed left handed glass blower and teacher. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6744443433397372393"
] | [
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|
is it possible for a right handed person to become proficient or even skillful at using their left hand in areas like writing or using a mouse? | i know people who are ambidextrous and things of that nature; however, i have never heard of someone becoming an adept left hand writer by choice. | i managed swap the opposite way. i grew up using my left hand for the mouse however ended up having to switch over due to a moulded tracker ball by dad bought. i eventually i got used to it and now i prefer my right hand for mouse and playing guitar however everything else is all lefthanded. i am definitely not ambidextrous but with a little time i think anyone can switch over. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does smoking impair our sense of smell? | the receptors of smell consist of a small area of neuroepithelial cells (the olfactory mucosa) that are located along the superior and middle turbinates and upper part of the nasal septum. the surface of the epithelium has a mucous layer secreted by submucosal bowman's glands. within its secretions are immunoglobulins a and m, secretory component, lactoferrin, and lysozyme; these help prevent pathogens from gaining intracranial entry. also present are odorant binding proteins that facilitate the transport of odorants to receptors and are thought to remove odorants from the receptor area once activation has occurred. **[translation: special proteins bind molecules in your nose and carry them to nerves.]** olfactory chemoreceptor cells are primary neurons that project directly to the brain. new olfactory receptors are formed repeatedly during adulthood. the receptor neurons number approximately 6 to 10 million in each nasal cavity and are flask shaped with a dendritic pole terminating in a dilated knob from which cilia extend into the overlying mucus. the receptors on the cilia bind odorants. the axons of the receptor neurons travel through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and terminate in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb. these axons constitute the olfactory nerve. neural pathways subsequently project to the olfactory cortex, orbital frontal cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus. **[translation: certain nerves bind certain molecules; when a specific nerve is activated by a specific molecule, the brain interprets it as a certain smell.]** mammalian olfactory epithelium maintains the ability to replace olfactory neurons lost via injury. olfactory receptor cells are directly exposed to the external environment and its dangers, including injury from infection, inflammation, and noxious chemical agents. this exposure results in regular turnover of receptor cells via apoptosis, a programmed process in which activation of intrinsic enzymes leads to cell death. **[translation: the nerves in your nose and the cells around those nerves can be damaged by infections, trauma, or chemical damage.]** exposure to toxic agents, tobacco, and drugs may cause olfactory dysfunction: methacrylate vapors, ammonia, benzene, cadmium dust, chromate, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, nickel dust, solvents, and sulfuric acid are some of the agents implicated in occupational exposure situations. welders working in confined spaces have been found to have decreased olfactory sensation, though the cause for this is unknown and not related to any change in neurologic or neuropsychological test performance. **[translation: tobacco smoke contains many harmful chemicals which damage the nerves in your nose, and can decrease your ability to smell.]** quoted from *_url_0_* sources: moran dt, rowley jc 3rd, jafek bw. electron microscopy of human olfactory epithelium reveals a new cell type: the microvillar cell. brain res 1982; 253:39. moran dt, rowley jc 3rd, jafek bw, lovell ma. the fine structure of the olfactory mucosa in man. j neurocytol 1982; 11:721. mellert tk, getchell ml, sparks l, getchell tv. characterization of the immune barrier in human olfactory mucosa. otolaryngol head neck surg 1992; 106:181. kinammon s, getchell tv. sensory transduction in olfactor receptor neurons and gustatory receptor cells. in: smell and taste in health and disease, getchell tv, bartoshuk lm, doty rl, et al (eds), raven press, new york 1991. p.145. morrison ee, costanzo rm. morphology of the human olfactory epithelium. j comp neurol 1990; 297:1. robinson am, conley db, shinners mj, kern rc. apoptosis in the aging olfactory epithelium. laryngoscope 2002; 112:1431. amoore je. effects of chemical exposure in olfaction in humans. in: toxicology of nasal passages, barrow cs (ed), hemisphere publishing co, washington, dc 1986. p.155. antunes mb, bowler r, doty rl. san francisco/oakland bay bridge welder study: olfactory function. neurology 2007; 69:1278. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"uptodate.com"
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is the pain in a headache actually from the brain, or does it just feel like it? | brain tissue itself has no pain receptors, so the pain from headaches comes from areas that do have pain receptors: the cranium (the periosteum of the skull), muscles, nerves, arteries and veins, subcutaneous tissues, eyes, ears, sinuses and mucous membranes. the lack of pain receptors in the brain tissue itself is what permits awake brain surgery as seen in [this video](_url_0_). | 29 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFXJtOpV22s"
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|
when i look at certain stars at night, why do some of them appear to be blinking and others don't? | when i look at most stars on a clear night, many of them always appear to be "blinking" or "flashing" almost. i can still see them just as well as ones that don't seem to be but what causes that? | i think what happens is, is that light from the star refracts from particles in the atmosphere causing the light to be distorted and appears to flicker. i think this is the case because when you're on a hot day looking into the distance, the image you see seems unclear and waves almost. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the smallest possible size of a planet? | one of the criteria for a planet is that it's big enough that gravity pulls it into a spherical shape (hydrostatic equilibrium). depending on what it's made of, this happens at about 200 kilometers in radius. this is known as the [potato radius](_url_0_). | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1004/1004.1091.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-37b"
] | [
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|
