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where do the elements heavier than iron come from in our solar system? | my understanding is the thermal nuclear fusion in the sun can create elements up to iron. at iron it stops. | while stars can create elements up to iron by fusion, the sun cannot do so, because it is not large enough. it is currently fusing hydrogen into helium, and in around 5 billion years, will start to fused helium into (primarily) carbon. but the sun will not go beyond this. in larger stars, however, fusion can continue further, in some cases all the way up to iron. a large enough star that fuses ingredients to form iron eventually can no longer generate enough fusion to create enough outward pressure to prevent gravitational collapse. when this happens, the star collapses very rapidly (this core collapse takes less than a second), producing a supernova. elements beyond iron on the periodic table are created in such supernova explosions. the fact that we see elements beyond iron in our solar system tells us that the material out of which our solar system was made involves debris from past supernova explosions. the sun, one concludes, is not a first generation star, and the sun and the planets around it were formed from the coalescence of matter that included supernova debris | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if space is expanding outwards, would part of the night sky eventually get darker? | mainly referring to stars that are getting farther away but also other factors if relevant. if everything is moving away from a point, would that point eventually be darker/emptier than the rest of the sky? | our galaxy is not expanding, because its stars are gravitationally bound. the sky will go dark eventually, but because of the decrease in available fuel for fusion reactions, not because of the expansion of space. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why galaxies form discs when smaller objects form spheres? | im sitting here watching cosmos and sagan is discussing galaxies and gravities effect on them. he did not answer a question i have though, as i understand gravity is responsible for making the planets round but smaller objects will not (like deimos) what about massive objects like galaxies? why are they disc shape and not a sphere? are the objects all too far away from each other to form that shape? | it is to do with their angular momentum. while you're correct in saying that the gravity of a large body such as a planet or star makes it spherical, it is also true that it is not a perfect sphere. for rotating objects such as the earth or the sun, they are actually [oblate spheroids](_url_0_), ie they are kinda 'squashed' -- in other words their equator is further from the center from their poles. the faster you rotate something, the more oblate it will be. it's like if you were spinning on roller skates, your arms would want to move away from your body. pulsars are stars that rotate extremely fast, up to a few milliseconds per rotation. they look like this: _url_2_ you can see that its rotating so fast that its quite oblate. in fact, it's so oblate, that the matter around its equator is far enough from its centre for the gravity to be too weak to hold it in, and so it forms a disk. this is essentially the same with galaxies: _url_1_ they usually have a small (oblate) spherical core, but further out than that, objects are orbiting too fast and drift out to further radii, in a disc. (our sun orbits at a velocity 220kms^-1 ). | 113 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblate_spheroid",
"http://www.futuretimeline.net/images/galactic-core-timeline-sun.jpg",
"http://i.space.com/images/i/13679/i02/fastest-rotating-star.jpg?1323105753"
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why do galaxies and solar systems seem to form in discs rather than spheres? | i am confused as to why objects orbit black holes and suns on a plane. why do these orbit not go in every direction. | there are cases where you do get roughly spherical systems of stars. globular clusters and elliptical galaxies are examples of this. but why should we ever expect a disk? the answer is conservation of angular momentum. if you imagine a spherical cloud of gas, the random turbulent motions of the gas will mean that there is some slight net angular momentum. as the cloud of gas collapses to form the solar system, this net angular momentum must be conserved. you can figure out what happens as the system collapses with a simple experiment. hold your arms out and spin in a circle. then pull your arms in and you'll find yourself spinning a lot faster than you were before. this is due to the conservation of angular momentum. so as the gas cloud collapses, it must begin rotating faster. the disk then forms because the vertical motions of the gas damp out (gas doesn't like moving through other clouds of gas, so it all settles into a disk). the planets in our solar system formed after the disk, so we lie in the same plane that the disk used to occupy. black holes also have an accretion disk for similar reasons. the gas conserves angular momentum and vertical motion is damped out because gas doesn't like to pass through other clouds of gas. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when the vikings visited mainland north america circa 1000 ad, why didn't they carry over so many deadly diseases to the natives as other europeans did in the late 1400s and early 1500s? | posted this on r/askhistory, but i realized that its not strictly a history question, is it? it might be better posed to those who are more expert on the nature of diseases. the thread from r/askhistory: _url_0_ | because the norse themselves were largely lacking in epidemic disease, due to living on the periphery of europe. vinland was mostly contacted by people sailing from greenland, which was itself largely populated from iceland. iceland didn't encounter smallpox until [1241](_url_0_) and the disease was never endemic there...it swept through periodically and died out. the population in iceland is just too small to support that kind of disease for long periods. the populations on greenland were even smaller and less able to support such diseases. there's just no good route for disease transfer from small population to small population via infrequent visits between populations. contrast this with spanish who were sailing directly from some of the largest cities in spain to the new world. that kind of direct trip from major disease centers just wasn't happening with the norse. | 56 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistory/comments/2jfgav/when_the_vikings_visited_mainland_north_america/"
] | [
"http://whqlibdoc.who.int/smallpox/9241561106_chp5.pdf"
] | [
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how do photons escape the sun? | i've heard it takes around 100,000 years on average for a photon to escape the center of the sun where it's created. how is it possible for the photon to exist so long without being absorbed? why is the same principle not possible when trying to trap light with a mirrored sphere? | that is a slightly misleading statement. photons are always traveling at 'c', so that photon as been absorbed and re-emitted many times from the time it was "created" until it finally escapes the sun. of course, you can't really say that it is the same photon that gets re-emitted after it is absorbed, just that a photon gets absorbed, which then leads to a photon be emitted later. so it is actually exactly because it gets absorbed so many times that it takes so long for the photon to escape. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to a photon when it hits the surface of the sun? | hey askscience! i'm a web developer and i was working on a new weather-site, when i noticed that all the sun-icons had a small highlight/shine on them. of course, this is just modern icon-design, but it got me thinking. so my question is this: what happens to a standard photon (let's even say it's a visual spectrum photon. nothing high-energy or anything.) when it interacts with the surface of the(a) sun? follow up: would it be possible to shine a bright enough light to get a "reflection"/shine on a sun? thanks in advance! | the surface of the sun is a very good black body. this means that almost all photons that arrive at the surface will be absorbed. if you shine a lot of photons this absorption would heat up the surface and cause the sun to glow brighter, but you would need an extremely bright light source to achieve this. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do birds bob their heads when they walk? | i've noticed many birds bob their heads as they walk, and quickly snap them from one orientation to another when they are examining something. is this because they don't have muscles in their eyes to point them in different directions? also, is it mostly small birds which have this problem? i believe i have seen parrots move their eyes, and i think eagles can as well. i'm pretty sure chickens can't, or else chicken steadicam wouldn't work as well as it does. | they do it to freeze a frame of reference, like a footstep, where the depth of field is static while the body moves. must be like living in a strobe light | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/pigeon.html"
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] |
why do birds bob their heads when they walk? | is it because there's a link in the muscle system of birds so that they have to bob their head on each step? or is it a behavior pattern? did dinosaurs also bob their heads in similar ways? | *if you look closely, or take videos and watch them in slow motion, you will see the head actually stays in one place while the body walks past it. it then is jerked forward and put in front of the body and the body walks past it again. what this behavior does is keep the head still and in one spot as long as possible. by keeping the head still, the bird gets a better look at the world and is able to see things more clearly. it can focus on one spot for a longer period of time*. source: _url_0_ | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/?quid=472"
] | [
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why do singers lose their accent when they sing? | i just realised this the other day when i heard one direction's song and couldn't help but wonder why. they have a somewhat strong british accent yet when they sing, they sound completely american/canadian. i would've chosen a better example but they were the ones i realised it with. thanks!! | that's not true for all singers. david bowie, for example has a very strong accent while singing. edit: also pretty much every country music singer. | 54 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7922639/Rock-n-roll-best-sung-in-American-accents.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipthong",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XUK4Mc0Cv3I&t=2m18s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdOgNXwCUYE",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uR5jufwSqm8&t=1m48s",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07268600600885528"
] | [
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if we should use antibiotics sparingly, why is daily antiseptic mouthwash ok? | we've been hearing for a while now that overuse of antibiotics leads to proliferation of antibiotic-resistant strains. why doesn't the same apply to dental mouthwashes/rinses, which are recommended for daily use? i understand that "old school" mouthwashes are not really antibiotic; that they work by making it harder for plaque to settle on tooth surfaces. however, newer "burn-free" mouthwashes without alcohol, e.g. those that contain cetylpyridinium - does the same concern apply? | it is typically much harder to develop resistance to disinfectants applied externally. this is because disinfectants and topically applied antibiotics can be much more toxic to both the human and the bacterial target without negatively impacting the human. things like bleach and alcohol are very toxic to microorganisms due to broad damaging effects, damaging effects that would occur in humans if we tried to use them internally. consequently, bacteria cannot evolve total resistance since the disinfectant hits so many targets. for internal antibiotics, we must damage only bacterial proteins or processes without damaging host proteins or processes. thus the antibiotics used internally tend to have much more specific targets like cell wall synthesis or ribosomal function. as a result, bacteria are able to more readily evolve resistance since only one or two proteins are inhibited. however, that is not to say externally applied antimicrobials are fine to use prolifically as we are beginning to discover bacteria resistant to triclosan, found in numerous products like soap and toothpaste. so the tl;dr version is that topically applied disinfectants like alcohol are able to damage numerous targets within the bacteria making resistance almost impossible. think of it like a weed growing in a lawn. a weed can evolve to resist a pesticide that only targets the weed but allows the grass to grow but likely won't evolve resistance to napalm which would kill everything including the grass. | 60 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is their credible science behind putting fluoride in a water supply? | inspired by the debate in that big tesla thread. | no one has commented yet, but an environmental scientist here. we learn a lot about water treatment as a process, part of which if fluoridation fluoridation is done to prevent cases of tooth decay, i don't have the specific papers to cite now, but estimates of its preventative ability go form reducing tooth decay from up to 70% in some studies, to as little as 20/30% in others. this works better in countries or areas in poverty, where dental health is not seen as a priority. this is definitely a credible reason for putting it into water there is one noted possible negative aspect it can have on health. that is dental fluorosis. this causes discolouring on teeth, and some possible poor health effects. for this to occur, large amounts of flourine need to be ingested. this is way more than if you got all of your water flouridated. brushing your teeth can add a bit, but its not enough still. large amounts of ingestion is needed. in the uk and ireland some people are trying to link fluoridation to aspergers, down syndrome, leaukimea and many other problems, but there doesn't appear to be a single published paper supporting these claims. there are two real reasons i can see to be opposed to fluoridation 1) - cost - it costs money, and in the developed world we clean our teeth with fluoridated toothpaste. but here the cost of fluoridation is pretty low, so i don't see it as a strong selling point 2) - it's my water - people don't want unnecessary substances put into their water. this seems odd to me, considering the shit we put into our body, daily, and willingly, such as tobacco, alcohol, msg and many other stuff. there's nothing wrong with fluoridation really. well that's my bit anyway | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bmj.com/content/321/7265/855",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/minerals/fluorapatite.html"
