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what makes paper so weak (what makes it tear so easily) when wet? | what kind of fundamental changes are happening on the molecular level when it’s wet that makes it tear so easily? | i can't address the molecular level stuff, but at the macro level, it's just the fibers are too short to resist the shear forces. when dry, the short, rough fibers have more friction to resist the shear forces. when wet, the fibers float away from each other and the wetting agent lubricates the fibers. i'll speculate that there is some kind of mild adhesive used in the manufacture of most papers, perhaps just some starch from the vegetable feed stock. this adhesive helps maintain the relative position of the fibers, which improves their mechanical strength. if the water degrades this adhesive, then the geometry of the fibers is easier to compromise and energy will not transfer evenly across the sheet. source: much destructive testing of fiber reinforced materials (not paper). | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a clear barrier between stars and space? | what i mean by this is, is there like a place where someone could clearly point out and say "this is where the star ends and we are just in space now". i was also wondering if this applies to planets, like if there is a layer in our atmosphere that we consider the last part of earth, or if it just sort of blends into space slowly. | at least regarding the earth's atmosphere, it does slowly transition to space, but there's also an altitude that is generally considered the boundary of space: the kármán line. the definition of the kármán line is based on airplanes. as you go up in altitude, the air gets thinner and you have to fly faster to generate enough lift to stay up. at a certain point, you would have to fly at orbital velocity to stay up. that point is the kármán line. the definition itself is fairly arbitrary since there is still more air above that height, but it works for what we need it to | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there a difference between kinetic and static friction? | why does a difference even exist in the first place? thanks in advance!! | the answer is (partially) in the name. when an object is stationary, enough time passes for the atoms at the interface of the two objects to settle into a local energy minimum and establish thermodynamic equilibrium. once settled into this energy well, a larger push is necessary to break out and start sliding again. kinetic friction, on the other hand, applies in the kinetic regime, wherein the atoms at the interface do not have time to settle into equilibrium but instead experience some average higher-energy interaction. since not enough time is given to settle, the relatively strong bonds that would form in equilibrium need not be overcome and the job is easier. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/nexus-program-manager-says-nexus-devices-cant-ever-go-away/"
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] |
what is the difference between kinetic and static friction? | kinetic means motion, static means no motion. so kinetic friction is the friction an object experiences when it is already in motion. static friction is higher, because the initial force required to start moving a stationary object is higher than one that is already moving. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are pictures taken on the moon not blindingly bright? | i was just looking at the moon and it struck me how incredibly bright it is. now, it's my understanding that things get dimmer the further away you are from them, and we're pretty damn far from the moon (relatively speaking). and yet the moon is staggeringly bright, from so far away. if you stick your face next to a light, it blinds you, even if it's not blinding from 6 feet away. why then, on the moon, was it not so much brighter than it appears from the earth, given the distance? | there's lots of ways to answer your question. one, the moon feels so bright because your looking at it at night, when your eyes are dark adapted. look at the moon sometime during the day and doesn't seem nearly so bright. in fact, in doesn't look bright at all. also, what your seeing is reflected sunlight, just like sunlight reflecting off of the ground when your standing on the earth. the sun isn't any brighter from the moon, and the light reflecting off of the ground isn't really any brighter than the light you see reflecting off of the ground standing on the earth. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does metal feel colder than plastic when they're both sitting in the same cold room? | metal has a higher [heat transfer coefficient](_url_0_) than plastic so even though the temperature difference between your skin and the 2 materials is the same heat will flow more easily to the metal giving the impression that it is colder! | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer_coefficient"
] | [
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|
why does metal feel so much colder than plastic? | it's getting very cold around here now. i left two computers in my car overnight last night and when i retrieved them this morning i noticed the metal (apple macbook pro) and plastic (dell) cases were noticeably different temperatures. it was all by feeling. i didn't take any formal measurements. i was always taught that "cold" is defined as the absence of heat. strictly speaking.. you can generate heat but you can't generate cold. it's all just levels of heat.. from zero on up. so, i would think they should feel the same temperature. if neither computer or their materials are generating and significant sources of heat.. and if they're sitting in the same temperature for the same amount of time... why the big difference? do the different materials have different levels of ambient heat that's noticeable by humans? is it because metal absorbs is a better conductor of energy (e.g., heat) and absorbing my own? is my brain just tricking me into thinking they're different temps when they're actually the same? i'm thinking it's because of the conductivity of metal.. but i wanted to ask the experts. p.s. i'm aware very cold temps are bad for computers. i just forgot them in the car last night and fell asleep before i could go out and get them. doesn't happen often and they're working fine. | your nerves sense temperature *changes*. when you touch metal, its high thermal conductivity allows heat to flow out of your finger and into the metal more quickly than plastic. metal has a higher thermal conductivity than plastic, so it pulls more heat away from your finger, so the temperature of your finger changes faster, so it feels colder. it's the same reason a windy day feels colder than a still one, even at the same temperature, and the reason why 350^0 f air in the oven doesn't burn you very quickly while 212^0 water will burn you very quickly. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can mosquito bites provoke reactivation of dormant viruses (e.g. cold sores)? | if they provoke an immune response, can this immune response trigger reactivation of viral conditions? the only example i'm familiar with is herpes simplex, but i suppose there are others. also, my terminology sucks, so if anyone wants to clear that up for me, feel free. | if the mosquito bite provokes an immune response then sometimes it can. mosquito bites usually only provoke a minor immune response that doesnt usually involved the t-cells or b-cells. it involves mostly the humoral immune response (neutrophil, macrophages, etc.). usually when the adaptive immune system becomes activated there is a great deal of cytokine signaling going on and sometimes this can signal to latent viruses that they have an opportunity to begin their lytic lifecycle. this is sometimes why someone who has a cold may have a resurgence of the herpes simplex virus, while the immune system is busy dealing with the rhino-virus the factors that were holding the herpes in check have gone to be allocated to the more pressing threat and then herpes begins its lifecycle. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does "freezer burn" have a smell and taste to it? | food items that have been in a freezer for a few weeks seem to smell and taste differently when the containers they're in are covered with frost. what would cause this ice to make the food smell or taste differently from an item that has only been in the freezer for a day or two? this seems to happen regardless of what freezer the food is in. | "freezer burn" is a problem where repeated slight thawing and freezing (opening/closing the door frequently, smaller freezers, et cetera) have leached the fluids out of food products and into the ice crystals. the change in taste is due to the cells being ruptured in this process, and the change in liquid content. this problem is less common in freezers that are kept at more static temperature for long periods of time - freezers that aren't opened and are large enough/well insulated enough to maintain temperature. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://interactive.usc.edu/membersmedia/sfisher/Dreadco%20Meganose.pdf"
] | [
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] |
if the sun is mostly made up of hydrogen and helium, why is sunlight display light over the full spectrum? | since atoms can only emit discrete wavelengths of light, why is sunlight show more than just those wavelengths. | sunlight is [blackbody radiation](_url_0_), which emits at all wavelengths. you're thinking of electrons excited between orbitals, which isn't what produces light in the sun. | 46 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraunhofer_lines"
] | [
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why isn't sunlight just the hydrogen and helium emission lines? | the emission spectrum for hydrogen and helium only include a few lines of visible light. white sunlight seems to include the full continuum of wavelengths minus some absorption lines due to the atmosphere. why isn't sunlight just a few distinct emission lines? | emission lines are due to electrons within atoms moving between energy states. this is why the energy of the photons (and therefore colour) are quantised - the energy state must be well defined. there will be a colour for n=2 to n=1 transition, one for 3 - what occurs in stars is super heated matter (plasma) where the elements are already ionised - the electrons are not bound to the nuclei and can have any amount of energy (sort of; the point is it's a continuous scale, not quantised). therefore, particles in the plasma will emit light as they bump into each other, or any other energy transfer process (fusion, deionisation, etc.) and this light can have any amount of energy. hence full spectrum radiation. edit: i put the transitions the wrong way round for emission. idiot. | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do seedless fruits reproduce? | are they a different species that reproduces through asexual reproduction or are there parent plants that have seeds but produce seedless offspring. | they don't. seedless fruits (in every case i can think of) are a human invention. we selectively bred for smaller and smaller seeds until we got a fruit tree without them. it's "children" are actually clones made by taking a part of the tree and planting it and having it grow into a full tree. another possibility is what's done with watermelons. seedless watermelons are made by crossbreeding two different species of seeded watermelons, and like many hybrids, their offspring are sterile. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do they reproduce seedless fruits/vegetables ? | seedless watermelon for instance, where do they get the seeds to reproduce ? | seedless fruits and vegetables are genetic freaks that don't reproduce, but they came from a parent plant. as far as i know there are two methods to do this. we shall refer to them as the splicing method and the mule method. but both methods result in a plant that can't reproduce using normal reproductive methods ( plant version sexy time). the splicing method. we will use bananas for example. normal bananas are actually riddled with seeds making them a pain to eat. you would start by cross breeding different species of banana until you came up with one banana that tasted good and has a genetic defect that prevents the seeds from maturing. once you have your one plant you take the root ball at the base of the plant and cut it up into small portions and replant each one at the next growing season. essentially you are cutting the plant in half and letting each half grow into a full sized plant. after a couple hundred times of doing this you will have a whole banana plantation full of bananas the have no seeds and all taste the same since they are all genetically same plant or a clone if you will. this is very dangerous, because the traditional method of passing on genes is how plants protect themselves from diseases. in the normal way things work, if a fungus we're to start eating up banana plants some of them would be able to develop a resistance to it and pass that resistance on to its offspring. if all the banana plants are clones of the same plant, then they also inherit the same immune system. back in the 1950s a fungus called fusarium oxysporum wiped out entire species of banana because of this, there was a small panic that spead the world because everyone thought we would have no bananas. the mule method. this is for plants that don't grow back every year and rely on seeds to repopulate. monsanto is great for this. you start the same as the splicing method with cross breeding. but instead of looking for one plant you're trying to make a set of parent plants that are so different from each other that they can barely reproduce. kind of like how mules came into existence. a mule is a crossbreed between a horse and a donkey. they are close enough relatives that they can reproduce but the offspring is so genetically different from both parents that they can't reproduce, in the same way you can't mate a cat and a dog to get a catdog. mules cannot have offspring with a horse or a donkey, and apparently not even another mule. now instead of beasts of burden, it's a plant that will produce fruit but can't reproduce therefore no seeds | 27 | [] | [] | [
"https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/newsletters/hortupdate/hortupdate_archives/2000/may00/h5may00.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_propagation#Asexual_propagation"
