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So we see that this entire section, number six is the alveolar sac that contains many of these specialized balloons shaped structures we call alveoli. And within these alveoli is where gas exchange actually takes place. So we exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide. So remember, oxygen is a very important molecule that is used by our individual cells in the process of cellular respiration to actually produce ATP, the energy molecules used by the cell. And carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular metabolism. And so we have to actually excrete it to the outside of our body. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So remember, oxygen is a very important molecule that is used by our individual cells in the process of cellular respiration to actually produce ATP, the energy molecules used by the cell. And carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular metabolism. And so we have to actually excrete it to the outside of our body. And this is what happens inside our lungs, specifically inside each alveoli. So now let's actually zoom in on one of these alveoli. And this is what a single alveolis actually looks like. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And this is what happens inside our lungs, specifically inside each alveoli. So now let's actually zoom in on one of these alveoli. And this is what a single alveolis actually looks like. So we have this connecting point, this region here that connects number eight, the alveolar space, to number seven, the alveolar sack space. And because we have this direct connection, the concentration of our air molecules inside eight is the same as inside seven, which is the same as actually no, it's not the same. So in seven and eight we have the same exact concentration of gas molecules. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So we have this connecting point, this region here that connects number eight, the alveolar space, to number seven, the alveolar sack space. And because we have this direct connection, the concentration of our air molecules inside eight is the same as inside seven, which is the same as actually no, it's not the same. So in seven and eight we have the same exact concentration of gas molecules. Now notice that around the entire alveolis we basically have the system of blood vessels. So this blood vessel is our pulmonary arteriol. That brings deoxygenated blood and it loops around the entire alveolis until it gets to this section. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now notice that around the entire alveolis we basically have the system of blood vessels. So this blood vessel is our pulmonary arteriol. That brings deoxygenated blood and it loops around the entire alveolis until it gets to this section. And this is our capillary. It's the pulmonary capillary. So number seven is the pulmonary capillary and number five is our pulmonary arterio. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And this is our capillary. It's the pulmonary capillary. So number seven is the pulmonary capillary and number five is our pulmonary arterio. Now, within the capillary we have exchange taking place. Oxygen goes into the capillary and our carbon dioxide leaves the capillaries and goes into region number eight. And then our oxygenated blood travels via this blood vessel, number six, which is our pulmonary Venuel. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now, within the capillary we have exchange taking place. Oxygen goes into the capillary and our carbon dioxide leaves the capillaries and goes into region number eight. And then our oxygenated blood travels via this blood vessel, number six, which is our pulmonary Venuel. It's a very small type of pulmonary vein. Now let's take a look at the actual membrane within which we have this diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide taking place. So notice we have two important types of cells within the alveolis. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
It's a very small type of pulmonary vein. Now let's take a look at the actual membrane within which we have this diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide taking place. So notice we have two important types of cells within the alveolis. We have the cell labeled as number four. That is our alveolar cell type number two. And what this cell does is it produces and releases the pulmonary surfactant that is necessary to prevent the alveolis from actually collapsing when we exhale and to decrease the surface tension and therefore the pressure that is needed to actually inflate our alveolis. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
We have the cell labeled as number four. That is our alveolar cell type number two. And what this cell does is it produces and releases the pulmonary surfactant that is necessary to prevent the alveolis from actually collapsing when we exhale and to decrease the surface tension and therefore the pressure that is needed to actually inflate our alveolis. Now the cells shown by these green cells, number one. So if we zoom in on this small cross section, we get this blown up image. And so number one is our epithelial cells of the alveolus. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now the cells shown by these green cells, number one. So if we zoom in on this small cross section, we get this blown up image. And so number one is our epithelial cells of the alveolus. These are the cells that line the wall of the alveolis. And the wall is shown by number two. That's the orange section. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
These are the cells that line the wall of the alveolis. And the wall is shown by number two. That's the orange section. And this consists of an extracellular matrix we call the basement membrane. Now the basement membrane actually connects the epithelial cells of the alveolis to the endothelial cells of our blood vessels. So these cells shown in blue are the endothelial cells. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And this consists of an extracellular matrix we call the basement membrane. Now the basement membrane actually connects the epithelial cells of the alveolis to the endothelial cells of our blood vessels. So these cells shown in blue are the endothelial cells. So these cells are the endothelial cells of our pulmonary arterial, and these cells are the endothelial cells of our pulmonary Venuel. Okay, so now that we know what the structure of our alveolus actually looks like, let's discuss how gas exchange actually takes place and why. Oxygen is taken up by the capillaries, but carbon dioxide is released by the capillaries. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So these cells are the endothelial cells of our pulmonary arterial, and these cells are the endothelial cells of our pulmonary Venuel. Okay, so now that we know what the structure of our alveolus actually looks like, let's discuss how gas exchange actually takes place and why. Oxygen is taken up by the capillaries, but carbon dioxide is released by the capillaries. So how does gas exchange actually take place within each individual alveolis? Within our alveolar sac? So recall that the rich ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk, which extends into the pulmonary arteries. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So how does gas exchange actually take place within each individual alveolis? Within our alveolar sac? So recall that the rich ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk, which extends into the pulmonary arteries. And these arteries bring deoxynated blood into the lungs. Now, eventually, the pulmonary arteries divide into smaller arteries, and they ultimately divide into these pulmonary arterioles that is shown by number five. And these pulmonary arterioles essentially circle around the alveoli until they connect with the pulmonary capillary. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And these arteries bring deoxynated blood into the lungs. Now, eventually, the pulmonary arteries divide into smaller arteries, and they ultimately divide into these pulmonary arterioles that is shown by number five. And these pulmonary arterioles essentially circle around the alveoli until they connect with the pulmonary capillary. This section shown by number seven. So let's zoom in on this region that contains this capillary section here. So we basically get the following diagram. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