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what effect does the heat produced by internal combustion engines have on the planet's weather? | i was just thinking about this the other day... i know we always look at emissions as the source or exacerbator (shut up, i like inventing words) of global warming, but what about simple heat generation itself? the engine heats up to several hundred degrees, and being the big ol' block of metal that it is, it'll radiate that heat away for quite some time after the engine is shut off. the raw heat generated by several hundred million cars every day can't be trivial, can it? | any good climate model incorporates it, but it is probably less of an effect than you think. _url_0_ what's really interesting that people don't consider enough is the urban heat island effect. the fact that your house has a black roof probably adds more to net heat to the planet than your car. the black asphalt parking lot. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2008GL036465/abstract;jsessionid=BEEFFCF931E005BB8611C3758971942E.d04t03"
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does the heat produced by combustion engines have an effect on earth's temperature? | over thanksgiving dinner my father and i were discussing climate change and the topic of heat generation came up. his argument is that since fossil fuels are essentially stored thermal energy, burning them is releasing that energy. a quick calculation says that all the cars in america produce enough heat each year to raise lake michigan's temperature by one degree fahrenheit. so that energy has to go somewhere. i think he's missing something since we only hear about the effects of the chemical waste of engines and not the thermal waste. | just made a quick calculation. [the world's yearly energy consumption is 104,426 twh](_url_0_). that's 375\*10^18 j. just 60 minutes of sunlight on earth deliver 624*10^18 j (oversimplified earth as a flat disc of 6371 km radius facing the sun perpendicularly, solar power is 1360 w/m^(2)). so, really, even if heat from engines does warm the environment up it's not by any significant amount. the real issue is trapping energy from sunlight and that happens because of greenhouse gases. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_consumption"
] | [
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how do sodas/other beverages become "zero calorie"? | from what i understand, a calorie is a unit of energy contained in food right? and by its nature, matter has to have energy right? so, how do pepsi and coca-cola produce products like coke zero and pepsi max that have "zero calories"? this is baffling to me. | most use sweetners that humans cannot derive nutrition from. for example, sugarless gum uses xylitol (a sugar alcohol). xylitol is sweet and actually helps prevent proliferation of oral pathogens as they can't use the xylitol either. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.60"
] | [
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when a fruit or veggie is "unripe" when picked, how does it ripen? | in some cases i'd assume the starches would turn to sugars, but there isn't starch in everything right? | well most plant structures (starch and what we would call fiber) are composed of just long chains of glucose. the amounts and variety (amylose and amylopectin) and the ripening conditions vary from plant to plant. for example, avocados will never ripen on the tree, while tomatoes only ripen while still on the vine (the color can change, but there is an alleged negligible effect on taste or texture). another interesting one is lemons, since they actually get less sweet when they ripen since the acid content increases. these changes are usually determined by the "target" animal for seed dispersion and the amount of time for the seed itself to mature. but by-in-large, ripening is not too dissimilar from muscle degradation during starvation. but instead of breaking down muscle for amino acids, it's starch and fiber for glucose. also this really doesn't apply to vegetables where we eat the plant body itself (i.e. asparagus) or flowering body (artichokes). several edits for clarity and spelling. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.frontlineservices.com.au/Frontline_Services/Fruit_ripening_gas_-_ethylene.html"
] | [
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are all numbers infinite? | “you can divide infinity an infinite number of times, and the resulting pieces will still be infinitely large. but if you divide a non-infinite number an infinite number of times the resulting pieces are non-infinitely small. since they are non-infinitely small, but there are an infinite number of them, if you add them back together, their sum is infinite. this implies any number is, in fact, infinite.” -*the wise man's fear*, patrick rothfuss i understand this on the surface; yes, the logic seems sound, you can divide a finite number an infinite number of times, but because you have an infinite number of pieces, if you add them back together you get infinity. i get it. but how does this work? clearly 4 =/= infinity just like 4 =/= 9, right? this is what my 9th grade algebra teacher would call a "no solution" or an "undefined" problem. is this a paradox? is this true? | besides the fact that the quotation provided is obfuscating word-play, the argument isn't valid: this sentence simply isn't true. divide a number n by x. the limit of that quotient as x approaches infinity is zero, meaning the quotient is not "non-infinitely small" - whatever that means. you add all those pieces back together and, _by definition_, you'll get your original number n back. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to synthesize ozone and get it into the atmosphere? | and if so why haven't we done it yet? | it is possible to synthesize ozone, unfortunately, this is a question of scale. the mass creation of ozone and then facilitation to the correct altitude would be an astronomical cost. ozone can be created through arcing electricity through oxygen; however, ozone in the troposphere is actually a pollutant and acts as an irritant to humans. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are children demonstrably that much better at picking up new languages than adults could be? | that seems to be a commonly mentioned factoid, but when you think about what a child does, they're basically eating and spending every other moment of their existence listening to the same language often used in context with a situation that can be linked to meaning of the utterances. and still, it takes them about two years to grasp the basics of it. i'm pretty sure that if we dropped in a foreign country with exclusive exposure to the local language and made sure they had access to food, water and shelter, they could work out any language in half that time. so, are kids really inherently better at learning new languages or does it just seem like it because that's pretty much the only thing they do early on? | there is a 'critical age for language acquisition'. kids do pick up languages far more quickly than adults, who tend to translate everything when learning a new language rather than just picking up the meaning. it's especially obvious when you look at accents. children will learn the accent of their environment, adults tend to never really pick up the accent even if they've been living in a new country for a long time. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do bees know that they die if they sting? | came upon this question while talking about bee stings. i know there probably is no definite answer to this, but are there any theories? | putting aside any speculation about the capacity of a bee to have knowledge, bee stings are not designed to be fatal to the bee. the bee only dies when it stings a creature whose skin is thick enough to "catch" the stinger, like a mammal. so, even if a bee had the sort of cognitive capacity to have expectations, then it would not generally expect to be killed upon stinging another creature. | 199 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection#Hamilton.27s_rule"
] | [
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if i add sugar to lemon juice, what actually happens? is the acid in the lemon juice neutralized or just masked? | there is a chemical reaction, the citric acid in lemon juice hydrolyzes the sucrose molecules and water into glucose and fructose: c*_12_* h*_22_* o*_11_* (sucrose)+h*_2_* o ⟶c*_6_* h*_12_* o*_6_* (glucose)+c*_6_* h*_12_* o*_6_* (fructose). this occurs at a faster rate if you heat the sugar-juice mixture, it also occurs (very slowly!) without any acid, but the acid serves as a catalyst. these sugars do taste different to sucrose, fructose is much sweeter, so this does at least change the taste of the sugar. as to what happens to the citric acid in the mixture, i don't think very much so i guess this flavour is masked by the sweet(er) sugar. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
because it takes time for light to travel to our planet, does the universe seem to be expanding because farther light is reaching us? | i was wondering if our universe appears to be expanding due to light reaching our planet. is there an unobservant universe out there? | on the question of there is being a universe outside of what we can see with hubble (which is far more than we can see on earth or with the human eye), the answer is most likely yes. the hot dense mess that predestined the universe as we know it, was all encompassing, meaning that it wasn't just a single point in space, but existed as sort of a shell of our visible universe. now we don't know how far it went, maybe it went out for an infinite amount of space, meaning that we are only seeing the radiation from what created our visible universe. why we can't tell it is because of time and the speed of light. the universe was created around 13.7 billion years ago. so we can only see light from distant objects ~~that are a max 13.7 billion light years away. so when the hot dense soup started to cool down and expand, it could have expanded beyond the 13.7 billion light years marker, and so there could be an infinitely large universe, outside of what we can see.~~ the end of the observable universe that is 46 billion lights radius. this is because the universe is constantly expanding, and so the light we see is not at 13.7 billion lights away, but actually have expanded far beyond that point. i don't believe in an infinite universe, but then again i don't know, and i wouldn't be shocked to hear otherwise (although we won't know in our lifetime). as far as the expansion of the universe, we know for sure the universe is expanding, because the light from distant stars is red shifting. you only see red shifts in objects moving away from you, so we can see light move away from us, and shift from the normal visible spectrum of white/yellowish tint, to red, and then into the non-visible infrared spectrum (which is what hubble is able to picture with it's deep field images). so the universe is definitely expanding, and we can see it happen, the question is more of what happens outside the 13.7 billion light years marker, and what really lies behind the cosmic microwave background radiation. edit: i misspoke. sorry for the error. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is ai even possible with conventional programming languages? | is it even possible to recreate the human brain using conventional languages (not including assembly or anything below that)? i mean, programming operates on an "if... then..." basis, meaning the only way to have *z* happen, is if *x* and *y* happen, is this also true for our brains? | conventional languages are turing complete, which means that anything that can be computed, can be computed in such a language*. assuming physicalism and hence the brain is nothing more than a physical system, then the answer is yes. if you're religious or whatever i can't help you. \* assuming the strong church-turing thesis. | 129 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_of_computation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busy_Beaver",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem",
"http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~kuipers/readings/Newell+Simon-cacm-76.pdf"
] | [
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are there any languages that are easier or harder for ai systems to sufficiently "learn" for translation purposes? if yes, what are the aspects of a language that make the process easier or harder? | there aren't really individual languages that are inherently more difficult to learn, as the purpose of modern machine-learning is that we automate the process by which we learn the rules. there are some major practical considerations: * modern statistical methods require large bilingual input data sets. languages that don't have such data sets (or that only have small data sets) are harder to learn because these data sets must be created. * rare words (or rare phrases) that occur uncommonly are difficult to translate. for example, german is well known for having many words and idioms that are specific to that language, like *schadenfreude* (which is a pleasure you get from seeing the misfortune of others), or *treppenwitz* (which is "staircase wit", meaning an extremely witty thing to say that you only think of once you've left and are walking down the staircase). the first word is so unique that it's actually quite well known and google, for example, gets the translation right. the second word is less well known and their machine translator doesn't really get it right. these are cases where more data is needed so the algorithm can learn the nuances better. furthermore, translation is between *pairs* of languages, and there are pairs of languages that are more difficult than others. * when two languages have dissimilar sentence structure or word order it becomes more difficult to match phrases to phrases. for example, european languages map well to each other and asian languages map well to each other, but european languages tend to map poorly to asian languages * two less-common languages are extremely unlikely to have a common bilingual data set, and it usually doesn't make sense to build a dedicated corpus for most languages. this is usually solved by using an intermediary, but this adds an extra translation, which is expensive and introduces errors. for example, if you wanted to translate between portuguese and urdu, what usually happens is that the system first translates from portuguese to english, and then from english to urdu. edit: i should also say that there's an ongoing shift within the translation community away from the existing strategy of phrase-based machine translation (meaning that phrases are identified and then the statistical translation occurs for an entire phrase, rather than word-for-word). instead, neural-network based translation tries to learn end-to-end translations, meaning that input text is not broken down into sub-units like phrases or words, but is instead interpreted as a whole and mapped to an output. google is implementing this strategy for the first time in a real production system, and they've written a paper about it: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1609.08144.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order"
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|
