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And now we can take this DNA molecule and place it back into that lambda phage. And the lambda phage can be mixed in with our E. Coli cells. And if the environmental conditions are right, what will happen is the lythogenic cycle will be followed, and the cell will basically divide many, many times. And every time it divides, it essentially replicates that DNA molecule. And so, at the end, we essentially have a beaker with all these cells that contain many copies of the DNA molecule of interest. And so then we can essentially break the cells down, and we can extract that DNA molecule of interest. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
Now, what exactly is an action potential and what is the mechanism by which our neuron generates that action potential? So in this lecture, we're going to discuss how we initiate the action potential. In the next lecture, we're going to focus on the propagation of that axe potential, the movement of the axe potential along the axon of our neuron. So let's begin by discussing a special type of protein found in the membrane of our neuron. And this protein is known as the voltagegated ion channel. Now, there are two types of voltagegated ion channels, and they differ in the type of ion that they allow to pass through. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So let's begin by discussing a special type of protein found in the membrane of our neuron. And this protein is known as the voltagegated ion channel. Now, there are two types of voltagegated ion channels, and they differ in the type of ion that they allow to pass through. So we have voltage gated sodium channels, which allow the passage of sodium ions. And we have voltage gated potassium channels that allow the passage of potassium ions when these voltage gated channels are open. Now, when our cell is at the resting membrane potential, which is around negative 70 millivolts, our channels, the voltage gated ion channels, are closed. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So we have voltage gated sodium channels, which allow the passage of sodium ions. And we have voltage gated potassium channels that allow the passage of potassium ions when these voltage gated channels are open. Now, when our cell is at the resting membrane potential, which is around negative 70 millivolts, our channels, the voltage gated ion channels, are closed. Now, why exactly do we call these channels voltage gated ion channels? Well, they're called this because they basically respond to changes in voltage. So when the voltage changes across our cell membrane, these voltage gated ion channels can basically open up. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, why exactly do we call these channels voltage gated ion channels? Well, they're called this because they basically respond to changes in voltage. So when the voltage changes across our cell membrane, these voltage gated ion channels can basically open up. And when they open up, they allow the flow of our ions. So these voltage gated ion channels can open if the voltage changes. Now, let's suppose that we have our neuron, the axon hillock of the neuron, that is at the resting membrane potential. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And when they open up, they allow the flow of our ions. So these voltage gated ion channels can open if the voltage changes. Now, let's suppose that we have our neuron, the axon hillock of the neuron, that is at the resting membrane potential. So at negative 70 millivolts. Now, let's suppose we apply a stimulus onto the cell membrane of the neuron. And this stimulus is equal to, or it exceeds the threshold value, which is around, usually around negative 45 millivolts. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So at negative 70 millivolts. Now, let's suppose we apply a stimulus onto the cell membrane of the neuron. And this stimulus is equal to, or it exceeds the threshold value, which is around, usually around negative 45 millivolts. So the threshold's value is basically the value of the stimulus that has to be just right so that the action potential is generated. So once we reach our threshold value, this threshold voltage of about negative 45 millivolts will signal the voltage gated sodium channels to actually open up. And as soon as they open up, our sodium ions will begin to flow. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So the threshold's value is basically the value of the stimulus that has to be just right so that the action potential is generated. So once we reach our threshold value, this threshold voltage of about negative 45 millivolts will signal the voltage gated sodium channels to actually open up. And as soon as they open up, our sodium ions will begin to flow. The question is in which direction will the sodium ions travel? So let's take a look at the following diagram, which describes what I just said. So before the stimulus, we have our cell membrane of the neuron that is basically at the resting membrane potential. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
The question is in which direction will the sodium ions travel? So let's take a look at the following diagram, which describes what I just said. So before the stimulus, we have our cell membrane of the neuron that is basically at the resting membrane potential. So at negative 70 millivolts. And at this point, the inside of the cell, this region, will contain a negative charge. The outside will contain a positive charge. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So at negative 70 millivolts. And at this point, the inside of the cell, this region, will contain a negative charge. The outside will contain a positive charge. Now, we know that outside of the cell, we have a higher concentration of sodium ions than on the inside of the cell. So as soon as our stimulus reaches our threshold value, that will open up our sodium, our sodium voltage gated channels. And when they open up, this is known as our depolarization period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, we know that outside of the cell, we have a higher concentration of sodium ions than on the inside of the cell. So as soon as our stimulus reaches our threshold value, that will open up our sodium, our sodium voltage gated channels. And when they open up, this is known as our depolarization period. So what will begin to happen is the sodium ions will begin to move down their electrochemical gradient. So because they contain a positive charge and the inside is negatively charged, they will move this way from the outside to the inside. And because our concentration is high on the outside and low on the inside, they will move into our cell. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So what will begin to happen is the sodium ions will begin to move down their electrochemical gradient. So because they contain a positive charge and the inside is negatively charged, they will move this way from the outside to the inside. And because our concentration is high on the outside and low on the inside, they will move into our cell. And this is known as the electrochemical gradient. So, since the concentration of sodium is higher on the outside than the inside, and because the inside the cell is negatively charged, our sodium ions will move down their electrochemical gradient into the cell. Now, why do we call this our depolarization period? | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this is known as the electrochemical gradient. So, since the concentration of sodium is higher on the outside than the inside, and because the inside the cell is negatively charged, our sodium ions will move down their electrochemical gradient into the cell. Now, why do we call this our depolarization period? Well, we call it the depolarization period because the inside of the cell basically becomes positive. Why? Well, as our sodium ions flow into the cell, our sodium ions each carry a positive charge. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Well, we call it the depolarization period because the inside of the cell basically becomes positive. Why? Well, as our sodium ions flow into the cell, our sodium ions each carry a positive charge. And as the concentration of our sodium ions inside increases, the amount of positive charge also increases. So eventually, the inside will become positive, the outside will become negative, and that will reverse or depolarize our cell membrane. It will reverse the polarity of that membrane. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And as the concentration of our sodium ions inside increases, the amount of positive charge also increases. So eventually, the inside will become positive, the outside will become negative, and that will reverse or depolarize our cell membrane. It will reverse the polarity of that membrane. So once again, the opening of these channels will make the membrane much more permeable to sodium ions than to potassium ions. And the high influx of sodium into our cytoplasm, the cell will make the inside of the cell positive and the outside negative. And this will reverse the polarity. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So once again, the opening of these channels will make the membrane much more permeable to sodium ions than to potassium ions. And the high influx of sodium into our cytoplasm, the cell will make the inside of the cell positive and the outside negative. And this will reverse the polarity. So it will depolarize our cell membrane, because before, we have negative charge inside, now we have a positive charge inside. Now, so the inside of the cell will become positive. But what exactly is the magnitude of our positive charge? | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So it will depolarize our cell membrane, because before, we have negative charge inside, now we have a positive charge inside. Now, so the inside of the cell will become positive. But what exactly is the magnitude of our positive charge? Well, when the inside of the cell reaches a positive voltage of about positive 45 million volt at this point, this will signal our voltage gated sodium channels to close. And at the same time, it will signal the voltage gated potassium channels to actually open up. And at this point, this basically ends depolarization, and it starts repolarization. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Well, when the inside of the cell reaches a positive voltage of about positive 45 million volt at this point, this will signal our voltage gated sodium channels to close. And at the same time, it will signal the voltage gated potassium channels to actually open up. And at this point, this basically ends depolarization, and it starts repolarization. So once again, when the inside of the cell reaches our voltage of positive 45 millivolts, the voltage gated sodium channels will be shut, and they will be inactivated. And what that basically means, even if our sodium channels are actually open, what happens is a spherical protein attached to this channel basically moves in and closes our entrance. And even though it's open, the entrance is shut. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So once again, when the inside of the cell reaches our voltage of positive 45 millivolts, the voltage gated sodium channels will be shut, and they will be inactivated. And what that basically means, even if our sodium channels are actually open, what happens is a spherical protein attached to this channel basically moves in and closes our entrance. And even though it's open, the entrance is shut. And so our sodium ions cannot actually move out or in to our cell. So at the same time, this membrane voltage will signal the voltage gated potassium channels to actually open up and become active. And now these potassium ions will basically move down their electrochemical gradient. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And so our sodium ions cannot actually move out or in to our cell. So at the same time, this membrane voltage will signal the voltage gated potassium channels to actually open up and become active. And now these potassium ions will basically move down their electrochemical gradient. So, because we have a high concentration of potassium inside, and because we have a negative charge on the outside, these positively charged potassium ions will move down their electrochemical gradient and to the outside of our cell. Now, the reason we call it repolarization period is because this period basically attempts to return our membrane potential back to its resting potential. And that's because the positive charge begins to decrease on the inside as the positively charged potassium leave the inside and travel to the outside. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So, because we have a high concentration of potassium inside, and because we have a negative charge on the outside, these positively charged potassium ions will move down their electrochemical gradient and to the outside of our cell. Now, the reason we call it repolarization period is because this period basically attempts to return our membrane potential back to its resting potential. And that's because the positive charge begins to decrease on the inside as the positively charged potassium leave the inside and travel to the outside. So as soon as the voltage gated potassium channels open, the potassium ions will move down the electrochemical gradient to the outside of the cell, to this region here. Now, the membrane will once again become more permeable to our potassium than to sodium. And the sodium basically rushes out of the cell and this will make the inside more negative and the outside more positive. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So as soon as the voltage gated potassium channels open, the potassium ions will move down the electrochemical gradient to the outside of the cell, to this region here. Now, the membrane will once again become more permeable to our potassium than to sodium. And the sodium basically rushes out of the cell and this will make the inside more negative and the outside more positive. Now, once our voltage of the membrane decreases back to the threshold value of about negative 45 millivolts, some of the inactivated sodium channels will begin to recover. So they will begin to close, but now they're no longer inactivated. And this part will become important when we'll discuss the absolute refractory period and the relative refractory period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, once our voltage of the membrane decreases back to the threshold value of about negative 45 millivolts, some of the inactivated sodium channels will begin to recover. So they will begin to close, but now they're no longer inactivated. And this part will become important when we'll discuss the absolute refractory period and the relative refractory period. Now, at this point, our permeability of the membrane to potassium is actually higher than normal. And this is exactly what causes our voltage of the cell to drop below the resting voltage in this period, when our voltage of the membrane drops slightly below the resting membrane potential. This is known as the hyperpolarization period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, at this point, our permeability of the membrane to potassium is actually higher than normal. And this is exactly what causes our voltage of the cell to drop below the resting voltage in this period, when our voltage of the membrane drops slightly below the resting membrane potential. This is known as the hyperpolarization period. Now, to return the neuron to return the membrane of the neuron back to the resting membrane potential, which is equal to about negative 70 millivolts. Now, we have to use energy, we have to use ATP, and we have to use a special type of pump, a special type of ATPase pump ATPase pump known as the sodium potential or the potassium sodium ATPase pump. And what the potassium sodium ATPase pump does is it actively pumps three sodiums out of the cell, so against electrochemical gradient and two potassium into the cell against the electrochemical gradient. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, to return the neuron to return the membrane of the neuron back to the resting membrane potential, which is equal to about negative 70 millivolts. Now, we have to use energy, we have to use ATP, and we have to use a special type of pump, a special type of ATPase pump ATPase pump known as the sodium potential or the potassium sodium ATPase pump. And what the potassium sodium ATPase pump does is it actively pumps three sodiums out of the cell, so against electrochemical gradient and two potassium into the cell against the electrochemical gradient. And this eventually returns our membrane back to the resting membrane potential of around negative 70 millivolts. So, everything we just discussed so far basically is summarized in the following graph. So let's suppose the y axis is our voltage given in millivolts, and the x axis is time. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this eventually returns our membrane back to the resting membrane potential of around negative 70 millivolts. So, everything we just discussed so far basically is summarized in the following graph. So let's suppose the y axis is our voltage given in millivolts, and the x axis is time. So basically what happens is this is the resting membrane potential of about negative 70 millivolts. This is our threshold value of about negative 45 millivolts. Now, if we apply stimulus onto the membrane of the neuron at the exxon hillock, and if the stimulus is equal to or exceeds this threshold value, then that will cause, that will signal the sodium voltage gated channels to actually open up. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So basically what happens is this is the resting membrane potential of about negative 70 millivolts. This is our threshold value of about negative 45 millivolts. Now, if we apply stimulus onto the membrane of the neuron at the exxon hillock, and if the stimulus is equal to or exceeds this threshold value, then that will cause, that will signal the sodium voltage gated channels to actually open up. So at this point, they open up and this causes the depolarization of our membrane. So basically, as the sodium ions move down their electrochemical gradient and as they move into the cell, that causes the inside to go from negative to positive and the outside to go from positive to negative, as shown in this diagram. And that basically increases our cell voltage from negative 70 millivolts to about positive 45 millivolts. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So at this point, they open up and this causes the depolarization of our membrane. So basically, as the sodium ions move down their electrochemical gradient and as they move into the cell, that causes the inside to go from negative to positive and the outside to go from positive to negative, as shown in this diagram. And that basically increases our cell voltage from negative 70 millivolts to about positive 45 millivolts. And this process is known as depolarization. Now, when we reach the positive 45 millivolt value, the sodium channels will close, they will become inactivated while the potassium channels will begin to open. And now no longer will the sodium move outside, but the potassium no longer will the sodium move inside, but the potassium will begin to move outside. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this process is known as depolarization. Now, when we reach the positive 45 millivolt value, the sodium channels will close, they will become inactivated while the potassium channels will begin to open. And now no longer will the sodium move outside, but the potassium no longer will the sodium move inside, but the potassium will begin to move outside. At this point, the inside will become negative again. And so this will decrease as shown by this curve. So this is known as the repolarization period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
At this point, the inside will become negative again. And so this will decrease as shown by this curve. So this is known as the repolarization period. It's the period by which the cell attempts to return the membrane back to the resting potential. Now, because at this particular point, let's say at this point, our potassium, the membrane of the cell, is more permeable to potassium than normal. That means it will go slightly below our resting potential. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
It's the period by which the cell attempts to return the membrane back to the resting potential. Now, because at this particular point, let's say at this point, our potassium, the membrane of the cell, is more permeable to potassium than normal. That means it will go slightly below our resting potential. And this is known as the hyperpolarization period. And this is shown by this period here. Now, when we have the hyperpolarization period, our sodium, potassium, Atpace pump will begin to pump. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this is known as the hyperpolarization period. And this is shown by this period here. Now, when we have the hyperpolarization period, our sodium, potassium, Atpace pump will begin to pump. By using ATP, molecules will begin to pump our three sodiums outside of the cell and potassium into the cell against electrochemical gradient. And that's exactly why we need to use energy. So basically, this will ultimately return our potential of the membrane back to the resting membrane potential of about negative 70 millivolts. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
By using ATP, molecules will begin to pump our three sodiums outside of the cell and potassium into the cell against electrochemical gradient. And that's exactly why we need to use energy. So basically, this will ultimately return our potential of the membrane back to the resting membrane potential of about negative 70 millivolts. So this is known as our action potential. So one last thing that I want to mention about our action potential is the fact that our action potential is all or nothing. So our action potential is all or nothing. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So this is known as our action potential. So one last thing that I want to mention about our action potential is the fact that our action potential is all or nothing. So our action potential is all or nothing. And that means it either takes place or it doesn't. So if the stimulus is high enough, then our action potential will take place. If it's low, it will not take place. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And that means it either takes place or it doesn't. So if the stimulus is high enough, then our action potential will take place. If it's low, it will not take place. If it's below the threshold value, that will not take place. That's exactly what we mean by all or nothing. It either takes place or it doesn't. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
If it's below the threshold value, that will not take place. That's exactly what we mean by all or nothing. It either takes place or it doesn't. Now, this also means that no matter how high the stimulus actually is, the amplitude or the magnitude of this wave will be exactly the same. So even if the stimulus is very, very high, this value, the height of the curve, will not change. So by increasing the stimulus, we are not affecting the amplitude of our action potential. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, this also means that no matter how high the stimulus actually is, the amplitude or the magnitude of this wave will be exactly the same. So even if the stimulus is very, very high, this value, the height of the curve, will not change. So by increasing the stimulus, we are not affecting the amplitude of our action potential. What we are doing is we're increasing the frequency, we're increasing the frequency of oscillation of the action potential. So instead of having one action potential in this time period, by increasing the stimulus, we're basically increasing the number of action potentials within this period. So instead of one, we might have two or three action potentials take place within the same exact time period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
What we are doing is we're increasing the frequency, we're increasing the frequency of oscillation of the action potential. So instead of having one action potential in this time period, by increasing the stimulus, we're basically increasing the number of action potentials within this period. So instead of one, we might have two or three action potentials take place within the same exact time period. Now, the last thing that I want to mention is something called the refractory period. So we have an absolute refractory period and we have a relative refractory period. So the absolute refractory period is the period between this point and this point. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