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if a soap doesn't foam, is it less effective? | sometimes when i wash my hands after touching something greasy e.g. butter or oil, the soap won't create any foam. in case i rub an oily marinade on raw meat and bacteria stick on my hands, will washing the first time when it doesn't create a lot of foam be effective or should i wash a second time? | soaps and detergents are chemicals with a polar end which binds with water, and a non-polar end that bind to fats and oils. the soap molecule this firms s bridge between water and oil, allowing the oil to mix with the water and get washed away. soap foams when there is no oil around. the polar ends are binding with water, but there is no oil for the non-polar end to bind to. so the soap/water complex forms spherical bubbles, with the water on the outside, and all the non-polar ends of the soap molecules bunched up in the middle. if there is more oil that the soap molecules can handle, it won't foam because every soap molecule is used up with an oil molecule. so: soap foaming essentially means that you have more soap than oil. another way of saying that is that you have used too much. if your washing machine foams like crazy, use less washing powder next time. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is soap required to "foam" in order to work properly? | nope! two soaps that don't foam are laundry detergent and the type of soap that goes in dishwashers. if you put a foaming type of soap in either of those machines, it will cause a huge mess. however, those soaps still clean dishes and clothes just fine. lots of cosmetics companies actually add things (like sodium dodecyl sulfate or ammonium lauryl sulfate), to soaps to make them foam more, because many people associate foam with cleanliness. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are all of the heavier elements (iron and up) in our solar system from a single supernova? | have there been thousands of supernovas which have fed the planets of this solar system or was it a single giant star which was here and went supernova? the expected age for our sun is 10 billion years but the age of the universe is only 14 billion years so it doesn't seem like there has been enough time to have lots of supernovas in this spot to give rise to our elements. were there just a lot of supernovas that happened all at the beginning and then the rate just slowed down or do we have a really slow burning sun? | so, a few things to keep in mind here that may or may not be confusing you: 1) our sun is somewhere in the middle-to-smallish range of stellar masses. stars come anywhere from about 120 times more massive, to about 12 times less massive. 2) just like celebrities, the bigger the star, the faster it burns out. (lindsey lohan: burned out quickly. foghat: still probably touring somewhere in des moines.) true, our sun will last somewhere in the ~10 billion year range, but the very massive stars may only last about 1 million years - i.e. 10,000 times shorter lifespan than our sun. there's plenty of time for lots of those to have occurred over the age of our universe. 3) only large stars (about 5 times the mass of our sun) end in the explosive type ii supernovae and seed a wide portion of the rest of the galaxy with heavy elements. smaller than that, our sun included, and stars will end as planetary nebulae, quietly shedding only their outer hydrogen layers to the small local neighborhood. 4) it's only in supernovae that the really heavy elements are produced. beyond iron, fusion becomes endothermic (it requires energy to produce heavier elements instead of releasing energy), meaning that you need a huge release of energy to make those reactions occur. with all that said, there are a few other stellar life-cycle considerations here. really massive stars that go supernova in only a few million years haven't had time to leave the stellar nursery. in fact, this event - the first supernova from the most massive star in the group - is usually what cuts short the production of new stars in star-forming regions. moreover, there's good evidence that the first supernova can often trigger more supernovae from stars in the region. the combined effect of multiple supernovae can produce a "galactic fountain", producing enough of an over-pressure to pop these heavy elements out of the plane of the galaxy, and subsequently raining this material down over a very wide area. whether the bulk of the heavier material in our own solar system came from just one such event or multiple fountains isn't terribly well known. the fact that our sun is unusually metal-rich (as are most stars which support planetary systems) may indicate multiple such events. **tl;dr**: our sun burns quite slowly compared to the massive stars that actually produce supernovae. chances are there are quite a lot of supernovae that went into creating the heavy elements in our solar system. | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[biology] how do insects not hurt themselves when they fall down from a high place while a human would definitly die when falling from a comparable hight ? | this has to do with an interesting effect, an objects volume increase at a different rate than its surface area. for example a 1x1x1 cube has a total volume of 1 (and a mass of one lets say to keep the math easy) and a surface area of 6 (cube has 6 sides each 1x1). another cube is say 5x5x5. this second cube has a volume of 125 (5*5=25, 25*5=125) and a surface area of 150 (5*5*6). now the first cube has a ratio of 1:6 and the second has one that's almost 1:1. all of this is pretty boring but the gist of it is as you scale an object up its volume (and consequently it's mass) increases faster than its surface area. if you took an ant and made it giant like in those weird old horror movies its legs would instantly break and it would lay there in a lump. elephants have very thick legs and cannot jump. now, i know i haven't answered your question and i will. the reason insects don't die from falling is because their terminal velocity is much much lower than ours. terminal velocity is determined by the amount gravity pulls on you (f=ma with a being equal to 9.81 m/s²) and how much air resistance pushes back (i don't know the formula, it's probably complicated. just imagine a regular piece of paper and one all crumpled up. the crumpled up one has a smaller area that "resists" falling. if you were shrunk to the size of a bug i'm pretty sure you could go base jumping all you wanted. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we shudder when we hear certain noises? | i.e. i get chills down my spine when i think of styrofoam scraping against something. for other people its nails on a chalk board..why is this? | here is a [pretty nice article](_url_1_) by josh mcdermott explaining why certain screechy sounds are aversive for humans. according to [one of his papers](_url_0_) cotton-top tamarins don't exhibit the fingernails-on-a-chalkboard effect, which is weird and interesting. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~jhm/consonance.pdf",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-is-the-sound-of-fingernails-on-blackboard"
] | [
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why is an ordinary old computer able to beat an average-decent chess player, while it takes a supercomputer to beat a grand master? | perhaps my question is a bit of strawman, - as what's considered 'average' is probably actually quite skilled. so, i'm not sure that ordinary computers can beat the 'average' player - i'm basing this on my old 486 constantly beating me when i was younger. :) but if we can proceed with the question - is there some kind of theory that explains human knowledge/skill in terms of computer power? | it doesn't take a supercomputer to beat a grandmaster anymore. you're probably thinking of kasparov's match, but remember he was playing against a supercomputer from the 90's. a good chess engine running on a normal pc can easily beat today's top ranked players. the software has also gotten a lot better. an htc touch hd reached grandmaster level in a tournament. | 54 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/feb/11/the-chess-master-and-the-computer/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_Fritz"
] | [
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why does my microwave use interfere with my wifi? | wifi works on the 2.4 ghz band. microwave ovens work on the same band as well. the reason why wifi uses it is because due to microwaves and such it's an unlicensed band, and anybody can use it (within limits). the downside of that is that there's plenty intereference. normally i don't think a microwave oven should be causing enough interference to cause serious issues with wifi. i've experimented with it and can pick it up on a scanner, but i've not seen it actually break a wifi connection, unless you have a very weak signal already. if it does that you should check the oven's door and make sure it closes properly. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DCYrrNQc3lM"
] | [
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|
why does helium make my voice higher? | the speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. because the fundamental frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. the fundamental frequency (sometimes called pitch) does not change, since this is produced by direct vibration of the vocal folds, which is unchanged. however, the higher resonant frequencies cause a change in timbre, resulting in a reedy, duck-like vocal quality. the opposite effect, lowering resonant frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the liquid inside blisters? | it depends on the type of blister. if you're talking about clear blisters, it's blood plasma - everything that isn't a red blood cell in blood, such as water, nutrients, clotting agents, drugs, proteins, hormones - filtered out of the bloodstream. a blood blister is filled with, well, blood. infected blisters can be filled with pus - dead white blood cells and waste products. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is happening in our eyes when we grow older and need glasses? | also, does wearing glasses make the eyes lazier? | when you focus your eyes on near and far objects, the lens in your eye must be made thinner or thicker to bend the light onto the retina, forming a clear image. this is done by the ciliary muscles, which pull on the lens. a condition called presbyopia often occurs as a result of ageing, and is thought to be due to a combination of a loss of elasticity in the lens, and weakness of the ciliary muscles. this results in difficulty in focusing the eye on near objects (i.e. need reading glasses). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does eyesight change as you get older? | the eyes have seen to much brother. they just can’t do it any longer. but seriously it’s a condition called presbyopia. it has to do with the inability of hardening the crystalline lens in the eye. age-related changes also take place in the muscle fibers surrounding the lens. with less elasticity, the eye has a harder time focusing up close. there are other theories that are genetic and environmental based. so pick your poison. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
"why" does a two-photon system have mass? | i've asked a few of my professors (i'm a physics grad student), and while they aren't completely blown away by the idea (nor am i), they can't really give a good reason for why a two photon system has mass: take the equation (with c=1): m^2 = e^2 - p^2 for one photon, |e| = |p| so m = 0. however, for two (identical) photons travelling in opposite directions, the sum of p is zero, yet e is the sum of the two energies, so the mass of that system is nonzero. does this have any real significance? does it "mean" anything? | this has a *ton* of significance. hugely significant. consider an atom. electrons are about 1/2000 the mass of the proton. so nearly all the atom's mass is in the protons and neutrons that make it up, no? a proton or neutron has about 940 mev/c^2 in mass, and they're made up of 3 valence quarks. but the valence quarks aren't ~300 mev/c^2 in mass... they're closer to 3 mev/c^2 ! so where does all the mass of the proton come from? it comes from... the gluons. massless particles, like the photon is massless, acting as a whole system of particles that impart mass to the proton. by extension, most of the mass of the nucleus, the atom, molecules, every bit of normal matter in the universe... all gluons. all massless particles in a system that has a mass. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do mosquitoes know what blood type you are? | most people (85%) secrete a chemical marker of their blood type. mosquitoes apparently prefer type o blood 2 to 1 over type a - with type b falling in the middle they are predominately attracted to emission of carbon dioxide though _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-do-mosquitoes-bite-some-people-more-than-others-10255934/"
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] |
|
how do mosquitoes sense blood? | i saw a post on how the mosquitoes were trying to sting the finger for blood but i’m wondering how they sense it. [check this. ](_url_0_) | they are attracted to mostly co2 and heat, if you refer as to how do they find the blood vessels then the answer is literally poking around. their proboscis numbs out the sting pain and well... you know the drill. [here](_url_0_) is a more detailed video. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/sciences/comments/aottzb/teasing_mosquitoes_in_the_lab_before_they_were/?st=JRY48NCM&sh=51e577af"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbXSPacvuak"
] | [
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is there a difference between reading an ebook and reading a paper book? | would an fmri show the same areas lighting up when reading the same book in the different formats? is retention of data the same? is pleasure the same? | this isn't my specialty, but i took a quick look on pubmed and there was a study addressing this published in february of this year, with the added twist that they looked at groups of older and younger individuals. [the full-text is available for free here](_url_0_) -all subjects preferred reading on paper to reading on a tablet or e-reader. -despite this, reading comprehension was not affected by the media type. -however, in **older** adults two physiological measures that correlate with retaining read material, length of eye fixations and theta band eeg density, were higher on a tablet computer than the other media. overall, the authors conclude that there is a disconnect between subjective impressions of reading and the 'neurological effort' required, since both young and old participants preferred the paper and remembered equivalent material between media types. a criticism i'd have is that, as the authors mention, electronic media currently have lower edge contrast than printed books, which increases reading time. it seems subjects were given unlimited time to read the passage, perhaps allowing them to compensate for increased reading difficulty by slowing down - might be interesting to see if this were the case. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3566074"
] | [
