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We have a fluid type, a liquid of a type known as the periomph. And as this air fluid boundary, we have a considerable amount of resistance to the mechanical waves. And to overcome this resistance, we have to amplify our force. And that's exactly we amplify the force at the pina. We then amplify the force at the ear drum, and we amplify the force at our three bones, the malleus, the incas, and the staples. Now, at the pina, we amplified by about times two. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And that's exactly we amplify the force at the pina. We then amplify the force at the ear drum, and we amplify the force at our three bones, the malleus, the incas, and the staples. Now, at the pina, we amplified by about times two. At the eardrum, we amplified by about times 15. And at these three bones, we amplified by about times three. So together we amplified by two times 15, times three. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
At the eardrum, we amplified by about times 15. And at these three bones, we amplified by about times three. So together we amplified by two times 15, times three. So about 90 times as much. And that is equivalent to about 20 decibels. So now let's move on to our inner portion of the ear. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So about 90 times as much. And that is equivalent to about 20 decibels. So now let's move on to our inner portion of the ear. So the staples is connected to another membrane that is part of the inner ear known as our oval window. So this membrane, connected to the staples bone, is known as the oval window. So as the pressure, the pressure wave hits the eardrum, it causes each one of these bones to basically vibrate. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So the staples is connected to another membrane that is part of the inner ear known as our oval window. So this membrane, connected to the staples bone, is known as the oval window. So as the pressure, the pressure wave hits the eardrum, it causes each one of these bones to basically vibrate. And the vibration of the staples applies a force on the oval window and that causes that window, that membrane, to basically vibrate and move back and forth. And as it vibrates, it causes the liquid inside to basically vibrate and forth. It initiates a mechanical wave inside our fluid known as the paralymp, inside this cochlear region. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And the vibration of the staples applies a force on the oval window and that causes that window, that membrane, to basically vibrate and move back and forth. And as it vibrates, it causes the liquid inside to basically vibrate and forth. It initiates a mechanical wave inside our fluid known as the paralymp, inside this cochlear region. So this entire spiral region is known as the cochlea. And as the pressure wave moves into the cochlea, it bounces off and moves back, eventually hitting the round window. The round window is a second membrane inside our cochlea that basically helps the propagation and the creation of that mechanical wave. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So this entire spiral region is known as the cochlea. And as the pressure wave moves into the cochlea, it bounces off and moves back, eventually hitting the round window. The round window is a second membrane inside our cochlea that basically helps the propagation and the creation of that mechanical wave. So recall that one main difference between air and liquid is that liquid is not easily compressed. So inside this cochlear region, if we didn't have these membranes, the pressure wave would not be able to travel because we would not be able to compress that liquid. But because of the vibrating round window, and because of the vibrating oval window, we basically have this propagated mechanical wave inside the cockpit. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So recall that one main difference between air and liquid is that liquid is not easily compressed. So inside this cochlear region, if we didn't have these membranes, the pressure wave would not be able to travel because we would not be able to compress that liquid. But because of the vibrating round window, and because of the vibrating oval window, we basically have this propagated mechanical wave inside the cockpit. So if the round window or if the oval window becomes rigid, meaning it's not going to vibrate as much, that means our wave inside would not be as strong, and that implies we would not be able to hear as well. So the reason we're able to hear well is because these windows, these membranes, are flexible and they're able to oscillate and move back and forth. So as the pressure wave is carried through our cochlea, inside the cochlea, we have a region known as the organ of corte. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
So if the round window or if the oval window becomes rigid, meaning it's not going to vibrate as much, that means our wave inside would not be as strong, and that implies we would not be able to hear as well. So the reason we're able to hear well is because these windows, these membranes, are flexible and they're able to oscillate and move back and forth. So as the pressure wave is carried through our cochlea, inside the cochlea, we have a region known as the organ of corte. And at the organ of corte, we basically have specialized types of sensory cells known as hair cells. And these hair cells contain these extensions known as Microville. And these Microville extensions basically are capable of accepting these pressure waves. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And at the organ of corte, we basically have specialized types of sensory cells known as hair cells. And these hair cells contain these extensions known as Microville. And these Microville extensions basically are capable of accepting these pressure waves. And as a result of the vibration of the Microville, they basically depolarize the membrane of the hair cells. And when the hair cells depolarize, they create an action potential, an electrical signal that basically travels through the car clear nerve and into the brain. So inside the inner ear, the mechanical wave is transmitted into the fluid of the inner ear via the oval window, the membrane that basically is connected to the staples that begins to vibrate. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And as a result of the vibration of the Microville, they basically depolarize the membrane of the hair cells. And when the hair cells depolarize, they create an action potential, an electrical signal that basically travels through the car clear nerve and into the brain. So inside the inner ear, the mechanical wave is transmitted into the fluid of the inner ear via the oval window, the membrane that basically is connected to the staples that begins to vibrate. As it vibrates, it sends out our pressure wave that eventually vibrates our round window, also found in this region right below our oval window. Now, these pressure variations in the fluid cause the hair cells to depolarize, and the action potential travels through the cochlear nerve and up to our brain. So let's suppose these are the hair cells that are found inside the organ of corte found inside the cochlea. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
As it vibrates, it sends out our pressure wave that eventually vibrates our round window, also found in this region right below our oval window. Now, these pressure variations in the fluid cause the hair cells to depolarize, and the action potential travels through the cochlear nerve and up to our brain. So let's suppose these are the hair cells that are found inside the organ of corte found inside the cochlea. And as the pressure waves hit these hair cells, the Microville, these extensions, hair like extensions, basically vibrate and they cause the depolarization of the cell membrane and that initiates an action potential which then travels through these exons, through our cochlear nerve and eventually into the brain. Now, the last thing I want to talk about is something called the semicircular canals. So inside the person, inside each ear, we basically have three semicircular canals. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And as the pressure waves hit these hair cells, the Microville, these extensions, hair like extensions, basically vibrate and they cause the depolarization of the cell membrane and that initiates an action potential which then travels through these exons, through our cochlear nerve and eventually into the brain. Now, the last thing I want to talk about is something called the semicircular canals. So inside the person, inside each ear, we basically have three semicircular canals. And each one of these three semicircular canals basically lie along the three different axes, along the X, y and z axes. So the semicircular canal, just like the cochlea, contains its own fluid. And the fluid in a semicircular canal is known as our endolmp endolymph. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