do alzheimer patients realize they have alzheimer? | i don't know if there are multiple stages of alzheimer, but i'm talking about the more serious cases here. i've known an old lady who often wouldn't even recognize close relatives anymore. what is the thought process of someone in this situation? have there been any studies on this? do they think they're meeting complete strangers? in that case, do they wonder where the strangers came from, who they could be and why they're acting like they knew the patient? or do they realize that their illness could be the reason for not recognizing the people? i've also heard that alzheimer patients sometimes have "good" moments, when they are able to remember things and think clearly. during this time, do they realize what's happening to them and that they could go back to the "bad" state anytime? | you're asking a bunch of questions, so i'll try to answer them in sequence. 1) patients realize they have alzheimer's until late stage. at that point, they may or may not realize that something's wrong with them. they tend to recognize that they're in a hospital or not in their own home, but they don't know why. they're known to still "glimpses" of reality at that point, in fact, the guy who the disease is named after first realized it was a separate disease when his patient suddenly pulled out of psychotic dementia (a relatively young woman that he saw from her late 40's-early 50's) and told him with great clarity, "i'm losing myself." he performed an autopsy on her brain, finding amyloid plaques in the temporal region, and subsequently was able to find many more asylum patients with the same symptom cluster that showed the same feature at autopsy. by end stage, they have little to no consciousness of the world around them. when they can talk, they show no orientation to time, often thinking it's still the era of their childhood. they forget to eat, rarely sleep, and many develop ancillary illnesses like dysphagia that causes attacks of choking. 2) the location of damage in this disease begins in the hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobes of the brain. this structure is needed for all conscious learning and memory, and as it degrades in alzheimer's, patients are left with progressing degrees of amnesia. when it's totally destroyed, they're only able to access memories by accident that have become so entrenched that they're part of what's called a cortico-cortical connected network, in other words, they no longer need the hippocampus present to be recalled. in the early stages of cognitive decline, and for a while thereafter, patients generally recognize that it's the disease preventing them from remembering things, and it often causes distress, frustration, and shame in them. formation of cortico-cortical connections happens as a function of how frequently something gets recalled, and how many things are connected to that thing, so early learning, like how to read, do math, and recognize their siblings in photos gets retained, and memories of spouses get retained for a long time, too, sometimes up until death. memories that happened throughout their adult life are usually lost in reverse chronological order, most recent go first, and trivial memories are lost before more profound memories. 3) another thing that commonly happens in this disease, as the damage spreads, is development of psychosis, and loss of sleep/wandering at night. patients become paranoid and sometimes violent. when meeting family, they may believe that their children are the product of their spouse's infidelity (infidelity is a frequent accusation by late-stage patient's, if their spouse is still alive), or they may greet them apologetically but warmly; either way, they're confused by the experience. only on rare occasion will they suddenly recognize their kids. i'm describing late-stage here, though. when psychosis is a big feature, you can't even explain to them why they don't recognize their kids, as the psychosis will supply faulty information to them, and they feel like they "know" that information. 4) the "good" moments are really fleeting towards the end, so there isn't a lot of time for them to be aware that the moment will pass. that's more early to middle stage stuff. lastly, although i've mentioned the beta-amyloid plaques that are seen in the disease, and lots of money and time have been devoted to researching them, they're not a great correlate as they're neither necessary or sufficient to cause alzheimer's. people can die of ad without them, and many people with them don't have ad, but it happens to be a feature that can be easily visualized by scans. another feature, build up of tau-phosphorylated protein in something called neurofibrillary tangles, correlates better with sequelae, but they're very tough to scan for. there are a lot of good resources out there, if you want more info, but here are a few: _url_0_, _url_1_. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.alzheimers.gov/",
"http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/alzheimersdisease/alzheimersdisease.htm"
] | [
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if a gravitational pull keeps the moon revolving around the earth, and the same gravity keeps the earth revolving around the sun, then what force/object keeps the sun (solar system) revolving around the center of the galaxy? | i understand that we're floating through space in one of the arms of the milky way, but what keeps us revolving around the center? and while i'm at it, what keeps the "arms" spinning and staying grouped together? | the moon doesn't orbit the earth, it orbits the common centre of mass between the earth and the moon, which is near the earth's core due to our higher mass. ditto the earth around the sun, and ditto for the milky way. all the stars in the galaxy orbit around their combined centre of mass, which is around the centre of the galaxy. the arms are more complicated, and i'll defer that question to a proper astrophysicist. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_galaxy#Origin_of_the_spiral_structure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve"
] | [
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how are qubits stored and manipulated in quantum computers? | it really depends on the physical implementation of the qubits, as there are many kinds. an incomplete list of things that people use as qubits are: 1. the electronic structure of ions or atoms, which will be confined to some region of space by some sort of electromagnetic "trap". 2. a single electron's spin, where the electron has been trapped in a solid state system; a so called "quantum dot". 3. superconducting circuits which have josephson junctions can also be used as qubits. 4. optical qubits use polarization or optical modes in light as qubits. each kind of qubit is stored (i'm assuming by stored you mean kept free from noise) and manipulated differently. is there a particular kind you're interested in? | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/1eg66q/a_15m_computer_that_uses_quantum_physics_effects/c9zzgfp"
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|
if i had two hard drives (same size, manufacturer, model) and one was full of information and the other was empty would the full one weigh more (even ever-so-slightly)? | if you have two sets of eight coins, and one of the sets was all heads-up, and one of them held the information for the number 137 (thhhthht), would the second set of coins weigh more? | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/MagneticMedia.png"
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|
why dose meat from different species of animals taste noticeably different? isn't it the same stuff (biologically)? | i was choosing between some cold cuts today and started to wonder why ham is so distinctly different from roast beef. i can think of some more obvious things like cooking or cut, but why would two mammals taste different? edit: answer given: > it has to do with different proportions of proteins. white meat chicken breasts have mostly fast-twitch type muscle fibers (high in glycogen), fast but low endurance, which give the characteristic white meat flavor. but the legs are used far more often in a chicken, so they have more slow-twitch type darker fibers, which have higher endurance at the loss of power. this is why duck breast is darker and more gamey, ducks need the endurance fibers in the flight muscles for cruising. once you move into "red meat" animals it is mostly slow-twitch fibers (rich in myoglobin), giving that red meat flavor. additionally, different animals have different circulatory systems, making some meat harder to drain of blood, giving the metallic taste and darkness of a lot of game animals. at the darkest end of the spectrum is seal/whale meat. their systems hold lots of blood in the muscles to aid in diving, and can't be bled-out as effectively. > tl:dr different proportions of proteins. | it has to do with different proportions of proteins. white meat chicken breasts have mostly fast-twitch type muscle fibers (high in glycogen), fast but low endurance, which give the characteristic white meat flavor. but the legs are used far more often in a chicken, so they have more slow-twitch type darker fibers, which have higher endurance at the loss of power. this is why duck breast is darker and more gamey, ducks need the endurance fibers in the flight muscles for cruising. once you move into "red meat" animals it is mostly slow-twitch fibers (rich in myoglobin), giving that red meat flavor. additionally, different animals have different circulatory systems, making some meat harder to drain of blood, giving the metallic taste and darkness of a lot of game animals. at the darkest end of the spectrum is seal/whale meat. their systems hold lots of blood in the muscles to aid in diving, and can't be bled-out as effectively. tl:dr different proportions of proteins. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do humans mature so much slower than other animals? | it seems like every other animal is fully grown in a year or two. why does it take much much longer for humans? | one of humanities adaptations is learning and tool making. that requires communication and cooperation. to achieve all of these goals we need long developmental periods in safe environments where we can accrue those knowledge and skills. the most simple solution to this is a long pre-adolescent period in a tight nit family group. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do most animals mature faster than humans? | i was having a conversation with my roommate and i didnt have an answer to why most animals are born with the natural ability to be able to walk and humans aren't. baby giraffes and elephants, cows, ect. besides the fact that humans have evolved, do we know if earlier humans were born with somethings that we have to learn now? tl;dr why do humans have lazy babies? | the question implies an understanding of maturation that isn't quite accurate. human's mature over a longer period of time because there is much more to develop. obvious physical development is only one portion of the entire process. human mental development is far more sophisticated than even the next most intelligent animal. consider, the smartest animals in the world, fully developed, are typically no more intelligent than a human two year old. while the next smartest animal plateaus at that level of intelligence, the two year old child is going to be getting smarter at a similar rate for another 20-25 years. just because the two year old can't run as fast as a horse, doesn't mean he's "lazy" developmentally. there's a lot more going on upstairs. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a microwave oven interfere with wireless internet? | i've observed what appears to be interference from my parents microwave while on the internet. the microwave is in between where i usually surf on my laptop and the wireless router. to my knowledge, i've only seen it interfere with requesting pages and whatnot, not with downloading previously requested info (i.e. streaming videos). my opinion is that the microwave only interferes with the signal that my computer puts out but not with the router's. is it possible that the frequencies are similar enough to cause destructive interference? any other explanations? | both operate at ~2.4 ghz assuming you are not using the newer %ghz band routers. in theory the microwaves are contained by a faraday cage so not much should be leaking out. but if you take that your router is usually emitting in the mw range it takes < 1% of the radiation put out by a 1kw microwave to swamp the router signal. i don't know how much typically leaks but i would assume something on the low watt scale would be accurate. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/zitu6.jpg"
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can soap ever be "dirty"? | what i mean is can germs exist and live on a bar of soap? ex. if i take a leak and use the bar of soap, will other people be in contact with the germs that my hands had before i washed them? | yes, germs can live on and in soap. there's nothing inherently anti-biotic about soap. that's why they market "anti-bacterial" soap separately. even then, it's not gonna kill *all* of the bacteria. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do stressed points on flexible plastics appear white? | this has been asked a few times before, and people have answered it pretty well. try checking out [this thread](_url_1_). if you want to see some other threads about it, try a search like this one: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=Plastic+white&restrict_sr=on",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1fyf6y/why_does_plastic_turn_white_when_you_bend_it/"
] | [
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|
do we dream in 'real time?' | our best guesses say that no, there is no time dilation in dreams, so inception is a big lie! from wikipedia: i remember reading about a study where they asked lucid dreamers to use their eye movements to play out a predetermined sequence to observers. the sequence was accomplished without time dilation. so let's say i ask you to move your eyes left to right 10 times, once per second, then up to down, 10 times, once per two seconds, while you're dreaming, and i then measure your eye movement during sleep, and you make the movements as per instructed with the correct timing (i'm assuming there was a slight variance allowed, +/- 0.25 seconds), then we can be somewhat certain that there is no time dilation in dreams. if the sequence was measured but each movement took 10 seconds and 20 seconds, or 0.1 and 0.2 seconds, then we'd know your brain was acting up during dream time. sorry, i don't have the link to studies. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do we dream in real time? | not going to lie. have no idea if this has been answered before. just came to my head and needed to write it down. | this was addressed in a study by stephen laberge, who is mostly know for his work on lucid dreaming. he worked out a set of eye movements to signal when he was lucid dreaming. eye movements are measured as part of a normal study, and without that pre-determined signal there's no way to tell whether someone is having a lucid dream. in addition, he was able to use this eye movement signal as a time cue. specifically, a study was done in which the participant (this may have been laberge himself) both counted and estimated 10 second periods while awake, making the eye movement signal at the start and end of these periods. he then repeated the same procedure while lucid dreaming. [here's a picture showing both.](_url_0_) eeg refers to brain activity, roc to right eye (electrooculogram), loc to left eye, and emg to muscle tone (this is inhibited during rem sleep). as you can see, the actual elapsed time for counting 10 seconds was very similar during wakefulness and lucid rem, as was the actual elapsed time for estimating 10 seconds. this suggests that dreams occur in real time, not sped up or slowed down. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lucidity.com/slbbs/laberge.fig2.gif"