why do all our planets orbit around the equator of the sun and not in a polar orbit sometimes? | i know that there is a dwarf planet with an inclination of 44 degrees (erees) but all the inclinations are very small. there are a lot of planets and statistically its seems improbable that they would all have such similar planes that they orbit on. if jupiter has moons in polar orbits then why doesn't the sun have planets in polar orbits. now that i think about it why are saturn's rings all on the same plane? | the planets all formed from a thin disc of gas, which is why they're all in the same plane and generally rotate the same way they orbit. once you get something into a polar orbit, it will actually be quite happy to stay up there - there's only weak forces to flatten things - but it's just that things *started* in equatorial orbits and you need to have some scattering event to send them upwards. as for why things tend to form in flat rings & discs, this is basically what happens if you have (a) angular momentum, and (b) some way of dissipating kinetic energy. everything tends to have angular momentum just because it would be an outrageous coincide for a blob of gas to have exactly zero spin. and gas can shed its kinetic energy through gas collisions that emit radiation. so it settles down into the lowest energy configuration that still conserves angular momentum, which is a disc or ring. note that if you *don't* have a good way to get rid of energy, you can stay puffed up in a ball for longer. dwarf planets don't really bump into each other or anything, so they tend to maintain their energy and can go wherever they like once they've been kicked up. similarly, stars don't really bump into each other or get rid of kinetic energy, so if you have a ball of stars, it tends to stay as a ball, which is why elliptical galaxies exist. this is also why dark matter can be in a big ball too. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can't oils go stale inside of your body? | there are a lot of oils (flax oil, fish oil, etc) that require refrigeration, and even those that don't tend to go stale after several months at room temperature. my understanding is that stale oil is due to the oxidation of fatty acids, which is promoted by heat and light. but if you consume those oils, couldn't they just become stale within you? i'd imagine the fatty acids would get stored in your fat, and just sit there at body temperature, oxidizing quickly. which would pretty much be like eating stale oil, right? | only about 1.5% of the oxygen in your blood is free, that is, not bound to hemoglobin. while heat and light definitely speed up the process, without oxygen there is no process. after digestion fats are broken down into free fatty acids (ffas). these fatty acids are what can be oxidized and in doing so have their energy released. ffas are transported to other body tissues via the blood by means of lipoprotein carriers such as [chylomicrons](_url_0_). oxidation of fatty acids is almost exclusively done in the mitochondria, and when the body wants to store fats it converts them into triacylglycerols (tags) and stores them in lipid droplets in adipose tissue. there isn't really much chance of oxidation or degradation of fatty acids in any of these places, as chylomicrons protect them from our bodily lipases, and adipose tissue does the same thing, while also keeping them in an anhydrous and oxygen-free environment. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chylomicron"
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why can you eat some oils, but not others? | vegetable oil vs motor oil, what's the difference, but what makes them both oils? | an oil is basically a liquid mass of hydrocarbons. motor oil consists primarily of alkanes, comprising of chains of carbon with hydrogen atoms bonded to them, typically with a length around that of octane (8 carbons). plant oils consist of triglycerides; a glyceride group with three fatty acids bound to it. the fatty acids are typically of a length of 16-18 carbon atoms and, most importantly, have a carboxylic acid in one end. the carboxylic acid is essential for digesting the oil as coenzyme a reacts here, and during beta oxidation the oxidation of the fatty acid will happen on the beta position of the fatty acid. this oxidation would not be possible in lieu of a carboxylic acid. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how could mars have an oxygen rich atmosphere so long ago? | the way i understand it is that oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis. [it took bacterial life a long time to saturate our atmosphere with oxygen](_url_0_), so how did mars get one so quickly after the formation of the solar system? | are you asking about the creation of elemental oxygen in stars or the chemical changes that result in free diatomic oxygen gas? | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_oxygenation_event"
] | [] | [
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how many holes does a straw have? | the word "hole" has no precise mathematical meaning. * a straw is a two-dimensional manifold (with boundary) of genus 0. for *closed* surfaces, the genus typically describes what we most often colloquially mean by "hole". so in that sense a straw has 0 holes. (this is the same reason a sphere has 0 holes.) * a straw is homeomorphic to s^(1) x [0, 1], i.e., the product of a circle and a compact interval. so its homology groups are {**z**, **z**, 0, 0, ... }, and so many mathematicians may just say there is 1 hole. * the boundary of a straw as a manifold is the disjoint union of two circles. so in that sense a straw has 2 holes. take your pick, depending on your interpretation of "hole". | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are you still briefly conscious after being decapitated? | from what i can tell it is all speculation, is there any solid proof? | did the nazi's perform any tests regarding this subject? edit: why the downvotes? this is a good and legitimate question. the nazi's both killed large numbers of people and were very scientific with all their experiments and kept meticulous records. like it or not, we have a lot of good scientific data from them regarding some of these more gruesome topics. | 1,582 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0016514",
"http://www.damninteresting.com/lucid-decapitation/",
"http://www.guillotine.dk/Pages/30sek.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j3qll/at_what_point_does_a_chicken_with_its_head_cut/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/g5ibc/if_you_were_decapitated_would_you_be_conscious/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mdzmv/if_someone_were_instantly_and_cleanly_decapitated/",
"http://castroller.com/Podcasts/StuffYouShould/2273243",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o059P5FHw-4",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillotine#Living_heads",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/extrasensory-perceptions/lucid-decapitation.htm",
"http://msgboard.snopes.com/cgi-bin/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=get_topic;f=36;t=000797;p=1",
"http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/thefrenchrevolution/a/dyk10.htm",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=vg01Q1BI4WM#t=1962s",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1289148/",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_of_useful_consciousness",
"http://www.transhuman.de/videoed15.htm",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSrIkUXwsNk",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillotine",
"HowStuffWorks.com",
"http://podcasts.howstuffworks.com/hsw/podcasts/sysk/2011-04-26-sysk-decapitation.mp3"
] | [
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is it possible to remain conscious for a brief time after being decapitated? | my question stems from the "living heads" of the french revolution. _url_0_ and i'm wondering about the scientific possibility asked in the title. | there is some [evidence](_url_0_) to support that this is true. in theory, cells do not immediately run out of oxygen, nutrients, or energy so a cell can continue to function for some, very short, period of time. decapitate a snake, and the mouth will continue to bite [video](_url_1_). tl;dr - yes, for a very short time. | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillotine#Living_heads"
] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0022127",
"http://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2013/aug/15/decapitated-copperhead-snake-bites-itself-video"
] | [