And each one of these three semicircular canals basically lie along the three different axes, along the X, y and z axes. So the semicircular canal, just like the cochlea, contains its own fluid. And the fluid in a semicircular canal is known as our endolmp endolymph. So as this fluid experiences our variation and pressure the mechanical wave, this causes the specialized hair cells found inside a semicircular canal. So we see that we not only have hair cells inside the cochlea, we also have hair cells inside the semicircular canal, but these hair cells are slightly different. So basically, these hair cells depolarize and they send the action potential, the signal, through its own nerve, known as our vestibular nerve. | Structure of the Human Ear .txt |
Now, the cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that permeate all of the cell and it basically functions to give the cell structure as well as motility. So in a way we can imagine that the cytoskeleton is like the bone structure of our body body. It gives the cell its structure, it gives the cell its shape. It also gives the cell the ability to resist different types of forces and pressures. But the cytoskeleton is more than that. Not only is it a scaffolding system, it's also a highway system. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
It also gives the cell the ability to resist different types of forces and pressures. But the cytoskeleton is more than that. Not only is it a scaffolding system, it's also a highway system. It gives the cell the ability to move things within that cell and it gives the cell the ability to organize the organelles and structures found within that cell. So the cytoskeleton is a very important structure. Now, there are three different types of fibers that are found within the cytoskeleton. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
It gives the cell the ability to move things within that cell and it gives the cell the ability to organize the organelles and structures found within that cell. So the cytoskeleton is a very important structure. Now, there are three different types of fibers that are found within the cytoskeleton. We have microfilaments, we have intermediate filaments and also microtubules. And let's begin by discussing the microfilaments. The microfilaments are the thinnest of the three types of protein fibers and their diameter ranges from six to 7. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
We have microfilaments, we have intermediate filaments and also microtubules. And let's begin by discussing the microfilaments. The microfilaments are the thinnest of the three types of protein fibers and their diameter ranges from six to 7. They are basically composed entirely of one type of linear protein known as actin. And one common example of the use of microfilaments is in the contraction of cells and specifically in the contraction of muscle cells, one type of cell found in our bodies. So basically during muscle contraction what happens is there is an interaction taking place between the actin found in our microfilament as well as a different type of protein known as meiosin. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
They are basically composed entirely of one type of linear protein known as actin. And one common example of the use of microfilaments is in the contraction of cells and specifically in the contraction of muscle cells, one type of cell found in our bodies. So basically during muscle contraction what happens is there is an interaction taking place between the actin found in our microfilament as well as a different type of protein known as meiosin. So myosin basically grabs the act and it pulls on it. So it walks on it and this creates our contraction of the muscle cell. Now, microfilament contain a negative end as well as a positive end. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So myosin basically grabs the act and it pulls on it. So it walks on it and this creates our contraction of the muscle cell. Now, microfilament contain a negative end as well as a positive end. So let's suppose this is the negative end and this is our positive end and the actin essentially grows beginning from our positive end. And the negative end is attached to some type of structure within the cell. Now, as our actin grows from the positive end of our microfilament eventually it pushes against some type of structure within the cell, for example, the cell membrane. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So let's suppose this is the negative end and this is our positive end and the actin essentially grows beginning from our positive end. And the negative end is attached to some type of structure within the cell. Now, as our actin grows from the positive end of our microfilament eventually it pushes against some type of structure within the cell, for example, the cell membrane. And this gives the cell the ability to resist tensile forces. So microfilaments give the cell tensile strength. So we see that not only are they responsible for our contraction of cells such as the muscle cells, they also stabilize the shape and structure of our cell and they give our cell ten style strength. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
And this gives the cell the ability to resist tensile forces. So microfilaments give the cell tensile strength. So we see that not only are they responsible for our contraction of cells such as the muscle cells, they also stabilize the shape and structure of our cell and they give our cell ten style strength. Now, let's move on to the second type of fiber known as the intermediate filament. And these are known as intermediates because they're slightly greater in diameter than the smallest type of microfilin. So our diameter of intermediate filaments is about 10 nm. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Now, let's move on to the second type of fiber known as the intermediate filament. And these are known as intermediates because they're slightly greater in diameter than the smallest type of microfilin. So our diameter of intermediate filaments is about 10 nm. So these fibers are actually composed of several types of different proteins and are slightly thicker than the microfilaments that we discussed in this section here. Now, just like the microfilaments, these intermediate filaments also give the cell tensile strength. They increase the stability of the cell and give the cell its shape as well as its structure. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So these fibers are actually composed of several types of different proteins and are slightly thicker than the microfilaments that we discussed in this section here. Now, just like the microfilaments, these intermediate filaments also give the cell tensile strength. They increase the stability of the cell and give the cell its shape as well as its structure. Now, one important difference between microfilaments and intermediate filaments is intermediate filaments are also found in the nucleus of our cell. So intermediate filaments compose the nuclear lamina which is basically the fiber skeleton system found within our nucleus. So that's one major difference between microfilaments and our intermediate filaments. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Now, one important difference between microfilaments and intermediate filaments is intermediate filaments are also found in the nucleus of our cell. So intermediate filaments compose the nuclear lamina which is basically the fiber skeleton system found within our nucleus. So that's one major difference between microfilaments and our intermediate filaments. But both types of filaments give the cell structure, they give the cell the shape and increase the tensile strength of our cell. So basically, if we try to pull on the cell what keeps the cell from being split are these types of fibers the microfiliminants and our intermediate filaments. Now, let's move on to the thickest type of filament fiber known as the micro tubules. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