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is it possible that there are more planets on our system? | can there be more planets than those we know of? pluto was discovered somewhat recently, like pluto can there be other planets we maybe missing out? | there is no technical reason that there couldn't be, but there are some very convincing arguments as to why it would be extremely unlikely (in fact, practically impossible). supposing that there was a body matching the definition of a planet (held in a spherical shape by self gravitation, directly orbiting the sun, not sharing its orbit with any similar objects), the immediate question is where did this object come from? the planets that we know were formed by self-gravitation in the accreting disk of the sun during its formation (if you don't know what that means, look [here](_url_0_)). our understanding of protoplanetary discs tells us that most of the matter is centered near the sun, and it thins out as you get farther away. when you get as far out as pluto (which isn't a planet because it shares its orbit with similarly sized objects), you only have a tiny bit of matter that can form small icy and slightly rocky objects. beyond that, you have interstellar space which is mostly empty. so if there was another planet, where did it come from? our current understanding of solar system formation says that it almost certainly didn't form the same was as the inner planets - there's nothing out there for it to form from! the remaining scenarios are very unlikely. in order for another planet to be there, it would either have to be a moon ejected from our solar system or a body ejected from another solar system that happened to get caught in the sun's gravitational pull. the former is exceptionally unlikely, as such a body probably wouldn't have the appropriate angular momentum and direction to form a stable orbit. the latter is even less likely, because of the absurd timescales that it would take for a planet to arrive here from another star, and the probability of it having angular momentum and direction that allows a stable orbit are so minuscule they might as well be zero. tl;dr: it is possible, but our current understanding of the formation of the solar system says that the chances of it happening are near zero. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Nebula#Formation_of_planets",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vesta",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/90377_Sedna"
] | [
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have astronomers found any stars that they are certain do not have planets orbiting them? | there's been a huge surge in finding exoplanets over the past few decades, and i assume (maybe incorrectly) that they are found around the nearest stars. have we seen any stars that have no planets? | we have a couple of methods to find planets, but even if neither detect a planet around a given star, neither rules out there being a planet there. the radial velocity method watches the star's light spectrum. as the planet orbits the star, the star gets tugged by the planet's gravity, too, causing a slight wobble. this wobble will appear in the spectrum as slight red shifting as the planet tugs the star away from us and a slight blue shifting as the planet tugs the star towards us. the radial velocity method works best when the planet is very large and when it orbits very close to the star producing a pronounced, rapid wobble. there are *many* stars where we see no wobble. it does not mean the star has no planets, though. they could be too small for the wobble to be detectable, or the large planets could be too far from the star for the wobble to be noticed over the time scale that we observe the star. you need to measure the star's spectrum for multiple orbits of the planet to be sure the effect is due to the planet, and if the large planet's orbits are hundreds of years we haven't had this technique or the equipment to measure this long enough to confirm these types of planets. the other method that we're using is the transit method. in the rare instances where the planet's orbit is lined up so it passes between it's star and our observatory we'll see a dip in the amount of light recieved from the star due to the planet eclipsing it. nasa's kepler mission is looking at over 100,000 stars constantly to detect these transits, and has seen a few thousand. we don't see these transits for most stars as a planet's orbit has to be in exactly alligned for us to observe these eclipses. so, to sum up, we have a couple of methods to detect planets around other stars that are both fairly limited, and neither rule out completely whether a star has planets. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/02/0201_060201_ub313_pluto.html"
] | [
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why do all the planets with substantial axial tilt have such similar angles (besides uranus)? | i was flipping through recent nasa apod posts, and came across [this one](_url_0_) depicting the solar system planets along with some of their characteristics, including axial tilt. i noticed that all the planets with major axial tilt besides uranus are all quite similar in angle, between 23 and 29 degrees. are there any solid theories as to why this is? | it is mostly luck. neglecting planet-planet or planet-star or planet-disc interactions you would expect that the spin axis would align with the axis of the protoplanetary disc they formed from. with planet-star tidal interactions you would expect a reduction of obliquity due to tidal effects resulting in either a prograde or retrograde spin aligned with the orbital axis. planet-planet and planet-disc interactions can excite obliquity. so basically we should expect planets subject to strong tidal interactions to have near zero obliquity. of course impacts can do the same thing but far too many things in planets get attributed to impacts when other process can achieve the same thing. | 11 | [] | [
"https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap190520.html"
] | [] | [
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if helium-3 is so energy dense as fusion fuel, shouldn't we need very little of it? | and is enriched tritium decay enough to meet demand? | a deuterium/helium-3 mixture produces approximately 384 tj/kg. compare that to uranium which produces 80 tj/kg. yearly uranium consumption is about 60 million kg, if you wanted to replace all of that with helium-3 you'd still need thousands of tons each year. from 1955 to 1996 only 225 kg of tritium were produced in the usa. 150kg of which have since decayed into helium-3. so no, tritium decay would probably never be able to meet demand. | 66 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is helium-3 a viable fuel source? | i had the tv show ancient aliens playing for background noise while studying for finals (so i feel less lonely after being secluded in room 8+ hours). but the show claimed that a single space shuttle filled with helium-3 could power all the u.s.’s power needs for a year. is this even remotely true? if so, how feasible would it be to utilize this fuel source/ how realistic is it’s possible use? ( did a brief google search and all i really got was helium-3’s use in nuclear fusion) | that would perhaps have a semblance of truth if we had working fusion power plants, but we don't. the ones that do exist, which don't produce more energy than they consume, use deuterium and tritium as their reactants and not helium-3. one would need about 20 tons of helium 3 per year in order to power the united states (calculations based on energy yield per fusion reaction and some assumptions about power efficiency). the space shuttle is not huge, the cabin is about 75 cubic meters which would only be a few kilograms of helium at normal pressure, so you would have to jack the pressure pretty high to get a few tons. helium 3 right now is extremely important for low-temperature physics, and very hard to get. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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chemically, is there any discernible difference between a 12 year scotch and a 21 year old scotch? | how about the difference between single malt and blended malt? if not why does age or a single malt make scotch taste "smoother"? is it just based on our perception due to the higher price? | older scotches taste different because they have been sitting around in a oak barrel for all those years absorbing the flavors of the wood (also scotch is aged in pre-used barrels, usually bourbon but also sherry etc). single malts are a self explanatory - made from malted barley at a single distillery. in a blended malt the malt can be from various cereal grains but also a large amount of the mix could be just grain whiskey. this is distilled differently in a process similar to vodka (continuosly operating column still rather than a copper pot still as is done for single malts) which is cheaper and gives a lighter flavour once in a (practically) inert glass bottle the liquid should stay pretty similar to how it was when bottled except for some molecular breakdown and oxidation over time, especially if exposed to light or heat | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between liquor aged 10 years and one aged 40 years? what changes it? | i've never understood why liquor is considered better aged and what happens inside the bottle. | when a bottle says aged 12 year they mean 12 year in a barrel not the bottle. liquor, for example whiskey, picks up flavor from the cask/keg it is barreled in. the cask/keg can impart very subtle textures and flavors to a whiskey. wine, on the other hand, ages differently than liquor. as wine ages, a chemical called 'tannins' breaks down and the result is a "smoother" tasting wine. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if somebody gets a new organ and you check ~50 years later, will the organ still have the dna of the donor? | i guess the title says it all :) | it depends on the organ, and on what cells you look at. some cells (monocytes, for exemple) are able to migrate inside tissues, and they would have the dna of the host. however, the huge majority of the cells would have the donor's dna, yes. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex",
"http://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/ar2009/113_surv-new_dh.htm"
] | [
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if someone gets an organ transplant, and you took a tissue sample from that organ sample years later. would the dna be the recipients dna or the donor's? | i have always wondered this since my thought process is that the cells are reproducing themselves they would maintain the current dna. | depending on the organ, it would most likely be the donor dna. but, host cells can infiltrate and become part of the organ. some tissues would convert over completely like a skin graft. others would be partial like a heart. liver and kidney would probably stay mostly just donor. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does our angle of observation automatically limit the number of planets we can discover circling other stars? | i recently saw an article about the discovery of a "twin" solar system similar to ours. i have a basic grasp on the idea that the reason we can observe planets outside of our solar system is because we are measuring light output from stars and inferring that "dimming" indicates a planet passing between us and their star. does this mean that we can only observe these changes in light output when the planets pass directly between their star and our observatories? is it possible that solar systems similar to ours could be all around us but we just can't ever know they're there because of our angle of observation? | yes! this is actually a pretty major factor, and we take it into account: we assume that there are indeed planets that we don't observe because they aren't lined up right, and based off the number of planets we can see we can work out the geometry and make a good estimate of the total number of planets around. but we really do have to be lucky to see planets directly transiting in front of a star. but that's no the only way to find planets: there's also the radial velocity method, where we can see a star's velocity wobble back and forth, and we can work out there's a gravity source (i.e. a planet) orbiting it and making that happen. for this things don't need to be lined up perfectly, but it still helps to see the system "edge-on" because it's much easier to see motion towards and away from us rather side-to-side. it also helps if the planet is really big and really close to the star, so its gravity has a bigger effect. there's also microlensing, but that requires things to be really perfectly lined up. and finally there's direct imaging, which is where you can see the planet directly. we're starting to get enough resolution in our telescopes to actually do this. in this case, a face-on system is best, because you want the planet to be as far from the star as possible from your point of view, otherwise the star just overwhelms the planet with its brightness. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do humans need to brush their teeth to fight infection and bacteria , while other animals do not ? | mad props to whoever knows! | keep in mind that our modern diet makes us more prone to dental caries than most animal diets; [sucrose](_url_0_) is the primary dietary component responsible for the formation of cavities. evidence suggests that human populations (eg, [eskimos](_url_1_), had very few cavities per person prior to contact with europeans. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/173/4003/1199.short",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.1330520407/abstract"
] | [
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why do two stroke gasoline engines have to use mixed fuel? why aren't they designed with a separate oil system? | the main problem with two stroke engines is that they do not burn cleanly, thus restricting their use to small applications despite their high power to weight. i do not understand why they must have the fuel be the lubricant instead of having separate oil and fuel like 4 stroke engines. | two-stroke engines can have a separate fuel and lubrication systems. this is common in marine 2-stroke diesel engines. (marine 2-stroke diesels also aren't small.) the lubricant-in-fuel thing does make for a simple engine. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.animatedengines.com/otto.html",
"http://www.animatedengines.com/twostroke.html"
] | [