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how long could a lactating woman survive on only her own milk? | assuming she also has access to water for hydration, would the nutrients in breastmilk keep being produced, or would her body "use them up"? | she would starve to death probably more quickly than her friend joe blow who is stranded on the little ocean island with only one palm tree beside her. it takes the body energy to create milk. energy is always lost in any energy transactions - laws of thermo-dynamics. thus the energy her body spent to make that milk is greater than the chemical energy contained within the milk. she will get back whatever portion of the spent energy that isn't lost if she drinks it, but energy is still lost. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if visible photons are absorbed by atoms and then re-emmited at the same wavelength, why can light not pass through dense matter? | for example, if you shine a light on a concrete block which appears grey, why don't photons travel through the block by this re-emmission of absorbed photons? | light can pass through dense matter. it's just a matter of how likely it is for each photon to get through unscattered and unabsorbed. as a photon passes through just about anything besides vacuum, there is a finite chance that it will be scattered (direction changed) and/or absorbed. the thicker the material, the longer the "gauntlet" it has to pass through before it makes it out the other side, but the effects are typically exponential with thickness and strongly dependent on wavelength and material. if you were to polish your piece of concrete down to a thin enough layer, then some light would get through it. this is true even of metals (which transmit visible light very poorly). in our lab, it is commonplace to use glass with various thicknesses of metal deposited on them to control the power of a laser beam. we call them neutral density filters. if you are interested in these, check out this page: _url_0_ . these are some of the many tools we use to get stuff done. thorlabs is like the wal-mart of optics, but what they make is good enough most of the time. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://thorlabs.com/navigation.cfm?Guide_ID=21"
] | [
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why does a room become dark when you turn off the lights? | where do all of the photons go? are they absorbed? furthermore, if all of the surface area in a room was covered with mirrors, would turning off the lights not affect the brightness of the room? | they are absorbed by the walls. if the room was covered in perfect mirrors then it would stay illuminated, but no mirror is perfect. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
after seeing several high definition photos of moons and planets, there is a large amount of visible craters. if the earth was devoid of all life, would earth's surface show just as many craters? | probably not, and that's because there's several things that limit the number of visible craters on the earth. the first is, as you note, life. and more to the point, vegetation. that can hide features. but there's a few more. unlike something like the moon, the earth has atmosphere that can reduce the size of objects before they hit the surface, or cause them to not reach the surface at all (like the [meteor in russia](_url_0_)). earth also has oceans, and an impact in the ocean may not leave a crater, and the oceans now can hide craters from impacts that did occur. finally, there's two factors that can result in the craters that do exist being short-lived. the earth has both significant weathering and plate tectonics, both of which can effectively remove craters given enough time. this last one has also been used to determine which of the moons in the outer solar system may have oceans under the surface, as a smooth surface in the solar system indicates one that's only recently formed (or recently reformed). so without life, we'd see more craters, but we wouldn't expect to see as many as elsewhere because the earth has several other factors at work. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelyabinsk_meteor",
"http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Geology_of_Venus"
] | [
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|
why is it that prehistoric animals seem to be much larger than animals today? | i'm by no means a biologist so this might be an incorrect assumption on my part but it seems that, on the whole, prehistoric animals (dinosaurs, the megalodon, etc.) had the potential to be enormous by today's standards. is there a reason for that? | well, for one thing, consider that the largest animal that has ever lived (according to all fossil evidence currently known) is alive today: the blue whale. there have been cycles of evolution on the planet, based on global climate trends and the creatures that lived on the planet. sometimes, there is massively abundant food for very long periods of time, and increasing body mass helps a creature avoid predation. sometimes, food is scarce or there are other factors that push body size down. global climate trends can have a long-term effect on animal size. something you should consider, though, is not getting caught up in a bias you might not realize. superlarge animals might not have actually been all that common in the past, compared to smaller animals. they almost certainly weren't. but really big animals leave really big skeletons behind, and what's easier to survive and be found, a t-rex skull or a lizard skull? just like although an individual human is much larger than a termite, the total weight of termites on the planet is approximately 10 times more than the total weight of humans, there were a very large number of small creatures on the planet during the age of the dinosaurs. total mass of the small creatures was probably way higher than those of the dinosaurs, but they're less likely to be preserved and much harder to find ...and dinosaurs are way more awesome. still, there's something to be said for the arrival of hunting human ancestors on the planet. there have been many very large creatures hunted off the face of the planet by we hominids. we're really, really good at killing things, and we've managed to kill off a lot of really big creatures, even before we invented guns. we've probably been killing large game fairly effectively for at least a couple hundred thousand, if not million, years. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do things on the stove appear to steam more when i remove them from the heat? | maybe it's just my perception, but i feel like whenever i am cooking, i notice that more steam is visibly coming off of my food after i remove it from the heat. is that a real thing or just the way it looks? | this is a real thing. the condensation of water (which is what steam is) depends on two things in this scenario: the concentration of water in the air, and the temperature of the air. what's happening is that when your stove is still on, the air above the pot is quite warm. this prevents the water from condensing, even though the concentration of water might be quite high. when you turn the stove off, the air above the stove cools much more rapidly than the pot does. as the pot stays warm, it continues to release water (reaching the same concentration) but since the air is at a lower temperature, it cannot keep the water 'dissolved.' as a result, it condenses. this effect is also why in [steaming tea kettles](_url_0_) there is a gap between the tip of the spout and where you can start to see the steam condense. the concentration of water close to the spout is relatively similar to the concentration a few inches/centimeters away, but the temperature is much higher closer to the spout. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://crazykitcheninventions.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Steam-kettle-630x400.jpg"