But both types of filaments give the cell structure, they give the cell the shape and increase the tensile strength of our cell. So basically, if we try to pull on the cell what keeps the cell from being split are these types of fibers the microfiliminants and our intermediate filaments. Now, let's move on to the thickest type of filament fiber known as the micro tubules. So microtubules are the largest of the three and are rigid hollow tubes made of a protein known as tubulin. And there are two versions of tubulin. We have alpha as well as beta tubulin and together the alpha and the beta tubulin proteins which are globular proteins, they basically create a helical structure, structure that winds as shown. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So microtubules are the largest of the three and are rigid hollow tubes made of a protein known as tubulin. And there are two versions of tubulin. We have alpha as well as beta tubulin and together the alpha and the beta tubulin proteins which are globular proteins, they basically create a helical structure, structure that winds as shown. So we have this winding in a helical like fashion and we create a hollow center. So this structure here is the microtubule. So notice that the actin and the intermediate filament. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So we have this winding in a helical like fashion and we create a hollow center. So this structure here is the microtubule. So notice that the actin and the intermediate filament. So the microfilaments and intermediate filaments do not contain a hollow center but the micro tubules do contain a hollow center and that's exactly why they're called tubules because they create this hollow like tube. Now, just like our microfilaments, our micro tubules which are 23 nm in diameter so notice they are larger than the microfilaments or the intermediate filaments. The microtubules have a positive end as well as the negative end and the positive end is the end from where our microtubule grows. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So the microfilaments and intermediate filaments do not contain a hollow center but the micro tubules do contain a hollow center and that's exactly why they're called tubules because they create this hollow like tube. Now, just like our microfilaments, our micro tubules which are 23 nm in diameter so notice they are larger than the microfilaments or the intermediate filaments. The microtubules have a positive end as well as the negative end and the positive end is the end from where our microtubule grows. The negative end inside an animal cell is usually found within a region given by MTOC where MTOC stands for the microtubule organizing center. And within our eukaryotic animal cells this is known as our centrosome. So it's the centrosome region that contains our centrioles. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
The negative end inside an animal cell is usually found within a region given by MTOC where MTOC stands for the microtubule organizing center. And within our eukaryotic animal cells this is known as our centrosome. So it's the centrosome region that contains our centrioles. So essentially our microtubules are made within our centrosome. Now, if the centrosome is responsible for a cell division that implies that the microtubules are also involved in cell division and that's exactly right. One function of our microtubule is to basically separate our chromosomes during cell division. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So essentially our microtubules are made within our centrosome. Now, if the centrosome is responsible for a cell division that implies that the microtubules are also involved in cell division and that's exactly right. One function of our microtubule is to basically separate our chromosomes during cell division. So the microtubules are responsible for creating the metonic spindle that is formed during cell division. Now, another function of microtubule is to basically transport things within the cell so we can imagine the microtubules to be the highway system within our cell so we can move things from one location to a different location within the cell as a result of these network of highways our microtubules. Now, another important function of microtubules is the formation of specialized structures that help the cell move and these structures include our flagella as well as cilia. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So the microtubules are responsible for creating the metonic spindle that is formed during cell division. Now, another function of microtubule is to basically transport things within the cell so we can imagine the microtubules to be the highway system within our cell so we can move things from one location to a different location within the cell as a result of these network of highways our microtubules. Now, another important function of microtubules is the formation of specialized structures that help the cell move and these structures include our flagella as well as cilia. Now, the flagella inside Eukaryotes is made of this tubulin. But inside Prokaryotes, our flagella is not made from tubulin, so it's not made from microtubules. It's made from a different type of protein known as flagellin. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Now, the flagella inside Eukaryotes is made of this tubulin. But inside Prokaryotes, our flagella is not made from tubulin, so it's not made from microtubules. It's made from a different type of protein known as flagellin. And we're going to discuss the difference between the flagellin, Cypriots and Eukaryotes in a different lecture. So don't worry about that just yet. So now that we discuss the three different types of fibers that are found within the cytoskeleton of the eukaryotic cell, let's basically summarize our findings. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
And we're going to discuss the difference between the flagellin, Cypriots and Eukaryotes in a different lecture. So don't worry about that just yet. So now that we discuss the three different types of fibers that are found within the cytoskeleton of the eukaryotic cell, let's basically summarize our findings. Let's discuss what each type is and what each type does. So let's begin with the microfiling. The microfilamentant is composed of a single protein known as actin. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Let's discuss what each type is and what each type does. So let's begin with the microfiling. The microfilamentant is composed of a single protein known as actin. The protein is linear and so we form this linear type of structure and it's the thinnest type of structure. It's about six to 7 nm in length. Now, the function of our microfiling is in muscle contraction, in phagocytosis, in tensile strength and cytoplasmic streaming. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
The protein is linear and so we form this linear type of structure and it's the thinnest type of structure. It's about six to 7 nm in length. Now, the function of our microfiling is in muscle contraction, in phagocytosis, in tensile strength and cytoplasmic streaming. So cytoplasmic streaming basically refers to the amoeboid like movement of our cell. Phagocytosis refers to our invagination and engulfing of extracellular materials using the cell membrane. And tensile strength basically means our cell is able to resist tensile forces and tensile pressures. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
So cytoplasmic streaming basically refers to the amoeboid like movement of our cell. Phagocytosis refers to our invagination and engulfing of extracellular materials using the cell membrane. And tensile strength basically means our cell is able to resist tensile forces and tensile pressures. Now let's move on to our intermediate filament. The intermediate filament has an intermediate thickness. It's about 10. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Now let's move on to our intermediate filament. The intermediate filament has an intermediate thickness. It's about 10. Several different types of proteins are found within our intermediate filament. Now, the special thing about intermediate filaments is that not only are they found within a cytoplasm they're also found within the nucleoplasm within our nucleus and they're also found outside our cell. So the function of intermediate filaments is to give our cell tensile strength and increase the stability of our cell structure. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