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(astronomy) why is the sun white? | i've heard that the sun is white, and that the atmosphere makes it look yellow, but it's surface temperature of about 6000 degrees celsius would place it as a yellow star in the hr diagram. is the sun not white then? | the hr diagram was created in 1910 when we knew much less about stars and their spectral power distributions. the color range on the diagram was arbitrarily based on visual observations. there are a lot of traditional holdovers like this in astronomy that remain because they don't really get in the way of the science. you're correct that the sun is white but appears yellow or orange due to atmospheric scattering. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't we consider vastly different breeds of dog different species? | it seems like some of the breeds are now so far differentiated from each other breeds that, even though they are reproductively compatible, they shouldn't be considered the same species because their phenotypes are so different. at what point do we consider a species "created" via selective breeding? | the tl;dr answer is, they are capable of producing viable (able to reproduce) offspring with each other, therefore they are the same species, even if their phenotype is dramatically different. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are rogue planets more spherical than planets that are orbiting a star? | i was watching kurzgesagt's video about potential life on rogue planets (which is a great video: [_url_0_](_url_0_)), and it mentions the formation of these types of planets. however, it doesn't mention this essentially mundane question of mine. could rogue planets be more spherical than planets that are in an orbit because they have a potentially less uniform rotation? i could understand that there's no way we could really accurately measure this and it's pretty useless information, but i was just curious if anyone had an idea. thanks! | the spericalness is mainly driven by the total mass of the object. the higher the mass the more spherical as surface gravity is highest. for this reason we see the largest mountain in the solar system on mars and smaller bodies like moons or dwarf planets are even less spherical. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7CkdB5z9PY"
] | [] | [
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] |
if photons have no mass, why does a black hole trap them? | do black holes not only have huge gravitational pulls but also energy pulls? please explain. | a photon does not require mass to be affected by gravity as the source of gravity is not mass, it is energy and momentum, which a photon definitely has. minutephysics has a great [video](_url_0_) explaining this and some other common physics misconceptions. | 116 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IM630Z8lho8",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole",
"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/galaxies/lensing.html",
"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/cosmology/gravity.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"
] | [
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why can noise cancelling headphones only cancel at low freqs? | can anyone explain why exactly noise cancelling headphones are only able to cancel reasonably low frequency sounds? is it more of a practical limitation or a scientific limitation? bonus: is it at all related to why low frequencies tend to travel through walls, while higher frequencies do not? | it's a problem with electronics. to cancel a wave you need to be able to synthesize an identical but opposite one. if you have a 100 hz wave the whole wave is 10 ms long. so, if you sample the signal, invert it and reproduce it with a lag of less than 1 ms or so you're almost set. if you have a 1 khz wave (which is "mid range" in audio) the whole wave is 1 ms long. you'd have to reproduce the signal identically in less than 0.1 ms. which is basically impossible. also, mantaining phase coherence is not that easy at higher frequency. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some people get sunburned and others just get tan? | what makes someone more fair skinned and why do they burn as opposed to tan? for biology i guess. | to understand tanning, you must first understand what a sunburn is. a part of the spectrum of wavelengths that make up sunlight is what we call uv radiation. uv radiation is problematic, because it causes dna damage. cells have several repair mechanisms that revert dna damage but when it becomes too excessive the cell goes into apoptosis, essentially committing suicide. this is what happens to millions of cells in a sunburned area. when enough cells die in an area, it induces inflammation, a process that brings more macrophages (clean-up cells) to the area and aids the repair process. the vessels just below the skin dilate, bringing more blood to the area and making it swollen, red and hot. pain nerve ends are also sensitized, making even light touch painful. this is obviously something that you want to avoid. for this reason there are cells called melanocytes among the typical keratinocytes that make up most of the epidermis. melanocytes produce eumelanin, a brown/black pigment, that they then transport to the keratinocytes. the keratinocytes then take that eumelanin and stack it on top of their nucleus, where the cells dna is kept. this protects the cell from uv radiation damage and the amount of eumelanin in the skin gives it its colour. so why doesn't everyone have black skin? well, it is thought that people with paler skin are able to take advantage of the weaker sunlight in areas closer to the poles. for example, you need some wavelengths of uv radiation in order to produce vitamin d, so to produce the necessary amounts while living in darker areas of the world you need to have less eumelanin in your skin. however, everyone still has the same amount of melanocytes in their skin. the difference is their level of activity. people have different baseline eumelanin production levels depending on their genetics, but it can also be induced to increase. one way to do that is by exposing yourself to sunlight. not everything is known about these mechanisms, but it seems like the surrounding keratinocytes signal the melanocytes to increase their production. this is especially true if there is a lot of dna damage in these keratinocytes, since that seems to make them signal the melanocytes more. thus, black people have too much baseline eumelanin to get sunburned and typically don't get more tanned by sunbathing. some relatively pale people have enough eumelanin to avoid getting sunburned in a typical sunbathing session, but induce a much higher production of eumelanin causing them to become tanned. the palest people don't have enough eumelanin to avoid sunburns in much shorter sessions and do tan a bit, but seem to be predisposed towards smaller increments of tanning. finally, albinoes can't produce any eumelanin and are completely white, getting sunburns even on cloudy days. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if photons have no mass, how can they be affected by gravity and sucked into a black hole? | because einstein was more correct in his description of gravity than newton was. you're right that the newtonian physics you learn in high school or first year of a college physics curriculum says that black holes can't trap light, because photons have no mass. that old standby of f=gmm/r^2 is not really an accurate description of how gravity works, though. it's a model that works well enough at the kinds of scales we encounter every day. einstein models gravity as a warping of the spacetime around an energy density (which often is, but doesn't have to be, a mass). a photon still travels through space, and still is affected by its curvature. one of the earliest tests of general relativity was looking for this kind of deflection of light by a mass, which einstein predicted should happen and newton predicted would not. in 1919, sir arthur eddington looked for distant starlight being deflected by the sun during a solar eclipse - and found it. so far, **every** test of general relativity has seen gr pass with flying colors, up to and including recent developments in imaging black holes and seeing gravitational waves. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do stars and planets first start spinning? | i was reading another askscience thread: _url_0_ , and i began to wonder, how does a pulsar or other star first start spinning, and how does it get up to such high speeds? also, how can we measure the speed of the spin? | stars and planets form out of huge gas clouds as you may know. these gas clouds have some natural motion (swirling), this is where the initial motion comes from. as the cloud collapses to form a star, the radius of the cloud decreases. conservation laws tell us that the angular momentum before the collapse and after the collapse must be the same. since the radius of a collapsed cloud is so much smaller, it must spin much faster in order to have the same angular momentum. the solar system forms during the process of star collapse, so the bodies in the solar system will rotate in the same direction for the same reasons mentioned above. | 13 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/v4sp7/how_can_a_pulsar_like_this_even_be_possible/"
] | [] | [
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] |
do people who are "tone deaf" have problems when speaking tonal languages? | i've met people who are "tone deaf" on different levels; some can play music by ear, but can't imitate a tonal key with their voice, and others can not do either. i know there are many languages, particularly asian languages, that are tonal: the same word spoken in different tones, has two different meanings. so if someone is "tone deaf", does it impact their ability to communicate? i hope this is in the right subreddit... | there was a study of chinese people who spoke mandarin, language that requires pitch when speaking, and evaluated them for amusia (inability to differentiate pitch and sounds accurately). the researchers were able to identify some participants as having amusia, who were significantly worse than others at recognising pitch, even when raised in a tonal-dialect society. the amusia-participants however were seemingly unaware of their difference and were able to reproduce tones successfully. this would suggest that though unable to identify tones, they did not suffer from communication issues. the paper is [here](_url_0_) and a neat summary can be found [here](_url_1_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/133/9/2635.short",
"http://seajellyexhibit.blogspot.co.uk/2010/08/problems-with-pitch-congenital-amusia.html"
] | [
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why does planets have planar orbits rather then spatial orbitals? | i would love to know the answer. this is something that has been popping out of my mind for a while. | i am not sure what "spatial" means in this context but, i'll answer why the planets in our solar system are in a plane. the sun and all the planets were formed from a big ball of gas (the proto-solar nebula), that slowly collapsed in on itself due to its own gravity. at some point, the fact that the gas was slowly spinning generated a force that was comparable to the gravitational collapse, and the system formed more into a plate-like shape. most of the gas stilled flowed toward toward the center, and formed the early sun. some of the rest of it, especially the sooty particles we call astrophysical dust, agglomerated into the planets. the planets retained the motion of the gas and dust they were born from, and thus all orbit in the same plane, which has the same sense of rotation as the sun itself. i am not up on all the recent results from kepler and other planet finding missions, but i do believe that not all systems have all the planets in a relatively flat plane, though most do. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/images/force_centripetal-rope.gif"
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what causes food to get freezer-burned and what chemicals make up the distinctive smell? | also, since people are instinctively turned off by the freezer-burned smell, i wondered if this may have evolutionary origins. if so, why? wouldn't frozen food be safe from microorganisms? | [freezer burn](_url_0_) has nothing to do with micro-organisms, and does not affect the safety of the food. freezer burn is simply when a portion (or all) of a piece of food becomes dehydrated in the freezer, due to improper packaging. a consequence of the low temperatures in a freezer, the air is able to hold relatively little water, which accelerates the dehydration process of any exposed food surface (even though ice is a solid, there is still a flux of molecules to the surrounding air, i.e. sublimation). in addition to drying out, the food, in particular meats and foods containing fat) are prone to oxidation, as some water molecules are replaced with oxygen. this changes the chemical structure of the food, and can produce some funky compounds or flavors (and possibly the adsorption of some other flavors that are floating around in the freezer), are what might make it smell unappetizing, not the actual freezer "burning" of the food. that said, when food oxidizes in other situations, it may be accompanied by either spoilage or simply reduced nutrition , so there may be some reasoning behind it from an evolutionary perspective, but again, neither the oxidation nor the freezer burn actually cause food to be unsafe. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/freezerburn.html"