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are hybrid cars actually worse for the environment? | i've heard a lot of different things about hybrid cars and their batteries actually causing a larger environmental impact than conventional cars. is there any evidence suggesting this is true? | this question gets asked a lot so i'm now starting a megapost i can just copy/paste into each new thread. feel free to ask any questions and i'll address them here. [here is an article estimating the life cycle ghg emissions of phevs with lithium-ion batteries](_url_0_). they estimate, given the current very ghg-intensive electricity production in much of the us, a 32% reduction in ghg emissions over the vehicle's lifetime. non-plug-in hybrids benefit less; their ghg emissions are ~25% that of a standard vehicle. it is true that with plug-in electric cars you move the emissions from your car to another location. however, even with transmission and charging loses, this method is much more efficient at energy generation than gasoline engines. the current us electricity mix is 44.9% coal, 23.4% natural gas, 20.3% nuclear, 6.9% hydro, 3.6% other renewable, and 1% petroleum. given the average emissions per kwh from coal (0.95kgco2/kwh) and natural gas (.66kg/kwh) this means that 0.58kg of co2 is emitted per kwh, [a figure also seen here](_url_4_). burning gasoline emits 2.32kg/l of co2. let's compare the nissan leaf, which has a range of 100 miles on a 24kwh battery, to the similarly-sized nissan versa, which gets 35mpg. producing 24kwh of electricity will, in the usa, emit 13.9kg of co2. compare this to the emissions of 25kg from the 2.85 gallons the versa uses to go the same distance. from the article i posted earlier, an upper limit of 670mj of energy is required to produce 1kwh of li-ion battery, resulting in 108kg/kwh-capacity or 2,592kg/leaf - equal to the difference in emissions over 23,300 miles. (_url_3_)[this article] estimates the ghg emissions of lithium-ion batteries at 250kg/kwh, an amount equal to 54,100 miles of driving. as electricity production becomes less carbon-intensive these break-even distances will decrease. modern recycling efforts, explained in great detail [here](_url_1_), can recover 80% percent of the material in modern lithium-ion batteries. this is slightly less than the average for all parts of a car - [84%](_url_2_). retired car batteries can also be [reused in stationary storage applications](_url_5_). | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://solar.gwu.edu/index_files/Resources_files/LCA_for_PHEVs.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775307026195",
"http://www.erie.pa.us/pdf/recycling/FactSheetAutoRecyclingFacts.pdf",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es103607c",
"http://205.254.135.7/electricity/annual/",
"http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/energystorage/pdfs/53799.pdf"
] | [
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how come mosquitos do not spread blood borne diseases like hiv and hep c? | mosquitos do not inject blood when they bite. just saliva. so for most blood borne viruses like hiv, the virus can not replicate in the mosquitos digestive system, and never makes it into its saliva. malaria on the other hand is essentially designed for transmission by mosquitos. it grows and reproduces in the mosquitos digestive system and move into the mosquitos salivary system to be injected the next time it feeds. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can trees die of old age, yet successive cuttings of that tree can propagate indefinitely? | the reason the trees die is not because of old age, but because they outgrow their ability to successfully deliver the nutrients they need to sustain themselves because of sheer bulk. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are we smaller than atoms when compared to the milky way or observable universe? | we are about ten billion times the height of an atom. the galaxy is over a billion billion times the height of us. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_04.html",
"http://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/5Page65.pdf",
"http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_average_volume_space_of_the_human_body"
] | [
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|
if atoms are 99% 'empty space', how big would the universe be if we compressed every atom down to it's most space efficient arrangement, essentially leaving no space between particles? | or our observable universe, whatever is easy to speculate on... my thoughts were that perhaps the universe would become small enough to resemble what was present before the big bang, and the expansion between everything has just taken a very slow and long time (the rate at which our universe is expanding now?) and appears to have "exploded", hence the big bang... | the "atoms are 99% empty space" thing is a big misconception. particles do not have "size" as we typically think of it. an electron in an atom is a "wave of probability" and does not have a specific "size" or "location", these properties don't make much sense quantum mechanically. in fact [these heat maps](_url_0_) are what the electrons look like in the atom. most of that space is not empty. each of those is a different "orbital", the energy and angular momentum of an electron determines the shape of the electron and that's what we refer to as "orbits". it's not that electrons are whirring around at different speeds, they just have different shapes around the nucleus. what we can do is take electrons, shoot things at them and look at the scatter pattern. the things we shoot are also wave of probability, but based on the scatter pattern we can get a good idea of the sphere of influence of the electron. this gives us a notion of the "size" of the electron, though it's not good to think of electrons as hard spheres of stuff floating around since they're waves of probability in different configurations. if you want to compress things, though, you can look at [neutron stars](_url_1_) this is a star that is so dense that atoms cannot exist. they're like a dense plasma of nucleons held together by gravity. this is similar to what happened near the beginning of the big bang, the particles were too energetic and compressed to form atoms. in fact is was too energetic for even protons and neutrons to form, and was basically a plasma of quarks and gluons. the [wikipedia article has a good timeline](_url_2_). like neutron stars, a kind of star that is like this has been conjectured called a [quark star](_url_3_) that is supposed to look like the very beginning of the universe in it's core. | 2,071 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang#Timeline",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_star",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28%28mass+of+the+observable+universe%2Fdensity+of+neutronium%29*%283%2F%284*pi%29%29%29^%281%2F3%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_radius",
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why are there more blind and deaf people than people who cannot taste or smell? | it seems like we would be more evolved to avoid the most detrimental sensory defects. | people with those detriments are not obvious and don't need compensating skills, so you are pretty much completely unaware of the people around you with those deficiencies. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/b/blindness/prevalence.htm",
"http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~msommers/aging/smell3.pdf"