Several different types of proteins are found within our intermediate filament. Now, the special thing about intermediate filaments is that not only are they found within a cytoplasm they're also found within the nucleoplasm within our nucleus and they're also found outside our cell. So the function of intermediate filaments is to give our cell tensile strength and increase the stability of our cell structure. The intermediate filaments, because they're found outside our cell are also involved in creating structures between different cells so binding cells together. And finally, the microtubule, the thickest and the largest and the strongest type of fiber found in our skeleton. It has a thickness of about 23. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
The intermediate filaments, because they're found outside our cell are also involved in creating structures between different cells so binding cells together. And finally, the microtubule, the thickest and the largest and the strongest type of fiber found in our skeleton. It has a thickness of about 23. It's composed of one type of protein tubulent that comes in two forms. We have alpha and beta tubulin. So basically the alpha and beta globular tubulent proteins create a helical structure that is hollow at the center and that's why we call it a tubule. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
It's composed of one type of protein tubulent that comes in two forms. We have alpha and beta tubulin. So basically the alpha and beta globular tubulent proteins create a helical structure that is hollow at the center and that's why we call it a tubule. Now, the function of microtubules is to increase the compressive strength so we see that microfilaments and intermediate filaments give our cell the ability to resist pulling. But our micro tubules give the cells the ability to resist compression so it gives increases the cells compression rest of strength. It also is involved in forming the mitotic spindle and it's involved in forming cilia fluagella as well as involved in intracellular movements, basically moving things within our cell. | Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules .txt |
And we're going to summarize what these factors are. So we're going to examine PH, temperature, carbon dioxide, two, three by phosphoglycerate, as well as carbon monoxide. We're also going to discuss how these different factors affect the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve. So let's begin with factor number one, the PH of our blood plasma. So let's take a look at the following diagram. So this is the cell found inside our tissue. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So let's begin with factor number one, the PH of our blood plasma. So let's take a look at the following diagram. So this is the cell found inside our tissue. And let's suppose the tissue is exercising. So it has a high rate of metabolism. And what that means is it produces a high concentration of carbon dioxide molecules as a wasteful. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And let's suppose the tissue is exercising. So it has a high rate of metabolism. And what that means is it produces a high concentration of carbon dioxide molecules as a wasteful. Byproduct now, these carbon dioxide molecules diffuse across the cell membrane into the extracellular matrix, and they travel into the blood plasma of the nearby capillary. So this is the wall of our capillary. Now, when the CO2 molecules enter the blood plasma then travel into the red blood cell. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
Byproduct now, these carbon dioxide molecules diffuse across the cell membrane into the extracellular matrix, and they travel into the blood plasma of the nearby capillary. So this is the wall of our capillary. Now, when the CO2 molecules enter the blood plasma then travel into the red blood cell. Now, the majority of the carbon dioxide in the red blood cells is transformed into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. So by increasing the amount of CO2 inside the red blood cell, we also in turn increase the amount of hydrogen ions inside our red blood cells. And because hydrogen ions, the concentration of hydrogen ions, determines the PH of our blood plasma, and what that means is a higher concentration of hydrogen ions means a more acidic environment and so a lower PH. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
Now, the majority of the carbon dioxide in the red blood cells is transformed into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. So by increasing the amount of CO2 inside the red blood cell, we also in turn increase the amount of hydrogen ions inside our red blood cells. And because hydrogen ions, the concentration of hydrogen ions, determines the PH of our blood plasma, and what that means is a higher concentration of hydrogen ions means a more acidic environment and so a lower PH. Now, what exactly is the effect that hydrogen has on hemoglobin? Well, it turns out that hydrogen ions can actually bind onto special allosteric sites found on our hemoglobin. And by binding to hemoglobin, the hydrogen ions effectively decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
Now, what exactly is the effect that hydrogen has on hemoglobin? Well, it turns out that hydrogen ions can actually bind onto special allosteric sites found on our hemoglobin. And by binding to hemoglobin, the hydrogen ions effectively decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. That means the hydrogen ions make it much more likely that the hemoglobin will release that oxygen. So what that means is, because our affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen actually decreases, more of that oxygen is released into the cells of our tissues. So this effect, this phenomenon is known as the Bore effect. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
That means the hydrogen ions make it much more likely that the hemoglobin will release that oxygen. So what that means is, because our affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen actually decreases, more of that oxygen is released into the cells of our tissues. So this effect, this phenomenon is known as the Bore effect. And what the Bore effect does is it ultimately shifts the entire curve to the right side. So a decrease in our PH is the same thing as an increase in the hydrogen ion concentration. And what this does is it shifts the oxygen hemoglobin curve to the right side. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And what the Bore effect does is it ultimately shifts the entire curve to the right side. So a decrease in our PH is the same thing as an increase in the hydrogen ion concentration. And what this does is it shifts the oxygen hemoglobin curve to the right side. And to see what we mean, let's take a look at the following diagram. The following graph. So, the y axis is the present saturation of hemoglobin. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And to see what we mean, let's take a look at the following diagram. The following graph. So, the y axis is the present saturation of hemoglobin. And the x axis is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues given in millimeters of Mercury. Now, the blue curve describes the dissociation curve for when we don't have any of these factors in place. So this is the normal dissociation curve. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And the x axis is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues given in millimeters of Mercury. Now, the blue curve describes the dissociation curve for when we don't have any of these factors in place. So this is the normal dissociation curve. But if we increase our hydrogen ion concentration, thereby decreasing our PH, what that does is it shifts the entire curve to the right side and we get the following dashed curve. And what that means is, at the same exact partial pressure of oxygen, we're going to have a smaller concentration percent saturation of hemoglobin. And so more of that oxygen will be released to the cells of our tissue. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