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why do motorcycles produce more pollution than cars despite having better gas mileage? | also, why do motorbike engines consume more gasoline per pound attached to it? | first thing first: bikes, with the exception of the very few very small bikes, don't really get amazingly better mileage than cars. the answer is that, for the most part, car engines are *much* more sophisticated than bike engines. many bikes still have carburetors, which have poor control over fueling, and those which have fuel injection use very simple systems with open-loop fuel maps. bikes only recently started including catalytic converters, exhaust gas recirculation, charcoal canisters, and all the other emissions control equipment that have been standard on cars for decades now. bikes are also generally tuned for power, rather than cars which are generally tuned with a preference for economy. this all adds up to poor emissions compared to cars. for an example: the current cbr1000rr, which is honda's flagship sportbike, has engine management and emissions control equipment roughly comparable to a 1985 civic crx. because drag is a much bigger factor for fuel economy than weight. cars are much, much more aerodynamic than bikes. cars have a drag coefficient somewhere in the ~.35 range, with some being much lower, while bikes are generally around 1. that means a bike has three times more drag than a car with the same frontal area. a bike with one third the frontal area would have the same amount of drag as a car. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if space in the universe is expanding and space is a part of spacetime, does it mean that time is expanding as well? | here's an attempt at an answer that requires less mathematical background. (of course, it'll be less detailed and "more mysterious" as a result, but hopefully this type of explanation will have an audience.) when we say space is expanding, we mean that the universe's rulers are growing. this kind of abstract; the thing we see in practice is that galaxies (and other bits of matter) that are widely separated move away from each other. space is a part of spacetime, meaning that nature treats space and time pretty similarly - the distance between two points is closely related to the time elapsed between two events. the expanding universe means that two points grow away from each other over time. if today two points are a billion light years away from each other, then at some point in the future they'll be two billion light years away, and so on. so let's apply this to "expanding time": what would that mean? well, let's replace spatial distances with time intervals. it would mean that if you have two *events*, in the same location, separated by (say) a year, then at some point down the line, similar events would be *two* years apart. for example, these two events might be consecutive ticks of an atomic clock. at this point you may already see an ambiguity in the question. what does it *mean* for the time between two events to get longer? if i have some atomic clock, ticking away, how do i know if the ticks are getting further and further apart? i need to use the clock in order to measure how long it takes between ticks! this is why, as other people have noted, there isn't a definite answer to this question. it depends entirely on how you choose to measure time in the first place. (or, in the mathematical terms used elsewhere, on your choice of time coordinate/spacetime slices.) the universe doesn't prefer any one particular type of clock. if you measure time using your atomic clock, then it's pretty obvious that time *doesn't* expand. if you measure time in some other way, then you might find that time does expand. but in the end it's not really a meaningful question. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if space is under perpetual expansion, then is time also 'expanding'? | ok, here is what scientists use to explain part of einstein's theories: 'space and time cannot be separated. you should always see it as an intertwined fabric called spacetime.' here is what they use to explain the expansion of the universe: 'the stars and galaxies stand pretty still, it's the space between them that is expanding.' so... does that mean time is also in expansion? that is, the 'distance' between t and t+1 is getting longer & longer? if not, how to reconcile the above 2 quotes? | no. the first quote is really just a way of saying that there isn't an "absolute time" - we can't describe the structure of space on its own and think of time as a single, static ticking clock that all observers anywhere in space agrees on. so we must unify time and space, and describe their structure together. but that doesn't mean that time and space should behave identically, and in general they don't (for starters, there are three spatial dimensions, but only one "temporal" dimension). the mathematics we use to describe the structure of spacetime involves an object called the metric, which is essentially something that tells us how to measure a length between two points. in ordinary, non-relativistic three-dimensional space, this looks like: dl^(2) = dx^(2) \+ dy^(2) \+ dz^(2) which should be familiar: it's just a three-dimensional version of pythagoras' theorem. if we now include time as a coordinate, we get the [minkowski spacetime](_url_2_) of special relativity , for which the metric is: dl^(2) = -dt^(2) \+ dx^(2) \+ dy^(2) \+ dz^(2) finally, to describe an expanding universe, we need to use the [flrw metric](_url_0_), which looks like: dl^(2) = -dt^(2) \+ a(t)^(2) × (dx^(2) \+ dy^(2) \+ dz^(2)) the function a(t) is known as the scale factor, and is a function which grows with time in a way that depends on what the universe contains (how much matter, radiation, dark matter and dark energy there is), and this factor is what causes the universe to expand. your second quote comes from the fact that if you ignore the scale factor, you recover the minkowski metric. in other words, in an expanding universe even things that are stationary appear to move apart due to the space around them expanding. but if you imagine a grid of coordinates that grows with the expansion, then two objects that start off on grid square apart will always remain that far apart. we call this grid [comoving coordinates](_url_1_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoving_and_proper_distances#Comoving_coordinates",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"
] | [
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when our vision is blurry, what happens inside of our eyes when we squint to “clarify” the images we see? | when you vision is blurry (due to the lens not focusing correctly due to various reasons) and you squint your eyes, your eyelids come closer together and reduce the aperture of the light coming in through the pupils. this effectively makes the eye almost become a pinhole camera which can focus images without the aid of a lens. you can find out more about why a pinhole camera works the way it does [here](_url_0_). (effectively it cuts out a bunch of extraneous rays and keeps only the ones that will focus on the image plane...the closer you get to a perfect pinhole camera, the dimmer the image gets though). | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/pixar/virtual-cameras/virtual-cameras-1/v/optics1-final"
] | [
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] |
|
are there numbers like pi, as in infinite non-repeating decimals, that can be expressed rationally in a non-base 10 system? | when learning about binary, it came up how numbers like 0.4 can't exactly represented in a base 2 system. if an irrational binary number is the same as a rational decimal, does that mean there are rational numbers of a higher base equal to irrational decimals? also i don't know a whole lot about the non-repeating element of pi, and how that plays into the whole question. how can we even tell it will never repeat? | we know it will never repeat because we know that it is irrational. the proof that it is irrational is rather involved and involves a little bit of higher level math, but it is possible to show that there are no integers a and b such that pi=a/b. the fact that it will never repeat follows from this. note that all of this is irrespective of your choice of representation; integers are integers are integers, in any base. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_of_2"
] | [
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why is it that humans don't form clear memories from when we are very young? | i have heard that this is because the hippocampus has not fully developed, in addition to the fact that the child doesn't understand it's surroundings, and therefore can't categorize what it experiences into comprehensible thoughts and memories. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why can we see the moon during the day sometimes? | and does that mean there are moonless nights as well? | [here](_url_0_) i made you an image. it depends on the position of the moon relative to the earth and sun. when the moon is behind the [terminator](_url_1_) (seen in the illustration i made) we see the moon at night. when it is in front of the terminator we see it during the day. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Qu6lU.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminator_%28solar%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=earth-moon+distance+divided+by+earth-sun+distance+times+one+mile",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=earth-moon+distance+divided+by+earth-sun+distance+times+one+kilometer"
] | [
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] |
why are galaxies not spherical? | i've wondered for a long time, why are galaxies such as our own flat? surely if gravity works in all directions, should galaxies be spherical? and if so, are there any spherical galaxies? | the same reasons solar systems aren't spherical. the laws governing angular momentum. basically, a spiral galaxy is flat(ish) for the same reason a solar system flat(ish). averages and gravity! there are many galaxies, called [elliptical galaxies](_url_1_), which are amorphous blobs. and even spiral galaxies have a [bulge](_url_0_) in their center. edit: downvote? this is ask science, if you think i'm wrong about something don't down vote and run, tell me why. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulge_(astronomy\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy"
] | [
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why do hard plastics become lighter in color when bent? | let's say i have an orange plastic chopstick, and i bend it to the breaking point. normally, the area near the bend turns lighter/white just before it breaks. why does this happen? | you are introducing a whole bunch of dislocations and other defects into the structure of the solid and these things tend to reflect light differently than the normal plastic, an effect we call crazing. it is also possible that you are doing something like stress induced ordering of the polymer which can happen in rare cases but it is most likely an abundance of defects which you are observing. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't antibiotics kill the good bacteria in our system? | so, i know antibiotics are taken to kill bacterial infections, but how do they target only the bad, infecting bacteria and not kill the natural bacteria in our stomachs, intestines, etc. | actually, antibiotics *do* kill the bacteria naturally found in your body. antibiotic therapy is associated with overgrowth of [*clostridium difficile*](_url_1_) gut flora in your bowels leading to intractable diarrhea. when this occurs, it is recommended to [change antibiotic therapy](_url_0_). this is not a common occurrence, but when it does happen steps need to be taken to treat the side-effects of the antibiotic therapy that caused this type of diarrhea. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.uptodate.com/contents/antibiotic-associated-diarrhea-caused-by-clostridium-difficile-beyond-the-basics",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9777516"
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is the gas in giant gas clouds and nebulae dense enough that sound could travel? | could someone within one of those gigantic clouds of gas hear anything? | not anything audible to the human ear, no. this gas is so thin that on human scales it would really just feel like a vacuum. it only really starts to act like a gas when we look on time-scales and length-scales large enough that the particles are undergoing *lots* of collisions within that time or distance. you *can* get pressure waves - sound waves, shock waves etc - but the frequency needs to be very very slow, and the wavelength needs to be very very long, enough that things start acting like a gas from that perspective. for gas clouds, we're talking years of time, and hundreds of au of distance. incidentally, this means that when i perform simulations of gas clouds over millions or billion of years, i really can treat them like a gas, because we're well above those scales. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are nebulae and gas clouds in space dense enough that sound could travel through them? | i'm basically wondering if in a nebulae you could hear stars being created | not any that you could hear if you were hanging out there in a spacesuit, but even in sparser regions of the interstellar medium especially energetic events like supernovae can create shockwaves that propagate for many light-years. in theory an immensely large and sensitive receiver could record these sounds, and this would be easier to do in a nebula. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does "fine wine" actually get better over time? | this question might not belong in here since what makes a wine "fine" is kind of subjective (there's lots of people that would rather have cheap wine). anyways... time only maters while the wine is still in the barrels. wine doesn't continue to "age" once bottled. while the wine is fermenting in the barrel, it absorbs flavor notes from the wood used to make the barrels and the bacteria spend more time eating the sugars and pooping booze. this added complexity of the flavour profile of a wine is what makes it "better." you'll often hear sommeliers or other wine experts mention things like "this has a note of citrus" or "you can taste some pepper." wine makes don't actually add citrus or pepper to their wines. these flavors come from the grapes, wood and bacteria used in fermentation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are people advised not to drink alcohol when taking antibiotics? | there are a couple of reasons, which can vary from the type of antibiotic being used. for certain specific antibiotics, such as metronidazole or certain cephalosporins, a large amount of alcohol consumed acutely can lead to dangerous reactions. many drugs are metabolized in the liver, through a class of enzymes called cyps. alcohol is also handled by cyp enzymes, so you can temporarily overload the capacity of the liver to metabolize other drugs when intoxicated by alcohol. this could lead to higher levels of the antibiotics you are taking, increasing the risk for drug toxicity. it's also possible for the drugs to interfere with the metabolism of alcohol itself, leading to nastier side-effects associated with alcohol consumption generally, not all antibiotics will necessarily interact with alcohol. however, the effects of alcohol as a cns depressant can worsen symptoms associated with infections. also, alcohol can impair your body's ability to fight the infection through blood vessel dilation and promotion of fluid excretion in the kidneys. pretty much it's just a good idea not to drink while you are are dealing with an infection. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible that the reason the universe is expanding is because it is still in it's acceleration phase of the big bang? | when something explodes stationary objects accelerate then slow down with forces such as friction. so isn't it possible that we are looking at the universe while it is still accelerating and eventually gravity will grab hold pull it all back together and the "big crunch" will happen till it "big bangs" then it all starts again. | some people have postulated theories like this, but one of the biggests problems is that as far as we know, the rate of expansion of the universe is actually *accelerating*, not slowing down. since we are not only expanding, but also show no signs of slowing down it seems unlikely that we will end in a "big crunch" (unless, of course, there is some hidden mechanism for reversing the rate of expansion we have not yet observed). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for a large moon have a satellite of its own? | i was watching *through the wormhole* and it mentioned that the galilean moons were the size of planets. | due to the tidal effects from the host planet, orbits around a moon would not be stable in the long-term. in the short term, you can orbit a moon just like any other body, but we don't expect to find natural satellites of moons due to how brief the arrangement would be. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for the moon of one planet to have satellite of its own? | gravity does not have rules about what is allowed to orbit what. also the phrase "moon " is just a label for a body that is orbiting something that is also orbiting a star. so yes, it is possible. bear in mind that orbits are not stable like an eternal clockwork mechanism, so given enough time things will either collide or escape each other's gravitatonal influence. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if 1 box in 100 has a prize, i have a 1% chance of winning. but if i play it 100 times, i do not have 100% chance of winning. why is that? and what is the actual win chance? | tl;dr the reason why is because each play is independent. just like if you flip a coin twice, whether you get heads or tails on the first flip has no impact on what you'll get on the second one. likewise, just because you didn't find a prize in the first 99 boxes, doesn't mean that you are any more or less likely to win a prize on the 100th. ------- here is how you would compute the actual chance: we can ask the question: what is the probability that you will win at least one prize p(wins ≥ 1) in the 100 boxes. in order to compute this, it's actually easier to figure out what the chance is of not winning any prizes: p(wins = 0) because these two probabilities have the following relationship: p(wins = 0) + p(wins ≥ 1) = 1 that is, you can either not win any prizes or win at least one prize. this describes all possible scenarios of what can happen, which is why, when we add up those probabilities, we get 1. you can think of that as saying "there is 100% chance that you will either win nothing or win something". (note that it's more common to see p(wins ≥ 1) as p(wins so what is p(wins = 0)? let's start by thinking about what the probability of not winning for just one box and then we'll extend it to all 100. if you're chance of winning is 1%, then your chance of losing is 99%. note that we are using the exact same logic as above: p(win) + p(lose) = 1 0.01 + p(lose) = 1 p(lose) = 0.99 ok, now to extend to more boxes: what's the chance of not winning twice in a row? well you have to lose one time (99%) and then a second time (99%), or p(lose1 and lose2). because the events (boxes) are independent, we can rewrite this as p(lose1) * p(lose2). this means that you lose the first and second time. analogously, for flipping a coin, we'd say that the probability of getting two heads in a row is 0.5 * 0.5 (50% chance the first time and 50% chance the second time). we can now extend this to even more boxes: p(lose1 and lose2 and lose3) = 0.99 * 0.99 * 0.99 you can see a pattern emerging here. in general, then, we can say that the probability of n losses in a row, if each loss is independent, is: (1-p)^n where p is the probability of winning and n is the number of boxes so this is: p(all losses) = (1-0.01)^100 ~= 0.366 or 36.6% chance of not winning any prizes in 100 boxes. this is what we called p(wins = 0) above. so to complete the answer: p(at least one win) = p(wins ≥ 1) = 1 - p(wins = 0) = 1 - 0.366 = 0.634 so there is a 63.4% chance that you will win at least one prize in 100 boxes if the chance of winning a prize is 1% per box and each box is independent. if instead you wanted to know what is the probability of winning *exactly* one prize and no more (p(win = 1)), we can figure that out too, and it's a bit easier. we already know what the probability of winning one prize out of one box is: p(win) = 0.01 and we also know what the probability of losing for one box is: p(lose) = 0.99. we also know that we can compute the probability of many losses by simply multiplying the probabilities together. well we can combine any probabilities this way. multiplications can be thought of as an and operator: p(99 losses) = 0.99^99 p(1 win) = 0.01 p(99 losses and one win) = p(99 losses) * p(one win) = 0.99^99 * 0.01 ~= 0.0037 so there's about a 0.37% chance of winning *exactly* one prize. note that this only works because the events are independent. however, this calculation is for a very specific sequence of events: 99 losses in a row followed by one win. there are many other ways we can get 1 win: 1 win followed by 99 losses; 3 losses, a win, and then another 96 losses, etc. note that each of these sequences of events has the exact same probability (0.37%). in order to calculate p(wins = 1) irrespective of which sequence we get, we need to enumerate all possible ways in which you can get 1 win in a sequence of 100 events / boxes. we've essentially just derived the reasoning behind the [binomial distribution](_url_0_). so now we need to find out: what are the possible ways in which we can have 1 win in 100 events? what are the possible sequences that is? this is 100 choose 1. the formula for this is: 100! / (1! * (100-1)!) = 100! / 99! = 100 intuitively, you can think about it this way: of 100 boxes, which one can be the winning box? the first, the second, the third, the fourth, etc. there are 100 possibilities. that is, there are 100 ways in which i can get 1 winning box and 99 losing boxes. so p(wins = 1) = 100 choose 1 * p(99 losses and 1 win) = 100 * 0.0037 = 0.37 or 37% why does it seem like you are less likely to win exactly one prize (p(wins=1)) as opposed to any amount of prizes (p(wins≥1))? well, the probability of winning any amount of prizes *includes* the probability of winning just one: p(wins ≥ 1) = p(wins=1) + p(wins=2) + p(wins=3) + .... + p(wins = 100) here, the addition operator means or: if you are winning any amount of prizes, that could mean one prize or two prizes or three prizes, etc. edit: formatting; i done goofed. forgot to multiply by n choose k | 186 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_distribution"
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why does water always taste 'flat' when you leave it out overnight? | water tastes "flat" after leaving it out overnight is due to the dissolved oxygen (do) dissipating during the course of the night. fresh water especially freshly poured water has a high do that leaves water over time. ways to counter the flat taste would to put a lid on the container and shake up the water reintroducing the water to fresh oxygen. (a interesting link for more info. [](_url_0_) | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_aeration",
"https://www.wired.com/2015/08/big-question-tap-water-go-stale-overnight/"
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|
why are dog breeds not officially different species? | there seems to be more variation between, say, a shih tzu and a great dane than there is between homo sapiens and homo neanderthalensis, so why are they all the same species? | they are considered the same species because they can produce fertile young and have the ability to exchange genes as they have the same number of chromosomes. they also have similar immunological responses to one another. the definition for a species however is still debated and it must be remembered that classification is a human created system and nature may not always follow the rules we create for classification. anybody please correct me if what i have said is inaccurate information. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_species",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey#Donkey_hybrids",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_problem"
] | [
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] |
is there a notable difference of quality of gasoline from one brand to the next? | my uncle was a chemist for bp and from talking to him i was under the impression that the area you live in and their laws are far more likely to effect your gasoline quality then the brand. just at their plant they had over 150 variations of gasoline, and they only supplied 3 or 4 states. so really if you want the best gas, look up the regulations in your town and compare them to your other local areas and see which require the least amount of "environmental additives." this is of course, assuming you want to more power/effect from your gas and not "greener" gas. you could just as easily do the opposite i suppose. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do insects sleep like mammals? | i was just wondering if insects like mosquitos, bees or ants have a sleep rhythm like humans and other mammals? | yes, insects do sleep. the problem is, its a bit trickier to study then sleep in mammals. insects most likely undergo torpor, or "a state of decreased physiological activity". we can assume they are in a sleep like state because they are more difficult to arouse, startle, and upon being deprived of this cycle become a lot more sluggish. insects also have a circadian rhythm like mammals do, but it varies from insect to insect. some insects are only active during the night, and vice versa. related articles: [1](_url_0_) [2](_url_1_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627300808776",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15817324"
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why is the ocean so salty? | you are ~~completely~~ mostly right. salt exists in large deposits all across the globe. as water travels across the land, it picks up salt and other minerals and deposits them in the ocean. when the water evaporates from the ocean, it leaves the salt and minerals behind. over billions of years, the oceans became salty. good deduction on your part! edit: see posts by others below. | 429 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are galaxies moving in circles relative to one another, like solar system do inside galaxies? | as a point of information, no orbit is ever a true circle. this will help explain this and about how objects similar in mass orbit one another. _url_0_ in direct answer to your question, it depends on whether they are gravitationally bound to one another. galaxies that are close enough to one another and moving below the escape velocity of the gravity wells of any other near it will be bound. several things can happen. they may orbit one another like two balls on the end of a string around a common center of gravity somewhere in between them. if one happens to be much larger, it may capture several satellite galaxies that would rotate around it. they may collide and merge with one another. if one is large enough and moving fast enough compared to another it is passing it may disrupt it without capturing it. there are many possible permutations. since these clusters can be enormous. it might be hard to tell how they appear on a grand scale. that being said, given our own galaxy has several satellites galaxies, it is not hard to imagine a massively larger galaxy collecting many more around it. this might appear on such a scale to resemble itself a galaxy. it most certainly would be caused by the same forces. sort of russian doll form. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_orbit"
] | [
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|
everything else equal, what effect does tire size have on a vehicle's gas mileage? | ...maybe saying everything else equal is a bit cosmic? | first things first it depends on what you mean by tire size. the standard for labeling size is tread footprint/sidewall height/rim size. changing any one of the measurements effect weight of the tire, which in turn effects gas mileage by allowing the same amount of power to pull less weight. the measurement most likely to change weight is rim size, and composition. so for example an alluminium alloy 15" rim will weigh less than a steel alloy 15", or an alluminium alloy 16". when you increase the tread footprint you increase grip (example: moving from a 225/50/15 to a 275/50/15) when you increase grip, you decrease mileage because you need more power to break traction, effectively causing more weight. sidewall size also has an effect on weight, but not as much. one thing of note concerning sidewall size is the larger sidewall, the more room for fluctuation. the more fluctuation in the sidewall, the hotter it gets, which decreases stability, and traction. traction(grip) plays a surprising amount into fuel economy because the more traction you have, the higher the rolling resistance, which again means you need more power to move the tire than with a lower resistance. as /u/datanaut said, your vehicle is geared specifically for the stock tire size, so changing sizes is equivocal to changing gearing. if you don't know anything about gearing, its responsible for dictating speeds at certain rpm. so for example, my motorcycle travels 80mph at 6krpm, in 6th gear. changing my sprockets would change my speed in respect to my rpm. a smaller gear(tire) will decrease speed at 6krpm in 6th gear, but will increase my rate of acceleration because there is less distance for the gear to travel to complete one cycle. i hope this answers your question fully. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does popcorn have higher antioxidants than most fruits? | in /r/frugal this [link](_url_0_) came up and people were talking about it. does it have any merit? | here is a list of antioxidant rich foods per serving _url_0_ researchers at the human nutrition research center on aging at tufts university figured it out by measuring various fruits and vegetables for their orac (oxygen radical absorbance capacity), a fancy way of saying their antioxidant power. here are the top 10 performers in each category: fruits 1. prunes 2. raisins 3. blueberries 4. blackberries 5. strawberries 6. raspberries 7. plums 8. oranges 9. red grapes 10. cherries vegetables 1. kale 2. spinach 3. brussels sprouts 4. alfalfa sprouts 5. broccoli flowers 6. beets 7. red bell peppers 8. onions 9. corn 10. eggplant from what i found the popcorn hulls are quite high in antioxidents sorry to say, but when popcorn serves as a vehicle for highly palatable, but highly fattening condiments, it's (still) not good for you. but, according to new research, a handful of plain popcorn might be: as part of his presentation at the american chemical society meeting on sunday in san diego, joe vinson, a professor of chemistry at the university of scranton revealed that the hull that surrounds popping corn is unusually rich in polyphenols -- a type of antioxidant associated with helping to prevent cancer. antioxidants repair cellular damage caused by "free radicals" -- unstable molecules in our body. vinson and his co-investigator, michael coco, jr. tested four different brands of popcorn, grinding up the popped kernels and analyzing them. they found that 90 percent of the polyphenols came from the hull rather than the "white fluffy stuff" and that the overall load was high: 242-363 milligrams per one-ounce serving. (by comparison, fruits like apples and pears often have about 160 milligrams of the antioxidants per ounce.) overall, about 1.5 percent of popped corn is comprised of polyphenols, according to time healthland. | 2 | [] | [