This section shown by number seven. So let's zoom in on this region that contains this capillary section here. So we basically get the following diagram. So we have the pulmonary arterio, we have the pulmonary capillary, and we have the pulmonary venue. So our deoxygenated blood essentially travels along the pulmonary terio until it gets to our capillary, which is this section right here. Now, deoxygenated blood has a relatively high concentration of carbon dioxide and a relatively low concentration of oxygen compared to the concentrations of these molecules, gas molecules, inside the alveolar space. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So we have the pulmonary arterio, we have the pulmonary capillary, and we have the pulmonary venue. So our deoxygenated blood essentially travels along the pulmonary terio until it gets to our capillary, which is this section right here. Now, deoxygenated blood has a relatively high concentration of carbon dioxide and a relatively low concentration of oxygen compared to the concentrations of these molecules, gas molecules, inside the alveolar space. So this region here is region number eight, the alveolar space. Now, within the alveolar space, we have a partial pressure of oxygen equaling to 105 mercury, while the partial pressure due to our carbon dioxide molecules, that is 40 mercury, now, inside the lumen of our pulmonary arterial, these are the concentrations, these are the partial pressures of these same gas molecules. Notice the oxygen is 40 mercury, which is less than inside the alveolar space, while the carbon dioxide has a higher concentration, 45 mercury, inside the lumen of the arterial compared to our alveolar space. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So this region here is region number eight, the alveolar space. Now, within the alveolar space, we have a partial pressure of oxygen equaling to 105 mercury, while the partial pressure due to our carbon dioxide molecules, that is 40 mercury, now, inside the lumen of our pulmonary arterial, these are the concentrations, these are the partial pressures of these same gas molecules. Notice the oxygen is 40 mercury, which is less than inside the alveolar space, while the carbon dioxide has a higher concentration, 45 mercury, inside the lumen of the arterial compared to our alveolar space. So we have a difference in pressure. And whenever we have a difference in pressure, we know we have a pressure gradient. And these gas molecules will begin to move down their gradient from a high pressure to a low pressure. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So we have a difference in pressure. And whenever we have a difference in pressure, we know we have a pressure gradient. And these gas molecules will begin to move down their gradient from a high pressure to a low pressure. So as soon as the blood enters the capillary, we have this relatively thin wall that consists of the endothelium of the blood vessel, the capillary, the basement membrane, as well as the epithelium of our alveolus. And this entire layer allows our diffusion of these gas molecules. And this layer that consists of these three different things is known as the respiratory membrane inside the capillary that allows diffusion to take place. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
So as soon as the blood enters the capillary, we have this relatively thin wall that consists of the endothelium of the blood vessel, the capillary, the basement membrane, as well as the epithelium of our alveolus. And this entire layer allows our diffusion of these gas molecules. And this layer that consists of these three different things is known as the respiratory membrane inside the capillary that allows diffusion to take place. And so carbon dioxide will diffuse down its pressure gradient from a high pressure to a low pressure. And oxygen will also diffuse down its gradient, but it will move from the outside to the inside of the capillary, also down its gradient from a value of 105 to a value of 45 mercury. So this is exactly why our exchange takes place in the first place because there is a pressure gradient that exists between the space of the alveolis and the lumen of our capillary where the blood actually flows. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And so carbon dioxide will diffuse down its pressure gradient from a high pressure to a low pressure. And oxygen will also diffuse down its gradient, but it will move from the outside to the inside of the capillary, also down its gradient from a value of 105 to a value of 45 mercury. So this is exactly why our exchange takes place in the first place because there is a pressure gradient that exists between the space of the alveolis and the lumen of our capillary where the blood actually flows. Now, by the time the blood actually ends up within our lumen of the pulmonary Venuel, the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen will be the same inside the lumen as inside our alveolar space. And that's exactly why the diffusion of these two gas molecules essentially stops. And then our pulmonary Venuel connects with larger pulmonary arteries and that carry the oxygenated blood into the left atrium of our heart. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now, by the time the blood actually ends up within our lumen of the pulmonary Venuel, the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen will be the same inside the lumen as inside our alveolar space. And that's exactly why the diffusion of these two gas molecules essentially stops. And then our pulmonary Venuel connects with larger pulmonary arteries and that carry the oxygenated blood into the left atrium of our heart. So, once again, the deoxygenated blood brought by the pulmonary arteriol contains a relatively low partial pressure for oxygen and a relatively high partial pressure for carbon dioxide compared to the space inside our alveolus. Therefore, due to this pressure difference, due to the existence of this pressure gradient, oxygen will diffuse into the capillary and carbon dioxide will diffuse out of the capillary, down their pressure gradient. And this diffusion will continue until our partial pressure, the partial concentration or the partial pressure for oxygen is the same on the inside of the blood vessel as our inside space, the space inside our alveolar. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
In diploid organisms, there's a two N number of chromosomes in every single somatic cell. So, for example, in humans, every single somatic cell has 46 individual chromosomes, or 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes under normal conditions. Now, a carreotype is basically a pictorial description of all the chromosomes found within that particular organism within that particular individual. Now, in humans, every normal human carotype will show 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes or 46 individual chromosomes. Now, what exactly does a carreotype in a human actually look like? Let's take a look at the following picture that describes the human chariottype under normal conditions. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, in humans, every normal human carotype will show 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes or 46 individual chromosomes. Now, what exactly does a carreotype in a human actually look like? Let's take a look at the following picture that describes the human chariottype under normal conditions. So we have chromosome pair number one, chromosome pair number two, chromosome pair number three, all the way to chromosome pair number 22. And all of these chromosome pairs, one through 22, are known as autosomal homologous chromosome pairs. The final chromosome pair, the 23rd one, is called the sex homologous chromosome pair. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So we have chromosome pair number one, chromosome pair number two, chromosome pair number three, all the way to chromosome pair number 22. And all of these chromosome pairs, one through 22, are known as autosomal homologous chromosome pairs. The final chromosome pair, the 23rd one, is called the sex homologous chromosome pair. Now, in males, in normal males, we have one X sex chromosome and one Y sex chromosome. And in normal females, we have one X and the other one is also an X. So notice that because each one of these pairs consist of two individual chromosomes, that means on the normal conditions, we have two multiplied by 23 or 46 individual chromosomes within the human carotype. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, in males, in normal males, we have one X sex chromosome and one Y sex chromosome. And in normal females, we have one X and the other one is also an X. So notice that because each one of these pairs consist of two individual chromosomes, that means on the normal conditions, we have two multiplied by 23 or 46 individual chromosomes within the human carotype. So in every single somatic cell of our body under normal conditions, these are the chromosomes that we're going to find in the nucleus of those somatic cells. So now that we know what a caraotype actually looks like in a normal, healthy human individual, let's now discuss chromosomal abnormalities. So one of the common type of chromosomal abnormalities is anneuploids. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So in every single somatic cell of our body under normal conditions, these are the chromosomes that we're going to find in the nucleus of those somatic cells. So now that we know what a caraotype actually looks like in a normal, healthy human individual, let's now discuss chromosomal abnormalities. So one of the common type of chromosomal abnormalities is anneuploids. So in some individuals, within the somatic cells of some individuals, we can either have an extra copy of a chromosome or we can have one less chromosome than we normally have. So we can either have 47 chromosomes or 45 chromosomes. And in either case, these conditions are known as annuploid. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So in some individuals, within the somatic cells of some individuals, we can either have an extra copy of a chromosome or we can have one less chromosome than we normally have. So we can either have 47 chromosomes or 45 chromosomes. And in either case, these conditions are known as annuploid. So, once again, as we saw just a moment ago when we discussed the human cargotype, we saw that every single one of these chromosomes came with a pair. And this is known as dimic conditions. And so each one of these pairs describes a dilmic condition, because we have only two per pair. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So, once again, as we saw just a moment ago when we discussed the human cargotype, we saw that every single one of these chromosomes came with a pair. And this is known as dimic conditions. And so each one of these pairs describes a dilmic condition, because we have only two per pair. Sometimes, however, we can either have a trisomic individual or we can have a monosomic individual. And what that means is one of these pairs actually has an extra copy of a chromosome. So three in this particular case, or we can have one less. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Sometimes, however, we can either have a trisomic individual or we can have a monosomic individual. And what that means is one of these pairs actually has an extra copy of a chromosome. So three in this particular case, or we can have one less. So we can have a monosomic condition. So that is what we mean by anuploid. Anuploid is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which we either have an estro copy of one of the chromosomes or we have one less than we should normally have. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So we can have a monosomic condition. So that is what we mean by anuploid. Anuploid is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which we either have an estro copy of one of the chromosomes or we have one less than we should normally have. Now, the next question is why exactly does an employee actually take place? How does it arise? Well, there are two types of cell cycle processes. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, the next question is why exactly does an employee actually take place? How does it arise? Well, there are two types of cell cycle processes. We have mitosis and we have meiosis. And both of these processes can actually lead to anuploid. And the specific process that leads to anubloid is known as nondisjunction. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
We have mitosis and we have meiosis. And both of these processes can actually lead to anuploid. And the specific process that leads to anubloid is known as nondisjunction. So the most common reason for anuploid is nondisjunction of chromosomes that takes place during anaphase of mitosis or during anaphase of meiosis. So let's begin by focusing on nondisjunction taking place in mitosis. Now, normally, what happens in mitosis if, once again, we look at this caraotype. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So the most common reason for anuploid is nondisjunction of chromosomes that takes place during anaphase of mitosis or during anaphase of meiosis. So let's begin by focusing on nondisjunction taking place in mitosis. Now, normally, what happens in mitosis if, once again, we look at this caraotype. So mitosis is the process by which a somatic cell in our body chooses to divide. And that somatic cell produces two identical daughter cells that have the same exact genetic information. So what happens during mitosis, during interface, what happens is every single one of these chromosomes is replicated. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So mitosis is the process by which a somatic cell in our body chooses to divide. And that somatic cell produces two identical daughter cells that have the same exact genetic information. So what happens during mitosis, during interface, what happens is every single one of these chromosomes is replicated. So this chromosome is replicated, this chromosome is replicated, this one is replicated, this one is replicated, and so forth. And let's say if this one is replicated, what we produce is a pair of identical cystochromatids. Remember, cystochromatids are two chromosomes that are exactly the same. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So this chromosome is replicated, this chromosome is replicated, this one is replicated, this one is replicated, and so forth. And let's say if this one is replicated, what we produce is a pair of identical cystochromatids. Remember, cystochromatids are two chromosomes that are exactly the same. They have the same exact genetic information. Now, in this particular picture, instead of drawing out all these 46 pairs of cystic chromatids, we're only going to look at two to basically save space. So this is our chromosome, this is our somatic cell. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
They have the same exact genetic information. Now, in this particular picture, instead of drawing out all these 46 pairs of cystic chromatids, we're only going to look at two to basically save space. So this is our chromosome, this is our somatic cell. And inside of somatic cell, let's say we have chromosome one and chromosome two, and we replicate them. So these are the identical cystochromatis. So these two are identical and these two are identical. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And inside of somatic cell, let's say we have chromosome one and chromosome two, and we replicate them. So these are the identical cystochromatis. So these two are identical and these two are identical. Now, normally, what happens under normal conditions is these mitotic spindle upper analysis form. They extend these fibers, and these fibers attach themselves onto these sections on each one of these cystochromatids. And so during metaphase of mitosis, we have these extensions and these connections that form. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, normally, what happens under normal conditions is these mitotic spindle upper analysis form. They extend these fibers, and these fibers attach themselves onto these sections on each one of these cystochromatids. And so during metaphase of mitosis, we have these extensions and these connections that form. And normally, these two will move to that side, these other cystochromatids will move to the other side. And in humans, we have 46 chromosomes moving this way, 46 chromosomes moving the other way. And so during anaphase, we should have in this particular picture, we should see two chromosomes moving this way and two chromosomes moving the other way. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And normally, these two will move to that side, these other cystochromatids will move to the other side. And in humans, we have 46 chromosomes moving this way, 46 chromosomes moving the other way. And so during anaphase, we should have in this particular picture, we should see two chromosomes moving this way and two chromosomes moving the other way. But if nondisjunction takes place, what that means is one of these fibers actually fails to form a proper connection with one of the cystochromatids. And so let's say that this connection formed, this connection formed, and this connection formed. This connection did not actually form. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