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how do voice recognition programs work? and what are the problems that have made them relatively unsuccessful so far? | i realize that many problems can arise from just the she at amount of combinations that could be given by a human to a program like siri. i'm more interested in why there hasn't been a successful spoken word to text program. is it just due to variation in tone of voice and accent or are their deeper problems? and how does the algorithm work in current systems to get from spoken language to computer text (phonetically, word recognition, etc). | a large part of it is that many sounds in our speech are really very hard to tell apart, even for us. there are many homophone words, that is words that are pronounced exactly the same but spelled differently. and a lot of words that are near homophones with only subtle differences. and all the different accents make it even worse. if two different words can sound exactly the same, how is a computer ever supposed to know what word you meant? the only way i can see is using context. depending on what you've been talking about, the computer should be able to guess which word makes the most sense. but that requires for the computer to understand what you're talking about. in other words it becomes a generic ai problem. you might have experienced something like this yourself. if you hear some language that you don't understand at all, it's practically impossible for you to try to transcribe it into text with any accuracy. if you then take some lessons in the language and learn to speak it a little, then it suddenly becomes much easier to do the transcribing, even if you don't understand every single word. just understanding some of it and the structure the language follows, you can make good guesses about what's being spoken. when you become fluent in the language, then you understand the meaning of everything and you can follow it even in an extremely noisy environment where you only hear fragments of each word. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does closing one eye help the pain when it's really bright out? | shouldn't it be equally bright in each eye? | you "feel" bright light when the iris contracts and makes your pupils small. this is why photophobia is a common symptom of corneal abrasion and viral keratitis, and why browache results from pilocarpine drops that force the pupil to shrink. when you cover one eye, you reduce the stimulus to pupil constriction. the pupils still constrict (even in the closed eye) but the stimulus isn't as intense, so the response is not as "painful". | 672 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21337474",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1998572/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17121141",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hgzld/why_is_it_i_can_bear_the_sunlight_fine_with_one/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19674842",
"http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v13/n2/abs/nn.2475.html"
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why do clothes shrink in the laundry? | what you see as the clothes shrinking, is actually the fibers in the clothes returning to their natural length. when fibers like wool and cotton are turned into yarn, they are stretched. this happens again when they're turned into pieces of clothing.this places a large amount of stress on the hydrogen bonds holding the fibers together. when you go on to wash these pieces of clothing, the heat and agitation they experience essentially release the tension that has been put into the fibers, and they return to their natural length. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
at what point in the evolution of organisms did sleep develop? | or to ask this another way, what organisms sleep? is it just animals, and is it all animals? clearly sleep presented some evolutionary advantage, so when did the advantage become present? | this is a question that we don't have a good answer for. the reason for this is at least partially because we don't have a canonical definition of "sleep" for all organisms. as i'll explain, there may not be a good definition of sleep, because sleep is really of composition of many different things, which likely came to be synchronized with each other at different stages in evolution. the other thing that makes this question difficult is that fossils can't tell us how an animal slept! we are therefore restricted to studying organisms that exist today and then trying to work backwards. in mammals, where sleep is best studied and defined (although even there we don't really have a canonical definition that accommodates sleep in all species), typical criteria for defining sleep are: 1. reduced activity, often with changed posture 2. reduced responsiveness to environmental stimuli 3. ability to rapidly return to wake if a strong enough stimulus is provided 4. rest that is *homeostatically preserved*. that means lost sleep results in a sleep debt that must be paid back 5. characteristic changes in physiological signals, including brain activity changes associated with rem and nrem sleep. when we get to less complex organisms, we encounter a definitional problem. if sleep is defined in terms of characteristics such as large-scale brain activity, then we can't reasonably define it in organisms that do not have brains. it's also unclear how we should best define "activity" and "stimuli". if we are willing to drop the 5th criterion and use motion as a measure of activity, then we can define sleep for simpler organisms, including [fruit flies](_url_2_) and [c. elegans](_url_0_). to date, c. elegans is our most distant relative in which sleep has been rigorously defined in this manner. the 4th criterion above is arguably the most important one for sleep, since it defines sleep as a *state of inactivity that has its own intrinsic function*. this is different from a rest phase that is simply timed to occur at a particular time each day by some biological clock (e.g., the circadian clock), because if you miss sleep, you will need to make up for it later! so there is an important distinction between sleep and circadian rhythms. the accepted criteria used to define a circadian rhythm are: 1. an intrinsically generated oscillation with a period close to 24 hours that persists even in the absence of any environmental time cues. 2. an oscillation that can be reset and synchronized by environmental time cues (e.g., light). 3. an oscillation that is temperature compensated (i.e., its period is only weakly dependent on environmental temperature). by this definition, circadian rhythms exist in virtually all forms of life, all the way down to cyanobacteria. in a periodically changing environment, circadian clocks are highly adaptive, since they allow organisms to anticipate cyclical changes in their environment before they occur. they also confer other benefits, such as the ability to detect season based on day-length. in multicellular organisms such as mammals, there is a very clear interaction between circadian rhythms and sleep: circadian rhythms play an important role in timing sleep. the presence of a circadian clock also allows an organism to temporally separate tasks that are mutually beneficial but that should not occur together, e.g., photosynthesis by day and nitrogen fixation by night. the evolution of circadian rhythms in response to daily rhythms in the environment (e.g., daily rhythms in energy availability) may have therefore set the stage for the temporal separation of all the physiological processes we associate with sleep vs. wake. for example, with the development of the brain, it seems that it was evolutionarily beneficial to separate conscious activities during wakefulness from offline activities (e.g., memory consolidation) during sleep. some have gone so far as to argue that sleep is a [fundamental property of any group of neurons](_url_1_). neurons are active for periods of time, which changes their energy balance and leads to the release of chemicals that drive the neurons into a sleep-like state. it's absolutely not clear whether this means that a nervous system is necessary or sufficient for sleep. it's possible, for example, that sleep/wake cycles evolved to service another physiological system and that the nervous system then coupled its function to this pre-existing cycle. when we get down to very simple organisms, we don't have good criteria for defining sleep. how do we define activity? what does it mean to be less responsive to stimuli? how do we define when a cell fell asleep or woke up? we could perhaps try to create a working definition in terms of cellular activities like gene expression or biochemical state, and many of those activities will be homeostatically regulated, satisfying our 4th criterion above. whether you are willing to define these states as sleep and wake then becomes a matter of how far you are willing to stretch your definition. in summary, we don't have a good understanding of when sleep evolved. it's important to keep in mind that "sleep" in multicellular organisms is a composition of many different physiological processes that happen to usually be temporally synchronized. throughout evolutionary history, different sets of these processes likely became coupled at different times. for example, the sleep/wake cycle of the brain may have tacked on to previously existing cycles of other physiological systems. when you look at it that way, defining when sleep first evolved is likely a futile exercise, because there are many parts that make up the whole, all of which evolved at different times and co-evolved with each other. | 152 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7178/abs/nature06535.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v9/n12/full/nrn2521.html",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/287/5459/1834.short",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haikouichthys"
] | [
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why do human teeth grow in so crooked as apposed to say dogs? | it's just an observation but it seems that human teeth grow in much more crooked than say a dog or a cat. | in part, it's because we eat softer food. it turns out that eating hard foods is important in maintaining proper jaw development, tooth eruption, and tooth position. you see the same thing with various other animals raised on soft diets, including rats, rabbits, and alligators. additionally, humans have significantly shorter jaws than our ancestors, but the same number of teeth, which means our teeth are pretty packed in there, causing them to be a bit jumbled. we actually see similar features in the jaws of dogs with shortened snouts, too, such as bulldogs and pugs. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do a lot of little kids have freckles, but not that many adults? | also, why are they more common with red headed people? | two theories about the prominence of freckles in children are as follows: 1. freckles, being triggered by exposure to sunlight, are more common due to more frequent exposure to the sun and outdoors play, coupled with less care for sunscreen. 2. freckles, being clusters of melanin, are more easily visible through the thinner skin of a child. on adults their presence becomes more subdued. as for redheads, there is likely a genetic correlation to freckling; the amount of freckles is genetic and is related to the presence of the melanocortin-1 receptor mc1r gene variant. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could having nightmares be a beneficial evolutionary trait? | this is total speculation (hence i'm asking [/r/askscience](/r/askscience)) but is it possible that the proclivity of some people to have nightmares evolved as some form of defense/protection mechanism? if, say, a tribe were in a dangerous area, the fear of which induced nightmares, would that cause the dreamer to yell out, and thus wake/alert other members of the tribe, which in turn would effectively ensure an awake guard at all times? | [this researcher](_url_0_) argued in [a 2002 paper](_url_1_) that dreaming evolved specifically for coping with threats during waking time: the biological rationale for the evolution of such a system: other researchers [have tested the hypothesis](_url_2_) and found the evidence to be mixed. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.his.se/reva",
"http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84271",
"http://rsrc.psychologytoday.com/files/u47/zadra_et_al.pdf"
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what color is the sun? | i'm fairly certain the sun can best be described as white. i have a friend who maintains that the color of the sun is actually green. who, if either of us, is right? | the light from the sun has roughly a black-body distribution (see [here](_url_0_)). this means it outputs light of all wavelengths, so in that sense it's white. however, the *peak* intensity occurs in roughly in the green range, so that's probably why your friend thinks it's green. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://atmoz.org/img/400px-Solar_Spectrum.png"
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what color is the sun? | ok guys, i have grown up knowing that the sun is yellow. now i read that it's actually white when viewed from space. is this true? and how can it be yellow here but white a few miles above the earth's surface? | a) yes, the sun is actually white from space. b) the sun looks yellowish during most of the day because particles in the atmosphere scatter light (that is, the light from the sun interacts with those particles and shoots off in some random direction, some fraction of which ultimately enters your eyes). you know how if you have a really strong flashlight or something, you can see the light because of the dust particles floating in the air? well, that's the same reason the sky is blue. the blue light is more likely to be scattered by the atmosphere *itself*, the molecules of nitrogen and oxygen that mostly make up the atmosphere, (because it has a smaller wavelength), so anywhere in the atmosphere you look you're going to see predominately blue light. this is related to why the sun is yellow. because much of the blue light that's going straight from the sun to your eye when you look at the sun is scattered on the way, the light, which is originally white, is relatively "depleted" in blue light, so it looks yellowish. you can prove to yourself that the color of the sun *must* have some thing to do with the atmosphere because of the way the color changes as the day goes on. near dawn and dusk, the sunlight you see is shining through a lot more atmosphere than it does at noon - it has to go through at an angle instead of straight through. because the light is interacting with so much more of the atmosphere, more light gets scattered - not just blue light. the longer wavelengths still persist, though, so the sun and the surrounding sky looks red (which is the color that corresponds to the longest wavelength of light). as the sun gets higher in the sky, its color changes from red to orange to yellow. and if you look at the sun at solar noon (don't do this with the naked eye), when it's closest to directly overhead and is the closest to shining straight through the atmosphere as possible, you can see that it looks much whiter that you probably usually think of the sun. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can we effectively mine landfills? | specifically, can we extract useful materials (rare earths, gold, lithium, indium, cobalt etc.) from thrown-away consumer goods buried in tons of useless trash? if such a thing can be done but isn't because of prohibitive cost or lack of a general method, what is being done to solve these problems? | i saw a segment in a louis theroux documentary about a guy who makes a living 'mining' gold on/in the sidewalks of nyc. he'd dig in the cracks of the sidewalk and find little bits of gold, diamonds and other precious metals/stones that had been dropped over the years and ground into the dirt. apparently he made a living selling it. it was pretty crazy. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/07/us/finding-gold-of-a-sort-in-landfills.html",