Now, the last thing that I want to mention is something called the refractory period. So we have an absolute refractory period and we have a relative refractory period. So the absolute refractory period is the period between this point and this point. So remember, at this point, our sodium voltage gated ions begin to recover. They begin to go from the inactivated state to the closed state. So basically, between the initiation point when the stimulus is applied and before our inactivated sodium channels begins to recover, this is known as the absolute refractory period. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
So remember, at this point, our sodium voltage gated ions begin to recover. They begin to go from the inactivated state to the closed state. So basically, between the initiation point when the stimulus is applied and before our inactivated sodium channels begins to recover, this is known as the absolute refractory period. And this is the period at which if we apply a stimulus, no matter how high the stimulus is, our action potential will not begin again. We will not begin to initiate an action potential in the absolute refractory period. Now, we also have the relative refractory period, and this is this region here. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this is the period at which if we apply a stimulus, no matter how high the stimulus is, our action potential will not begin again. We will not begin to initiate an action potential in the absolute refractory period. Now, we also have the relative refractory period, and this is this region here. So this entire region from this point to this point is known as the relative refractory period. Because if we apply a very high stimulus at this point, an action potential can be achieved. So that's exactly why I mentioned the fact that as the voltage membrane reaches the threshold value of negative 45, so as it goes back to this value at this point, our inactivated sodium channels begins to recover. | Initiation of Action Potential.txt |
And this is what we're going to focus on in this lecture. Now, complex four is also known as cytochrome C oxidase. And along complex four, what happens is the electrons are transferred from cytochrome C molecules onto oxygen. So we generate water molecules, and we also help establish a proton electrical chemical gradient that will be used by ATP synthase to actually generate those high energy ATP molecules. Now, complex four contains two important groups. One of the group are the heme groups, and the other groups are copper atoms. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So we generate water molecules, and we also help establish a proton electrical chemical gradient that will be used by ATP synthase to actually generate those high energy ATP molecules. Now, complex four contains two important groups. One of the group are the heme groups, and the other groups are copper atoms. Now, we have two heme groups, heme A and heme A three. And we have three copper atoms. Two of these three copper atoms basically associate with one another to form the copper A, copper A center. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
Now, we have two heme groups, heme A and heme A three. And we have three copper atoms. Two of these three copper atoms basically associate with one another to form the copper A, copper A center. And the third, the other copper atom we call copper B, actually associates with the heme A three to form the heme A three copper B center. And this is where we're going to basically reduce that oxygen to form water molecules, as we'll see in just a moment. So let's actually go through the steps of how this process takes place and how these electrons are transferred from the reduced cytochrome C molecules that we produced along complex three onto the oxygen to form the water molecules. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
And the third, the other copper atom we call copper B, actually associates with the heme A three to form the heme A three copper B center. And this is where we're going to basically reduce that oxygen to form water molecules, as we'll see in just a moment. So let's actually go through the steps of how this process takes place and how these electrons are transferred from the reduced cytochrome C molecules that we produced along complex three onto the oxygen to form the water molecules. So let's begin with diagram number one. So this is our inner mitochondrial membrane. This is the matrix, and this is the intermembrane space. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So let's begin with diagram number one. So this is our inner mitochondrial membrane. This is the matrix, and this is the intermembrane space. Now, we generate cytochrome C molecules in their reduced form along complex three. And then the cytochrome C in its reduced form, dissociates from complex three and travels and binds onto complex four. And once it binds onto complex four, it transfers an electron initially to the copper A, copper A center. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
Now, we generate cytochrome C molecules in their reduced form along complex three. And then the cytochrome C in its reduced form, dissociates from complex three and travels and binds onto complex four. And once it binds onto complex four, it transfers an electron initially to the copper A, copper A center. Then the electron goes on to heme A, and then it moves on to heme A three. And that electron ultimately ends up being transferred onto the copper B, and it reduces the copper B. Now, what happens is let me grab purple. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
Then the electron goes on to heme A, and then it moves on to heme A three. And that electron ultimately ends up being transferred onto the copper B, and it reduces the copper B. Now, what happens is let me grab purple. What happens is we have our copper in its two plus states. And when it gains a single electron, so we have a single electron coming in. And when it gains that electron, it is basically reduced into copper plus. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
What happens is we have our copper in its two plus states. And when it gains a single electron, so we have a single electron coming in. And when it gains that electron, it is basically reduced into copper plus. So anytime the copper in this diagram abstracts an electron, it binds an electron, it is reduced. So it goes from its oxidized form to its reduced form. And this is exactly what happens in this diagram when this copper B gains an electron. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So anytime the copper in this diagram abstracts an electron, it binds an electron, it is reduced. So it goes from its oxidized form to its reduced form. And this is exactly what happens in this diagram when this copper B gains an electron. And it also happens when this copper A gains an electron. Now, notice in the diagram we actually have two of these cytochrome C molecules in their reduced form. And that's because what happens is first a single cytochrome binds onto this section, giving off an electron. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
And it also happens when this copper A gains an electron. Now, notice in the diagram we actually have two of these cytochrome C molecules in their reduced form. And that's because what happens is first a single cytochrome binds onto this section, giving off an electron. The electron ultimately ends up reducing this copper B. Then that oxidized, cytochrome C leaves and a second reduced cytochrome C binds and gives off an electron. So ultimately, we have two of these cytochrome C molecules, in their reduced form, being oxidized, give off two electrons. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
The electron ultimately ends up reducing this copper B. Then that oxidized, cytochrome C leaves and a second reduced cytochrome C binds and gives off an electron. So ultimately, we have two of these cytochrome C molecules, in their reduced form, being oxidized, give off two electrons. One of the electron ultimately ends up reducing the copper B, and the other electron ultimately ends up reducing the heme A three. So this should be the heme A three. And so we summarize this step in the following way. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