But if nondisjunction takes place, what that means is one of these fibers actually fails to form a proper connection with one of the cystochromatids. And so let's say that this connection formed, this connection formed, and this connection formed. This connection did not actually form. And so now what happens during anaphase when these fibers begin to pull these cystochromatids apart? These are pulled apart correctly, so these begin moving to opposite poles, but this one doesn't move apart correctly. In fact, this pair of identical cystochromatids moves to the other side, to one side, and this one fails to move to this side. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And so now what happens during anaphase when these fibers begin to pull these cystochromatids apart? These are pulled apart correctly, so these begin moving to opposite poles, but this one doesn't move apart correctly. In fact, this pair of identical cystochromatids moves to the other side, to one side, and this one fails to move to this side. And so at the end, when we produce our two daughter cells, these will no longer be identical because they will not carry the same amount of genetic information. In this particular case, we're going to have a daughter cell, a somatic cell that has one extra chromosome than it should have. So we have a trisomic condition, and this one will lack that particular chromosome, and so it will have a monosomic condition. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And so at the end, when we produce our two daughter cells, these will no longer be identical because they will not carry the same amount of genetic information. In this particular case, we're going to have a daughter cell, a somatic cell that has one extra chromosome than it should have. So we have a trisomic condition, and this one will lack that particular chromosome, and so it will have a monosomic condition. Now, one important point must be made about mitosis if mitosis. So let's suppose I'm a normal individual. And what that means is inside every somatic cell of my body, I have 23 pairs of 46 individual chromosomes. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, one important point must be made about mitosis if mitosis. So let's suppose I'm a normal individual. And what that means is inside every somatic cell of my body, I have 23 pairs of 46 individual chromosomes. Now, if inside one of my somatic cells mitosis takes place and nondisjunction takes place, then what that means is I will only have this anaploid condition within these two daughter cells that are formed as a result of the non disjunction in mitosis, all the other somatic cells of my body will still be normal. And that's exactly why nondisjunction taking place in mitosis is not as dangerous as nondisjunction taking place in meiosis, because in meiosis, as we'll see in just a moment, what ends up happening is all the somatic cells of that individual will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. They will have anuploid. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, if inside one of my somatic cells mitosis takes place and nondisjunction takes place, then what that means is I will only have this anaploid condition within these two daughter cells that are formed as a result of the non disjunction in mitosis, all the other somatic cells of my body will still be normal. And that's exactly why nondisjunction taking place in mitosis is not as dangerous as nondisjunction taking place in meiosis, because in meiosis, as we'll see in just a moment, what ends up happening is all the somatic cells of that individual will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. They will have anuploid. While in this case, all of these somatic cells produced via this nondisjunction mitosis will have that anuploid condition. So although this still can be dangerous because it can lead to abnormal cells, it can form cancer cells as long as those abnormal cells are actually destroyed either by our immune system or by the process of programmed cell death. If that happens, it is not as dangerous as in the case of meiosis. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
While in this case, all of these somatic cells produced via this nondisjunction mitosis will have that anuploid condition. So although this still can be dangerous because it can lead to abnormal cells, it can form cancer cells as long as those abnormal cells are actually destroyed either by our immune system or by the process of programmed cell death. If that happens, it is not as dangerous as in the case of meiosis. So let's move on to nondisjunction taking place in meiosis. Now, because meiosis actually consist of meiosis one and meiosis two, that means there are two different places, two different times where nondisjunction can actually take place. So let's begin by assuming that nondisjunction only takes place during meiosis one. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So let's move on to nondisjunction taking place in meiosis. Now, because meiosis actually consist of meiosis one and meiosis two, that means there are two different places, two different times where nondisjunction can actually take place. So let's begin by assuming that nondisjunction only takes place during meiosis one. So, once again, we're dealing with only well, if we take a look at our normal human carotype, technically speaking, we should be showing all these individual chromosomes within the cell. But to save time, I'm only going to focus on the 23rd chromosome pair, our sex chromosome pair. So we're not going to consider the autosomal chromosomes in this particular case. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So, once again, we're dealing with only well, if we take a look at our normal human carotype, technically speaking, we should be showing all these individual chromosomes within the cell. But to save time, I'm only going to focus on the 23rd chromosome pair, our sex chromosome pair. So we're not going to consider the autosomal chromosomes in this particular case. So before meiosis actually takes place and before this male individual can produce sperm cells, those chromosomes must replicate themselves during the process of interface. And so the x chromosome is replicated to produce this identical x chromosome, and the y chromosome is also replicated to produce this identical cystochromatid. So normally, what should happen during normal conditions is during metaphase one of meiosis, these pairs basically line up at the equator of our cells. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So before meiosis actually takes place and before this male individual can produce sperm cells, those chromosomes must replicate themselves during the process of interface. And so the x chromosome is replicated to produce this identical x chromosome, and the y chromosome is also replicated to produce this identical cystochromatid. So normally, what should happen during normal conditions is during metaphase one of meiosis, these pairs basically line up at the equator of our cells. So in humans, we're going to have 23 pairs of these chromosomes line up at the middle. And then during anaphase, if these connections are formed correctly, these 23 pairs of chromosomes are basically moved to opposite poles. Now, if nondisjunction takes place, what that means is, once again, we fail to form this fiber attachment. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So in humans, we're going to have 23 pairs of these chromosomes line up at the middle. And then during anaphase, if these connections are formed correctly, these 23 pairs of chromosomes are basically moved to opposite poles. Now, if nondisjunction takes place, what that means is, once again, we fail to form this fiber attachment. And so instead of this attaching here and this attaching here, let's say what happens is this attaches here and also attaches there. And so now what happens is we have nondisjunction takes place and both of these pairs of chromosomes basically move to one side of the pole. And so when we have when we produce those two cells, one of the cells will lack the sex chromosome and the other one will have an extra pair of sex chromosomes. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And so instead of this attaching here and this attaching here, let's say what happens is this attaches here and also attaches there. And so now what happens is we have nondisjunction takes place and both of these pairs of chromosomes basically move to one side of the pole. And so when we have when we produce those two cells, one of the cells will lack the sex chromosome and the other one will have an extra pair of sex chromosomes. So this is where nondisjunction took place in meiosis one, in anaphase one of meiosis. Now, let's suppose we have metaphase two take place, and metaphase two takes place normally. So all these chromosome pairs line up at the equator as shown, and these fibers form correctly. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So this is where nondisjunction took place in meiosis one, in anaphase one of meiosis. Now, let's suppose we have metaphase two take place, and metaphase two takes place normally. So all these chromosome pairs line up at the equator as shown, and these fibers form correctly. And we have the separation of these chromosomes to that side and these chromosomes to the other side. And so in this particular case, we formed these two identical sperm cells. And in this particular case, we formed these two sperm cells that don't have those sex chromosomes. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And we have the separation of these chromosomes to that side and these chromosomes to the other side. And so in this particular case, we formed these two identical sperm cells. And in this particular case, we formed these two sperm cells that don't have those sex chromosomes. So all of these sperm cells are abnormal because in this case, in case one and two, we have one more than we should remember. Each sperm cell should have only one sex chromosome. In this case, we have two. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So all of these sperm cells are abnormal because in this case, in case one and two, we have one more than we should remember. Each sperm cell should have only one sex chromosome. In this case, we have two. In this case, we have none. So what will happen next? Well, remember, the entire purpose of forming the sperm cells by the male individual was to basically take the sperm cell and combine it with an Xcel. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
In this case, we have none. So what will happen next? Well, remember, the entire purpose of forming the sperm cells by the male individual was to basically take the sperm cell and combine it with an Xcel. So let's suppose we take either one of these two sperm cells, our anuplooid sperm cell and we combine it with a female normal X cell. Remember, X cells always or normal X cells always have one X chromosome. Now, if these two gametes actually combine, we're going to form a Zygote that has the unequality condition. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So let's suppose we take either one of these two sperm cells, our anuplooid sperm cell and we combine it with a female normal X cell. Remember, X cells always or normal X cells always have one X chromosome. Now, if these two gametes actually combine, we're going to form a Zygote that has the unequality condition. And what that means is we're going to have two of these X chromosomes, one of these Y chromosomes. And what happens is we know under normal conditions we should have one X, one Y or one X, one X. But because of this rearrangement, we're going to have an extra copy of that X chromosome. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And what that means is we're going to have two of these X chromosomes, one of these Y chromosomes. And what happens is we know under normal conditions we should have one X, one Y or one X, one X. But because of this rearrangement, we're going to have an extra copy of that X chromosome. And because we have an extra copy, instead of having 46 chromosomes, we're going to have 47 chromosomes in this Zygote. And when the Zygote divides to form the many different cells of that individual, every single somatic cell of that individual will have this unemployed condition. And that's why nondisjunction in meiosis is much more dangerous than nondisjunction in mitosis. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
And because we have an extra copy, instead of having 46 chromosomes, we're going to have 47 chromosomes in this Zygote. And when the Zygote divides to form the many different cells of that individual, every single somatic cell of that individual will have this unemployed condition. And that's why nondisjunction in meiosis is much more dangerous than nondisjunction in mitosis. Because if it takes place in meiosis, every somatic cell of the body will end up having this unemployed condition. But in mitosis, it's only those two daughter cells that are formed by that process that will have that condition. So as long as our immune system can protect our body from those abnormal cells, we should have no problem. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Because if it takes place in meiosis, every somatic cell of the body will end up having this unemployed condition. But in mitosis, it's only those two daughter cells that are formed by that process that will have that condition. So as long as our immune system can protect our body from those abnormal cells, we should have no problem. So if a normal X cell combines with either sperm cell one or sperm cell two, the Zygote will have an extra X chromosome copy. So we'll have XY. Now, if the normal Xcel combines with either sperm cell three or four, we're going to have Zygote in which we're going to lack the Y chromosome. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
So if a normal X cell combines with either sperm cell one or sperm cell two, the Zygote will have an extra X chromosome copy. So we'll have XY. Now, if the normal Xcel combines with either sperm cell three or four, we're going to have Zygote in which we're going to lack the Y chromosome. We're going to have only one X chromosome, and this condition is known as XO, where O means we don't have that second sex chromosome. This is non disjunction taking place in meiosis, one more specifically in anaphase one of meiosis. Now, we can also have nondisjunction taking place in meiosis two more specifically in anaphase two of meiosis. | Aneuploidy and Nondisjunction .txt |
Now, enzymes are very sensitive and that basically means that the functionality and the rate of activity of enzymes does not only differ depend on non protein molecules such as Cofactors. The functionality and activity of enzymes also depends on the actual environment surrounding that protein molecule. Now, three major factors influence the enzymes activity and functionality and these are temperature, the acidity level, so the PH level, as well as the concentration of the substrate. So let's examine each one of these factors and see how they influence our proteins, our enzymes functionality. So let's begin with temperature. Now, increasing the temperature of the surroundings in which our protein enzyme is actually found in generally initially increases the rate or the activity of our enzyme. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So let's examine each one of these factors and see how they influence our proteins, our enzymes functionality. So let's begin with temperature. Now, increasing the temperature of the surroundings in which our protein enzyme is actually found in generally initially increases the rate or the activity of our enzyme. And this is primarily because by increasing the temperature we give the substrate more energy so that it has more energy to basically overcome that activation barrier. Now, the problem with increasing the temperature high or increasing the temperature continually is our proteins have tertiary structure. And remember that at a high enough temperature, the proteins tertiary structure can break down. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
And this is primarily because by increasing the temperature we give the substrate more energy so that it has more energy to basically overcome that activation barrier. Now, the problem with increasing the temperature high or increasing the temperature continually is our proteins have tertiary structure. And remember that at a high enough temperature, the proteins tertiary structure can break down. And at this point we say the protein is denatured and it no longer functions because the tertiary structure is basically the structure that determines the functionality of that protein. And because enzymes are proteins, we see that eventually the rate of activity of enzymes reaches a certain point at which it has a maximum activity rate. And increasing the temperature past this point will denature or break down the tertiary structure of that enzyme and lower that enzyme's activity sharply. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