"http://web.1.c2.audiovideoweb.com/1c2web3536/SAN_DIEGO/Popcorn_Polyphenols.htm"
] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food#_"
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why do some things melt, while others burn? | i am quite curious about this. | although there are a large number of objects that melt at a certain tenperature, there are some that don't. the latter, usually flammable objects, they are just more thermodynamically favourable to burn(oxidize) when given enough energy(heated up) then to melt. if you were to try to set alight flammable object eg. wax in an inert atomsphere, eg. helium, you will find that it will melt than burn. some proteins and organic compounds decompose when heated rather than melting, is also because it is more thermodynamically favourable to decompose into simplier substance, than to melt. edited for spelling, corrected the "all objects" part. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can the sum of infinite rational numbers be an irrational number? | there are convergent series where every term is a rational number, and the sum (the limit of the sequence of partial sums) is an irrational number. an example is the serie formed by the sequence 1/n!, whose sum is e, an irrational number. on the other hand, the sum of two rational numers is always a rational number. how is this possible? | this is actually how the reals are defined: the reals are defined by a collection of values such that for each value v some series of rationals that "cauchy converges" (roughly, a series where all partial sums sufficiently far into the it are all arbitrarily closer to each other) cannot be separated from v. for example, let's consider the series 3 + .1 + .04 + .001 + ... = 3.141... if we were to write out more digits, we'd get more digits of π. while for every rational r we can say that this number is some positive distance from r, we construct the reals so that there is now some value π we can associate with this series which we cannot say it is separated from. of course, any real number (rational or irrational) can be written in as a series using its decimal expansion, so the same works for any other rational/irrational number. underlying all of this is the philosophical question of why we need the real numbers. why aren't the rationals enough? as the greeks found out long ago, even simple right triangles with length-1 legs cannot have the length of their hypotenuse expressed as a rational. any rational number you pick is either too small or too big. we thus fill in the gap with real numbers: those values that can only be reached by taking smaller and smaller increments of the rationals infinite times. now there are no more such holes where some value is somehow either too big or too small compared to all numbers. the reals are, in both a formal and intuitive sense, the completion of the rationals. tl;dr: it's defined that way, because we want infinite sequences in the rationals that seem to approach a value (in the sense that the terms all bunch up in the end) to actually have a number to converge to. those values they converge to are called the reals, which includes rationals and irrationals alike. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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plastic coke bottles (with minimal liquid residue) will, with the cap screwed on tight, develop a partial vacuum (negative pressure) inside over time. why? | i've unwittingly been conducting this natural experiment in my dorm room for two years. my girlfriend hypothesizes that whatever chemical or metabolic event taking place in the liquid residue has used the air constituents to form smaller molecules, which results in the negative pressure. edit: tomaattisose (and others) has hit on a likely explanation: > fluctuations in temperature cause changes in pressure. when the difference in pressure is positive, the air slowly escapes (i bet you don't screw the cap back as tightly when the bottle is already empty.) when the "gauge pressure" is negative, it pulls the cap closing it tighter and thus hindering the flow of air. also the lack of internal pressure allows the bottle even out the difference by collapsing. | fluctuations in temperature cause changes in pressure. when the difference in pressure is positive, the air slowly escapes (i bet you don't screw the cap back as tightly when the bottle is already empty.) when the "gauge pressure" is negative, it pulls the cap closing it tighter and thus hindering the flow of air. also the lack of internal pressure allows the bottle even out the difference by collapsing. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law"
] | [
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does water freeze inside trees during winter? | a bit of background: i was at the snow this week, and wondered how the trees still had lots of leaves and looked generally in good condition. inside the xylem the water moves throughout the trees is all i remember from my school biology days, so what happens when outside temperatures get so cold the the water freezes? do they just survive the winter with clogged up xylem, or do they have some way of keeping water from freezing in the trunk? | [do tree stems freeze in winter?](_url_0_) > this cellular magic of pliable membranes, sweet antifreeze, and glasslike supercooling, with frost on the outside and viscous dehydration on the inside, helps trees avoid freezing injury to living cells, but it is not without consequence. according to schaberg, the freezing of those dead cells does have implications for the tree’s health. for example, gas bubbles can form among them upon thawing, and these can prevent sap flow in spring. but schaberg says that trees have other means to overcome those temporary problems and that it is far better for the tree to deal with these than to allow the water-based contents of nearby living cells to freeze and possibly kill the tree altogether. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://northernwoodlands.org/articles/article/do-tree-stems-freeze-in-winter"
] | [
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how do trees survive freezing temperatures? does the water in them not freeze? | water does freeze in trees, and it's a problem that trees tackle by expelling water outside their cells' walls (cells die if water freezes in them and expands enough to break the cell apart). then trees go into a hibernation mode, slowing down most processes to a bare minimum, working around the problem of water loss. conifer trees tend to be more sturdy and their cells can withstand some serious pressure from the ice crystals even if they do form inside the tree's cells or tubes. therefore, conifers generally don't "shut down" during winter completely and are built to resume operations even during short thaw periods. after all, they keep their needles (which are less prone to water loss (through evaporation/sublimation) than leaves), so they can photosynthesize, ie. create energy to keep them going throughout winter. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044328X82800925",
"http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/content/short/138/1/330",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooling",
"https://watermark.silverchair.com/47-1-123.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAaQwggGgBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggGRMIIBjQIBADCCAYYGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMa-rihsE9Gj-5PuBpAgEQgIIBV0bztIta1IMrO-SN6iGjH7CTJttg_2zh6OgpLIU_C3SbRYH5savXI9wST6E7ne8ZZyCwf_XRO7Vu1dQg9wlBYKw2pcnvDR_BlZe8Zx3vL4qqppKe-s6wiHQQx5U6spn1wG6fOf5vHYSyh1KqNakSh5BL4_O7Ho29oJP2lKfR3Zu8mOryze0KtjfA7q3grmjx4m2LFuaR6LVmvy2k_6H1L6Jfp4BEKPYvvv2cI5Vr0RiPh9qTIiJccodbiRYeTRYmS2Ii6EA0kuz8zAZA_QPi2FG62zYsHSlRr5iXBrfurURkRlapGIIRAco2JQ5hkNVqSwv_Tod5e0JIlQzICMByC2MSP6VSlHRnM1tMeS9bJR-_-opDy-CPq5uQH_1U__GpWOK5akAXoj7vdDHVg8YycSaDA0nASvmfIQ0Wku2jhuzOmtdje0B1p5MW9EKNwCt5LwkbnpaD59E",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/33448"
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|
are pictures of galaxies really what galaxies look like? | i'm talking about the shape. suppose you have this picture of a galaxy in 3 quarter profile. then the 'front' of that galaxy must be thousands of lightyears closer to us than the back end. since light takes time to travel and all that, the front stars and especially their position must be thousands of years younger/more recent than the back. so does that mean the shape of a galaxy as we perceive it through out telescopes is not at all what it's really shaped like or just that i'm an absolute idiot? | the diameter of a galaxy is relatively insignificant relative to its rotational period. in the case of the milky way, the galaxy rotates every 15 million years, or more, while the galaxy itself is only around 120,000 ly across, so you will have a small amount of distortion, but not enough to completely invalidate how we observe other galaxies. | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are archaea considered separate from bacteria, in terms of taxonomy/classification? | what makes archaea so different from regular bacteria that not only did they put it into a separate kingdom, but even a separate domain? i am learning about them in school and the only thing that they told us is that bacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls and archaea do not. | they have been conclusively shown to be of distinct evolutionary lineage, which is why they are separate. for example, their flagella have completely different structures that evolved independently. (the cell wall difference is an example of that.) | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do elements come from. where did the planets in our solar system come from. | argument with my brother. i said that all the elements except for hydrogen and helium where created in our sun(or stars in general). and that our planets were created when our sun exploded. he said that i was wrong. who's the winner. | well, our planets formed from the same gas/debris cloud that our sun did, itself a remnant of older stars which had gone super nova. not all elements are created in [active] stars though, as stars through fusion can only create the elements up to iron... everything else came from supernovae. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what elements are more common to our outer solar systems planets? | what elements are more common to our outer solar systems planets? and what is more common to our inner planets? and does the same apply to whole galaxies for some things to be more common the closer or further from the center? when looking for other planets that may produce life wouldn't there be a kind of goldilocks zone in galaxies them selves? esp with higher amounts of radioactivity towards the middles? | hydrogen, by far, is the largest fraction of elements in the outer solar system. the next most common element is helium (together they are estimated to make up about 95% of the stuff in the outer solar system). there is a sprinkling of oxygen, carbon, lithium, boron, and all the other elements, but h and he are the biggest by far. however, there are some pretty amazing things that occur way out there. things we think of as gasses are solid ices that far away from the sun (methane is a liquid, cloud, and ice on titan, a moon of saturn). hydrogen also does some whacky things. it is theorized that hydrogen undergoes really neat phase changes within saturn and jupiter. those planets are so massive with enough pressure on the insides that hydrogen gas (in the outer reaches of their atmospheres) floats around in a gaseous state. as you move deeper into the atmosphere, that gas gets put under enough pressure to turn into a liquid. moving deeper it transitions into a [metallic hydrogen] (_url_0_) state - a state that we can't produce on earth. there are a lot of other crazy things that can occur at those pressures and temperatures! it's really interesting and we've not even scratched the surface! | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen"
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does infinity have multiple values? do all of our laws of mathematics apply when you are on an infinite level? | scenario 1: say you take infinity and add one to it. i know that the answer would also be infinity, but you've added value to it, so is it technically a larger number than before? scenario 2: say hypothetically you count from zero to infinity in one second (assuming this doesn't destroy the universe), and videotape yourself doing it. then, you take the video and cut out a segment that is infinitely short in length. how much did you count in that segment? one? if there are multiple values to infinity, does it depend on whether you use infinity or infinity + 1? if we can never reach the infinite level, does that mean that our mathematics laws as we know them in the finite level apply to infinity? | the key thing to understand here is that there are multiple infinities (in fact, an infinite number of infinities), something that mathematicians only realised, by the hand of [georg cantor](_url_1_), in the second half of the 19th century. first, notice that "infinity" only makes sense in this context as the cardinality (number of elements) of some set, like the natural numbers or the real numbers. cantor's key insight was realising that we can say two sets are the same size if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their elements. this gives us a way of defining an ordering between infinities: if there is no such correspondence, the set whose elements are left out must be the larger of the two. to answer your scenarios: 1. no. consider the natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, ... . this is an infinite set. if you add an element to it (for example, 0), you're adding one to its cardinality. however, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the two sets: namely, 0 - 1, 1 - 2, ..., n - n+1, ... . this means, then, that both have the same cardinality. 2. your question is badly formulated because you failed to define "infinitely short". you may have counted an infinite number of numbers, a finite one, or none. regarding your last question, realise that mathematics doesn't really have such a thing as "laws". we start with a set of axioms (self-evident truths) and derive results according to the rules of logic. that said, dealing with infinity is a tricky business; in fact, at the time of cantor's publications, there was great controversy and injury among mathematicians who didn't accept the work. it's often counter-intuitive (see [hilbert's hotel](_url_0_)), and in the context of real numbers many complications may arise. this doesn't mean our theorems fail: they can't, since they are proven only by logic. but we must realise every result has preconditions to be valid, and some (many) will not apply when dealing with infinities. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert's_Hotel",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Cantor",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-QoutHCu4o"