One of the electron ultimately ends up reducing the copper B, and the other electron ultimately ends up reducing the heme A three. So this should be the heme A three. And so we summarize this step in the following way. So, we have two reduced cytochrome C molecules give off a total of two electrons. So one electron per cytochrome C molecule. One of the electron stops at the copper B group, reducing it, as discussed here, and the other basically stops at the heme A three, reducing that heme A three. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So, we have two reduced cytochrome C molecules give off a total of two electrons. So one electron per cytochrome C molecule. One of the electron stops at the copper B group, reducing it, as discussed here, and the other basically stops at the heme A three, reducing that heme A three. And once these two groups are in their reduced form, only then can they actually bind oxygen. So in the next step, in diagram two, we have an oxygen, and the oxygen is the same oxygen molecule that we essentially breathe in from the environment. The oxygen is basically used to form something called a peroxide bridge between this heme A three and this copper B. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
And once these two groups are in their reduced form, only then can they actually bind oxygen. So in the next step, in diagram two, we have an oxygen, and the oxygen is the same oxygen molecule that we essentially breathe in from the environment. The oxygen is basically used to form something called a peroxide bridge between this heme A three and this copper B. So once the heme A three and the copper B are in their fully reduced form, and a diatomic oxygen molecule is actually abstracted, and it is used to actually build a peroxide bridge between this structure and this structure here. Now, once we form this bridge, what happens next is, from the matrix of the mitochondria, two protons are abstracted, and those two protons are actually used to help break this bond. But before the two protons are used, two more of these reduced cytochrome C molecules are actually oxidized by protein complex four. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So once the heme A three and the copper B are in their fully reduced form, and a diatomic oxygen molecule is actually abstracted, and it is used to actually build a peroxide bridge between this structure and this structure here. Now, once we form this bridge, what happens next is, from the matrix of the mitochondria, two protons are abstracted, and those two protons are actually used to help break this bond. But before the two protons are used, two more of these reduced cytochrome C molecules are actually oxidized by protein complex four. So two of these cytochrome C's are actually oxidized. So they release two electrons. One of the electrons ends up on this copper. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So two of these cytochrome C's are actually oxidized. So they release two electrons. One of the electrons ends up on this copper. The other electron ends up on this heme A three group. And when those two electrons are abstracted at the same time, two protons are picked up by this protein by this complex force structure from the matrix of the mitochondria. And this allows us to break this bridge between this oxygen and this oxygen here. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
The other electron ends up on this heme A three group. And when those two electrons are abstracted at the same time, two protons are picked up by this protein by this complex force structure from the matrix of the mitochondria. And this allows us to break this bridge between this oxygen and this oxygen here. So we form the copper hydroxide group and the heme A three hydroxide group. So in step three, two more reduced cytochrome C molecules are oxidized to transfer an additional two electrons into our system. And two H plus two H plus ions are also obtained from the matrix of the mitochondria to help us break that peroxide bond, this bond here, and ultimately form these two structures. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So we form the copper hydroxide group and the heme A three hydroxide group. So in step three, two more reduced cytochrome C molecules are oxidized to transfer an additional two electrons into our system. And two H plus two H plus ions are also obtained from the matrix of the mitochondria to help us break that peroxide bond, this bond here, and ultimately form these two structures. And once we form these two structures, two more protons are abstracted from the matrix, and those two protons are basically used to form two water molecules. So one of these protons is picked up by, let's say, this hydroxide group, and the other proton is picked up by this hydroxide group. And so these two bonds are formed. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
And once we form these two structures, two more protons are abstracted from the matrix, and those two protons are basically used to form two water molecules. So one of these protons is picked up by, let's say, this hydroxide group, and the other proton is picked up by this hydroxide group. And so these two bonds are formed. These two bonds are broken. We regenerate these two groups in their original initial oxidized form, and we also form the two water molecules. So this is the final step. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
These two bonds are broken. We regenerate these two groups in their original initial oxidized form, and we also form the two water molecules. So this is the final step. Now, by the way, as these electrons are basically moved from the cytochrome seed to these two final groups. And as we ultimately form the two water molecules, a total of four protons for hydrogen ions are essentially pumped from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. And this is shown in the following diagram. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
Now, by the way, as these electrons are basically moved from the cytochrome seed to these two final groups. And as we ultimately form the two water molecules, a total of four protons for hydrogen ions are essentially pumped from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. And this is shown in the following diagram. So this is basically the summary of these four steps. So once again, in the final step, in step four, the abstraction of two more hydrogen ions to a protons from the matrix helps oxidize the heme A three and the copper B group back to their original oxidized states. In the case of copper B, we basically oxidize it back into the copper two plus form. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So this is basically the summary of these four steps. So once again, in the final step, in step four, the abstraction of two more hydrogen ions to a protons from the matrix helps oxidize the heme A three and the copper B group back to their original oxidized states. In the case of copper B, we basically oxidize it back into the copper two plus form. In the process, we also use those two protons to actually generate two water molecules. And this is basically the summary of these four steps that take place on complex four. So let's take a look at this summary. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
In the process, we also use those two protons to actually generate two water molecules. And this is basically the summary of these four steps that take place on complex four. So let's take a look at this summary. So essentially, we have a total of four individual reduced cytochrome C molecules that come and interact with complex four. And they interact one by one. So initially, we have two interacting here and then we have two interacting here to give us a total of four cytochrome C reduced molecules so they're oxidized into their oxidized form. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So essentially, we have a total of four individual reduced cytochrome C molecules that come and interact with complex four. And they interact one by one. So initially, we have two interacting here and then we have two interacting here to give us a total of four cytochrome C reduced molecules so they're oxidized into their oxidized form. In the process, a single oxygen molecule is used. The oxygen that we breathe in from the environment and four protons are taken up from the matrix of the mitochondria and we use the oxygen and the four protons to basically generate the two water molecules in the process. This protein, complex four, also acts as a proton pumps and it helps us generate that electrochemical gradient for protons that we're going to use by ATP synthase to actually generate those high energy ATP molecules. | Complex IV of Electron Transport Chain .txt |