And at this point we say the protein is denatured and it no longer functions because the tertiary structure is basically the structure that determines the functionality of that protein. And because enzymes are proteins, we see that eventually the rate of activity of enzymes reaches a certain point at which it has a maximum activity rate. And increasing the temperature past this point will denature or break down the tertiary structure of that enzyme and lower that enzyme's activity sharply. Now, one example is the human body. The human body has a core temperature of about 37 degrees Celsius. And this is because most of the proteins, the majority of the proteins are enzymes in the human body, function optimally at this temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Now, one example is the human body. The human body has a core temperature of about 37 degrees Celsius. And this is because most of the proteins, the majority of the proteins are enzymes in the human body, function optimally at this temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. So increasing the temperature will increase the rate until we go up to this optimal temperature. And by increasing it further, we see that our activity of that enzyme, which is the Y axis, will jar, will drop sharply. Now, this is basically exactly why it's dangerous to have a fever. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So increasing the temperature will increase the rate until we go up to this optimal temperature. And by increasing it further, we see that our activity of that enzyme, which is the Y axis, will jar, will drop sharply. Now, this is basically exactly why it's dangerous to have a fever. Because when our body temperature increases, we can basically damage our proteins, our enzymes found in the body. Now ironically, this is also a mechanism by which our body kills off bacterial cells. So when we're sick, the mechanism by which our body kills off the bacterial cells is by increasing the temperature of our body. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Because when our body temperature increases, we can basically damage our proteins, our enzymes found in the body. Now ironically, this is also a mechanism by which our body kills off bacterial cells. So when we're sick, the mechanism by which our body kills off the bacterial cells is by increasing the temperature of our body. This basically causes the proteins in the bacterial cells to basically denature and that decreases the activity and functionality of our enzymes found in bacterial cells. Now, let's move on to our acidity level. So how exactly does the PH or the concentration of hydrogen ions affects our functionality and activity of proteins of our enzyme? | Enzyme Activity.txt |
This basically causes the proteins in the bacterial cells to basically denature and that decreases the activity and functionality of our enzymes found in bacterial cells. Now, let's move on to our acidity level. So how exactly does the PH or the concentration of hydrogen ions affects our functionality and activity of proteins of our enzyme? So the concentration of hydrogen ions, the PH, can also affect the activity of enzymes. For instance, the human body actually spends a lot of its energy in making sure that the PH of the blood as well as other systems, other fluids within our body, remains at a specific level. And at times it can basically change the PH of certain fluid areas within our body to basically activate or deactivate certain enzymes. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So the concentration of hydrogen ions, the PH, can also affect the activity of enzymes. For instance, the human body actually spends a lot of its energy in making sure that the PH of the blood as well as other systems, other fluids within our body, remains at a specific level. And at times it can basically change the PH of certain fluid areas within our body to basically activate or deactivate certain enzymes. So for instance, the human body spends a good amount of energy to keep the fluid environment at a specific PH in order to ensure that different enzymes basically function effectively and properly. Now, the enzymes in our blood, for example, require a PH of about 7.4. And if the PH fluctuates even a small amount the enzymes will basically lose their functionality and this can be a very deadly scenario. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So for instance, the human body spends a good amount of energy to keep the fluid environment at a specific PH in order to ensure that different enzymes basically function effectively and properly. Now, the enzymes in our blood, for example, require a PH of about 7.4. And if the PH fluctuates even a small amount the enzymes will basically lose their functionality and this can be a very deadly scenario. Now, another case is Aristomic and small intestine. So Aristomic, unlike the blood, actually functions or Aristomic contains a relative acidic environment. And this is because a lot of our protein enzymes, for example Pepsin found in the stomach function at a low PH. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Now, another case is Aristomic and small intestine. So Aristomic, unlike the blood, actually functions or Aristomic contains a relative acidic environment. And this is because a lot of our protein enzymes, for example Pepsin found in the stomach function at a low PH. For example, Pepsi functions optimally at a PH of about two. Now, if we examine and study the small intestine which basically contains the enzymes that are involved in breaking down the macromolecules into their constituent parts which are then ingested into our blood. So basically, enzymes in the small intestine function optimally at a slightly basic PH of about 8.0. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
For example, Pepsi functions optimally at a PH of about two. Now, if we examine and study the small intestine which basically contains the enzymes that are involved in breaking down the macromolecules into their constituent parts which are then ingested into our blood. So basically, enzymes in the small intestine function optimally at a slightly basic PH of about 8.0. Now, if the PH changes in either direction the activity of our enzyme will basically decrease symmetrically as shown in the following diagram. Notice in this case we have a sharp drop but in this case we have the same exact slope on both sides. So basically, if this y axis is the rate of activity of the enzyme and the x axis is our PH and a PH of about 8.0 the enzymes in our small intestines, such as Chimetrypsin and Tryptin basically function optimally at this PH of 8.0. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Now, if the PH changes in either direction the activity of our enzyme will basically decrease symmetrically as shown in the following diagram. Notice in this case we have a sharp drop but in this case we have the same exact slope on both sides. So basically, if this y axis is the rate of activity of the enzyme and the x axis is our PH and a PH of about 8.0 the enzymes in our small intestines, such as Chimetrypsin and Tryptin basically function optimally at this PH of 8.0. But if we decrease or increase our PH the activity of those enzymes will drop as shown by these decreasing slopes. Now, the final factor that we want to discuss is the concentration of the substrate. So let's suppose that we begin with a relatively small quantity of substrate as well as some fixed amount of our enzyme. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
But if we decrease or increase our PH the activity of those enzymes will drop as shown by these decreasing slopes. Now, the final factor that we want to discuss is the concentration of the substrate. So let's suppose that we begin with a relatively small quantity of substrate as well as some fixed amount of our enzyme. And this basically means that initially most of our active sites on our enzymes are actually empty. Now, as we begin to increase the amount of substrate as we begin to increase the concentration of our substrate more and more of the active sites will be occupied, will be filled and that will increase the overall rate of our reaction. Eventually, however, we will reach a point at which all the active sites on all our enzymes are filled. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
And this basically means that initially most of our active sites on our enzymes are actually empty. Now, as we begin to increase the amount of substrate as we begin to increase the concentration of our substrate more and more of the active sites will be occupied, will be filled and that will increase the overall rate of our reaction. Eventually, however, we will reach a point at which all the active sites on all our enzymes are filled. At that point, our reaction, our enzyme activity, has reached a maximum rate and this is known as the maximum velocity or VMAX. And the enzyme at this point is said to be saturated. And by increasing the concentration of substrate at this point we are basically not affecting the rate of our activity of the enzyme because all those active sites of all the enzymes are actually filled up or occupied. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