] | [
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why do you see dust particles under sunlight? | and what causes them to stay in the air? | you see the particles in a sunbeam because they are scattering photons towards your eye. sorry if that sounds pedantic, but i really don't know how else to say it. dust particles have a very low [reynolds number](_url_0_), which relates a particles size to the viscocity of the fluid it is in. [stokes law](_url_1_) allows one to calculate settling velocities. in air there is sufficient turbulence to keep dust particles suspended for a long time, although they do settle out eventually. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/reynolds.html",
"http://www.engr.uky.edu/~egr101/ml/ML3.pdf"
] | [
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do children's fingerprints bear any resemblance to their parent's fingerprints based on genetic makeup? | why yes they do, in fact, studies have shown that fingerprint patterns are highly heritable. the level of heritability differs between fingers and thumb but major patterns like whorls or loops show a distinct tendency to run in the family. your fingerprints will never be misidentified as your parents or siblings though. even the fingerprints go identical twins-though very close, can be distinguished from one another. for a more in depth look at fingerprints see this article abstract digital patterns of a sample on twins were analyzed to estimate the resemblance between monozygotic (mz) and dizygotic (dz) twins and to evaluate the mode of inheritance by the use of maximum likelihood based variance decomposition analysis. mz twin resemblance of finger pattern types appears to be more pronounced than in dz twins, which suggests the presence of genetic factors in the forming of fingertip patterns. the most parsimonious model shows twin resemblance in count of all three basic finger patterns on 10 fingers. it has significant dominant genetic variance component across all fingers. in the general model, the dominant genetic variance component proportion is similar for all fingertips (about 60%) and the sibling environmental variance is significantly nonzero, but the proportion between additive and dominant variance components was different. application of genetic model fitting technique of segregation analyses clearly shows mode of inheritance. a dominant genetic variance component or a specific genetic system modifies the phenotypic expression of the fingertip patterns. the present study provided evidence of strong genetic component in finger pattern types and seems more informative compared to the earlier traditional method of correlation analysis. inheritance of finger pattern types in mz and dz twins b. karmakara, i. malkinb, e. kobylianskyb a biological anthropology unit, indian statistical institute, 203 b.t. road, kolkata 700 108, india | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did pangaea form before it was divided into continents? | i understand planet formation to the extent of any discovery channel addict and this is what led me to this question. if all of the continents were once a single super continent then how exactly was the super continent formed? the only thing i can come up with is extreme pressure pushing up that area of the earth and eventually causing the tectonic plates to break apart. pressures possibly caused from the same situations that cause volcanic eruptions and geysers? would this be accurate? this hypothesis is one of many i have regarding this matter and seems to make the most sense to me. | i think what you're asking here is when did the *crust* of earth form/when did plate tectonics begin? that is still debated and not my specialty, but fastparticles is currently doing an [askscience ama](_url_1_) dealing with that. pangaea was not the first supercontinent to form. since plate tectonics has been active, we've seen evidence for [wilson cycles](_url_0_). if you think about the modern plate configuration, the americas and europe/africa are being "pushed" apart by the mid-atlantic ridge spreading center where new oceanic crust is being formed. oceanic crust is being consumed in subduction zones around the pacific ring-of-fire. this is how plates are smashed together and then eventually rifted apart again in the supercontinent cycle. google "wilson cycles" for more reading on the topic. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/PlateTect/synopsis.html#supercontinentcycle",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/m0fvw/askscience_ama_series_iama_geochemistry_phd/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent#History"
] | [
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] |
how/why did the original continental landmass, pangaea, form? | are there any theories out there that provide insight in to the formation of land on our planet, and why it started out as a single, large mass of land? | pangea was not the first supercontinent in earth's history. supercontinents, as you probably know already, form when several regular continents collide and stick together. there is something known as the supercontinent cycle where, about every 300 to 500 million years, the earth's continents all join together to form a supercontinent before breaking apart. vaalbara, kenorland, columbia, rodinia, and pannotia were previous supercontinents that existed as far back as 3 billion years ago. the earliest supercontinents, like vaalbara (or ur) were tiny compared to continents today because they constituted (as far as we know) the entirety of the planet's continental crust at that time though by once pangea formed there was a lot more continental crust to work with. it appears that the oldest blocks of stable continental crust, precambrian shields, are what's left of the first islands in earth's history. back before continents had formed there was just oceanic crust forming at spreading centers and being recycled at subduction zones. at these subduction zones, island arcs formed that are somewhat analogous to modern arcs such as indonesia, the philippines, and the aleutians in alaska. as more and more arcs formed they began to collide and, over time, accreted into the first continents, albeit ones much smaller than modern day ones. once these continents were formed they began to bump into and stick to each other. however, unlike when they were island chains, they did not necessarily stay stuck together and, after a time, would break apart. why continents regularly get together and then break up is still debated but it all has to do with the transfer of heat from within the mantle. it would seem that the breakup of a supercontinent is due to the fact that they trap heat underneath them and, as it gets hotter and hotter under the supercontinent, it eventually reaches a point where the heat forces the crust apart. i'm glossing over a lot of items here but it's a very big topic so i hope that answers your question. edit: [this article](_url_0_) has a fairly good overview of tectonics and supercontinents. edit 2: i forgot to mention that when it comes to the old supercontinents like vaalbara, kenorland and columbia their arrangement is much less clear than it is for pangea because there is less data to go on. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"http://io9.com/5744636/a-geological-history-of-supercontinents-on-planet-earth"
] | [
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] |
does the infinite set { 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, ... } contain the whole number pi? | say you have an infinite set with the nth element represented by pi to n digits: { 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, ... } does this set contain the number pi with infinitely many digits? and what if you merge all elements: 3313143141... or {3, 3, 1, 3, 1, 4, 3, 1, 4, 1, ...} by doing this you get an infinite number or an infinite set of digits. does this contain the number pi? (or am i asking the same question now?) | no. pi does not appear at any point on the list, so it's not in the set. simple as that. there are numbers in the set which are arbitrary close to pi, and pi is the one limit point of that set which is not in the set, but it isn't in the set itself. i don't even really know what you mean by this. the first one is an infinitely long concatenation of digits which is essentially meaningless (and certainly not a number), and the second is an infinite collection of the numbers 0 to 9 each repeated infinitely many times, and which has very little to do with pi at all. last point, "whole number" has a commonly accepted specific meaning of "nonnegative integer" (or sometimes positive integer) so it's bad practice to refer to pi using this word, since it isn't a whole number. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_real_numbers#Stevin.27s_construction"
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it seems that "salts" can be formed from many different combinations of elements... but do all salts actually taste salty? or is nacl (sodium chloride) the only salt that would taste "salty"? | i've recently been learning about salts. it seems that nacl, a.k.a. table salt, is only one possible variety of salt. does this mean that our taste buds could detect the "salty nature" of any type of salt? or is "salty" taste a misnomer, meaning our tastebuds are really only sensitive to sodium chloride? | the receptors which trigger the sensation of salty tastes are generally detect sodium ions (na+). ions of elements in the first collumn of the periodic table (where also na lies) may also taste salty. other ionic salts such as nh4+ or ca2+ may taste bitter. _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste#Saltiness"
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] |
do whales have nipples? | whale nipples are small and near the base of the tail, sort of like a very streamlined cow. [milking a whale](_url_0_) is possible. this requires attaching a breast pump to a whale, which is nontrivial. whale milk is very high in fat, and is reported to taste strongly of fish. whales are not fish - as you can clearly see they are mammals - but they eat fish or small shrimp called krill. layman speculation: whale milk would probably make a good chowder base. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/mUKVg6V1rt0",
"http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/killerwhale/birthkw.html",
"http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/blogs/comments/how_do_whales_nurse_lets_find_out",
"https://ask.metafilter.com/249102/Whale-Nipples"
] | [
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|
do whales have nipples? | ok, so they're mammals and they *should* have nipples, but i cannot find any whale nipples. a search for whale nipples delivers none. i have found many images of whale calves being nursed but i don't get how they drink from their mom. | yes, they do since they're mammals, but they seem to come out when it's time to nurse. here's an [interesting article on whale nursing](_url_0_) that i found for you. :) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/blogs/comments/how_do_whales_nurse_lets_find_out"
] | [
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] |
why aren't there lunar eclipses once a month? | my understanding is that lunar eclipses occur when the earth gets in between the moon and the sun. shouldn't this always happen once a month, when the moon is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun? | the moon orbit is on a slightly different plane than the earth's orbit around the sun. this means that most of the time, the moon passes above or below the earth's shadow. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do galaxies and solar systems form a 'flat' plane of matter rotating around the centre of mass, rather than a 'ball' of orbiting objects? | me and my mates on our physics undergrad course were wondering why this was the case since we are seemingly able to create any orbital path with earths artificial satellites. | the short answer: angular momentum. this is asked often, including at least once in the last two days. please use a search: _url_2_ _url_4_ _url_0_ _url_1_ _url_5_ _url_3_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mc5fc/why_do_stars_around_a_galaxy_stay_in_a_flat_disc/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/q46vi/if_gravity_makes_planets_and_stars_round_why_is/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/whko4/why_do_galaxies_generally_form_planar_discs_and/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1divmq/why_are_galaxies_circular_and_not_spherical/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bnlhp/if_galaxies_are_formed_by_gravity_how_come_theyre/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/126d0j/why_galaxies_form_discs_when_smaller_objects_form/"
] | [
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when someone receives a blood transfusion or an organ transplant, what happens to the donor's dna? | [deleted] | _url_0_ with organs, the doner dna remains, as that is the organ's dna. this doesn't change the host's dna either, and doner dna can be found in the host's blood for years (depends on test & organ). there is a risk the host's immune system sees the transplant as a foreign invader and tries to kill it. so testing is done to find a genetically "acceptable" organ, and there are treatments to help prevent transplant rejection. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"www.scientificamerican.com/article/donor-blood-transfustion/"
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do other animals have dominant hands/arms like humans? | the short answer: [yes](_url_0_). the effects of laterality in other animals are much milder, presumably because most animals don't rely as heavily on their hands (the most notable instance of laterality in humans) as we do. for us, laterality is obvious because our hands are specialised and used for nearly every detailed task we perform. it's more difficult, however, to observe this in dogs, since the effects are less apparent. too, some birds have been shown to display laterality in their feet, nearly to the potency of handedness in human beings. however, it was concluded that only birds that used their feet in feeding developed any such preference. if you're still curious on the subject, try reading [this article](_url_1_) written on it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laterality#Laterality_in_other_animals",
"http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9h15z1vr"
] | [
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|
how was the big bang able to expand faster than the speed of light? | although there is a limt to how fast light can move there is no limit to how fast space can expand. the "stuff" from the big bang just went along for the ride. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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