So let's begin by defining what glycogen actually is. Well, glycogen is simply the way that we store glucose inside the cells of our body. So we essentially update glucose when we eat food. And then the glucose, once it, once it makes its way into the cells of our body, we transform glucose into glycogen. So glycogen is the storage form of glucose. Now, glycogen is actually a very long polymer of glucose molecules and it contains branching points. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And then the glucose, once it, once it makes its way into the cells of our body, we transform glucose into glycogen. So glycogen is the storage form of glucose. Now, glycogen is actually a very long polymer of glucose molecules and it contains branching points. And these branching points are a result of alpha one six glycocitic linkages or alpha one six glycocitic bonds. So there are two types of alpha linkages in glycogen. We have alpha one four glycocitic bonds that essentially hold adjacent glucose molecules in glycogen. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And these branching points are a result of alpha one six glycocitic linkages or alpha one six glycocitic bonds. So there are two types of alpha linkages in glycogen. We have alpha one four glycocitic bonds that essentially hold adjacent glucose molecules in glycogen. And we also have the alpha one six glycositic bonds, which are those branching points in glycogen. So if we take a random section of glycogen, this is basically what we might see. Notice we have these one four glycocitic bonds, which are basically bonds between the first carbon of one glucose monomer and the fourth carbon of the adjacent glucose monomer. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And we also have the alpha one six glycositic bonds, which are those branching points in glycogen. So if we take a random section of glycogen, this is basically what we might see. Notice we have these one four glycocitic bonds, which are basically bonds between the first carbon of one glucose monomer and the fourth carbon of the adjacent glucose monomer. So we have one alpha one, we have one alpha one four glycocitic bond here, another one here, third one here, fourth one here, fifth one here, and so forth. And we also have these branching points which are a result of the alpha one six glycocytic bonds. And that's because we have a bond between the first carbon of this glucose and the 6th carbon of the adjacent glucose. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So we have one alpha one, we have one alpha one four glycocitic bond here, another one here, third one here, fourth one here, fifth one here, and so forth. And we also have these branching points which are a result of the alpha one six glycocytic bonds. And that's because we have a bond between the first carbon of this glucose and the 6th carbon of the adjacent glucose. So, once again, glycogen is the storage form of glucose. It's the way we store the glucose molecules inside the cells of our body. Glycogen is a long polymer of glucose molecules that branches about every ten glucose residues. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So, once again, glycogen is the storage form of glucose. It's the way we store the glucose molecules inside the cells of our body. Glycogen is a long polymer of glucose molecules that branches about every ten glucose residues. And glycogen consists of two types of alpha linkages. We have the alpha one four glycocitic linkages and the alpha one six glycocitic bombs. Now, if we examine the cells of our body, there are two types of cells that are responsible for storing glycogen. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And glycogen consists of two types of alpha linkages. We have the alpha one four glycocitic linkages and the alpha one six glycocitic bombs. Now, if we examine the cells of our body, there are two types of cells that are responsible for storing glycogen. We have the hepatitis, the liver cells, and we also have the skeleton muscle cells. Now, cells such as our liver cells are responsible for actually regulating and maintaining the glucose levels inside our blood. Now, why is it important to maintain a proper glucose level inside our blood? | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
We have the hepatitis, the liver cells, and we also have the skeleton muscle cells. Now, cells such as our liver cells are responsible for actually regulating and maintaining the glucose levels inside our blood. Now, why is it important to maintain a proper glucose level inside our blood? Well, one reason is because cells such as our brain cells depend solely and almost entirely on glucose molecules for energy. And so what that means is the brain cells need to take the glucose from the blood to actually use the glucose as an energy source. And that's why the liver must actually maintain and regulate the proper concentration of glucose inside our blood. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
Well, one reason is because cells such as our brain cells depend solely and almost entirely on glucose molecules for energy. And so what that means is the brain cells need to take the glucose from the blood to actually use the glucose as an energy source. And that's why the liver must actually maintain and regulate the proper concentration of glucose inside our blood. So, for instance, if our blood level glucose is very low, then what these liver cells will do is they will break down the glycogen as we'll talk about in a future lecture, into Glucose release the glucose inside the Blood. And that will increase the level of glucose to the correct level. So cells such as liver cells can use glycogen to regulate blood glucose levels of the body. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So, for instance, if our blood level glucose is very low, then what these liver cells will do is they will break down the glycogen as we'll talk about in a future lecture, into Glucose release the glucose inside the Blood. And that will increase the level of glucose to the correct level. So cells such as liver cells can use glycogen to regulate blood glucose levels of the body. This is important because cells such as brain cells depend almost entirely on glucose for energy. Now, what about skeleton muscle cells? Because not only do liver cells store glucose as glycogen, but our skeleton muscle cells also store the glycogen. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
This is important because cells such as brain cells depend almost entirely on glucose for energy. Now, what about skeleton muscle cells? Because not only do liver cells store glucose as glycogen, but our skeleton muscle cells also store the glycogen. Well, the skeleton muscle cells are responsible primary for actually using the glycogen to break it down to glucose and use that glucose in glycolysis to actually form ATP molecules so that we can carry out different types of voluntary motion, for instance, moving my hand back and forth. So our body also depends on glycogen breakdown during periods of rapid activity, for example, sprinting. And the glucose obtained from glycogen can be used to produce energy under anaerobic conditions. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
