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And so let's suppose we want to add a bunch of deoxyguanosine triphosphates so Dgtps. And so after step four, we essentially add a polygtail to the three prime of this complementary DNA molecule. And now we know exactly what the sequence on the three prime end here is. And so just like in diagram one, where we knew exactly what the sequence was and so we knew what type of sequence to build on that DNA primer. Now we also know what sequence that DNA primer should have. If this is a polygtail, we have to build a polyceetail. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
And so just like in diagram one, where we knew exactly what the sequence was and so we knew what type of sequence to build on that DNA primer. Now we also know what sequence that DNA primer should have. If this is a polygtail, we have to build a polyceetail. And so in step five, we build a polyceed DNA primer. We add it into our mixture and at the right temperature, these two will anneal. They will hybridize. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
And so in step five, we build a polyceed DNA primer. We add it into our mixture and at the right temperature, these two will anneal. They will hybridize. Now, one important point that I did not mention in this part is this last t here contains an open hydroxyl group. And that open hydroxyl group is needed to actually synthesize the phosphodiasta bonds. And so now that we have this hydroxyl group, that transcriptase in this case can begin to synthesize those nucleotides and for the same exact reason. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
Now, one important point that I did not mention in this part is this last t here contains an open hydroxyl group. And that open hydroxyl group is needed to actually synthesize the phosphodiasta bonds. And so now that we have this hydroxyl group, that transcriptase in this case can begin to synthesize those nucleotides and for the same exact reason. Now that we have the hydroxyl group on this side attached to this C, now if we add the DNA polymerase in step six, it can begin the synthesis and elongation and the replication of this complementary DNA molecule. And after step six, we have the double stranded C DNA molecule that we spoke about in this step. And this cDNA molecule, double stranded cDNA molecule can now be modified by attaching Cohesive ends, sticky ends to both sides of that DNA molecule. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
Now that we have the hydroxyl group on this side attached to this C, now if we add the DNA polymerase in step six, it can begin the synthesis and elongation and the replication of this complementary DNA molecule. And after step six, we have the double stranded C DNA molecule that we spoke about in this step. And this cDNA molecule, double stranded cDNA molecule can now be modified by attaching Cohesive ends, sticky ends to both sides of that DNA molecule. And once we attach the sticky ends, we can place it into the appropriate vector, either a plasmid, or we can stick it into a lambda phage. And then we can expose the lambda phage to bacterial cells. Those bacterial cells will take up those double stranded cDNA molecules, and they can use them to basically transcribe. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
And once we attach the sticky ends, we can place it into the appropriate vector, either a plasmid, or we can stick it into a lambda phage. And then we can expose the lambda phage to bacterial cells. Those bacterial cells will take up those double stranded cDNA molecules, and they can use them to basically transcribe. The modified mRNA molecule that has the polyatail, contains the five prime end and also contains only the exons, not the introns. And in this manner, our bacterial cell can synthesize any protein that we desire. And so once the proteins are synthesized, we can extract those proteins by protein purification methods. | Synthesizing cDNA with Reverse Transcriptase .txt |
Now, other cells of our body, such as cardiac muscle cells and liver cells, use a slightly different shuttle process. And so in this lecture, I'd like to focus on a shuttle known as the malade aspartate shuttle. And the shuttle is used by cardiac muscle cells and liver cells to actually move the NADH molecules produced in the glycolytic pathway into the matrix of the mitochondria. So let's begin by examining the following diagram. So, in this diagram, we have the inner membrane of the mitochondria and we have the matrix side of the mitochondria. So this is essentially the cytoplasmic side. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So let's begin by examining the following diagram. So, in this diagram, we have the inner membrane of the mitochondria and we have the matrix side of the mitochondria. So this is essentially the cytoplasmic side. Now, in step one, we basically want to transform the NADH molecule that is produced in a glycolytic pathway into NAD plus. And in this process, we ultimately extract those two high energy electrons and we place them onto oxyloacetate. In the process, we actually reduce oxyloacetate into malate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
Now, in step one, we basically want to transform the NADH molecule that is produced in a glycolytic pathway into NAD plus. And in this process, we ultimately extract those two high energy electrons and we place them onto oxyloacetate. In the process, we actually reduce oxyloacetate into malate. Now, the reason that we actually want to transform the oxyloacetate into malate is because, firstly, the oxyloacetate cannot actually move across the mitochondrial membrane. And secondly, we want to take those electrons from the NADH produced in a glycolytic pathway and transport them onto a molecule that can in fact move across the mitochondrial membrane, the outer and the inner mitochondrial membrane. So once we actually form the malate, the malate now contains the high energy electrons that were stored on the NADH. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
Now, the reason that we actually want to transform the oxyloacetate into malate is because, firstly, the oxyloacetate cannot actually move across the mitochondrial membrane. And secondly, we want to take those electrons from the NADH produced in a glycolytic pathway and transport them onto a molecule that can in fact move across the mitochondrial membrane, the outer and the inner mitochondrial membrane. So once we actually form the malate, the malate now contains the high energy electrons that were stored on the NADH. And the malate can now move across a special antiported transport system found on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. And as the malate moves into the matrix of the mitochondria, an alpha ketoglutrate is exchanged for that malate and it moves into the intermembrane space and then the cytoplasm of that particular cell. So in step one, the NADH that is produced in glycolysis is used to reduce oxyloacetate into malate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And the malate can now move across a special antiported transport system found on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. And as the malate moves into the matrix of the mitochondria, an alpha ketoglutrate is exchanged for that malate and it moves into the intermembrane space and then the cytoplasm of that particular cell. So in step one, the NADH that is produced in glycolysis is used to reduce oxyloacetate into malate. And what this does is it allows that cell to regenerate the NAD plus that is needed by glycolysis to actually continue glycolysis. And it also transfers the pair of electrons from the NADH onto that oxyloacetate to form the malate, so that once the malate moves into this matrix of the mitochondria, we can actually oxidize that malate back into oxyloacetate and reduce an NAD plus found in the matrix into NADH. And that NADH can be used by the electron transport chain, as we'll see in just a moment. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And what this does is it allows that cell to regenerate the NAD plus that is needed by glycolysis to actually continue glycolysis. And it also transfers the pair of electrons from the NADH onto that oxyloacetate to form the malate, so that once the malate moves into this matrix of the mitochondria, we can actually oxidize that malate back into oxyloacetate and reduce an NAD plus found in the matrix into NADH. And that NADH can be used by the electron transport chain, as we'll see in just a moment. So in step two, once we form the malate in the cytoplasm of our cell, the malate then moves into the intermembrane space via the outer membrane of the mitochondria. And then that malate enters the matrix of the mitochondria via a special antiporter transport protein in exchange for an alpha key to gluterate. And in step three, we actually take the high energy electrons on the malate that initially came from NADH, and we place them onto that NAD plus coenzyme to actually form the NADH. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So in step two, once we form the malate in the cytoplasm of our cell, the malate then moves into the intermembrane space via the outer membrane of the mitochondria. And then that malate enters the matrix of the mitochondria via a special antiporter transport protein in exchange for an alpha key to gluterate. And in step three, we actually take the high energy electrons on the malate that initially came from NADH, and we place them onto that NAD plus coenzyme to actually form the NADH. So in a way, we actually see that the NADH is transported into the matrix of the mitochondria, and we also form we reform the oxalo acetate. Now, once the oxyloacetate oh, and by the way, the enzyme that catalyzes this step, the conversion of malade into oxalo acetate, is known as the mitochondrial malade dehydrogenase. And this is the same enzyme that is used by the citric acid cycle. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So in a way, we actually see that the NADH is transported into the matrix of the mitochondria, and we also form we reform the oxalo acetate. Now, once the oxyloacetate oh, and by the way, the enzyme that catalyzes this step, the conversion of malade into oxalo acetate, is known as the mitochondrial malade dehydrogenase. And this is the same enzyme that is used by the citric acid cycle. Now, once we form the oxalo acetate, the problem with the oxyloacetate is it can simply pass across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. We have to transform the oxalo acetate first into aspartate before it can actually move across this special antiporter protein system. And so the process by which we transform the oxyloacetate into aspartate is known as transamination. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
Now, once we form the oxalo acetate, the problem with the oxyloacetate is it can simply pass across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. We have to transform the oxalo acetate first into aspartate before it can actually move across this special antiporter protein system. And so the process by which we transform the oxyloacetate into aspartate is known as transamination. We essentially take an amino group from another molecule, namely the glutamate. We place it onto oxyloacetate, and that's how we form the aspartate. So in step four, shown here, the oxyloacetate cannot move across the inner mitochondrial membrane. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
We essentially take an amino group from another molecule, namely the glutamate. We place it onto oxyloacetate, and that's how we form the aspartate. So in step four, shown here, the oxyloacetate cannot move across the inner mitochondrial membrane. And so a transamination reaction converts it into aspartate. Now, in step five, once we form the aspartate, the aspartate can now flow out of the inner membrane of the mitochondria via an exchange transport system, an antiported system, in exchange for glutamates. So the aspartate flows out and the glutamate actually flows in. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And so a transamination reaction converts it into aspartate. Now, in step five, once we form the aspartate, the aspartate can now flow out of the inner membrane of the mitochondria via an exchange transport system, an antiported system, in exchange for glutamates. So the aspartate flows out and the glutamate actually flows in. Now, what happens to that glutamate? What is glutamate actually used for? Well, glutamate is actually used in the transamination reaction that we mentioned in step four, that glutamate has an amino group, and that amino group is essentially taken off from that glutamate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
Now, what happens to that glutamate? What is glutamate actually used for? Well, glutamate is actually used in the transamination reaction that we mentioned in step four, that glutamate has an amino group, and that amino group is essentially taken off from that glutamate. It is placed onto axylopetate, and that's how we form the aspartate. And the remaining portion that is left over once we essentially deaminate that glutamate. That is what we call alpha ketoglutrate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
It is placed onto axylopetate, and that's how we form the aspartate. And the remaining portion that is left over once we essentially deaminate that glutamate. That is what we call alpha ketoglutrate. And the alpha ketoglutrate is used to actually help transport the malate in this antiporter extrane transport system. So in step six, shown here, the glutamate transfers an amino group onto axalo acetate, and that forms aspartate. And the remaining portion of that glutamate is known as alpha key to glutarate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And the alpha ketoglutrate is used to actually help transport the malate in this antiporter extrane transport system. So in step six, shown here, the glutamate transfers an amino group onto axalo acetate, and that forms aspartate. And the remaining portion of that glutamate is known as alpha key to glutarate. Now, in the final step, step seven, we have the aspartate that is actually transported back into the cytoplasm of our cell. The aspartate undergoes a reaction to form the oxalo acetate. In this process, we basically take the aspartate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
Now, in the final step, step seven, we have the aspartate that is actually transported back into the cytoplasm of our cell. The aspartate undergoes a reaction to form the oxalo acetate. In this process, we basically take the aspartate. We deaminate that aspartate, we remove the amino group, and that forms the oxyloacetate. And that amino group is actually placed onto the alpha key to glutarate that enter the cytoplasm via this antiportic system, and that transforms the alpha key to glutarate into glutamate. And this essentially completes the cycle, and the cycle can repeat itself. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
We deaminate that aspartate, we remove the amino group, and that forms the oxyloacetate. And that amino group is actually placed onto the alpha key to glutarate that enter the cytoplasm via this antiportic system, and that transforms the alpha key to glutarate into glutamate. And this essentially completes the cycle, and the cycle can repeat itself. So in the final step, step seven, the aspartate in the cytoplasm is deaminated. We remove the amino group, and we place it onto this alpha key to glutarate to form that glutamate. In the process, when we deaminate the aspartate, we form that oxalo acetate. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So in the final step, step seven, the aspartate in the cytoplasm is deaminated. We remove the amino group, and we place it onto this alpha key to glutarate to form that glutamate. In the process, when we deaminate the aspartate, we form that oxalo acetate. And now, since we reform this molecule, the cycle can basically begin all over again. So we see that the net result in the malate aspartate shuttle process is we actually move that NADH molecule into the matrix of the mitochondria. So we take those high energy electrons, we extract them from the NADH that is produced in glycolysis, we place them into a molecule that is then transported into the matrix, and then we use those same high energy electrons to actually form the NADH molecule. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And now, since we reform this molecule, the cycle can basically begin all over again. So we see that the net result in the malate aspartate shuttle process is we actually move that NADH molecule into the matrix of the mitochondria. So we take those high energy electrons, we extract them from the NADH that is produced in glycolysis, we place them into a molecule that is then transported into the matrix, and then we use those same high energy electrons to actually form the NADH molecule. So in this shuttle process, the NADH is regenerated in the matrix of the mitochondria. So we saw that in the previous discussion when we discussed the glycerol three phosphate shuttle, we saw that a net result of 1.5 ATP molecules were produced from a single NADH that was NADH that was generated in the process of glycolysis. Now the question is, what is the net quantity of ATP molecules produced by this NADH molecule that is transported into the matrix of the mitochondria via the malade aspartate shuttle process? | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So in this shuttle process, the NADH is regenerated in the matrix of the mitochondria. So we saw that in the previous discussion when we discussed the glycerol three phosphate shuttle, we saw that a net result of 1.5 ATP molecules were produced from a single NADH that was NADH that was generated in the process of glycolysis. Now the question is, what is the net quantity of ATP molecules produced by this NADH molecule that is transported into the matrix of the mitochondria via the malade aspartate shuttle process? So once the NADH is actually formed within the matrix of the mitochondria, it goes on to complex one of the electron transport chain. And this is in contrast to the previous shuttle system that we discussed, the glycerol phosphate shuttle system, in which the NADH actually ends up the electrons on the NADH end up being transferred onto complex three. So here the NADH is basically we take the NADH that we form in the matrix and we essentially oxidize it into NAD plus. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
So once the NADH is actually formed within the matrix of the mitochondria, it goes on to complex one of the electron transport chain. And this is in contrast to the previous shuttle system that we discussed, the glycerol phosphate shuttle system, in which the NADH actually ends up the electrons on the NADH end up being transferred onto complex three. So here the NADH is basically we take the NADH that we form in the matrix and we essentially oxidize it into NAD plus. In this process, as electrons move along the groups within complex one, a net result of four ATP molecules are actually transported into the matrix into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria. Now, those electrons eventually end up on quinone. The quinone becomes the Ubiquinone, the Ubiquinone becomes the Ubiquinol, and the Ubiquinol travels onto complex three. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
In this process, as electrons move along the groups within complex one, a net result of four ATP molecules are actually transported into the matrix into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria. Now, those electrons eventually end up on quinone. The quinone becomes the Ubiquinone, the Ubiquinone becomes the Ubiquinol, and the Ubiquinol travels onto complex three. And those electrons then move on to the groups found within complex three. And those electrons ultimately end up on cytochrome C. And as these electrons move, we see that a net result of four no two H plus ions actually flow from the matrix into the intermembrane space. And so far, we have four and two, that's six. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And those electrons then move on to the groups found within complex three. And those electrons ultimately end up on cytochrome C. And as these electrons move, we see that a net result of four no two H plus ions actually flow from the matrix into the intermembrane space. And so far, we have four and two, that's six. And as the electrons are transferred from the cytochrome C on to complex four, we see that a net result of four ATP, four H plus ions are transferred into the intermembrane space. And so a total of four two and four. So ten H plus ions actually are transferred into the intermembrane space. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And as the electrons are transferred from the cytochrome C on to complex four, we see that a net result of four ATP, four H plus ions are transferred into the intermembrane space. And so a total of four two and four. So ten H plus ions actually are transferred into the intermembrane space. And so now these ten ions travel through complex five ATP synthase. And because four protons are needed to pass along the ATP synthase to actually generate a single ATP molecule, we see that if we do a little bit of math. So we have ten H plus ions. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And so now these ten ions travel through complex five ATP synthase. And because four protons are needed to pass along the ATP synthase to actually generate a single ATP molecule, we see that if we do a little bit of math. So we have ten H plus ions. We divide that by four H plus ions needed to generate a single ATP molecule. That gives us 2.5 ATP molecules are generated every time this NADH is transported into the matrix via the Malade aspartate shuttle system. So in the Malade aspartate shuttle system the NADH is regenerated in the matrix of the mitochondria, therefore in liver, so this should be therefore. | Malate Aspartate Shuttle .txt |
And what a monohybrid cross involves is it involves the study of a single trait. Now, we're going to discuss something called dihybrid crosses. So what exactly is a dihybrid cross? Well, the diprefix simply means two. And what dihybrid crosses involve is they involve the study, study of two different types of traits. Now, to demonstrate what we mean by dihybrid cross, let's suppose we have the following scenario. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Well, the diprefix simply means two. And what dihybrid crosses involve is they involve the study, study of two different types of traits. Now, to demonstrate what we mean by dihybrid cross, let's suppose we have the following scenario. Let's suppose we have P plans, and our goal is to study two different types of traits within that P plan. So we want to study the height of that pea plan as well as the seed color of that pea plan. So our two traits are height and seed color. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Let's suppose we have P plans, and our goal is to study two different types of traits within that P plan. So we want to study the height of that pea plan as well as the seed color of that pea plan. So our two traits are height and seed color. Now, we have two possibilities for height. We have tall height and we have short height. And likewise, we have two possibilities for the seat color, we have yellow and we have green seat colors. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Now, we have two possibilities for height. We have tall height and we have short height. And likewise, we have two possibilities for the seat color, we have yellow and we have green seat colors. Now, tall is dominant over short, and likewise green is dominant over yellow. So with that in mind, let's suppose we have the following situation. Let's say we have a parent number one. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Now, tall is dominant over short, and likewise green is dominant over yellow. So with that in mind, let's suppose we have the following situation. Let's say we have a parent number one. So plant number one and parrot number two, plant number two. Now, parent number one is said to be homozygous dominant for both the high trait and the color trait. And so what that means is we're dealing with a purely green and a purely tall plant. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So plant number one and parrot number two, plant number two. Now, parent number one is said to be homozygous dominant for both the high trait and the color trait. And so what that means is we're dealing with a purely green and a purely tall plant. And if we examine the chromosomes, remember, in any diploid organism, such as the p plant, every single chromosome has a homologous chromosome that carries a gene that codes for that same trait. And so we have two of these pairs of homologous chromosome, pair number one and pair number two. Now, this pair of homologous chromosomes basically carry the two genes, the two alleles that code for the color. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And if we examine the chromosomes, remember, in any diploid organism, such as the p plant, every single chromosome has a homologous chromosome that carries a gene that codes for that same trait. And so we have two of these pairs of homologous chromosome, pair number one and pair number two. Now, this pair of homologous chromosomes basically carry the two genes, the two alleles that code for the color. And in this particular case, because we're dealing with the dominant color, we have uppercase G, uppercase G that designates the color green. Likewise, if we examine the second pair of homologous chromosomes, we have allele number one and we have allele number two. And each one of these alleles basically is a segment of DNA that codes for protein, that expresses our hydrate. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And in this particular case, because we're dealing with the dominant color, we have uppercase G, uppercase G that designates the color green. Likewise, if we examine the second pair of homologous chromosomes, we have allele number one and we have allele number two. And each one of these alleles basically is a segment of DNA that codes for protein, that expresses our hydrate. And in this particular case, because we're dealing with a homozygous dominant tall plant, we have uppercase T, uppercase T, where T stands for tall and G stands for green. Now, what about parent number two? Let's suppose we have a second P plant, but this p plant is homozygous recessive for both of those traits. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And in this particular case, because we're dealing with a homozygous dominant tall plant, we have uppercase T, uppercase T, where T stands for tall and G stands for green. Now, what about parent number two? Let's suppose we have a second P plant, but this p plant is homozygous recessive for both of those traits. So that means we have a purely yellow and a purely short plant. So if we examine these two homologous chromosome pairs, this one basically carries the allele. So we have allele number one and allele number two. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So that means we have a purely yellow and a purely short plant. So if we examine these two homologous chromosome pairs, this one basically carries the allele. So we have allele number one and allele number two. And both of these genes, both of these alleles basically code for protein that expresses the yellow trait. And so we have lowercase G, lowercase G, where this basically means yellow. Now, what about this one? | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And both of these genes, both of these alleles basically code for protein that expresses the yellow trait. And so we have lowercase G, lowercase G, where this basically means yellow. Now, what about this one? Well, here we have a similar type of gene. But in this particular case, because we have a short plant, that means we have lowercase t, lowercase t. So uppercase t creates tall, lowercase t creates short, uppercase g creates green, lowercase g creates yellow. So the next question is what exactly will happen? | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Well, here we have a similar type of gene. But in this particular case, because we have a short plant, that means we have lowercase t, lowercase t. So uppercase t creates tall, lowercase t creates short, uppercase g creates green, lowercase g creates yellow. So the next question is what exactly will happen? What type of offspring will we produce if we actually cross these two parents? If we cross these two individual p plants, well, before they actually cross, each one of these must produce gametes. So to produce gametes, meiosis actually takes place. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
What type of offspring will we produce if we actually cross these two parents? If we cross these two individual p plants, well, before they actually cross, each one of these must produce gametes. So to produce gametes, meiosis actually takes place. So when meiosis takes place within this plant, we produce the following gametes. So let's suppose this is the gamete of parent number one. Likewise, meiosis takes place here, and we produce the gamete of parent number two. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So when meiosis takes place within this plant, we produce the following gametes. So let's suppose this is the gamete of parent number one. Likewise, meiosis takes place here, and we produce the gamete of parent number two. And to actually produce the zygote and eventually produce the individual, these two must actually combine infuse to form the zygote. And eventually we form that f one generation offspring. Now, in this particular case, the only type of gamete that we can produce is uppercase G and uppercase T. And in this particular case, the only type of gamete we can produce is lowercase G, lowercase T. So this basically is the arrangement of the chromosomes in the first gamete. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And to actually produce the zygote and eventually produce the individual, these two must actually combine infuse to form the zygote. And eventually we form that f one generation offspring. Now, in this particular case, the only type of gamete that we can produce is uppercase G and uppercase T. And in this particular case, the only type of gamete we can produce is lowercase G, lowercase T. So this basically is the arrangement of the chromosomes in the first gamete. And this is the arrangement of chromosomes in the second gamete. And when they combine, they only form one type of individual upper case g, lower case g, uppercase t, lowercase t. And to see how that actually takes place, we can basically use our opponent square. So on the pundit square, these are the two gammy types for parent number one. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And this is the arrangement of chromosomes in the second gamete. And when they combine, they only form one type of individual upper case g, lower case g, uppercase t, lowercase t. And to see how that actually takes place, we can basically use our opponent square. So on the pundit square, these are the two gammy types for parent number one. And notice they're exactly the same. And these are the gammy types for parent number two. Once again, they're exactly the same. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And notice they're exactly the same. And these are the gammy types for parent number two. Once again, they're exactly the same. So meiosis produces these two gammates, and then basically they combine. Now, when we combine these two gametes, the g is paired with the g, and the t is paired with the t. So we produce uppercase g, lower case g, uppercase t, lowercase t, and each one of these cases produces the same exact type of zygote, the same type of offspring. And that's exactly why this will be the f one generation, the genotype of the f one generation. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So meiosis produces these two gammates, and then basically they combine. Now, when we combine these two gametes, the g is paired with the g, and the t is paired with the t. So we produce uppercase g, lower case g, uppercase t, lowercase t, and each one of these cases produces the same exact type of zygote, the same type of offspring. And that's exactly why this will be the f one generation, the genotype of the f one generation. Now, because uppercase g, the green color is dominant over the yellow color, and because the tall, the uppercase t, is dominant over the short lowercase t, that means the f one generation will always be green and tall, but it will be heterozygous for both of those traits. Now, let's suppose we now want to take the f one generation offspring, and we want to cross it with itself. What exactly will be the product? | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Now, because uppercase g, the green color is dominant over the yellow color, and because the tall, the uppercase t, is dominant over the short lowercase t, that means the f one generation will always be green and tall, but it will be heterozygous for both of those traits. Now, let's suppose we now want to take the f one generation offspring, and we want to cross it with itself. What exactly will be the product? What will be the f two generation offspring? So basically, just like meiosis took place here to form the gametes, before we have the process of fertilization take place, we have to form the gametes for the f one generation. Now, the question is, what are the possible potential possibilities for our gametes in this particular case. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