"http://www.sehn.org/tccgold.html"
] | [
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why is gold and copper not silver/grey coloured? | ...when most, if not all, other metals are. | the inner electrons for gold are orbiting so quickly that their mass increases due to relativistic effects. this causes their 'orbit' size to increase. the elctrons in the outermost orbits are affected by this shift so that instead of absorbing ultraviolet light they now absorb more blue light. if you are a substance that absorbs more blue light you start looking redder. tldr; relativistic effects. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/9.html"
] | [
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why are copper and gold brightly colored when most metallic elements, even chemically similar elements, are silvery-gray? | most metals appear silver because the energy to excite the d-electrons falls into the uv range, and therefore all, if not most, of visible light is reflected giving the metals a white/grey shiny appearance. however if we take for example gold and copper we find that these elements can absorb some blue light. because gold/copper can absorb some blue light this gives them a orange-ish shiny appearance. you can see the reflectance of gold/copper compared to some other metals [here](_url_0_). you might ask why gold/copper are so special? tbh i'm not knowledgeable to discuss in detail why. but gold and copper both have a half filled s orbital which is different from most metals. that said silver too has a half filled s orbital but remains silvery-grey. what i do know is it all comes down to the energies of the d and s orbitals in which the electronic transition is mostly happening in. edit: so i did some more research. form what i've gathered the reason these two metals have transition energies around blue light appears to be do to relativistic quantum chemistry (what a nightmare). long story short the electrons in the d and s orbitals have relativistic speeds (very fast speeds where we need to account for relativistic effects). these effects result in raising the 5d orbital and lowering the 6s orbital, thereby lowering the energy between the two states from a uv range to a range more on the blue side of the spectrum. _url_1_ edit 2: thank you stranger for the gold (i see what you did there) | 52 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Standard-reflectance-spectra-for-aluminium-silver-gold-and-copper-metal-169-Graph_fig11_293329436",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry#Color_of_gold_and_caesium"
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|
is drinking water out of a used plastic water bottle bad? why? | i have often been told not to refill plastic water bottles and reuse them as they are bad for your health. or even not to drink out of a bottle that has some water left in it for a couple of days. how true is this, and why is it true? | there are two reasons why it's a bad idea to drink water out of a used bottle: 1) once you break the seal, bacteria are getting in and a warm, moist environment is their paradise, and 2) it's possible that with time and exposure to light & heat the bottle itself can leach harmful chemicals into its contents. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes that jolt just when you're falling asleep? | many times during day or night, when i'm about to fall asleep, i experience a type of mental 'jolt' that suddenly wakes me back up again. often this comes with slight audible distortion too. | _url_0_ > a hypnic jerk, hypnagogic jerk, sleep start, or night start, is a myoclonic twitch which occurs during hypnagogia, just as a person is beginning to fall asleep, often causing them to awaken suddenly for a moment. physically, hypnic jerks resemble the "jump" experienced by a person when startled,[1] often accompanied by a falling sensation.[2] | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnic_jerk",
"http://www.radiolab.org/2010/sep/20/"
] | [
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how is a honey bee's sting evolutionarily advantageous if it dies after using it? | it's less about the survival of the individual honeybee and more about the survival of the colony. if a small number of bees attack an intruder and fend that intruder off, then the colony survives even though a small number of individuals died defending it. there's really no selective pressure to produce more robust and stronger individuals because that would make each single bee more energy dependant and that would be less economical to have a colony of strong bees that have an exponentially higher calorie demand opposed to a bunch of weaker,more energy efficient bees that suffer a few casualties while defending the hive | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowjacket",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumblebee",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingless_bee",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusociality"
] | [
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|
one of the more dangerous parts of bee venom is phospholipase, which breaks down cell membranes. why doesn't it break down cell membranes inside the bee? | random wiki-ing has gotten me to the components of [bee venom](_url_0_). but i don't understand how this component works. would the bee produce it as needed? or is it stored and somehow buffered? | after a bit of research, i think i found your answer. apitoxin (bee venom) has an active component called [melittin](_url_0_), which is a peptide. melittin stimulates the enzyme [phospholipase a2](_url_1_), or pla2, which as you stated recognizes phospholipid structures and hydrolyzes them. however, in melittin, the pla2 is secreted extracellularly, and is only activated by ca2+. melittin acts as a regulator for the calcium concentration, as it increases the permeability of na+ through the membrane, thus indirectly increasing the intake of ca2+ through the exchange. so, in short, the phospholipase does not break down cell membranes inside the bee because it is not active until is secreted by the sting. hopefully i answered your question :) | 7 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apitoxin"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melittin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipase_A2"
] | [
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why isn't water flammable? | i've just recently learn tha hydrogen is extremely flammable. i also know that oxygen fuels fire. so with that being said, why wont water catch fire. | when you burn hydrogen in the presence of oxygen, water is the *end product*. it can't be 'burnt' because it's already been 'burnt.' | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does water make things less flammable? | it tends to reduce the temperature, but more importantly, removes the source of oxidant - typically gaseous oxygen. some combustion reactions, like that of thermite, can continue even when drenched (or underwater) due to containing an internal source of oxygen. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can plants become obese? | i tried a bit of googling, but all the results ended up pointing back to obesity in humans. from wikipedia, obesity is defined as "a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems." are there plants that take in so many nutrients ("eat" too much) that they reduce their life expectancy? does the concept of obesity even apply to plants or other flora? | that's not the way plants work. they make their own energy rather than taking it in from the environment in their "diet". plants store their energy in the form of starch rather than fat. they use this starch to either grow or reproduce. some plants store lots of starch in their roots (eg potatoes), but the concept of obesity just does not apply to plants in the same way as it does for animals | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what distance would a star, similar to our sun, need to be in order to be visible during the day? | title | in order to be **just** visible to a trained observer (~ -4 mag) the star would have to be roughly more than half a lightyear away. to be clearly visible for the average person (~ -6 mag), it would have to be about 0,22 lightyears away. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can a small child learn 3 or more languages at once when learning to speak? | my nephew is growing up learning dutch, croatian and english. the father is dutch, the mother is croatian and they both speak english to each other. how can a kid's brain make sense of this and categorize everything in the correct language? and why do these kids not mix different languages in 1 sentence? | i'll do my best though i admit my understanding of it isn't complete. in developmental psych it was explained like this; when you are young and your brain is in the early stages of development post birth, it is easier to pick up on the foundational components of things, in this cause language. morphemes, and phonemes, (the smallest grammatical units in a language), ( distinct units of sound in a specified language such as b, p, d, etc) respectively, are easier for somebody so young to pick up and start using. however, the nuances of language, and particularly more advanced grammar, such as when to use run vs ran (and that "runned isn't a proper verb like many other past tense verbs in english), takes longer to acquire, and is usually refined at later ages once the brain has developed more. so at such a young age, your brain is creating all of these new pathways all over the place. these pathways help a young brain pick up tons of information that they would likely miss if they had fewer pathways for the traffic to travel on(which is the case when you get older). eventually those pathways will become pruned and refined for efficiency allowing learning to be more qualitative in a sense, rather than quantitative (it isn't all one of the other, i just mean in general). when you're young, you pick up more data more easily than you do when you're older and your brain is winding down in terms of it's wiring and development. also, i believe that many people who grow up bi, or tri-lingual will think in different languages at different times, and that while they are still learning languages, they may apply the rules of one language to another during the process. eventually, what will become of your nephew is that he will most likely be fluent in all three languages, and will actually perform better on various tests in school and in life as a result. there are some studies that suggest that growing up learning multiple languages helps broaden a child's intelligence and their ability to better understand various things because of the way their brain is wired (as a result of learning multiple languages simultaneously at a young age). these studies note that initially, they may fall behind their peers who have the advantage of school being in their sole native language, but they often soar past them in later years having built a more robust foundation. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do shower curtains attack? | every morning my wife and i take a shower together. when one of us leaves the shower, the shower curtain starts to aggressively encroach on the personal space of the person still in the shower. why does this happen? | i'm going to take a stab and say that the egress of one person starts a circulation airflow and the warm shower air is flowing upward and drawing cool air from the rest of the bathroom in under the shower curtain. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html#ig2001"
] | [
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is it known why shower curtains waft into running showers? | i have heard that this is a bizarre phenomenon that is not understood. it seems strange that such a seemingly simple thing is so hard to understand. has anyone heard of any conclusive research about this? | a comprehensive simulation displayed that it wasn't bernoulli or the chimney effect. [the straight dope covered this](_url_1_) very thoroughly awhile ago, with an assist from a umass professor of mechanical and industrial engineering: this isn't necessarily *the* answer, but it is a promising explanation with some simulated computer modeling to demonstrate it. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.straightdope.com/images/art/2001/010810.gif",
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1369/why-does-the-shower-curtain-blow-in-despite-the-water-pushing-it-out-revisited"
] | [
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are all galaxies moving in the same direction? if not why? | so me and a friend of mine (who is an astronomy major) were sitting around talking about the universe and galaxies and some stuff he was explaining to me didn't quite make sense and i was wondering if a experienced astronomer could enlighten me. from what i understand the universe is constantly expanding from a central point from the big bang or huge cosmic explosion or what have you, but at the same time our galaxy is also moving toward another galaxy, the andromeda galaxy, while it is also moving towards us. so i guess my question is are both of our galaxies flying in one direction but at the same time moving closer together? like if you were to throw two magnets in a single direction and they link up in the air? or is our galaxy or the andromeda galaxy moving at a slower rate than the other and one is simply catching up? also are all galaxies really moving away from a central point or do we have any evidence that some might be moving in the wrong direction and how would this be proven? i'm sorry if this is a lot and if i'm not asking a very clear question but i just can't seem to get this question out of my head and i would love a good explanation to some of these questions. | there is no central point. the big bang wasn't an explosion. see the [faq](_url_0_). it was an event in which the whole universe began uniformly expanding. all points started receding from all other points, because additional space was being created in between them. this wasn't matter traveling through space, this was space itself spreading out. the universe is thought to be infinite, or at least so obscenely large that it can be easily mistaken for infinite. galaxies tend to have some random intrinsic motion relative to nearby galaxies, this is known as "peculiar velocity". within galaxy groups and clusters (like the local group, where we and the andromeda galaxy reside), galaxy motions are dominated by their gravitational attraction toward each other, and that is what is pulling us and m31 (andromeda) toward each other. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/astronomy"