But if we increase our hydrogen ion concentration, thereby decreasing our PH, what that does is it shifts the entire curve to the right side and we get the following dashed curve. And what that means is, at the same exact partial pressure of oxygen, we're going to have a smaller concentration percent saturation of hemoglobin. And so more of that oxygen will be released to the cells of our tissue. Now, what about the temperature? So when our cells are carrying out many metabolic processes, they don't only produce carbon dioxide as a byproduct, they also produce thermal energy. And this thermal energy is transferred into the blood plasma of our capillaries. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
Now, what about the temperature? So when our cells are carrying out many metabolic processes, they don't only produce carbon dioxide as a byproduct, they also produce thermal energy. And this thermal energy is transferred into the blood plasma of our capillaries. And what it does is it increases the temperature of the environment within our capillaries. Now, by increasing the temperature of our solution, we ultimately affect the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. Because the hemoglobin is now at a higher temperature, it's moving at a higher kinetic energy. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And what it does is it increases the temperature of the environment within our capillaries. Now, by increasing the temperature of our solution, we ultimately affect the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. Because the hemoglobin is now at a higher temperature, it's moving at a higher kinetic energy. So that means it's not able to hold the oxygen as well as before. And what that means is more of that oxygen will be released by the hemoglobin into the blood, and more of that oxygen will end up in the cells of our tissue. So just like decreasing the PH, increasing the temperature will also shift the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right side, as seen in the following diagram. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So that means it's not able to hold the oxygen as well as before. And what that means is more of that oxygen will be released by the hemoglobin into the blood, and more of that oxygen will end up in the cells of our tissue. So just like decreasing the PH, increasing the temperature will also shift the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right side, as seen in the following diagram. So decreasing the PH, which is the same thing as increasing the H plus ion, has the same effect as increasing the temperature of our solution inside our capillaries. Now, what about carbon dioxide itself? So we already discussed the Bore effect, and we said that the majority of the carbon dioxide produced by the cells is absorbed by the red blood cells. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So decreasing the PH, which is the same thing as increasing the H plus ion, has the same effect as increasing the temperature of our solution inside our capillaries. Now, what about carbon dioxide itself? So we already discussed the Bore effect, and we said that the majority of the carbon dioxide produced by the cells is absorbed by the red blood cells. And then those red blood cells convert the majority of that CO2 into H plus ions and bicarbonate ions. But actually, a small percentage of that carbon dioxide, when it actually enters the red blood cells, goes on directly to the hemoglobin and binds directly to the hemoglobin at specific regions. And once CO2 binds onto the hemoglobin, what it does is it decreases hemoglobin's ability to bind to oxygen. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And then those red blood cells convert the majority of that CO2 into H plus ions and bicarbonate ions. But actually, a small percentage of that carbon dioxide, when it actually enters the red blood cells, goes on directly to the hemoglobin and binds directly to the hemoglobin at specific regions. And once CO2 binds onto the hemoglobin, what it does is it decreases hemoglobin's ability to bind to oxygen. And once again, less oxygen will be bound to our hemoglobin. And more oxygen will be ultimately released to the red blood cells, to the tissues, to the cells inside our exercising tissues. And this effect is known as the whole Dane effect. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And once again, less oxygen will be bound to our hemoglobin. And more oxygen will be ultimately released to the red blood cells, to the tissues, to the cells inside our exercising tissues. And this effect is known as the whole Dane effect. So an increase in the CO2 concentration, in the partial pressure concentration of CO2 inside this area, the red blood cells basically shifts the curve once again to the right side. So we see that increasing the hydrogen ion concentration, increasing the temperature, and increasing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. The concentration of carbon dioxide will shift the entire curve to the right side. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So an increase in the CO2 concentration, in the partial pressure concentration of CO2 inside this area, the red blood cells basically shifts the curve once again to the right side. So we see that increasing the hydrogen ion concentration, increasing the temperature, and increasing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. The concentration of carbon dioxide will shift the entire curve to the right side. And what that means is more of that oxygen will be delivered to the tissues of our body. Now, what about something called two three BPG? So two, three BPG is two three biphosphoglycerate. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And what that means is more of that oxygen will be delivered to the tissues of our body. Now, what about something called two three BPG? So two, three BPG is two three biphosphoglycerate. And two three biphosphoglycerate is a naturally occurring intermediate in the process of glycolysis. So we produce two, three BPG when our cells use glucose and break down glucose for ATP. So within our cells that are exercising, they have a high rate of metabolism. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And two three biphosphoglycerate is a naturally occurring intermediate in the process of glycolysis. So we produce two, three BPG when our cells use glucose and break down glucose for ATP. So within our cells that are exercising, they have a high rate of metabolism. They produce an excess of two, three BPG molecules. These molecules can pass along the membrane into the matrix, and then eventually, they end up within the blood plasma and move into the red blood cells. Now, once the two, three BPG are inside the red blood cells, they go on to directly interact with hemoglobin. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
They produce an excess of two, three BPG molecules. These molecules can pass along the membrane into the matrix, and then eventually, they end up within the blood plasma and move into the red blood cells. Now, once the two, three BPG are inside the red blood cells, they go on to directly interact with hemoglobin. They bind to a special side between the two beta subunes of hemoglobin, and they create a conformational change. And by binding to hemoglobin and creating that conformational change, they decreased a lower vicinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. And once again, this allows for more oxygen to actually be unloaded, and more oxygen ends up in the cells of our tissue. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
They bind to a special side between the two beta subunes of hemoglobin, and they create a conformational change. And by binding to hemoglobin and creating that conformational change, they decreased a lower vicinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. And once again, this allows for more oxygen to actually be unloaded, and more oxygen ends up in the cells of our tissue. And once again, increasing the concentration of two, three BPG will cause a rise work shift on our oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve. So we see that increasing four of these different things will shift the curve to the right, and that will make it more likely for a hemoglobin to unload that oxygen and deliver more oxygen to the cells of our tissues. So we have increase in H plus ion concentration, increase in temperature, increase in the concentration of CO2, and increase in two, three BPG. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