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does wax evaporate? what about oil? | my wife heats this brand of wax aroma dish things and over time the amount of wax dwindles. is the wax evaporating, and if so, in what form (chemically altered, or are there wax particles floating around)? also, leads me to wonder about oils. | yes wax will evaporate just like water. the hotter it gets the higher its vapor pressure the quicker it evaporates. this is what is happening with candles they get the wax so hot right below the flame that it turns to a gas then the gas air mixture burns. also same thing with oil. basically any compound or element can melt and boil. it all depends on the pressure and temperature. things like wood don't melt because they are made of many things that melt and boil at all different temperatures so they basically separate out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[chemistry] does wax evaporate? | what happens to burning candle wax? and what's the difference between burning wax and something like a candle warmer that i have to change out the wax once it loses its smell? | [the partial pressure of paraffin wax at room temperature is only about 0.1 kpa (1/1000 of atmospheric pressure), meaning it evaporates very slowly.](_url_0_) in general, almost anything that's solid at room temperature will evaporate very slowly if at all. that takes care of the title, now on to the post: it burns. the burning of the wick provides heat to melt the surface layer of the wax, which travels up the wick, is heated by the flame, evaporates, and then burns. the wick itself provides only a small portion of the fuel for the flame. the wax that disappears from a candle was converted (mostly) into co2 and water vapor. a candle warmer isn't actually burning anything. dissolved in the wax that is the "fuel" for the candle warmer are volatile molecules that smell nice - like those in, say, perfume. the candle warmer melts the wax, which allows those molecules to escape from the wax more easily, allowing you to smell them from far away from the candle warmer. the wax only has to be replaced once most of those smelly molecules have escaped the wax - the wax itself is still just fine. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.masterank.com/upload/MSDS_for_MR_5000_Series_Wax.pdf"
] | [
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being that the light we see from galaxies is millions of years old, if we could see them as they are now, how much have they changed? | it's intense to think that when we look at the sky, we are really looking back in time. but if we could see the universe, in real time, how much different would it look? would nebulae be completely misshapen, or possible dissolved? would any galaxies have final collapsed into the weight of their black hole core? or do all of these things happen so slowly that millions of light years wouldn't really make much of a difference? | some time-scales: * molecular clouds (the nebulae that stars form from) get blasted away after about 10 million years * a star might take about 100 million years to do a full orbit of a galaxy * stars themselves can be very shortlived (only a few million years of life) or very longlived (billions of years, or tens of billions) only the closest galaxies (within our "local group") are within a few million light years. we see many more that are tens of millions of light years away, hundreds of millions of years away, or even billions of light-years away. **so generally, yes, we are seeing galaxies that look quite different to how they are "now".** this is not just in the details (i.e. the exact arrangement of stars and clouds), but we also see big general trends as we look further into the past. the younger universe has had less time to do fusion and make elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, and has less time for gas to collapse into stars and planets etc, less time for galaxies to smash into each other. so the further back we look, the more we see galaxies starting to look a little bit different to what they look like now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do other insects other than mosquitoes carry malaria? | no. only the females of some specific species of the anopheles mosquitoes can transmit malaria(the plasmodium parasite that infects humans). there is also variation within species. some strains of a particular species can kill the human malarial parasite while others don't. there are other species of the plasmodium parasite whose vectors can be other dipteran insects or other genera of mosquitoes such as aedes, culex or culiseta but those don't infect humans. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when it is said that "the universe was smaller than an atom" before the big bang, do they mean the visible universe? | if not, then i wouldn't understand how the universe would not have a "center" of sorts. if it is assumed that the universe itself was smaller than an atom, which would encompass actual, physical dimensions, you could figure, then, that it had a center somewhere. | the comparisons to a size doesn't make sense. it *didn't* encompass actual, physical dimensions. it's modelled as a dimensionless gravitational singularity with no degrees of freedom, i.e. a 'point'. any direction was folded back into itself and it had no center nor edge. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do so many people suffering sleep paralysis experience a threatening creature or presence? | i've noticed that most people who experience sleep paralysis describe something that could be construed as being scared of some kind of presence in their room, be it aliens, demons, succubi, ghosts and similar. what part of the human brain makes us hallucinate this, why is it activated as we go to sleep and why does the presence almost universally seem threatening or scary? it's so common that i assume there must be some part of the brain that specifically produces this experience. for bonus points, could this part of the brain also be responsible for religious experiences, i.e. something similarly supernatural but benign rather than threatening? | first off, questions like "why do we dream about what we dream about" do not at present have good scientific answers, aside from something general along the lines of "it has to do with memory encoding etc etc". so, there probably cannot be a very satisfying answer to this question. i did find this: [a special issue of the journal transcultural psychiatry] (_url_0_) on how there are significant cultural variations in how sleep paralysis is experienced. that link is to an editorial preface to the issue; it sounds like sleep paralysis experiences are generally threatening or unpleasant and associated with some kind of seemingly supernatural oppressor, but not universally so (see the article on chinese patients). [here is the set of articles, though i'm not sure if it's paywalled or not] (_url_1_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laurence_Kirmayer/publication/232503277_Culture_and_Sleep_Paralysis/links/569c075408ae6169e56278aa/Culture-and-Sleep-Paralysis.pdf",
"http://journals.sagepub.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/toc/tpse/42/1"
] | [
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how did ancient astronomers know that some of the star-like objects in the sky are actually planets and not other, bigger stars? | so the name planet comes from the ancient greeks. it means "wandering star." they could see the planets moving through the night sky differently from the other stars. this even includes things like apparent retrograde motion. (since we sit on earth, and it orbits about the star at a different rate than other planets, you can imagine you see other planets moving at different rates of speed as you "catch up and/or pass it") given that they were bright and moved in a unique manner, they took on special significance. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did astronomers pre-dating the invention of the telescope know that planets weren't just other stars? | because of their behavior. even without knowing that stars are distant suns and planets shine from reflected light without producing their own, there is no ambiguity that planets and stars behaviors are so different that they are completely different things, whatever those things might be. stars are set in fixed patterns one relative to the other, they always show the same patterns. planets, on the other hand, visibly change positions all year round, this is reflected by the very name ancient greeks gave them: *planetai* (wanderers). this distinction was abundantly clear for millenia prior to the first telescope. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would happen if two stars the size of our sun had a head on collision? | i do not think such an event has ever been observed. what would occur is most likely the total destruction of both objects, or for glancing blows the survival or one of both, though probably with reduced mass--however, i stress, stellar dynamics are complex so answering this is difficult. what we have actually observed is the *merger* between orbiting binary stars. here's a paper that describes such an event between two normal stars, * tylenda et al. [v1309 scorpii: merger of a contact binary](_url_1_). astronomy and astrophysics. 2010. to quote, check out the paper it has a *really* neat plot showing how the course of roughly one year, the binary system with a period of roughly 1.3 days dramatically increased in brightness by orders of magnitude and then dimmed back down as quickly as it had erupted. these were stars similar to our sun and while they now are most likely one single object, they are probably now surrounded by an envelope of hot gas. the closing paragraph shows just how uncharted this kind of astronomy is, edit: an new article in nature: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101207/full/news.2010.654.html",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1012.0163"
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|
what would happen if another star collided with our sun, assuming the other star was equal size and mass and both were traveling at the same speed? | would they combine together into one large star or collapse into a massive black hole? would the energy released from the collision be enough to destroy the solar system? what about the galaxy? just curious. | well, for a starter, the idea of direct collision is very unlikely, but another star could be caught in the gravitational field. it would mean the two start would rotate around a middle point, get closer to each other after millions of years, until they fuses. we would end up dead, and the result could be a bigger star, a neutron star, or even a blackhole. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how close to a parent star can a gas giant form? | since the star normally gobbles away all the gas it might form with, i'm thinking not very - but what do i know? are there any known cases of gas giants forming very near to stars in astronomy? if they did, wouldn't they, eventually, ignite in a self sustaining (albeit short lived) reaction? | not directly answering your question, but several discovered extrasolar planets are termed [hot jupiters](_url_0_) since they have similar mass and compositional characteristics to jupiter, yet orbit *very* closely to their parent star. for instance, [51 pegasi b](_url_1_) orbits many times closer to its parent star than mercury does to ours. it's believed that these planets do not form at this position, but instead that they migrate from their formation position [outside the frost line](_url_2_) to their surprisingly tight orbits. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_jupiter",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51_Pegasi_b",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics\\)"
] | [
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why does cheese break or crumble when it's cold, but gets long and stringy when it's warm? | cheese that is stringy when hot (not all of them are) acts like a synthetic polymer, e.g. chewing gum. warm chewing gum is stringy. to remove it from a carpet, rub with an ice cube and it becomes brittle and easy to remove. this difference is due to the glass transition. this occurs at a temperature where the polymer chains slow down a lot. below it they are brittle. above it they are stringy. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how big would a meteor need to be to wipe out all life on the surface of the earth? | there are a bunch of simulators online that you can play around with (modify mass, composition, velocity, angle of impact, location of impact, etc.). just do a google search. basically though anything greater than 1km in diameter is bad news and extrapolating from past records we can expect another 50 over the remaining lifetime of earth (5 billion years). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could a meteor have struck earth so hard as to dislodge soil or rocks, shoot them into the atmosphere, and spread life into space? | yes, at least on the rocks parts (any unconsolidated material like soil would not survive the process). a good analogue are [martian meteorites](_url_0_). these are meteorites that fell on earth, but were originally part of the martian crust that were ejected from mars during meteorite impacts on mars. little more uncertain. as discussed above, there is certainly the expectation of a decent amount of material from earth that has been distributed throughout the solar system via impacts. for example, calculations considering the chicxulub impact (the one thought to have brought about the k-t extinction) suggest that a [volume of earth material equal to the size of the impactor was ejected into space](_url_2_). more general calculations [predict massive amounts of material were transferred between planets via ejecta, but mostly during the late heavy bombardment period between 3.8 and 4.0 billion years ago](_url_1_). the real questions to which we don't know the answer are 1) how much of this ejecta was life bearing (i.e. we still have limited evidence of life on earth from the before or during the late heavy bombardment, but some signs point to there being some microbial life at that time) and 2) under what circumstances (if any) would microbes ejected into space via this process remain viable? there are suggestions that depending on the size of the debris, [some viable dna/rna within microbes could survive for several million years](_url_3_), but it's still uncertain whether that is actually quick enough for these ejecta to end up on a planet/moon where life could flourish (seems like a long time, but consider that many of the asteroids and meteors have been orbiting the sun without impacting large planets or moons since at least the end of the late heavy bombardment period 3.8 billion years ago). | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_meteorite",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440031/",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1204.1719",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/690/1/210/pdf",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/279/1748/4724",
"https://nai.nasa.gov/annual-reports/2002/uw/giant-impacts-in-earths-early-history-reseeding-the-planet-and-the-search-for-earth-rocks-on-the-moon/"
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|
are the stars we see most of the time not in the milky way? | like on a clear night in the desert, you can see the milky way, but does that mean on other nights were not seeing stars in the milky way? or just stars in other galaxies really far away or are we always seeing the milky way just not the band of stars clearly... make sense? | all the stars we see are in our galaxy, which is the milky way galaxy. however, the actual [_milky way_](_url_0_) as known to us since antiquity is the band of stars comprising the disk of the galaxy as seen from the side. the stars we see in the sparser parts of the sky are still in that disk and still part of the milky way galaxy, but they're not as dense together looking, because we're seeing them against the backdrop of intergalactic space. the densest and brightest part of the _milky way_ band of stars is around the center of the galaxy. the main thing we see outside of our galaxy is other galaxies, so if you're looking at photos of any stars, they're in our galaxy. to me this lends a kind of 3d effect to sky photos where you can see galaxies and stars. the stars you see are close up, and the galaxies are far away. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"