What will be the f two generation offspring? So basically, just like meiosis took place here to form the gametes, before we have the process of fertilization take place, we have to form the gametes for the f one generation. Now, the question is, what are the possible potential possibilities for our gametes in this particular case. So this is basically the cell of the f one generation offspring. So we have these chromosomes. Now this is one homologous pair, this is a second homologous pair. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So this is basically the cell of the f one generation offspring. So we have these chromosomes. Now this is one homologous pair, this is a second homologous pair. Within this homologous pair we have an uppercase g and a lowercase g. Within this homologous pair we have uppercase T and we have a lowercase t. Now when myosis actually takes place and at the end we form different types of gametes, there are only four possibilities for the gametes. What are these possibilities? Well, basically the upper case g can combine with the uppercase T to form gamete number one, or uppercase g can combine with lowercase T to form gamete number two. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Within this homologous pair we have an uppercase g and a lowercase g. Within this homologous pair we have uppercase T and we have a lowercase t. Now when myosis actually takes place and at the end we form different types of gametes, there are only four possibilities for the gametes. What are these possibilities? Well, basically the upper case g can combine with the uppercase T to form gamete number one, or uppercase g can combine with lowercase T to form gamete number two. Or we can have lowercase g combined with uppercase T to form gamete number three. And finally lowercase g combined with lowercase T to form gamete number four. So we see that if we take two of these different f one generation offspring and we cross them together, there are four possibilities for the gametes. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Or we can have lowercase g combined with uppercase T to form gamete number three. And finally lowercase g combined with lowercase T to form gamete number four. So we see that if we take two of these different f one generation offspring and we cross them together, there are four possibilities for the gametes. And so together we'll have 16 possibilities for the offspring. And to see why that is, so let's take a look at the following dihybrid cross, Punnett square so let's begin. Let's suppose that this column represents the column that describes the four possibilities for the gamuts of parent number one. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And so together we'll have 16 possibilities for the offspring. And to see why that is, so let's take a look at the following dihybrid cross, Punnett square so let's begin. Let's suppose that this column represents the column that describes the four possibilities for the gamuts of parent number one. So in this square, what do we place? Well, let's begin with this one right here. So we have a green g and a green t. So we have a green g and we have a blue or uppercase t. So this is gamete number one. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So in this square, what do we place? Well, let's begin with this one right here. So we have a green g and a green t. So we have a green g and we have a blue or uppercase t. So this is gamete number one. Now what about gamete number two? Well, it's this one here. So we have a g, uppercase g and we have a lowercase t. What about gamete number three? | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Now what about gamete number two? Well, it's this one here. So we have a g, uppercase g and we have a lowercase t. What about gamete number three? Well, we have lowercase g, should have an orange. So we have lowercase g and we have a lowercase g here as well. We have uppercase t here and we have a lowercase t here. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Well, we have lowercase g, should have an orange. So we have lowercase g and we have a lowercase g here as well. We have uppercase t here and we have a lowercase t here. So we have our purple t. Now, because we're crossing the same identical types of f one generation offspring, these four gamuts will be exactly the same. So we have a green here, a green here, then we have a blue here and we have a blue here, we have a purple here, a purple here, and we have an orange here and an orange here. So these are the four possibilities for the gametes from parent number two. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have our purple t. Now, because we're crossing the same identical types of f one generation offspring, these four gamuts will be exactly the same. So we have a green here, a green here, then we have a blue here and we have a blue here, we have a purple here, a purple here, and we have an orange here and an orange here. So these are the four possibilities for the gametes from parent number two. And these are the four possibilities for the gametes for parent number one. And so essentially we're going to get 16 different possibilities for the offspring. So let's actually carry out the pond and square crossing. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And these are the four possibilities for the gametes for parent number one. And so essentially we're going to get 16 different possibilities for the offspring. So let's actually carry out the pond and square crossing. So we have, remember, the g's pair together and the t's also pair together. So this multiplied by this gives us uppercase g, uppercase g. So uppercase g, uppercase g and uppercase t, uppercase T. Now what about this one? We get uppercase g, uppercase g, we get uppercase T, lowercase T, because this gammy, when they fuse, gives the lowercase T chromosome. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have, remember, the g's pair together and the t's also pair together. So this multiplied by this gives us uppercase g, uppercase g. So uppercase g, uppercase g and uppercase t, uppercase T. Now what about this one? We get uppercase g, uppercase g, we get uppercase T, lowercase T, because this gammy, when they fuse, gives the lowercase T chromosome. Now in this case, we now have uppercase g, lower case g, we have uppercase T, lowercase T, so we have uppercase T, where actually we have two uppercase T's, okay, and now we have an uppercase g, a lowercase G, and we have an uppercase T, a lowercase T to actually change the orange. We are done with the first row, let's move on to the second row. We have this gamut, can also combine with this gamut. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Now in this case, we now have uppercase g, lower case g, we have uppercase T, lowercase T, so we have uppercase T, where actually we have two uppercase T's, okay, and now we have an uppercase g, a lowercase G, and we have an uppercase T, a lowercase T to actually change the orange. We are done with the first row, let's move on to the second row. We have this gamut, can also combine with this gamut. In that particular case, we form uppercase g, uppercase G, and we form uppercase T, lowercase T, so we have the purple T, this square here, we have this combining with this. So we have uppercase g, uppercase g, lower case T, lowercase T. Now let's move on to the square. We have this gammy can also combine with this gammy. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