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many galaxies are moving away or towards us. are there any galaxies that aren't moving considerably, or have more sideways movement than in and out? | measuring the sideways motion of galaxies isn't something we can really do. however there are nearby galaxies with have negligible velocity (relative to us) in the radial direction; in these cases, you can safely assume that their sideways motion (relative to us) is the larger component. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't woodpeckers get concussions? | [this article from 2011 deals with this exact question.](_url_0_) to quote the abstract: to summarize this in more simple terms, it has to do with the way its skull and beak are shaped and put together. [here](_url_1_) is a figure showing force distribution on a woodpecker's skull during pecking. it shows that the force is distributed mainly through it's beak, thus preventing the brain from taking any damage from the impact. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0026490",
"http://i.imgur.com/K7SNEIv.png"
] | [
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|
how did certain herbivorous dinosaurs grow so large on a diet of plants and leaves? | _url_0_ " the largest land herbivore we have today is the elephant, but the largest herbivores ever were dinosaurs like apatosaurus or brachiosaurus. obviously there are evolutionary differences between an elephant and a sauropod, and today's elephant is the optimal size for such a creature, but what can account for 'optimal size' at one point in prehistory being so massive, and not today? is there any evidence that their diet was richer or anything? " | first, oxygen is _not_ the reason dinosaurs were so large. oxygen levels in the mesozoic were not much higher (and were sometimes lower) than they are now. second, organism size has less to do with diet and more to do with the adaptations of the organism. there's a good description of why sauropods got so large [here](_url_0_). things on the "primitive" side were traits sauropods already had (and shared with many other dinosaurs). traits on the "derived" side are sauropod special adaptations. basically, dinosaurs were just really different than today's elephants. they ate differently, breathed differently, reproduced differently, had different bones and different body shapes. this all helped them become really huge. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/qyak7/how_did_herbivorous_dinosaurs_grow_so_large_on_a/"
] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/files/2011/12/Sander-et-al-2011-gigantism-flow-chart-Dec-2011-tiny.jpg"
] | [
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in a photo of andromeda galaxy (example in text), are any of the discrete-looking stars in andromeda, or are they in the milky way? | _url_0_ | those are in the milky way. when a supernova goes off in a distant galaxy, it looks like a new star has lit up: _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/and2disk.jpg"
] | [
"https://www2.physics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/images/M82_2014J_Comparison.img_assist_custom-393x448.PNG",
"http://www.astro.washington.edu/groups/phat/Home.html",
"http://www.andromedaproject.org/"
] | [
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what happened to peoples' teeth before brushing teeth was a "thing"? why are animals' teeth so clean without brushing? | do they sneak away when we're not looking and brush-brush-brush? | animals do clean teeth, but with different methods. if you have a cat or a dog, you probably noticed they sometimes chew on grass or something similar. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth_cleaning_twig"
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what actually is balding? | what is actually going on when hairlines start to recede and why do humans bald in the first place? do other creatures bald? | humans go bald when their hair follicles revert back to vellus hair, which is the hair that first grows on newborns and is also known as peach fuzz. hair has three different stages, anagen (growth), catagen (when the follicle stops growing and begins to get pushed up) and telogen (resting phase). balding occurs when certain transcription factors fail to activate and hairs in anagen stage prematurely enter the telogen phase, resulting in baldness. i learned all this in my cell and developmental course in college, so only know how it happens. hope this is helpful! | 82 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does a gas powered car need a transmission but an electric vehicle doesn’t? | combustion engines have a relatively narrow range of rotation rates where they can operate. when turning slowly, they are inefficient and [produce little torque, or cannot run at all](_url_1_). that's because the force provided from a combustion event has to synchronize with the expansion of the cylinder volume, or the energy it represents ends up being wasted. if the cylinder is opening up too slowly, the fuel cannot fully combust. and each combustion event has to rotate the crank at least enough to enable the next one in the cycle. this is also why gas cars need a "starter;" the engine must already be turning in order for it to work. an electric motor, on the other hand, can produce torque at zero rpm, and while there is a "torque curve" it's [shallower and wider](_url_0_) than that of a combustion engine. most electric vehicles are actually geared down because the most efficient range for the motor is very much faster than typical wheel rpm but it's a single, fixed gearbox. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://i.stack.imgur.com/e98Er.png",
"http://caymanregister.org/images/FAQimages/models/2006/full/cs_torque_curve.jpg"
] | [
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|
what is the evolutionary purpose behind being ticklish, and why are some people more ticklish than others? | it's actually not fully sure as of yet, though many have hypothesized many answers. it has been proposed as a bonding mechanism between parents and their newborn offspring. it has also been theorized as a method of learning combat and defensive skills. according to wikipedia [wikipedia](_url_0_) "most tickling is done by parents, siblings and friends and is often a type of rough-and-tumble play, during which time children often develop valuable defensive and combat moves." | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling#Purpose_of_tickling"
] | [
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|
why does one nostril allow more airflow than the other? | and why/how does it change from one to the other? | its called the nasal cycle. people actually breathe only from a single nostril which cycles throughout the day. i'd link you to the wikipedia article, but... | 47 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what exactly is a decibel | i obviously know that it is unit that measures how loud something is but i'm wondering what is it based on? what exactly does it measure and how? edit: switched the flair to physics | well i did some googling and a decibel is actually a ratio of power the number of units being equal to a constant times the logarithm to the base 10 of the intensities of two sources. now this at first seemed strange to me because i thought, what two sources? i've always heard it in reference to how loud one sound is. as it turns out they (somewhat) arbitrarily pick a reference point of 20 micropascals (20 μpa) which is really really low but i read that this is the limit of sensitivity of the human ear. i also discovered that the decibel doesn't necessarily denote loudness perse because the human ear is more sensitive to certain frequencies. i guess i should have tried googling it first but i always prefer having someone explain things. [source](_url_0_) | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/dB.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_pressure#Examples_of_sound_pressure_and_sound_pressure_levels",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour"
] | [
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what is happening inside of the tip of our fingers and toes that causes nails to come out and grow? | basically, the base of the growth is situated at the part of the nail that is closest to your wrist (when your fingers are extended). your skin folds over itself at the base, forming a sinus - a cavity in the external body in this case. all the walls of this sinus are external surfaces of your skin. in the base of this sinus, an area of skin express a large amount of keratin. because of the shape of the sinus, growth of keratin-rich young cells pushes older cells out across your finger. this pushing compress the growing cells into a dense matrix of dead cells and keratin. so, your fingernails are just dense, flattened, protein-rich skin-cells. because they were pressed together like that they form a strong matrix of multiple layers. if you're asking why only cells on that part of your body grow this way, i'm not prepared to answer that. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
is there any real world applications where concept of infinity is used? | i know what infinity is used in mathematics, and mathematics are obviously basis for many modern inventions. you build a space rocket and fly it to the moon, you are going to need a lots of math right? but is the concept of infinity used in anything that relates to real life and not just purely theoretical things that are in no way applied? | infinity in what sense? limits at infinity are super important for some of the most fundamental aspects of calculus, which is certainly useful in real world applications. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued_fraction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal"
] | [
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] |
why do stars explode in an "hourglass" shape? | i'm referring to [this](_url_0_) picture for example. why does the explosion go in two ways, why not just expand in every direction at the same speed? | i'm not an astrophysicist (but i am a physicist), so i may be able to use some intuition to help you out here. stars contain vast amounts of ionized gases called plasmas, where the heavy, positively charged nuclei of an atom are separated from the light, negatively charged electrons. due to their differences in mass (nuclei are often thousands of times heavier than electrons) the motions of these particles are very different, and it is not uncommon for a plasma to become locally non-neutral, meaning that it has an overall electric charge. when the surface of a star blows off in a nova, it can send vast streams of charged particles away from the surface at relativistic speeds. one thing we know from classical electrodynamics is that moving charges create magnetic fields, and the faster they go, the stronger these fields get. in the case of a stream of particles, the effect of the magnetic field is to focus the path of the particles into a single jet. this is known as the [pinch effect](_url_0_). part of my research recently was studying the focusing power of semi-relativistic proton beams, so believe me, this is a real effect. in the case of a star, i assume that it's these magnetic fields created by the moving plasmas and gases themselves which focus the blast into a semi-directed stream. as for why you have two streams going the opposite direction, the star needs to maintain conservation of momentum. so in its rest frame, it needs to throw off an equal amount of plasma in opposite directions in order to not break the laws of physics. if a legitimate astrophysicist wants to come and explain it better, i'd be glad to be corrected. | 87 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fw5mBKT.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinch_(plasma_physics)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NGC6543.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/IC3568.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/NGC_6326_by_Hubble_Space_Telescope.jpg",
"http://www.spacetelescope.org/static/archives/images/screen/heic0515a.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_Nebula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_carinae",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_Nebula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Carinae",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_limit",
"http://home.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~icke/html/VincentPN.html",
"http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&url=/articles/aa/full/2006/26/aa4512-05/aa4512-05.html&access=standard&Itemid=129",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/584/2/954/",
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228926176_Supernovae_rotation_and_bipolar_explosions"
] | [
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would a box of photons have mass and therefor be "heavy"? | from wikipedia: "when two or more photons move in different directions, however, a center of mass frame (or "rest frame" if the system is bound) exists. thus, the mass of a system of several photons moving in different directions is positive, which means that an invariant mass exists for this system even though it does not exist for each photon." essentially a system of multiple photons has a rest mass, even though individual photons don't. i understand this, but would this system be "heavy" in normal terms? would it be pulled on by gravity like any other massive body is? | yes, that quote is correct and so are your conclusions. if you have a box of photons all moving in random directions, the photon gas inside the box will have mass, and the box will be harder to accelerate (for a given force) than an empty box (nevermind how you'd get a box to actually be empty of photons; assume the walls are at absolute zero if you wish). | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are microwave ovens bad for you? | no. microwaves are a form of radio waves. radio waves are a natural part of the universe and are constantly surrounding you. right now, microwaves are constantly bombarding you from every point in the sky due to waves left over from the big band (the cmb). you are also constantly being hit by radio waves created by lightning bolts on distance continents (schumann resonances). radio waves are harmless (unless they get strong enough to burn you). humans were being bathed in radio waves long before technology came along. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what causes an "aftertaste"? | why do we sometimes get a different taste of food *after* we swallow it? | [here](_url_1_) is a good article on the subject. the basics of it are that how we perceive flavor is based on texture, temperature, smell, and taste. flavor here is separate from taste, as flavor is the entire ensemble of senses coming together to allow you to experience food. while there is no definitive consensus, as how we perceive flavor is not yet entirely understood, the leading theory on aftertaste is that it is our bodies experiencing flavor after the elements of temperature, texture, and smell are gone. this leaves us to process flavor with only the 'taste' of what we had eaten left. disclaimer: i have no prior knowledge on this subject beyond what i just researched on the internet. the website is a wordpress site, but it cites published research to back up its claims. if someone in this field disputes what i've said, they know much more than me and are actually qualified to give answers. citations given on the website: _url_3_ _url_2_ _url_4_ _url_0_ _url_5_ | 372 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0033701/",