And once again, increasing the concentration of two, three BPG will cause a rise work shift on our oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve. So we see that increasing four of these different things will shift the curve to the right, and that will make it more likely for a hemoglobin to unload that oxygen and deliver more oxygen to the cells of our tissues. So we have increase in H plus ion concentration, increase in temperature, increase in the concentration of CO2, and increase in two, three BPG. That all creates a ripe work shift in the hemoglobin dissociation curve. Now, the final factor I'd like to discuss is carbon monoxide. Now, carbon monoxide is actually produced naturally inside our body, but it is produced in very, very small amounts. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
That all creates a ripe work shift in the hemoglobin dissociation curve. Now, the final factor I'd like to discuss is carbon monoxide. Now, carbon monoxide is actually produced naturally inside our body, but it is produced in very, very small amounts. So the CO2, because it's produced in very small amounts in our body, does not actually affect the hemoglobin in any adverse way. But we produce carbon monoxide in much greater concentrations via different types of processes that take place outside our body. For example, cars produce CO2, and smoking also produces CO2. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So the CO2, because it's produced in very small amounts in our body, does not actually affect the hemoglobin in any adverse way. But we produce carbon monoxide in much greater concentrations via different types of processes that take place outside our body. For example, cars produce CO2, and smoking also produces CO2. So carbon monoxide, as it turns out, is actually a competitive inhibitor of hemoglobin, and it competes with oxygen. And in fact, it is 250 times more likely to actually bind to the heme group of hemoglobin than oxygen. Now, by binding to hemoglobin, the carbon monoxide creates a conformational change that ultimately increases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
So carbon monoxide, as it turns out, is actually a competitive inhibitor of hemoglobin, and it competes with oxygen. And in fact, it is 250 times more likely to actually bind to the heme group of hemoglobin than oxygen. Now, by binding to hemoglobin, the carbon monoxide creates a conformational change that ultimately increases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. It makes hemoglobin much more likely to bind oxygen. And what that means is, by binding to our hemoglobin Co, carbon monoxide ultimately causes the hemoglobin to not be that likely to release oxygen to the tissues. And so, as a result, the tissues will receive less oxygen. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
It makes hemoglobin much more likely to bind oxygen. And what that means is, by binding to our hemoglobin Co, carbon monoxide ultimately causes the hemoglobin to not be that likely to release oxygen to the tissues. And so, as a result, the tissues will receive less oxygen. Less oxygen will be delivered to the cells of our tissue. And what this means is when carbon monoxide binds to our hemoglobin, it causes a leftward shift in our hemoglobin curve. And not only that, it also lowers the actual curve. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
Less oxygen will be delivered to the cells of our tissue. And what this means is when carbon monoxide binds to our hemoglobin, it causes a leftward shift in our hemoglobin curve. And not only that, it also lowers the actual curve. And that's because carbon monoxide binds to the heme groups, and that means it actually lowers the oxygen carrying capacity of our hemoglobin. And that's why we get the following curve. For when we have a high concentration of carbon monoxide inside our body. | Factors that Affect Hemoglobin Dissociation curve.txt |
The process by which the cells of our body replicate DNA molecules is very complicated. In fact, it involves over 20 different types of proteins and enzymes that work together and coordinate the synthesis of that replicated DNA molecule. Now, in 158, an individual by the name of Arthur Kornberg and his team essentially isolated and studied especially specific type of protein involved in the replication process of E. Coli cells. And this protein became known as DNA polymerase. In fact, inside our body, we also use DNA polymerase to synthesize replicated DNA molecules. So in this lecture, what we're going to discuss is how the DNA polymerase actually works. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And this protein became known as DNA polymerase. In fact, inside our body, we also use DNA polymerase to synthesize replicated DNA molecules. So in this lecture, what we're going to discuss is how the DNA polymerase actually works. And we're going to discuss what the DNA polymerase needs to actually synthesize that DNA molecule during the replication process. So let's begin by looking at the general equation that describes how DNA polymerase actually works. So let's suppose inside our cell, we are replicating the DNA molecule and so far we have N number of nucleotides in our DNA polynucleotide chain. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And we're going to discuss what the DNA polymerase needs to actually synthesize that DNA molecule during the replication process. So let's begin by looking at the general equation that describes how DNA polymerase actually works. So let's suppose inside our cell, we are replicating the DNA molecule and so far we have N number of nucleotides in our DNA polynucleotide chain. So we have N number of nucleotides in the DNA molecule. Now, if we want to add one more nucleotide, we actually have to take the dNTP, the deoxy nucleotide triphosphate, and add it onto the DNA molecule in the process. What we do is we form a phosphodiather bond between this molecule and this molecule. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So we have N number of nucleotides in the DNA molecule. Now, if we want to add one more nucleotide, we actually have to take the dNTP, the deoxy nucleotide triphosphate, and add it onto the DNA molecule in the process. What we do is we form a phosphodiather bond between this molecule and this molecule. And so what we do is we extend the DNA chain by one. And so now we have N plus one number of nucleotides. And in the process, every time we form the phosphor diastabond, we release a PP molecule where PP stands for Pyrophosphate. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And so what we do is we extend the DNA chain by one. And so now we have N plus one number of nucleotides. And in the process, every time we form the phosphor diastabond, we release a PP molecule where PP stands for Pyrophosphate. So what the DNA polymerase molecule does is it catalyzes the formation of a phosphor diester bond by adding a deoxy nucleotide triphosphate, the dNTP, onto that growing polypeptide chain. And in the process, every time we add the deoxyribonucleotide onto that growing chain in a stepwise fashion, we release the Pyrophosphate molecule and we'll discuss what the Pyrophosphate molecule is in much more detail when we discuss the replication process. So in this lecture, our goal is simply to discuss what the general function of DNA polymerase is. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So what the DNA polymerase molecule does is it catalyzes the formation of a phosphor diester bond by adding a deoxy nucleotide triphosphate, the dNTP, onto that growing polypeptide chain. And in the process, every time we add the deoxyribonucleotide onto that growing chain in a stepwise fashion, we release the Pyrophosphate molecule and we'll discuss what the Pyrophosphate molecule is in much more detail when we discuss the replication process. So in this lecture, our goal is simply to discuss what the general function of DNA polymerase is. Now, for DNA polymerase to actually function effectively, it has to have three different things. So A, B and C and D. We simply discuss one important fact about the DNA polymerase molecule. So let's begin with A. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Now, for DNA polymerase to actually function effectively, it has to have three different things. So A, B and C and D. We simply discuss one important fact about the DNA polymerase molecule. So let's begin with A. So, in the same way that if we want to build a building, we have to have the bricks, the building blocks to build that building, to build a polynucleotide chain, we have to have the dNTP molecules, the deoxy nucleotide triphosphates. And there are four different types of dNTP molecules. We have deoxy adenosine, five prime triphosphate. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So, in the same way that if we want to build a building, we have to have the bricks, the building blocks to build that building, to build a polynucleotide chain, we have to have the dNTP molecules, the deoxy nucleotide triphosphates. And there are four different types of dNTP molecules. We have deoxy adenosine, five prime triphosphate. We have deoxy guanosine, five prime triphosphate. We have deoxy pyridine, five prime triphosphate, and we have the thymidine, five prime triphosphate. So for the DNA polymerase to actually build and extend the DNA polynucleotide chain, it has to have those four nucleotides swimming around in that solution. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