] | [
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] |
why do we breathe out of a dominant nostril which also changes throughout the day? and why does this dominance change? | this is the [nasal cycle](_url_0_) (also see [here](_url_1_) for recent review and [here](_url_2_) for the classical study). congestion of the mucosa in the nose goes up and down throughout the day, usually up in one nostril and down in the other. a variety of reasons have been proposed. [this](_url_3_) recent article proposes the nasal cycle strikes a balance between airflow, which dehydrates the mucosa but allows better air passage, and hydration, which reduces airflow but results in better clearance of contaminants. | 46 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_cycle",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christian_Rohrmeier/publication/259203320_The_Nasal_Cycle_During_Wakefulness_and_Sleep_and_Its_Relation_to_Body_Position/links/0a85e5326ae0be3676000000/The-Nasal-Cycle-During-Wakefulness-and-Sleep-and-Its-Relation-to-Body-Position.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/609283",
"https://biomedical-engineering-online.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12938-015-0034-4"
] | [
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|
why don't planets lose centrifugal force until they fall into the sun? | i saw this video _url_0_ which is excellent, but now i'm wonder why those balls fall in center but the planets don't? does it happens in the video just because of friction? sorry if bad english | the balls in the video loose their energy because: 1) it's converted into heat due to friction, 2) the material (spandex) is elastic and thus it starts vibrating. when it comes to planets, stars and other astronomical objects, their orbits shrink, too, and this is due to gravitational radiation (emission of gravity waves). for planets and stars the effect is insignificant, but it can be observed in systems comprising compacts stars (e.g. neutron stars). | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTY1Kje0yLg"
] | [] | [
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can quantum computing be really effective knowing that qubits exact values can't be read ? doesn't this implies that algorithms have to be relaunched many times to get the exact values of the qubits with a certain margin of error ? | then can quantum computing be better than usual computing if it has to do much more times the same algorithm to get a precise result ? can quantum computing assets outweigh those drawbacks and why ? thanks in advance | this problem already appears with many *classical randomized algorithms*, where we allow the algorithm to use some amount of randomness (but no entanglement) to solve problems. **some background about classical randomized algorithms** surprisingly, these are already very important in practice. for example, the most used primality testing algorithm (to my knowledge) is the miller-rabin algorithm, which is randomized at its core. here's basically how it works: miller proved that every composite number `c` has many *witnesses*, numbers that never become either `+1` or `-1` when exponentiated to numbers from a small set of candidates (this set depends on `c`). a prime number `p` cannot have such a witness -- there *must* be at least one number `q` in this set such that p^q equals +/- 1. therefore, if we only knew how to find a witness for `n`, we can quickly prove that `n` is composite. however, the converse is not true: a number *not* being a witness does not mean that `n` is prime. therefore, we need to be careful which number we pick. unfortunately, we *don't* know how to quickly find witnesses (at least not without assuming the generalized riemann hypothesis). what rabin noticed, though, is that since witnesses are super abundant (for all composite `n`, i think they make up roughly 3/4th of numbers less than `n`, but don't quote me on that), we're pretty likely to just pick a valid witness by chance (if `n` is composite). that is, the strategy of picking just one number randomly correctly identifies composites that's good, but probably not good enough if you're relying on it to keep your credit card number secure. however, if you (as you suggested in the title) repeat the process `k` times and take the majority answer of the `k` trials, the probability of an error goes down dramatically. in particular, the [chernoff bound](_url_0_) says that the probability of error is at most exp((-.5k/p) (p-1/2)^(2)) where `p` here is 3/4, so this works out to e^(-k/24). this error probability decays *exponentially* with `k`, and naively repeating this algorithm a couple hundred times (not hard at all for a computer -- especially a multi-core one) is already enough to drop down the error to below .01%. by the time you get to 1000 repetitions, you should be more worried about getting struck by lightning the next time you step outside than about encountering an error, since the probability of of the former far exceeds that of the latter. in fact, the fact that the error is entirely one-sided (you'll never falsely label a prime as a composite) brings down the necessary repetitions even further. the calculations there are quite simple, and i'm leaving that as an exercise to the reader. **applications to quantum computation** basically, everything i said above still holds true for quantum algorithms. if the odds of a single trial's success are at least `p = .5 + ɛ` (we had `ɛ = 1/4` earlier), then the odds of failure if you take the majority of `k` trials is going to be something at least e^(-.5kɛ^2) = (e^(-.5ɛ^2))^k. as long as `ɛ` is not super close to 0 (your odds of success in one trial are not super close to what you can get by ignoring all the math and just flipping a coin), you'll again get some super quick exponential decay of the error probability. repeating a calculation a couple hundred times to ensure correctness is practically nothing compared to the types of speedups a true quantum computer can give you on certain problems, so these machines are still very much worthwhile! | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernoff_bound#Applications_of_Chernoff_bound",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm"
] | [
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why do bubbles form when boiling water | i've been wondering about this question for a while and like to know the answer. | if you remember back to your high school chemistry, you'd remember that water has 3 phases, solid, liquid and gas (i am avoiding all exotic examples here). the solid phase, ice, is solid because the water molecule, shaped like little boomerangs, have arranged themselves into repeating geometric patterns. this is what creates a crystal. in a gas, they are just bouncing around and do not tend to stick to one another. they are too busy doing their own thing to hang out with their friends anymore. they do occasionally stick, but mostly they dont and they will disperse away from one another if you let them. liquid water is a fussy phase, it exists in a very narrow range of temperatures, pressures, etc. this is why finding it in the universe would be important. liquid water still sticks to itself, but not as strongly as in ice. the bonds tend to be temporary, like people at a cocktail party shaking hands and schmoozing. as you add heat, the liquid particles start moving faster and faster, here is where it gets tricky. if they never trip on anything, like ever, they'll stay a liquid for a long while. but if the trip (in technical language, a nucleation point forms) then they scatter and start pushing back on their neighbors. the water molecules then expand, becoming less dense than the surrounding water, and they rise. remember that ice doenst melt like butter. butter isnt really a solid in the traditional sense because as you warm it, it gets mushy. ice is either hard or wet, nothing in between. in the same way, it is either wet or gas, nothing in between. the transition between the two requries a lot of extra energy, which is part of why ice is so good at cooling your drink, or boiling water so good at cooking your pasta, it's got extra room for extra energy during the transition from one to another. fun fact: if you have distilled water, and you microwave it a lot in a very smooth cup, then touch it with a spoon, it can actually [explode.](_url_0_) they explained that there are less impurities in distilled water, ie, no nucleation points. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_OXM4mr_i0"