"http://themedicinejournal.com/articles/what-is-aftertaste/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1698869/",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867400806972",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf901656k",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100527122143.htm"
] | [
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will it ever be possible to record dreams, and be able to watch them when awake? | how likely is it for something like this to be developed, or is there any started already that's working towards recording dreams? | neuroscientists do things with brain imaging and eeg to capture the signals that the brain emits when it thinks, but they aren't anywhere close to making a log of the brains activity. in two decades, *maybe* someone will float a feasible "this might work" idea about doing stuff like this, but no one is doing it now. have you seen the movie "8 1/2"? it's basically a movie about how hard it is to put your inner life into a form other people can understand (let alone empathize with). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if it is now possible to reconstruct visual information in the brain using fmri, can we record dreams? | recently, there was a link posted on /r/science that showed the reconstruction of images from a person's brain using fmri. i was wondering if this technology means we could also reconstruct the visual activity during rem sleep. from this youtube video: _url_1_ > the left clip is a segment of the movie that the subject viewed while in the magnet. the right clip shows the reconstruction of this movie from brain activity measured using fmri. the reconstruction was obtained using only each subject's brain activity and a library of 18 million seconds of random youtube video. (in brief, the algorithm processes each of the 18 million clips through a model of each individual brain, and identifies the clips that would likely have produced brain activity as similar to the measured brain activity as possible. the clips used to fit the model, those used to test the model and those used to reconstruct the stimulus were entirely separate.) brain activity was sampled every one second, and each one-second section of the viewed movie was reconstructed separately. here is the relevant paper: _url_0_ | let me clarify a few things about this work. 1) reconstruction of the images are from the visual system. not whole brain, though i believe, the whole brain data was used (i'll have to double check). 2) in the simplest of terms, fmri works by measuring blood flow. but for a more in-depth discussion about the pros, cons and details of fmri measurement, see [this](_url_0_) recent thread. try to find comments by me and brain\_doc82. now, this isn't exactly a "reconstruction". this is an extremely complex statistical process to build back approximations by knowing a few things, due to the experimental design: 1) the researchers know exactly what pixels are being watched at exactly what time during the experiment. 2) the sampling happened over hours by a small set of people. this may not generalize at all. 3) reconstruction occurs through knowing pixels at give times and voxels (bloody brain pixel-cubes) at given times. then match the two, basically. so, to answer that question no one knows. except i do know that this same group is working on that exact idea. i will leave out any and all details i know, because it's not very nice to share information like that while researchers are actively working on the problem. for further information in a less formal presentation, visit [this](_url_1_) website over the next few weeks. videos will be up which presented this material prior to publication, but also other really cool stuff that is related to this work. | 24 | [] | [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsjDnYxJ0bo"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/klgci/the_human_brain_uses_on_average_20_of_the_bodys/",
"http://haxbylab.dartmouth.edu/meetings/ncworkshop11.html",
"http://kottke.org/11/07/mona-lisa-in-140-dots"
] | [
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] |
have trees ever evolved over time? or are they relatively the same as they were hundreds of millions of years ago? | trees have evolved so much that the trees which dominate the world now aren't even all that closely related to all the different groups we loosely call "trees". the first "trees" where tree-ferns, whch were more closely related to modern ferns than any other living plants (and as such, had a radically different life cycle than the gymnosperms and angiosperms we are used to today.) in fact, the angiosperm (flowering plant) trees that dominate today didn't even evolve until the end of the cretaceous, making them younger than mammals and dinosaurs. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are trees seemingly only centuries old if the earth is billions of years old? | i've heard that if you count a trees "rings" then you can determine its age and also, qualitatively, how much it had rained during different parts of the tree's life. if the planet is billions of years old, why do most trees seem to only be hundreds, or maybe thousands, of years old? (i live on the east coast, and there are a lot of trees and forests but the trees are so small compared to redwoods and compared to what i imagine a billion-year-old tree would be - were the trees all burned down or something when the colonists came to america?) i love trees! | greetings /u/thestudybuddy, there are a couple of things i'd like to point out in response to your post, most have to do with the sense of scale required to frame your questions: 1 - earth is 4.54 billion years old. trees usually live a few hundred years. 2 - trees are critters. they live and then they die. they have average life spans of a few centuries, rarely millenia. if you had a sequence of successive trees living one thousand years each, one thousand such trees would sprout and die within the span of a mere million years. north america was colonised by the europeans barely half a millenium ago. the time period elapsed since the founding of the north american colonies would be in the outer half of the single last tree of that hypothetical sequence of 1000 trees. 3 - trees grow in a wide array of environments, but most live in forests. eastern north america is a good example of this. a forest is a terrible place for the preservation of organic remains, including wood. there is ample oxygen, and scavengers, and decomposers. the overwhelming majority of critters (trees included) who pass away in forested areas are recycled by other lifeforms such as bacteria and fungi. 4 - that relative rarity does not mean that wood *never* survives, just that it does so in special circumstances where it is rapidly sequestered away from the oxygen required by decomposers. there is a significant record of tree rings for most parts of the world. the study of that record is a science unto itself, termed [dendrochronology](_url_0_). i suggest you look into a primer on dendrochronology, since you appear interested. you may find many answers to questions which interest you there, as well as questions you may not have thought of. you will find a few links which may get you started here: ([link 1](_url_3_), [link 2](_url_1_)). 5 - out of the 4.54 ga the earth has been around, trees have only been around for the last 420 to 350 last million years or so. that's almost 9/10^ths of our planetary history which elapsed before trees were a thing. add to that the fact that most rocks formed in other environments than the continental surface, such as the ocean floor or deep-seated magmatic chambers, and you will understand that most rocks have formed in treeless environements and are unlikely to contain traces of tree remains. nonetheless, tree fossils are occasionally found in rocks from the appropriate age and geological context. 6 - tree rings do indeed contain a lot of information. their size correlates with climatic conditions, including rainfall. specific sequences of rings can be correlated from one sample to the next to make a record of these variations through time, which is especially interesting when one has access to material from archeological sites. events such as severe droughts and forest fires can be identified. 6 - the east coast of north america has been extensively logged from the 16^th to the beginning of the 20^th century to make way for pastoral and agricultural development by the colonists. that trend seems to be reversing itself somewhat nowadays as several of these farms are abandonned and forest reclaims these areas. ([reference](_url_2_)) i hope this answers most of your questions, and assists you in pursuing your interest in all things dendrochronological. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology",
"http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_States#After_European_colonization",
"https://www.ohio.edu/plantbio/staff/mccarthy/dendro/body.htm"
] | [
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what do nebulae and other stellar phenomenon actually look like? | i've read in the captions of many astronomy photos (think "pillars of creation") that they are enhanced to highlight different elements (among many other means of photo manipulation). i've also heard of certain nebulae occupying the same angular size in the night's sky as the moon (or bigger), but obviously we can't see those - even if we can in those glitzy astronomy photos. so what exactly is going on here? what would the eagle or trifid nebulae actually look like "in real life"? | this might not fully answer your question, but it would probably be worth your time to check out [this thread](_url_0_) from a few days ago in r/astronomy. read both dvnt's post (which is what the link is to) and doctorbenton's response. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Astronomy/comments/lhpho/nasa_and_a_lot_of_observatories_use_false_color/c2ssc04"
] | [
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how does a quantum computer work essentially? if the qubits are neither 1's or 0's, how are computations made with them? | a positive number can be defined by its distance to zero. so picture a line of numbers. now imagine leaving that line. is that point still defined by the distance? no, you need more information. it is called a vector. quantun computers work with vectors | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what do we have earlobes? as in, what purpose do they serve. | they just don't make sense. | as with the outer ear its design is to help funnel in sound. obviously some people have attached vs free earlobes and have no hearing difference. just a leftover part of evolution, as we dont know why some parts of the body are x way vs others. and keep in mind something like an earlobe is not an evolutionary hindrance thus it remains. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do my nose itch when i brush my teeth? | sometimes, when i brush my teeth using an electric toothbrush, i get an extreme itch inside my nose? my brother says he has felt the same thing. what is causing this? | my best guess is that the vibration from the toothbrush is causing the hairs in your nose to vibrate, giving you the sensation of an itch. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the expansion of the universe can be slowed by gravity, as in the big crunch theory, does that mean space is not expanding near massive objects? | i've always understood that expansion occurs everywhere equally, including between the atoms of my body, but was unnoticeable compared to the local forces. | expansion is a large scale feature of the universe, and on large scales, the universe is basically [homogeneous](_url_3_) (and [isotropic](_url_1_), but that's not relevant to answer this question). a homogeneous universe is, roughly, a universe which has a uniform distribution of all the different kinds of matter. when solving the [einstein field equations](_url_2_), which are the equations that tell us how the geometry of spacetime is related to the matter content of the universe, we find that a homogeneous and isotropic universe is desribed mathematically by an object called the [flrw metric](_url_0_). the equations we obtain from this metric are the equations that tell us that space is expanding. on small scales (galaxies, stars, atoms), the universe is not homogeneous, and so the flrw metric is not an appropriate description of the geometry of spacetime. in particular, the flrw metric doesn't account for gravitationally and electromagnetically bound small scale structures like galaxies, stars, and atoms, so we expect that it wouldn't give us a correct description the geometry of spacetime on small scales. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_\\(physics\\)#Homogeneous_cosmology"
] | [
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why does male pattern baldness follow the pattern it does? i.e. from the top of the head down, often in a perfectly straight circle around the head. | i'll be more specific. why for example does it not start from the collar and work up leaving an island on the top? or why not just the sides leaving a mohawk? it's some variation of mid-line top then down. it always ends up in a horseshoe around the head. | so it's well knows that male pattern hair loss is due to dht which is the highly potent version of testosterone which is a steroid promoting tissue growth. ok anyway dht is known to cause thinning of the follicle. there is a theory on the specific pattern and it's called the gravity theory... goes like this... as men age there is decreased fat in the face and scalp hence less support and the areas that tend to bald are the areas that have the most gravitational pull leading to damage. the damage then requires testosterone for repair leading to a buildup of dht in the area... bada bing bada boom. of course this is thought to prove but it is absolutely a fact that there is a buildup of dht in the balding areas compared to the spared areas. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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] |
substances that are effective against diseases in mice tests are often not effective on humans. how do scientists test new medicines that do not affect mice, but could possibly affect humans? | first, you do cell culture tests with human cells. obviously, this isn't the best way to determine if it could affect humans because the body is a system and cells aren't even an organ. however, if you find the compound toxic to cells, it'll probably be toxic to the human body and you stop testing it. next, there are better models than mice for humans - mice are just the least expensive, most researched and easiest to manage. ferrets are often used in flu experiments because they are susceptible like humans, and they have a really long respiratory system! pigs are quite similar to humans too. then you move into the non-human primates, which brings along ethical issues, but they do make probably the best non-human test subject. lastly, if the medication you are testing passes all of the previous studies, you can actually test on humans. when you go into clinical studies, the first study is a safety study, in which you recruit healthy volunteers to take the medicine to determine if its safe. if it is safe, you can move onto efficacy studies. [here](_url_0_) is a link to the steps to getting a drug accepted by the us fda. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.fda.gov/ForPatients/Approvals/Drugs/ucm405382.htm"