In that particular case, we form uppercase g, uppercase G, and we form uppercase T, lowercase T, so we have the purple T, this square here, we have this combining with this. So we have uppercase g, uppercase g, lower case T, lowercase T. Now let's move on to the square. We have this gammy can also combine with this gammy. So we have uppercase g, lower case G, and we can have uppercase T, so uppercase T always comes first and lowercase T comes second. Now in this square we have uppercase g, lower case g, so we have uppercase g, lower case G, and then we have lowercase T, lowercase T, so lowercase T, lowercase T. Now the next possibility is this and this. So uppercase, the letter dominant one always comes first. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have uppercase g, lower case G, and we can have uppercase T, so uppercase T always comes first and lowercase T comes second. Now in this square we have uppercase g, lower case g, so we have uppercase g, lower case G, and then we have lowercase T, lowercase T, so lowercase T, lowercase T. Now the next possibility is this and this. So uppercase, the letter dominant one always comes first. So we have green g and we have an orange g, and then we have two uppercase blue T's. Okay, here we have uppercase g, lower case g, so let's put the lowercase g second, the uppercase g first. Then we have the uppercase T, and then we have the lowercase T, and let's continue onward. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have green g and we have an orange g, and then we have two uppercase blue T's. Okay, here we have uppercase g, lower case g, so let's put the lowercase g second, the uppercase g first. Then we have the uppercase T, and then we have the lowercase T, and let's continue onward. We have lowercase g, lowercase g, we have uppercase T, we have uppercase T here. We have lowercase g, lower case g, so lowercase g, lower case G, uppercase T, upper case T, and we have lowercase T coming from this gamete here. And in the final row, we basically have uppercase g, lowercase g, so many markers. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
We have lowercase g, lowercase g, we have uppercase T, we have uppercase T here. We have lowercase g, lower case g, so lowercase g, lower case G, uppercase T, upper case T, and we have lowercase T coming from this gamete here. And in the final row, we basically have uppercase g, lowercase g, so many markers. And then we have uppercase T, lowercase T, there you go. Now we have uppercase g, lowercase g, so we have uppercase g, lowercase G that comes from this gamete, and we have two lowercase recessive T's for the short trait here. We have lowercase g, lower case g, we have uppercase T and lowercase T, and finally we have the possibility of everything being recessive. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And then we have uppercase T, lowercase T, there you go. Now we have uppercase g, lowercase g, so we have uppercase g, lowercase G that comes from this gamete, and we have two lowercase recessive T's for the short trait here. We have lowercase g, lower case g, we have uppercase T and lowercase T, and finally we have the possibility of everything being recessive. So we have lowercase g, lower case g, and we have lowercase T, lowercase T. So these are the 16 different possibilities of the genotype for the offspring when these two mate with themselves. So we have one of these mates with itself. So each one of these produces four types of gametes. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have lowercase g, lower case g, and we have lowercase T, lowercase T. So these are the 16 different possibilities of the genotype for the offspring when these two mate with themselves. So we have one of these mates with itself. So each one of these produces four types of gametes. And so we have four gametes here, four gametes here from the two different parents, and when they mate, when they fuse to form the Zygote, these are the 16 possibilities for the genotype of our Zygote. Now, the next question is what are the four types of phenotypes of these individuals produced here? So, we can either have green and tall we can either have green and short, we can have yellow and tall, or we can have yellow and short. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
And so we have four gametes here, four gametes here from the two different parents, and when they mate, when they fuse to form the Zygote, these are the 16 possibilities for the genotype of our Zygote. Now, the next question is what are the four types of phenotypes of these individuals produced here? So, we can either have green and tall we can either have green and short, we can have yellow and tall, or we can have yellow and short. So let's actually tally up and determine the probabilities or the distribution probability of the F two offspring. So all these squares describe the offspring, the F two generation offspring. So basically, let's begin with this one. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So let's actually tally up and determine the probabilities or the distribution probability of the F two offspring. So all these squares describe the offspring, the F two generation offspring. So basically, let's begin with this one. So we have uppercase G, uppercase G, uppercase T, uppercase T. And that means this will have a green and a tall offspring. So this will be the phenotype of that. So we put a tally. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
So we have uppercase G, uppercase G, uppercase T, uppercase T. And that means this will have a green and a tall offspring. So this will be the phenotype of that. So we put a tally. Let's mark down one here. We have uppercase G, uppercase G. That means it will be green, uppercase T, lowercase T, death that will be tall because uppercase C is dominant over lowercase T. So another tally for that here. Once again, green and tall. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
Let's mark down one here. We have uppercase G, uppercase G. That means it will be green, uppercase T, lowercase T, death that will be tall because uppercase C is dominant over lowercase T. So another tally for that here. Once again, green and tall. Another one, green and tall. Another one, green and tall. So we have five. | Dihybrid Cross .txt |
In this lecture, we're going to discuss the reaction mechanism of transaldelase. Now, unlike transketilase, which basically catalyzed the movement of a two carbon component to carbon group, we see that transaldelase actually catalyze the transfer of a three carbon molecule known as dihydroxy acetone. And unlike transketulates that uses a Cofactor molecule known as thiamine pyrophosphate, we'll see in this lecture that transaldelase does not actually use that Cofactor thiamine pyrophosphate. Instead, what it does is it forms a shift base between the catalytic lysine residue in the active side of the enzyme and the incoming keto substrate molecule. So to see exactly what we mean, let's actually take a look at the details of the reaction mechanism. So this is the portion of the lysine residue found in the active site of the enzyme, and this is the incoming substrate molecule. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