We have deoxy guanosine, five prime triphosphate. We have deoxy pyridine, five prime triphosphate, and we have the thymidine, five prime triphosphate. So for the DNA polymerase to actually build and extend the DNA polynucleotide chain, it has to have those four nucleotides swimming around in that solution. Without those nucleotides, it will not be able to build our structure in the same way that we cannot build a building without the bricks, the building blocks. Let's move on to B. So, DNA polymerase requires a template DNA strand and that's because it's the template DNA strand that essentially provides the blueprint, the instructions to build that replicated strand of DNA. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Without those nucleotides, it will not be able to build our structure in the same way that we cannot build a building without the bricks, the building blocks. Let's move on to B. So, DNA polymerase requires a template DNA strand and that's because it's the template DNA strand that essentially provides the blueprint, the instructions to build that replicated strand of DNA. And this is analogous to the following scenario. So let's suppose we have a construction worker and the construction worker has to build a building. Now the construction worker cannot build that building without having the blueprint that was created by the architect. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And this is analogous to the following scenario. So let's suppose we have a construction worker and the construction worker has to build a building. Now the construction worker cannot build that building without having the blueprint that was created by the architect. And in the same exact analogous way, the template DNA strand is that architect that provides the blueprint, the instructions to actually build the structure that polynucleotide chain. So DNA polymerase obtains its instructions from the preexisting DNA template that is found in that double helical structure. So remember, in that double helix we have two of these template strands that basically run in an anti parallel direction. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And in the same exact analogous way, the template DNA strand is that architect that provides the blueprint, the instructions to actually build the structure that polynucleotide chain. So DNA polymerase obtains its instructions from the preexisting DNA template that is found in that double helical structure. So remember, in that double helix we have two of these template strands that basically run in an anti parallel direction. And when we replicate DNA molecules, those two strands essentially separate. And when they separate, we can use DNA polymerase can use those templates to synthesize those new replicated polynucleotide chains. So the DNA polymerase can only add new nucleotides onto that growing polypeptide chain as long as the new nucleotides are complementary to the basis down on that template DNA molecule. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And when we replicate DNA molecules, those two strands essentially separate. And when they separate, we can use DNA polymerase can use those templates to synthesize those new replicated polynucleotide chains. So the DNA polymerase can only add new nucleotides onto that growing polypeptide chain as long as the new nucleotides are complementary to the basis down on that template DNA molecule. Now let's move on to C. Another thing that DNA polymerase actually needs is a primer. So with the primer, we can initiate that DNA replication process. Now, what exactly is a primer? | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Now let's move on to C. Another thing that DNA polymerase actually needs is a primer. So with the primer, we can initiate that DNA replication process. Now, what exactly is a primer? Well, a primer is simply a sequence of nucleotides that are already attached onto that DNA template. And what that primer has is a free three prime hydroxyl group that can basically create that first phosphodia ester bond. And we'll see exactly how that looks like in just a moment. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Well, a primer is simply a sequence of nucleotides that are already attached onto that DNA template. And what that primer has is a free three prime hydroxyl group that can basically create that first phosphodia ester bond. And we'll see exactly how that looks like in just a moment. So there are three things that DNA polymerase needs. It needs the building blocks, the deoxy nucleuside, triphosphate molecules, and we have four different types. It actually needs that blueprint and that's the template DNA strand that exists in that double helical structure of DNA found inside our nuclei, C. It also needs a primer because the primer must exist for us to extend and build that phosphodiaester bond as we'll see in just a moment. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So there are three things that DNA polymerase needs. It needs the building blocks, the deoxy nucleuside, triphosphate molecules, and we have four different types. It actually needs that blueprint and that's the template DNA strand that exists in that double helical structure of DNA found inside our nuclei, C. It also needs a primer because the primer must exist for us to extend and build that phosphodiaester bond as we'll see in just a moment. It also actually needs magnesium ions because these magnesium ions essentially increase the efficiency of these DNA polymerase molecules. And we'll discuss that in much more detail when we'll discuss the DNA replication process. Now D, so D is more of a fact about DNA polymerase molecules. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
It also actually needs magnesium ions because these magnesium ions essentially increase the efficiency of these DNA polymerase molecules. And we'll discuss that in much more detail when we'll discuss the DNA replication process. Now D, so D is more of a fact about DNA polymerase molecules. And what D tells us is DNA polymerase can actually correct its own mistakes. So if the DNA polymerase accidentally mismatches a base, it can actually go back, remove that base and put in the correct base that it basically mismatched. And what that means is the DNA polymerase rarely makes mistakes. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And what D tells us is DNA polymerase can actually correct its own mistakes. So if the DNA polymerase accidentally mismatches a base, it can actually go back, remove that base and put in the correct base that it basically mismatched. And what that means is the DNA polymerase rarely makes mistakes. And when it does make a mistake, it can basically fix that mistake on its own accord. In fact, for every 100 million nucleotides that the DNA polymerase lays down correctly, it only makes one mistake and that's a very, very high accuracy. So DNA polymerase has the ability to remove and replace nucleotides that have been incorrectly placed. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And when it does make a mistake, it can basically fix that mistake on its own accord. In fact, for every 100 million nucleotides that the DNA polymerase lays down correctly, it only makes one mistake and that's a very, very high accuracy. So DNA polymerase has the ability to remove and replace nucleotides that have been incorrectly placed. This means that DNA polymerases rarely make mistakes and when they do, they can fix the mistakes on their own. So let's take a look at the following diagram which basically describes how we form the phosphor diaster body. And as we discuss this, we can imagine that the DNA polymerase molecule hovers about this position and catalyzes the formation of this phosphodiastor bond. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