] | [
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] |
why does a toaster make bread crispy, but a microwave makes bread soft? | microwave ovens heat food by jiggling molecular bonds in water and fats. this process tends not to get foods to the elevated temperatures needed for the [maillard reaction](_url_0_) to take place and browning to occur. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maillard_reaction"
] | [
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] |
|
how developed are a dog's taste buds? | my dog doesn't mind picking up a wet, muddy tennis ball with his mouth, yet he'll ignore the food in his bowl to beg for my burrito (which looks more or less the same). what gives? | i found [this page with citations](_url_0_). to quote it dogs only have 1/6th of the taste buds that humans do but most of those are on the tip of the tongue. they seem to gain more information from smell than taste. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/2000/Hatfield/Hatfield2.htm"
] | [
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are dogs' taste buds the same as humans? if i give my dog a piece of chicken, are we tasting it the same way? | 'taste buds' are a specific type of receptor used for differentiating between chemicals (similar to those in the nose), often known as chemoreceptors. their purpose is to detect harmful/toxic chemicals, preventing their ingestion (by producing an undesirable 'taste') or detect beneficial chemicals, such as required nutrients in foods, producing a desirable taste. thus the different registered 'tastes' between species is dependant on what that specific species nutrient requirements for survival are, or the chemicals toxic to it. in terms of specific 'flavour', it is very difficult to say if what humans perceive chicken (or any food) to 'taste' like, is the same as what dogs do. however due to very close mammalian lineage, dogs share similar structural anatomy to humans, thus would most likely have similar 'taste buds'. another factor, that is less scientific based, is the acquiring of specific taste preferences that only humans undergo. this is most-likely due to the larger range of foods we consume, along with the increase in use artificial flavouring and seasonings. in short, it is impossible to tell if the 'flavours' being perceived are the same. however it can be inferred that the 'taste buds' are producing similar signals, due to the beneficial nature of the chemicals in the food (chicken) being consumed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do candles stay lit so long? | if i take a thread and put it to flame, it would burn a few seconds and then would extinct. if i put wax around the thread, it can last for hours. why so? why is the flame burning for so long? also, if it's in a glass, the was would turn liquid. how come the wax doesn't extinguish the flame? | the wax melts and is absorbed by the wick, the flame heats the wax causing it to vapourise and the resulting gas is burned. so the flame is not actually the wick burning. (the wick will smoulder at the tip, but the wax is continually absorbed which prevents the wick from igniting). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the largest organism which doesn't require sleep (excluding plants)? | as far as i understand, bacteria does not require sleep. are there any animals or insects which do not sleep? | it depends how you want to define "sleep". there isn't a consensus definition for all organisms. it also doesn't necessarily make sense to draw a clean line between organisms that sleep and organisms that don't, because sleep is really a collection of biological processes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the largest organism that doesn't need sleep? | this is probably not what you had in mind, but the largest organism that doesn't require "sleep" is also the largest organism - honey fungus. plants, protists and fungi are all organisms, and to my knowledge don't exhibit sleep patterns in the way that vertebrates do. if you're question was about animals in particular, we may need to better define sleep. dolphins, and by extension likely whales (largest animals) are able to rest half of their brain while still maintaining basic movement (i.e. swimming, breathing). it is likely a different state than what humans would define as sleep, thus it could be argued that these animals don't sleep either. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are galaxies circular and not spherical? | if gravity is what makes it into that shape, why wouldn't they be spherical like a planet or star? | some elliptical galaxies are, in fact, quite close to spherical, a sphere merely being a special case of an ellipsoid. spirals just get all the attention, 'cause they're so purdy. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_galaxies",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulge_\\(astronomy\\)"
] | [
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what created moon dust? why isn't the moon just one giant rock? | bits of material flying around in space at great speed end up hitting the moon and blasting craters in the surface. over time this leads to the surface being pulverized into dust. there had been a *lot* of time. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is the moon covered mostly fine dust if the erosion forces of wind, water, and plate tectonics do not exist? | if i remember right there was a point where the moon had mildly active plate tectonics (correct me if i'm wrong), but i still don't understand what other than meteor impacts could cause any erosion on the surface, let alone enough to make a fine dust. also on a side note, i know that relative to earth meteoroids are called meteors when traveling through the atmosphere and meteorites when they've impacted the ground, but how should they be referenced in relation to the moon since it has no atmosphere? edit: despite proofreading my post i still have a typo in my title. frick. | meteors are enough to create the regolith. the moon (and the earth) are constantly bombarded with them, the earth has an atmosphere that burns most of them up before they hit the ground. the moon having no atmosphere has no such protection. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are all meteorites and asteroid gray like seen in the pictures? if so, why? | well, [here's a picture](_url_0_) of a pallasite meteorite. these show up with green areas because of the minerals present. a lot of what we find in meteorites is iron and nickel, and those are both gray/silver, and so that does skew meteorites somewhat to the easy ones to identify. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.kdmeteorites.com/images/Seymchan%20pallasite%20for%20sale/s1.JPG"
] | [
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