Instead, what it does is it forms a shift base between the catalytic lysine residue in the active side of the enzyme and the incoming keto substrate molecule. So to see exactly what we mean, let's actually take a look at the details of the reaction mechanism. So this is the portion of the lysine residue found in the active site of the enzyme, and this is the incoming substrate molecule. So remember, we have two substrate molecules. This is one of them in this step, and this is the second one in this step. So we have the keto substrate molecule, and in this particular case, the keto substrate that we're going to look at is the CETO heptulose seven phosphate. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So remember, we have two substrate molecules. This is one of them in this step, and this is the second one in this step. So we have the keto substrate molecule, and in this particular case, the keto substrate that we're going to look at is the CETO heptulose seven phosphate. So in the first step, we basically have the formation of that shift base. And once these two react, we basically form this molecule. In the process, we actually kick off a water molecule. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So in the first step, we basically have the formation of that shift base. And once these two react, we basically form this molecule. In the process, we actually kick off a water molecule. So these two H ions and this oxygen basically combine to form a water molecule, and we form a double bond between this nitrogen and this carbon here. So this is carbon one, carbon two, carbon 3456 and seven. And so we form a bond between the nitrogen and carbon number two on this incoming ketone substrate molecules. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So these two H ions and this oxygen basically combine to form a water molecule, and we form a double bond between this nitrogen and this carbon here. So this is carbon one, carbon two, carbon 3456 and seven. And so we form a bond between the nitrogen and carbon number two on this incoming ketone substrate molecules. So this is what we call a shift base. And a shift base is ultimately a connection between the enzyme molecule and this substrate. So this is an enzyme substrate intermediate molecule. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So this is what we call a shift base. And a shift base is ultimately a connection between the enzyme molecule and this substrate. So this is an enzyme substrate intermediate molecule. Now, in the next step, we basically have a proponation taking place. So this nitrogen, which contains two electrons, basically grabs an H plus ion, and that forms a sigma bond between the nitrogen and the H ion. In the process, we also generate a full positive charge on this nitrogen. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
Now, in the next step, we basically have a proponation taking place. So this nitrogen, which contains two electrons, basically grabs an H plus ion, and that forms a sigma bond between the nitrogen and the H ion. In the process, we also generate a full positive charge on this nitrogen. And so what happens in the next step is to essentially remove that full positive charge from the nitrogen. We have a rearrangement taking place in which this entire component is actually kicked off. So what happens is so if this is carbon 123-4567, we have this sigma bond between the H and the oxygen basically breaks. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And so what happens in the next step is to essentially remove that full positive charge from the nitrogen. We have a rearrangement taking place in which this entire component is actually kicked off. So what happens is so if this is carbon 123-4567, we have this sigma bond between the H and the oxygen basically breaks. That kicks off this H plus ion, and that forms a pi bond between this oxygen and this carbon. In the process, we break the sigma bond between carbon three and carbon four. And that sigma bond is used to form a pi bond between carbon two and carbon three. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
That kicks off this H plus ion, and that forms a pi bond between this oxygen and this carbon. In the process, we break the sigma bond between carbon three and carbon four. And that sigma bond is used to form a pi bond between carbon two and carbon three. And then that actually breaks this pi bond. And those two electrons in the Pi bond end up on this nitrogen, and we form this stable molecule. In the process, we also kick off and we generate the four carbon molecule, the aldos product, in this case, the rethros four phosphate. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And then that actually breaks this pi bond. And those two electrons in the Pi bond end up on this nitrogen, and we form this stable molecule. In the process, we also kick off and we generate the four carbon molecule, the aldos product, in this case, the rethros four phosphate. So we have carbon one, carbon two, carbon three, carbon four that we basically find here. And so the pipeline that is formed between the oxygen here and the carbon here is basically this pipeline here. So this is actually one of the two products that will be formed in this particular transaldolase reaction. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So we have carbon one, carbon two, carbon three, carbon four that we basically find here. And so the pipeline that is formed between the oxygen here and the carbon here is basically this pipeline here. So this is actually one of the two products that will be formed in this particular transaldolase reaction. Now, this molecule is stable, and it's stable until the second substrate molecule actually enters the reaction. And so we have the second substrate molecule and aldosutran, in this case, we're going to use Glycerial, glyceroaldehyde three phosphate, the same molecule that we use when we discussed the non oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway. So what happens is this same H plus ion that was basically kicked off is now used in this particular reaction. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
Now, this molecule is stable, and it's stable until the second substrate molecule actually enters the reaction. And so we have the second substrate molecule and aldosutran, in this case, we're going to use Glycerial, glyceroaldehyde three phosphate, the same molecule that we use when we discussed the non oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway. So what happens is this same H plus ion that was basically kicked off is now used in this particular reaction. And so what we see happen is these two electrons on the nitrogen basically form a pipeline between this nitrogen, this carbon, and that breaks this pipeline here. And that Pi bond acts as a nucleophile. It basically attacks the carbon, forms a sigma bond between this carbon here and this carbon here. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And so what we see happen is these two electrons on the nitrogen basically form a pipeline between this nitrogen, this carbon, and that breaks this pipeline here. And that Pi bond acts as a nucleophile. It basically attacks the carbon, forms a sigma bond between this carbon here and this carbon here. And what that also does is breaks this Pi bond. And the Pi bond is used to pick up this hion. And so once this addition reaction takes place, we form the following intermediate. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And what that also does is breaks this Pi bond. And the Pi bond is used to pick up this hion. And so once this addition reaction takes place, we form the following intermediate. Now, when going from this molecule to this molecule, we had a protonation and now we have a deep protnation. So we essentially kick off the H plus ion, and those two electrons in the sigma bond that is broken end up on this nitrogen. And in the final step, we basically have a hydrolysis reaction take place. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
Now, when going from this molecule to this molecule, we had a protonation and now we have a deep protnation. So we essentially kick off the H plus ion, and those two electrons in the sigma bond that is broken end up on this nitrogen. And in the final step, we basically have a hydrolysis reaction take place. And in the end, we produce the final product, the fructose six phosphate, which is our keto product molecule. So we have product one, the urethrase four phosphate, that's the aldos. And then we have product two, the fructose six phosphate, that's the ketos products. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And in the end, we produce the final product, the fructose six phosphate, which is our keto product molecule. So we have product one, the urethrase four phosphate, that's the aldos. And then we have product two, the fructose six phosphate, that's the ketos products. So these are the two products that are formed. These are the two reactants that are actually used. And notice that unlike the transketulates, the trans aldalase differs in two ways. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