At that point, our reaction, our enzyme activity, has reached a maximum rate and this is known as the maximum velocity or VMAX. And the enzyme at this point is said to be saturated. And by increasing the concentration of substrate at this point we are basically not affecting the rate of our activity of the enzyme because all those active sites of all the enzymes are actually filled up or occupied. Now, let's take a look at the following diagram briefly. So our y axis is the velocity, which is basically another way of saying the rate or activity of that enzyme. Now the x axis represents the concentration of substrate. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Now, let's take a look at the following diagram briefly. So our y axis is the velocity, which is basically another way of saying the rate or activity of that enzyme. Now the x axis represents the concentration of substrate. So notice as we go to the right, along the x axis, we increase the concentration. And as we go up along the y axis, we increase the velocity or the rate of activity of that enzyme. Now, this slope, shown in purple basically describes the relationship between the concentration of substrate as well as the velocity or rate of activity of our enzyme. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So notice as we go to the right, along the x axis, we increase the concentration. And as we go up along the y axis, we increase the velocity or the rate of activity of that enzyme. Now, this slope, shown in purple basically describes the relationship between the concentration of substrate as well as the velocity or rate of activity of our enzyme. So notice initially we have a relatively linear relationship between the concentration and the velocity. So initially, as we increase the concentration, our rate or velocity also increases pretty much linearly. Now eventually we reach this point here and this point basically represents something known as Km. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So notice initially we have a relatively linear relationship between the concentration and the velocity. So initially, as we increase the concentration, our rate or velocity also increases pretty much linearly. Now eventually we reach this point here and this point basically represents something known as Km. And Km is basically a constant known as the Michaelis constant. Now, the mechaelis constant basically represents the concentration of the substrate that basically makes sure that exactly half of the active sites are completely filled for that particular enzyme. And at this point, our velocity is given by v one half. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
And Km is basically a constant known as the Michaelis constant. Now, the mechaelis constant basically represents the concentration of the substrate that basically makes sure that exactly half of the active sites are completely filled for that particular enzyme. And at this point, our velocity is given by v one half. So v one half corresponds to the velocity or the rate of activity of the enzyme when exactly half of the active sites of all the enzymes are basically occupied by our substrate. So the point at which exactly half of the enzyme active sites are being used up or are being occupied is given by a constant given by Km known as the Mikhailis constant. At this point, the velocity is given by v one half. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
So v one half corresponds to the velocity or the rate of activity of the enzyme when exactly half of the active sites of all the enzymes are basically occupied by our substrate. So the point at which exactly half of the enzyme active sites are being used up or are being occupied is given by a constant given by Km known as the Mikhailis constant. At this point, the velocity is given by v one half. Now, we're going to discuss this in much more detail when we get into biochemistry, but at this point I simply want to mention the filing for an idea about this Maca Lis constant. So the Michael is constant. Km does not actually depend on the concentration. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
Now, we're going to discuss this in much more detail when we get into biochemistry, but at this point I simply want to mention the filing for an idea about this Maca Lis constant. So the Michael is constant. Km does not actually depend on the concentration. What it depends on is the type of enzyme that we are dealing with. So the MACA's constant basically gives us information about the affinity or the traction of the enzyme to our substrate. So a very low Km value for any given enzyme means that the enzyme has a very high affinity for the substrate. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
What it depends on is the type of enzyme that we are dealing with. So the MACA's constant basically gives us information about the affinity or the traction of the enzyme to our substrate. So a very low Km value for any given enzyme means that the enzyme has a very high affinity for the substrate. Because a low Km means a small amount, a small quantity of concentration of substrate basically is required to fill up exactly half of our enzyme actives. And conversely, a high Km value, a high mecalus constant for a given enzyme means that we need a lot of substrate to actually fill exactly half of those active sites of our enzyme. So basically, these are the three factors that play a role in effecting the activity and the functionality of the enzyme. | Enzyme Activity.txt |
We can then place it into a plasma and take that plasmid and place it into a bacterial cell. And that bacterial cell will divide. And as it divides, it will replicate that plasmid. And so we can produce use many identical copies of that recombinant DNA molecule of interest. Now, we can use plasma's vectors or we can also use another type of vector, another type of carrier known as a lambda phage. And a lambda phage is a special type of bacteria phage that infects E. Coli cells. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And so we can produce use many identical copies of that recombinant DNA molecule of interest. Now, we can use plasma's vectors or we can also use another type of vector, another type of carrier known as a lambda phage. And a lambda phage is a special type of bacteria phage that infects E. Coli cells. So it has two types of cycles. It has the lytic life cycle and it has the lysogenic life cycle. Now, in the lytic cycle, this is the dangerous cycle that ultimately kills that cell. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So it has two types of cycles. It has the lytic life cycle and it has the lysogenic life cycle. Now, in the lytic cycle, this is the dangerous cycle that ultimately kills that cell. In the lytic cycle, that bacteriophage essentially hijacks the machinery of that cell, the ribosomes and so forth. And so it produces many of these viral protein molecules and viral DNA molecules. And what it does is it assembles, it packages these viral molecules into these viral particles. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
In the lytic cycle, that bacteriophage essentially hijacks the machinery of that cell, the ribosomes and so forth. And so it produces many of these viral protein molecules and viral DNA molecules. And what it does is it assembles, it packages these viral molecules into these viral particles. It produces many viral agents inside the cell, so it can produce as many as 100 viral particles inside that cell. And when the cell can hold all those viral agents any longer, it essentially bursts open, releasing all those newly synthesized virins to the outside environment. And then those viral agents can move on onto other bacterial cells and infect other cells. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