This means that DNA polymerases rarely make mistakes and when they do, they can fix the mistakes on their own. So let's take a look at the following diagram which basically describes how we form the phosphor diaster body. And as we discuss this, we can imagine that the DNA polymerase molecule hovers about this position and catalyzes the formation of this phosphodiastor bond. So here we have the DNA template that we're going to use to basically pair up the correct complementary basis. And this template is needed to actually form that polynucleotide chain correctly. So this is the DNA template, this is the three end and this is the five end. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So here we have the DNA template that we're going to use to basically pair up the correct complementary basis. And this template is needed to actually form that polynucleotide chain correctly. So this is the DNA template, this is the three end and this is the five end. Now this is the primer. And the primer basically contains the sequence of nucleotides. And on the final nucleotide, we have the sugar with a base that contains this free three prime hydroxyl group. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Now this is the primer. And the primer basically contains the sequence of nucleotides. And on the final nucleotide, we have the sugar with a base that contains this free three prime hydroxyl group. So if we are to label these carbons here, this is carbon number one, carbon number two, carbon number three, four and five. And so this three position carbon contains a free hydroxyl group that can nucleophilically attack this phosphorus atom of this triphosphate group. And this is the phosphodiastic bond that is formed that we spoke about earlier. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So if we are to label these carbons here, this is carbon number one, carbon number two, carbon number three, four and five. And so this three position carbon contains a free hydroxyl group that can nucleophilically attack this phosphorus atom of this triphosphate group. And this is the phosphodiastic bond that is formed that we spoke about earlier. So essentially, we have the DNA polymerase essentially hoving over this molecule. And when this nucleotide so this is one of the dNTP nucleotides that we spoke about earlier. The dNTP molecule comes in close proximity as long as this base is complementary to this base. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So essentially, we have the DNA polymerase essentially hoving over this molecule. And when this nucleotide so this is one of the dNTP nucleotides that we spoke about earlier. The dNTP molecule comes in close proximity as long as this base is complementary to this base. So we have to use the DNA template molecule to basically figure out which base is complementary to this base. And only then will this form a strong enough interaction for this to actually remain in place. And when that takes place, the RNA polymerase molecules, as well as other proteins involved and other enzymes involved, essentially catalyze the nucleophilic addition of this phosphodia bond. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So we have to use the DNA template molecule to basically figure out which base is complementary to this base. And only then will this form a strong enough interaction for this to actually remain in place. And when that takes place, the RNA polymerase molecules, as well as other proteins involved and other enzymes involved, essentially catalyze the nucleophilic addition of this phosphodia bond. So we have these electrons attacking this phosphate and that kicks off this bond. And so this is this molecule that is formed here, the Pyrophosphate. It is broken. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
So we have these electrons attacking this phosphate and that kicks off this bond. And so this is this molecule that is formed here, the Pyrophosphate. It is broken. And then we form that bond between this molecule and between this oxygen and this P atom. And so we form that phosphodia Esther bond. Now notice as we form the polynucleotide chain, we form that chain from the five N to the three N. And in fact, the DNA molecule, the DNA polymerase always forms that polynucleotide chain in this direction, beginning at the three end and traveling towards that or beginning the five end and traveling towards the three end. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
And then we form that bond between this molecule and between this oxygen and this P atom. And so we form that phosphodia Esther bond. Now notice as we form the polynucleotide chain, we form that chain from the five N to the three N. And in fact, the DNA molecule, the DNA polymerase always forms that polynucleotide chain in this direction, beginning at the three end and traveling towards that or beginning the five end and traveling towards the three end. So once again, DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of the phosphor diester bond. And the three prime, a hydroxyl group of the sugar on the primer nucleophilicly attacks the innermost phosphorus atom of this triphosphate group of the dNTP molecule that we are base pairing with this base found on the DNA template. And so this forms our phosphodiator bond. | DNA Polymerase and Catalysis of Phosphodiester Bond.txt |
Gene mapping is the process that involves finding the positions of genes on chromosomes and also determining what the distance is between the genes on a given chromosome. Now, typically in genetics and biology we express the distance between any two genes on a given chromosome by using special units known as Map units or recombination units. So these two terms are basically used interchangeably. They mean the same exact thing. Now, as we'll see in just a moment, to actually calculate the Map units the distance between our two genes and Map units we have to calculate the percent recombination between those two genes. So to see exactly what we mean by that, let's take a look at the following example. | Gene Mapping, Percent Recombination and Map Units .txt |
They mean the same exact thing. Now, as we'll see in just a moment, to actually calculate the Map units the distance between our two genes and Map units we have to calculate the percent recombination between those two genes. So to see exactly what we mean by that, let's take a look at the following example. In this example, we're going to discuss how to calculate the percent recombination between two genes and how to use the percent recombination to find what the Map units are, what the distance is in Map units between those two genes. So let's begin by taking a look at the following diagram. So in this diagram, what we're basically doing is we're taking two types of fruits lies. | Gene Mapping, Percent Recombination and Map Units .txt |
In this example, we're going to discuss how to calculate the percent recombination between two genes and how to use the percent recombination to find what the Map units are, what the distance is in Map units between those two genes. So let's begin by taking a look at the following diagram. So in this diagram, what we're basically doing is we're taking two types of fruits lies. So in this example, we're going to study fruit flies. Now, we're going to study two types of traits and we're going to assume that the traits are in fact linked. So we're going to study the color trait which is linked to our wing type trait. | Gene Mapping, Percent Recombination and Map Units .txt |
So in this example, we're going to study fruit flies. Now, we're going to study two types of traits and we're going to assume that the traits are in fact linked. So we're going to study the color trait which is linked to our wing type trait. So we have two types of colors and two types of wings. We have the color gray, which is dominant over the color black and the color gray is given by uppercase uppercase g. The color black is given by lowercase g. By the same exact token, we have two types of wing types. We have normal wings and we have vestigial wings. | Gene Mapping, Percent Recombination and Map Units .txt |
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