Well, the skeleton muscle cells are responsible primary for actually using the glycogen to break it down to glucose and use that glucose in glycolysis to actually form ATP molecules so that we can carry out different types of voluntary motion, for instance, moving my hand back and forth. So our body also depends on glycogen breakdown during periods of rapid activity, for example, sprinting. And the glucose obtained from glycogen can be used to produce energy under anaerobic conditions. And this is a very important distinction because other sources of energy, for instance fatty acids, depend on oxygen. But in the case of glycogen, we can actually break down glycogen into glucose and produce energy without using oxygen. So glycogen can be stored in two types of cells. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And this is a very important distinction because other sources of energy, for instance fatty acids, depend on oxygen. But in the case of glycogen, we can actually break down glycogen into glucose and produce energy without using oxygen. So glycogen can be stored in two types of cells. So we have the liver cells and skeleton muscle cells and the glycogen molecules, the glycogen polymers are actually stored in these tiny granules found throughout the cytoplasm of the liver and the skeleton muscle cells. So this is basically what glycogen actually looks like. And as I mentioned before, the liver cells use the glycogen primarily to actually regulate and maintain the proper levels of glucose inside our blood, while the skeleton muscle cells actually use the glycogen to break it down to glucose, to use it as a rapid energy source for sudden and strain use activity. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So we have the liver cells and skeleton muscle cells and the glycogen molecules, the glycogen polymers are actually stored in these tiny granules found throughout the cytoplasm of the liver and the skeleton muscle cells. So this is basically what glycogen actually looks like. And as I mentioned before, the liver cells use the glycogen primarily to actually regulate and maintain the proper levels of glucose inside our blood, while the skeleton muscle cells actually use the glycogen to break it down to glucose, to use it as a rapid energy source for sudden and strain use activity. Now, in the lectures to come, we're going to discuss glycogen metabolism and we can break down glycogen metabolism into subcategories. So we have the degradation of glycogen, so the breakdown of glycogen, and we also have the synthesis of glycogen. Now, if we examine the breakdown of glycogen, the degradation of glycogen, we can actually categorize that process into three different steps. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
Now, in the lectures to come, we're going to discuss glycogen metabolism and we can break down glycogen metabolism into subcategories. So we have the degradation of glycogen, so the breakdown of glycogen, and we also have the synthesis of glycogen. Now, if we examine the breakdown of glycogen, the degradation of glycogen, we can actually categorize that process into three different steps. So we have the release of glucose one six phosphate from glycogen. So we actually take the glycogen that contains, let's say, n number of glucose molecules and we release a single glucose one phosphate and we basically form a modified glucose, a modified glycogen that now contains N minus one glucose monomers. Now, once we form this glycogen that contains one less glucose molecule, we actually have to remodel, we have to restructure that glycogen so that we can further break down that glycogen and release many more glucose one six phosphate molecules. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So we have the release of glucose one six phosphate from glycogen. So we actually take the glycogen that contains, let's say, n number of glucose molecules and we release a single glucose one phosphate and we basically form a modified glucose, a modified glycogen that now contains N minus one glucose monomers. Now, once we form this glycogen that contains one less glucose molecule, we actually have to remodel, we have to restructure that glycogen so that we can further break down that glycogen and release many more glucose one six phosphate molecules. Now, in the final step, we take the glucose one six phosphate and we transform it into glucose six phosphate. And the pathway that glucose six phosphate follows basically depends on the conditions inside our body and the cell type that the glycogen actually is found in. For instance, if we're talking about hepatitis, our liver cells remember, the liver cells basically are responsible for regulating the levels of glucose inside our blood. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
Now, in the final step, we take the glucose one six phosphate and we transform it into glucose six phosphate. And the pathway that glucose six phosphate follows basically depends on the conditions inside our body and the cell type that the glycogen actually is found in. For instance, if we're talking about hepatitis, our liver cells remember, the liver cells basically are responsible for regulating the levels of glucose inside our blood. So what happens inside our liver cells is the glucose six phosphate is actually transformed into glucose molecules, and the glucose is then released into the blood plasma of our cardiovascular system, and that might increase the level of glucose inside our blood. Now, if we're inside, for instance, our skeleton muscle cells, the skeleton muscle cells can use that glucose to actually form ATP molecules to carry out different types of active and strainuse activities. And that requires glycolysis. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So what happens inside our liver cells is the glucose six phosphate is actually transformed into glucose molecules, and the glucose is then released into the blood plasma of our cardiovascular system, and that might increase the level of glucose inside our blood. Now, if we're inside, for instance, our skeleton muscle cells, the skeleton muscle cells can use that glucose to actually form ATP molecules to carry out different types of active and strainuse activities. And that requires glycolysis. So the glucose six phosphate can basically be broken down to form ATP molecules and Pyruvate molecules in glycolysis. And remember, glycolysis is an anaerobic process. It takes place in the absence or in the presence of oxygen because it doesn't require oxygen. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
So the glucose six phosphate can basically be broken down to form ATP molecules and Pyruvate molecules in glycolysis. And remember, glycolysis is an anaerobic process. It takes place in the absence or in the presence of oxygen because it doesn't require oxygen. Now, another pathway that glucose six phosphate can actually follow is a pathway known as the pentose phosphate path. We'll talk about this in much more detail in Electro To Come. So these are the three steps that the breakdown of glycogen can actually be broken down to. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
Now, another pathway that glucose six phosphate can actually follow is a pathway known as the pentose phosphate path. We'll talk about this in much more detail in Electro To Come. So these are the three steps that the breakdown of glycogen can actually be broken down to. And we'll talk about these in much more detail in Electro to Come. Now, if we want to synthesize glycogen from glucose, the glucose molecules must first be activated. And we activate glucose molecules by transforming those glucose molecules into UDP glucose, where UDP stands for urine diphosphate glucose. | Introduction to Glycogen .txt |
And then the brain uses those electrical signals to create sound. And that's exactly why these mechanical waves are also known as sound waves. So let's discuss how the mechanical wave actually propagates through the ear. Let's discuss the structures of the ear and how the ear transforms the mechanical wave into electrical signals. So the ear can be generalized, it can be broken down into three sections. We have the outer ear, we have the middle ear, and we have the inner ear. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Let's discuss the structures of the ear and how the ear transforms the mechanical wave into electrical signals. So the ear can be generalized, it can be broken down into three sections. We have the outer ear, we have the middle ear, and we have the inner ear. Now let's begin with the outer ear. The outer ear basically contains a section known as the pinna, or the oracle. So this entire section, including our ear lobe, is known as arabina. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Now let's begin with the outer ear. The outer ear basically contains a section known as the pinna, or the oracle. So this entire section, including our ear lobe, is known as arabina. Now, the pinna, what it basically does is it captures all the energy that is carried by our mechanical wave and it directs that mechanical wave into the ear canal. And because the pinna has such a large surface area, it basically acts to amplify the force that our pressure wave actually creates. So the human ear can detect variations in air pressure known as mechanical waves. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Now, the pinna, what it basically does is it captures all the energy that is carried by our mechanical wave and it directs that mechanical wave into the ear canal. And because the pinna has such a large surface area, it basically acts to amplify the force that our pressure wave actually creates. So the human ear can detect variations in air pressure known as mechanical waves. The pina, also known as the Oracle, acts to capture much of the energy of the mechanical wave and transmits that mechanical wave through the ear canal, which is basically this portion here. So the ear canal is also part of the outer portion of the ear. Now, the mechanical wave then moves along the ear canal and towards the end of our ear canal. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