So these are the two products that are formed. These are the two reactants that are actually used. And notice that unlike the transketulates, the trans aldalase differs in two ways. Number one is it transfers a three carbon component, not the two carbon component. So it transfers the dihydroxy acetone. So this structure here has one, two, three carbons and two hydroxyl groups one and two. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
Number one is it transfers a three carbon component, not the two carbon component. So it transfers the dihydroxy acetone. So this structure here has one, two, three carbons and two hydroxyl groups one and two. And so that's why we call this structure a dihydroxy acetone, and it ultimately came from the first product molecule. And this dihydroxy acetone is transferred onto the second product, the second substrate molecule. So this is substrate number one and substrate number two. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
And so that's why we call this structure a dihydroxy acetone, and it ultimately came from the first product molecule. And this dihydroxy acetone is transferred onto the second product, the second substrate molecule. So this is substrate number one and substrate number two. And so we have the transfer of this thy hydroxy acetone from one of the substrates to the other substrate. And so we formed these two product molecules. And unlike in the transketulase case, which used the Thiamine Pyrophosphate Cofactor molecule. | Mechanism of Transaldolase .txt |
We have specialized structures called alveolar sacs. And these alveolar sacs contain many tiny balloonlike structures called alveoli. And within the alveoli is where gas exchange actually takes place. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Now before we actually discuss how the process of gas exchange range takes place within each individual alveoli, let's discuss what the structure of the alveolar sac is and what the individual alveolis actually looks like. Now recalling our discussion on the respiratory system, we said that when we inhale, when we breathe in air, the air enters via the nose, travels through the nasal cavity and then enters our pharynx and then connects with our larynx, the voice box, which then connects with the trachea, our windpipe. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Now before we actually discuss how the process of gas exchange range takes place within each individual alveoli, let's discuss what the structure of the alveolar sac is and what the individual alveolis actually looks like. Now recalling our discussion on the respiratory system, we said that when we inhale, when we breathe in air, the air enters via the nose, travels through the nasal cavity and then enters our pharynx and then connects with our larynx, the voice box, which then connects with the trachea, our windpipe. Now the trachea ultimately bifurcates, it divides into two bronchi. And each one of these bronchies subdivides into very tiny bronchioles that permeate through our lungs. And of each bronchio at the end of this very tiny air passageway are the alveolar sacs. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now the trachea ultimately bifurcates, it divides into two bronchi. And each one of these bronchies subdivides into very tiny bronchioles that permeate through our lungs. And of each bronchio at the end of this very tiny air passageway are the alveolar sacs. And this is shown by this diagram. So structure number two is the bronchio that is shown in brown. It basically extends all the way into this space, number seven. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And this is shown by this diagram. So structure number two is the bronchio that is shown in brown. It basically extends all the way into this space, number seven. And space number seven is the alveolar sac space. And this entire orange section is our alveolar sack. That is described by number six. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And space number seven is the alveolar sac space. And this entire orange section is our alveolar sack. That is described by number six. Now if we notice along our bronchio we also have these regions shown by red. So this portion, this portion, this portion, and that is our smooth muscle that extends around our bronchiol and it is capable of contracting and dilating that bronchiole as needed. Now notice we have many of these individual tiny balloon like structures shown by number one and those are our alveoli. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
Now if we notice along our bronchio we also have these regions shown by red. So this portion, this portion, this portion, and that is our smooth muscle that extends around our bronchiol and it is capable of contracting and dilating that bronchiole as needed. Now notice we have many of these individual tiny balloon like structures shown by number one and those are our alveoli. That is where gas exchange actually takes place. So essentially this space, number seven, the alveolar sax space, connects directly to the space within each one of these alveoli and that is known as the alveolar space. So if we examine each one of these alveoli, we basically get the following diagram. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
That is where gas exchange actually takes place. So essentially this space, number seven, the alveolar sax space, connects directly to the space within each one of these alveoli and that is known as the alveolar space. So if we examine each one of these alveoli, we basically get the following diagram. And the space inside each one of these tiny alveoli looks something like this. That's the alveolar space. It's not the same as the alveolar sack space, but they are connected to one another. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And the space inside each one of these tiny alveoli looks something like this. That's the alveolar space. It's not the same as the alveolar sack space, but they are connected to one another. And so the concentration of gas molecules inside the alveolar sack space number seven and the alveolar space number eight is exactly the same. Now before we actually take a look at the structure of the actual alveolis, let's discuss what this blue section is and what the red section is. So this blue section is our blood vessel, the pulmonary artery, that actually brings deoxygenated blood from the heart to our lungs. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
And so the concentration of gas molecules inside the alveolar sack space number seven and the alveolar space number eight is exactly the same. Now before we actually take a look at the structure of the actual alveolis, let's discuss what this blue section is and what the red section is. So this blue section is our blood vessel, the pulmonary artery, that actually brings deoxygenated blood from the heart to our lungs. While the red blood vessel is our blood vessel called the pulmonary vein. That brings oxygenated blood from each individual alveolis and to the heart of our body, specifically to the left atrium of our body. So remember, the pulmonary artery carries the oxygenated blood away from the heart and to the lungs while the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood away from the lungs and to our heart. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
While the red blood vessel is our blood vessel called the pulmonary vein. That brings oxygenated blood from each individual alveolis and to the heart of our body, specifically to the left atrium of our body. So remember, the pulmonary artery carries the oxygenated blood away from the heart and to the lungs while the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood away from the lungs and to our heart. So we see that this entire section, number six is the alveolar sac that contains many of these specialized balloons shaped structures we call alveoli. And within these alveoli is where gas exchange actually takes place. So we exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide. | Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange .txt |
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