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|
why do clear plastics turn milky white when twisted or bent? | like when you twist a plastic water bottle and it turns that milky whitish color, why is that? | materials science student so plastics are polymers which divide into two main groups. thermosets and thermoplastics. a thermoplastic is a polymer which can be reformed with heating such as nylon. a thermoset is a polymer which sets when experiencing heat and the process can’t be reversed. a good example is vulcanized rubber found in tires. now onto your question. many polymers, especially thermoplastics, have an amorphous crystal structure as their stable state. this means that the atoms are not arranged in any distinct order which allows for properties like transparency (glass is also amorphous). now when we induce stress on this polymer (bend it), the crystal structure can change from amorphous to say cubic or hexagonal. when the crystal structure changes so do the mechanical and optical properties of the material which is why the color changes because light reacts differently to different crystal structures. this is because the atoms are arranged differently and light hits them in an either more predictable or unpredictable manner. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does toasting bread make it taste so different? | there's a drastic difference in taste between a slice of bread, a golden brown piece of toast and a darkened/burnt piece. what's going on that makes that golden brown coloring taste so good? | ok, so when you're toasting a piece of bread, you are applying heat to the slice. the outside of the slice receives a lot of heat, and the inside much less. there's a couple of things going on here that influence taste and texture. texture might not seem like an important factor, but it is, and i'll explain why below. there's a couple of things happening whet you toast bread: - first a reaction starts which usually is only visible in the crust of bread*. it's called a maillard reaction. it is a reaction between sugar and amino acids within the bread. most prominent on the outside, it results in a golden-brown color, and a complex changing of the taste. it's a little more bitter, a tad salty, rather difficult to exactly predict, since it differs enormously per ingredient. here's a paper on it: _url_0_ - secondly, the sugars in the bread caramelize, making it taste sweeter. this is most prominent especially in white breads made from fine flour, since these usually have added sugar. - thirdly, by heating the bread, you desiccate it, and that makes for crunchiness and a different perception of flavor on your tongue. the moisture of your mouth reacts very different when it's being sucked up by the dry bread first, giving a very distinct flavor experience. *about the brown crust, i'm of course referring to finished breads. here soft breads like toast and hamburger buns are an exception, since that's deliberately baked at lower temperatures as to accentuate the toasting effect upon consumption. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037218"
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what makes cheese last so long? | i was looking through very old things in my fridge and realized i had a few blocks of cheap walmart cheese that had been in there for a while. they were fine and their expiration date is over a year from now on the package! it even says "no preservatives" on the front. there is no mold on the cheese and it is fine, how does cheese keep so well? | the longevity of cheese is achieved primarily by the cheese being very low in moisture (i.e. hard cheeses) and/or very high in salt, both qualities of which prevent the growth of bacteria which are the primary culprits in food spoilage. this is why fresh or "soft" cheeses like mozzarella, ricotta, and mascarpone don't last nearly as long as say parmesan or provolone (which is actually more or less just mozzarella that has been made drier and saltier) will. additionally, some cheeses contain live bacterial cultures (which are the ingredient that turns milk in to cheese in most cases) and these bacteria inhibit other, harmful bacteria from colonizing the cheese. edit: i forgot to mention that these bacterial cultures turn milk in to cheese by covering the lactose in milk in to lactic acid (which makes the milk curdle), and the higher-acidity environment of the resulting cheese is generally more difficult for other bacteria to survive in. interestingly, this is also the process which makes pickling useful for preserving food. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why hasn't the asteroid belt amalgamated to form a planet or planetoid? | or will it in time? i understand that the planets were formed from clouds of rock and gas that congregated within similar orbital planes. as i understand, all the planets are aligned in very similar orbital planes but at one point, gas and rock were orbiting around the sun in much more varied, three dimensional orbits in opposing directions. millions or collisions boiled this down to a preferred plane of orbit formed by chance through the most common orbit in which particular momentum was held. my secondary question is asking whether the asteroid field is aligned within the same orbital plane as the planets? | there really isn't enough material in the asteroid belt to coalesce - it's very sparse, totaling a small fraction of the moon's mass. jupiter's gravity will prevent (and did prevent in the early solar system) large masses within the belt growing through accretion anyway - the high speed of the collisions do not encourage planetary formation, but rather the asteroids simply shatter. those that can avoid shattering can easily find themselves straying into a zone where jupiter or mars' perturbing effects will drag them out of the belt. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why hasn't the asteroid belt formed a planet? | our theory for the origin and organization of our solar system includes the idea that all the current matter in our solar system originated from one large nebula, which orbited the young sun, and over time, evolved from a cloud of dust to organized rings/clumps of matter of similar composition (hence why we have the terrestrial and gaseous planets), and finally to planets. why then do we still have a ring of asteroids orbiting between the terrestrial and gaseous planets? should they not have gravitated together to form a planetary body (or become part of another rocky planet) as well? | the total mass in the asteroid belt is quite small - much smaller than any planet, even much smaller than pluto. that means a lower gravitational attraction between the objects, and a much longer timescale for the collisions of them (longer than the age of the solar system). in addition, jupiter perturbs the orbits. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/26712/what-is-the-average-distance-between-objects-in-our-asteroid-belt",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_model?wprov=sfti1"
] | [
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why does smoking tobacco cause so many illnesses? | smoke: physically damaging to the lungs due to heat and irritation by carbon/chemical deposition. this causes most of the lung disease- copd, asthma, etc. lung cancer is in part from this, also because some of the chemicals are carcinogenic on their own. cardiovascular: a big part of this is nicotine, which raises your blood pressure. bp is an important determinant in heart disease and atherosclerosis. there may be more direct effects as well. carcinogens: as mentioned above, carcinogens cause cancer. lung (obviously), mouth/throat, bladder (where many are disposed of after your kidneys remove them from the blood) are especially prominent. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is there so much carbon-14 in these fossils? | i searched this sub for similar posts. there were some close matches but nothing regarding fossils with such a high concentration of c14. here is the article: _url_0_ this topic was discussed over in /r/debateachristian, and i was asked to pose this question to the experts. thanks in advance. | there's a lot of crap on that page. first, carbon dating doesn't work for things like dinosaur fossils. they're too old. the number 22,380 has no reference next to it so i'm not sure which reference at the bottom they're referring to. the premise of the article is that in 2005 a fossil was dated to 20-30k years. none of their references seems to point to this event, nor does google come up with anything that's not a blog or some anti-evolution web site. hugh miller comes up a few times, he's apparently a creationist. there's nothing on that page that can be responded to without vomiting. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencevsevolution.org/Holzschuh.htm"
] | [] | [
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are we really losing that much helium to space? | when i read about helium being wasted, it is assumed that all the helium floats to the top of the atmosphere where it then [escapes to space](_url_0_), because its thermal velocity is sufficient. but, does helium not held in a balloon really rise preferentially? for comparison, oxygen and nitrogen have different molecular weights (they are diatomic o2 and n2), and yet the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere does not change significantly with altitude. also, i know one can separate rare gases from the atmosphere cryogenically, including helium. it just isn't cost effective compared to separating it from natural gas. so, how much is really being lost to outer space? how much is just making it really expensive to retrieve via cryogenic separation? edit: alternative question - can you calculate the percentage of helium in the atmosphere by altitude? what does that curve look like? | we are losing all of it eventually, and it will be lost forever. any molecule with a molecular mass of less than about 10 can escape the earth's gravity without needing any help. helium has a molecular mass of 4, compared to 28 for nitrogen (n2) and 32 for oxygen (o2). the only helium that is still here is the stuff that is trapped underground because it was generated from radioactive decay (an alpha particle is a helium nucleus). there is no other source of helium in appreciable quantities, so if we let all that underground helium get to the atmosphere without being captured, it's gone, there's no way to recapture it, and we won't be finding any more on earth. edit: mixing of air at lower altitudes is mostly done by weather-related process rather than molecular ones, but helium that finds its way to the upper atmosphere does eventually separate because of its lower mass. there is a slightly higher proportion up there, where it can accumulate before escaping entirely. at present the rate of helium outgassing is enough to balance this escape, so there is an equilibrium level of helium in our atmosphere, but it's still not going to be around forever. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape"
] | [] | [
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if i have the flu, and i am next to my dog coughing and what not, why doesn't he get the flu? | the epithelial cells in his respiratory tract and his erythrocytes don't have receptors for the virus. the influenza glycoprotein hemagglutinin needs to bind to a cell surface molecule known as sialic acid inside its human host. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can dogs transfer viruses like the flu to a healthy person through interaction with someone who has been infected ? | yes. dog licks face of a person with flu virus, gets some runny-nose mucus on their tongue, and then licks your face and mixes that mucus with your own saliva or eyes or mucus lining of your nose. a couple days later and you feel like something that came out of the other end of the dog. a dog won't *catch* the flu and then transmit it to you, but it can certainly mechanically carry it to you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can people with dyslexia read their own writing? | we can read all writing. there are just a few hurdles we need to jump that the average readers don't. it is esay for poelpe to raed sracblemd wrods if the frsit and lsat ltetres ramein the smae. first, scrambled letters are more of a misconception of dyslexia. i personally don't see scrambled letters. it almost as if i don't see the letters at all, when i read. i actually do, but i'm saying that to give you an idea of what it's like. re-read the scrambled letter sentence above and kind of blur each word to the point where you know what the word is and move on. that might give you an idea of what it's like for me to read. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can bad smells harm us? | if you look at a bright light or laser, it can harm your eyes. listen too closely to a loud sound and it can damage your hearing. do bad smells have any lasting effect on the body, or are they just gross? for example, if someone farts/poops, is it just gross, or can it have a greater effect? | you have to analyze each smell and the context in which you smell it on a case by case basis. smells correspond to classes of compounds with a certain shape or chemical property that bind to a specific protein. the proteins do not have perfect specificity and will often bind separate compounds with different levels of toxicity. also, toxicity is mediated by large range of mechanisms that function differently. some things are toxic in direct proportion to how much you accumulate over a long period, whereas other things are only toxic if you get a large dose all at once. sometimes the mechanism is somewhere in between these two, where small doses are toxic over time but the toxicity levels will reduce over time to your baseline. as for fart smell, if you smell it from a person, because they farted, then it's probably fine, because the dose is extremely small, whereas if you suddenly smell it in a chemical plant, it might indicate you're at risk of dying of hydrogen sulfide poisoning in the near future. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what kind of chemical process occurs when cooking popcorn? | water trapped in the kernal becomes excited by heat. in stovetop popcorn, this is from the heating element, in microwave popcorn, the heat com3s from the water molecules itself. microwav3s woek because the waves they produce will excite polar molecules (like water) essentially making the molecules themselves vibrate. so in a kernal, the trapped water heats up and attempts to expand.unfortunately the kernal prevents expansion, generating pressure inside the kernal. at least until the pressure becomes too great. when that happens, the kernal explodes, and the inside becomes puffed out, forming the big white delicious part. to see it in action, look up slow motion popcorn popping. i would link a video, but am on my phone. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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