It produces many viral agents inside the cell, so it can produce as many as 100 viral particles inside that cell. And when the cell can hold all those viral agents any longer, it essentially bursts open, releasing all those newly synthesized virins to the outside environment. And then those viral agents can move on onto other bacterial cells and infect other cells. So this is the very dangerous and very activelytic cycle. But that bacteriophage. If the environmental conditions are just right, it can take a much more relaxed approach, a much more inactive approach, in which it essentially takes that viral DNA molecule and incorporates it into the genome of that whole cell. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So this is the very dangerous and very activelytic cycle. But that bacteriophage. If the environmental conditions are just right, it can take a much more relaxed approach, a much more inactive approach, in which it essentially takes that viral DNA molecule and incorporates it into the genome of that whole cell. And so when that genome is replicated, when the cell, for example, divides, that viral DNA will also be replicated along with that host genome. Now, of course, eventually, if some type of environmental factor exists, for example, some type of stressful situation, that DNA molecule, the viral DNA molecule inside that cell, can essentially be used to once again undergo the lytic cycle, in which the cell will begin producing the viral particles and eventually will lice. So let's take a look at the following diagram, which basically summarizes these two different cycles. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And so when that genome is replicated, when the cell, for example, divides, that viral DNA will also be replicated along with that host genome. Now, of course, eventually, if some type of environmental factor exists, for example, some type of stressful situation, that DNA molecule, the viral DNA molecule inside that cell, can essentially be used to once again undergo the lytic cycle, in which the cell will begin producing the viral particles and eventually will lice. So let's take a look at the following diagram, which basically summarizes these two different cycles. So we have the lambda phage that contains that viral DNA molecule. It attaches onto the cell membrane by using these receptors, and then it injects that DNA molecule into the cell. Now, if the environmental conditions are correct, the cell will basically or the virus will basically undergo the lysogenic cycle in which the DNA will simply be incorporated into the cell's genome. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So we have the lambda phage that contains that viral DNA molecule. It attaches onto the cell membrane by using these receptors, and then it injects that DNA molecule into the cell. Now, if the environmental conditions are correct, the cell will basically or the virus will basically undergo the lysogenic cycle in which the DNA will simply be incorporated into the cell's genome. And then the cell can basically live on for generations. And as it divides, this viral DNA molecule along with the genome will be replicated and will be given to that offspring cell. Now, on the other hand, it can also take a lytic approach. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And then the cell can basically live on for generations. And as it divides, this viral DNA molecule along with the genome will be replicated and will be given to that offspring cell. Now, on the other hand, it can also take a lytic approach. And in the lytic pathway, what happens is this cell basically turns into a factory that produces many of these viruses. And eventually, when the cell cannot hold all those viruses inside that cell, it will break open, it will lice, releasing all those virus to the outside. And these viruses can then go on and affect other bacterial cells. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And in the lytic pathway, what happens is this cell basically turns into a factory that produces many of these viruses. And eventually, when the cell cannot hold all those viruses inside that cell, it will break open, it will lice, releasing all those virus to the outside. And these viruses can then go on and affect other bacterial cells. Now, how exactly can we use the lambda phages as vectors? Well, it turns out that we can actually replace this DNA molecule with the DNA molecule of choice. As long as the size of the DNA molecule that we're essentially putting in is about the same as the size of this DNA molecule found in the lambda phage. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
Now, how exactly can we use the lambda phages as vectors? Well, it turns out that we can actually replace this DNA molecule with the DNA molecule of choice. As long as the size of the DNA molecule that we're essentially putting in is about the same as the size of this DNA molecule found in the lambda phage. So what that means is the lambda phage virus does not need its own DNA to actually survive. We can put in any DNA as long as the size it's pretty much the same as the size of that initial lambda DNA. So to see how we can actually do that, let's take a look at the following diagram. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So what that means is the lambda phage virus does not need its own DNA to actually survive. We can put in any DNA as long as the size it's pretty much the same as the size of that initial lambda DNA. So to see how we can actually do that, let's take a look at the following diagram. So, in diagram one, we extract this blue DNA, the lambda DNA molecule, as shown in the following diagram. So first we need to cut the lambda phage with a restriction enzyme. So we choose some type of restriction enzyme. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So, in diagram one, we extract this blue DNA, the lambda DNA molecule, as shown in the following diagram. So first we need to cut the lambda phage with a restriction enzyme. So we choose some type of restriction enzyme. And because we're talking about E. Coli cell, let's suppose we're going to use a restriction enzyme found in E. Coli cells known as ECoR one. Now, ECoR one will essentially cut our DNA of the alpha phase at two locations somewhere here and here. And we produce the following three fragments. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And because we're talking about E. Coli cell, let's suppose we're going to use a restriction enzyme found in E. Coli cells known as ECoR one. Now, ECoR one will essentially cut our DNA of the alpha phase at two locations somewhere here and here. And we produce the following three fragments. So fragment one and fragment three, the side fragments, are also known as the arms. And this is the center of the middle, fragment number two. Now, what we can do is we can essentially separate these DNA molecules and then we can remove the fragment number two. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
So fragment one and fragment three, the side fragments, are also known as the arms. And this is the center of the middle, fragment number two. Now, what we can do is we can essentially separate these DNA molecules and then we can remove the fragment number two. And instead of fragment number two, we can place some type of target DNA molecule that we actually want to copy. And we can connect these two fragments onto the size of the target DNA molecule so that the actual size of the DNA does not change compared to the DNA of that lambda phage that we initially extracted. Now, how can we connect these two fragments or these three fragments? | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
And instead of fragment number two, we can place some type of target DNA molecule that we actually want to copy. And we can connect these two fragments onto the size of the target DNA molecule so that the actual size of the DNA does not change compared to the DNA of that lambda phage that we initially extracted. Now, how can we connect these two fragments or these three fragments? Well, we can use a special enzyme, special catalytic protein known as DNA ligase. So what DNA ligase does, as we'll see in a future lecture, it basically uses ATP molecules to create phosphodiasta bonds between the fragments here and this fragment here. And so ultimately, when we mix these three fragments with DNA ligase, we produce recombinant DNA that is about the same size as this original DNA molecule that came from that lambda phage. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
Well, we can use a special enzyme, special catalytic protein known as DNA ligase. So what DNA ligase does, as we'll see in a future lecture, it basically uses ATP molecules to create phosphodiasta bonds between the fragments here and this fragment here. And so ultimately, when we mix these three fragments with DNA ligase, we produce recombinant DNA that is about the same size as this original DNA molecule that came from that lambda phage. And now we can take this DNA molecule and place it back into that lambda phage. And the lambda phage can be mixed in with our E. Coli cells. And if the environmental conditions are right, what will happen is the lythogenic cycle will be followed, and the cell will basically divide many, many times. | Lambda Phages as Vectors .txt |
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