The pina, also known as the Oracle, acts to capture much of the energy of the mechanical wave and transmits that mechanical wave through the ear canal, which is basically this portion here. So the ear canal is also part of the outer portion of the ear. Now, the mechanical wave then moves along the ear canal and towards the end of our ear canal. And at the end of the ear canal, we have the beginning of the middle ear. So we have the propagating mechanical wave. Some type of disturbance in the air initiates this propagating wave, our mechanical wave. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And at the end of the ear canal, we have the beginning of the middle ear. So we have the propagating mechanical wave. Some type of disturbance in the air initiates this propagating wave, our mechanical wave. It eventually is captured by the pin of the ear and directed into the ear canal. And we have this amplification process taking place. The pin of the ear amplifies the wave by about times two. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
It eventually is captured by the pin of the ear and directed into the ear canal. And we have this amplification process taking place. The pin of the ear amplifies the wave by about times two. Now, when our mechanical wave travels through this region, through the ear canal, inside the ear canal, we have many air molecules. And as these air molecules vibrate back and forth, they eventually cause their eardrum, also known as our tympanic membrane, which is basically a membrane of a sort, the vibrations of the air molecules inside the ear that causes our membrane, the eardrum, to vibrate as well. So at the end of the ear canal, the mechanical wave hits and vibrates the eardrum, our tympanic membrane. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Now, when our mechanical wave travels through this region, through the ear canal, inside the ear canal, we have many air molecules. And as these air molecules vibrate back and forth, they eventually cause their eardrum, also known as our tympanic membrane, which is basically a membrane of a sort, the vibrations of the air molecules inside the ear that causes our membrane, the eardrum, to vibrate as well. So at the end of the ear canal, the mechanical wave hits and vibrates the eardrum, our tympanic membrane. Now, notice that the area of the eardrum is much smaller than the area of the pinna, this outside covering of our ear. Now, we know from physics that the pressure outside the ear is exactly the same, that the pressure is inside this region. But what is different is our area, because the area inside our eardrum, the area of the eardrum, is so much smaller than the area of the pin. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Now, notice that the area of the eardrum is much smaller than the area of the pinna, this outside covering of our ear. Now, we know from physics that the pressure outside the ear is exactly the same, that the pressure is inside this region. But what is different is our area, because the area inside our eardrum, the area of the eardrum, is so much smaller than the area of the pin. That implies because the force, the pressure is the same, our force must be much greater on the eardrum than on the outside of the ear. And so we have a mechanical advantage. So this concept in physics is known as a mechanical advantage. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
That implies because the force, the pressure is the same, our force must be much greater on the eardrum than on the outside of the ear. And so we have a mechanical advantage. So this concept in physics is known as a mechanical advantage. So not only does the pina actually amplify that wave, the eardrum also amplifies the wave by increasing the force that is felt on the membrane as a result of that mechanical wave. Now, this eardrum is connected directly to a bone known as the malleus. So inside the middle portion of the ear, we have the eardrum, and we have these three bones that collectively are known as the obstacles. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So not only does the pina actually amplify that wave, the eardrum also amplifies the wave by increasing the force that is felt on the membrane as a result of that mechanical wave. Now, this eardrum is connected directly to a bone known as the malleus. So inside the middle portion of the ear, we have the eardrum, and we have these three bones that collectively are known as the obstacles. So we have the malleus, we have the incas, and we have the staples. Now, each one of these bones is smaller than the other one. It has a smaller lever arm. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So we have the malleus, we have the incas, and we have the staples. Now, each one of these bones is smaller than the other one. It has a smaller lever arm. So basically, these three bones act as a lever system. And as the force is transmitted from the Malleaus to the incas, to our staples, our force increases as a result of that decrease in the lever arm, decrease in our displacement. And so that means we also have an amplification process taking place within this lever system. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So basically, these three bones act as a lever system. And as the force is transmitted from the Malleaus to the incas, to our staples, our force increases as a result of that decrease in the lever arm, decrease in our displacement. And so that means we also have an amplification process taking place within this lever system. And the force that is created by that pressure weight is increased as we go along these three bones. So we have amplification taking place at the pinnam, we have amplification taking place at the eardrum, and we have amplification taking place at these three octaves, at these three bones. The question is, why exactly do we want this amplification to take in the first place? | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And the force that is created by that pressure weight is increased as we go along these three bones. So we have amplification taking place at the pinnam, we have amplification taking place at the eardrum, and we have amplification taking place at these three octaves, at these three bones. The question is, why exactly do we want this amplification to take in the first place? So, recall from physics, whenever a mechanical wave is propagating through air and then it hits some type of liquid boundary, there is a good amount of resistance that exists at that boundary. And to actually transmit our mechanical wave from air into liquid, we have to amplify our force. So basically, inside the inner portion of the ear, we no longer have air. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So, recall from physics, whenever a mechanical wave is propagating through air and then it hits some type of liquid boundary, there is a good amount of resistance that exists at that boundary. And to actually transmit our mechanical wave from air into liquid, we have to amplify our force. So basically, inside the inner portion of the ear, we no longer have air. We have a fluid type, a liquid of a type known as the periomph. And as this air fluid boundary, we have a considerable amount of resistance to the mechanical waves. And to overcome this resistance, we have to amplify our force. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
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