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American politician (born 1955) Van T. Mitchell (born November 28, 1955) is an American politician who served as the Secretary of the Maryland Department of Health from 2015 to 2016. A member of the Democratic Party, Mitchell previously served as the principal deputy secretary of the Maryland Department of Health from 2004 to 2007 and as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1995 to 2004. Early life and education. Mitchell was born in La Plata, Maryland, on November 28, 1955. He graduated from La Plata High School before attending Campbell University. Career. Mitchell was the chief executive officer of MSI Inc., a construction supply business, from 1985 to 2006. His company's warehouse and lumber yard were destroyed during the 2002 La Plata tornado. After Governor Bob Ehrlich left office in 2007, Mitchell worked as an associate for Manis, Canning and Associates from 2008 to 2015, and as a lobbyist for Cornerstone Government Affairs since 2017. Mitchell first became involved in politics in 1982, when he became a member of the Charles County Democratic Central Committee. He served on the Town of La Plata's Business District Commission and the Charles County Community College Board of Trustees from 1993 to 1995. Maryland House of Delegates. Mitchell was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1994 and sworn in on January 11, 1995. He was a member of the Economic Matters Committee from 1995 to 2003, including as the chair of its workers compensation subcommittee from 1999 to 2003, the Appropriations Committee in 2003, and the Environmental Matters Committee in 2004. He was also the chair of the Southern Maryland Delegation from 1996 to 2002 and the Charles County Delegation from 2003 to 2004. During his tenure, Mitchell supported efforts to increase funding for school construction and local highways, including the construction of bypasses around Waldorf and Hughesville. In April 2004, Mitchell announced that he would not seek re-election in 2006, saying that he wanted to spend more time working at his business and with local charities. He resigned from office early after Governor Bob Ehrlich appointed him as principal deputy secretary of the Maryland Department of Health in September 2004. Maryland Department of Health. On December 23, 2014, Maryland Governor-elect Larry Hogan appointed Mitchell to be his Secretary for the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Mitchell's appointment was confirmed by the Maryland Senate on February 13, 2015, and he was sworn in later that day. During his tenure, Mitchell focused on efforts to tackle the opioid epidemic in Maryland and oversaw the state's response to a capacity crisis at state hospitals from mid-to-late 2016. On December 15, 2016, amid pressure from state legislators to more promptly care for criminal defendants awaiting psychological evaluations, Mitchell resigned as Secretary of Health effective immediately to "pursue opportunities in the private sector". He was succeeded by Dennis Schrader, who previously served as Governor Hogan's appointments secretary. In August 2019, Maryland Senate President Thomas V. Miller Jr. and House Speaker Adrienne A. Jones named Mitchell to serve as the chair of the Maryland Prescription Drug Affordability Board. Personal life. Mitchell is married and has two children. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,040
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42454206
American politician William S. Hanna (May 9, 1923 - November 28, 1994) was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates. Hanna was raised at the Temora Mansion in Ellicott City. In 1936, he built a homemade trailer with his friend, future senator James A. Clark, Jr. While traveling with Clark to the West Coast he was run over by a car in San Diego with only a sprained ankle as an injury. He graduated Ellicott City High School in 1943. Hanna served in the U.S. Army Air Corps and U.S. Air Force during World War II flying as a gunner on B-24 bombers. In 1962, Hanna was selected by his childhood friend to run on a slate of candidates for Maryland State Delegate with Thomas E. Loyd. Hanna was also a Real estate broker and appraiser. Appraiser and negotiator, Patapsco Valley Park project. President, Howard County Real Estate Board, 1961-63. District vice-president, Maryland Association of Real Estate Boards. Member, Rotary; Veterans of Foreign Wars. Hanna's son Gary, a helicopter pilot, was killed in Vietnam. In 1986 Hanna retired from his family company Breckinridge and Hanna real estate. Political. Secretary, Howard County Board of Trade, 1957-1959. Hanna was elected to the House of Delegates representing Howard County from 1963-1966. William Hanna, Edwin Wafield and Senator James A. Clark, Jr. would be the approvers of state money to provide road water and sewer for Columbia, MD. In 1969 he was elected to the new County Council form of government in Howard County. In December 1971, Hanna replaces Edward L. Cochran as chairman of the Howard County Council by a 3-2 vote.
4,558,041
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American politician (born 1967) Sara N. Love (born April 6, 1967) is an American politician who currently serves as a member of the Maryland Senate representing the 16th district since 2024. A member of the Democratic Party, she previously represented the district in the Maryland House of Delegates from 2019 to 2024. Early life and career. Love was born in Evanston, Illinois on April 6, 1967, where she graduated from New Trier High School. She attended Princeton University, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1989, and the Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law, where she earned a Juris Doctor in law in 1993. After graduating, she worked as a law clerk for Judge Timothy K. Lewis from 1993 to 1994. From 1998 to 2014, she worked for various women's health groups, including the Feminist Majority Foundation, the National Women's Health Foundation, and NARAL Pro-Choice America. From 2005 to 2016, Love worked for the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, serving as the president of the board of directors from 2008 to 2012 and as the group's public policy director from 2012 to 2016. In August 2017, Love declared her candidacy for state delegate in Maryland's 16th legislative district, seeking to succeed state delegate William Frick, who ran for Congress in Maryland's 6th congressional district. In the primary election, Love finished third in a field of eight candidates, edging out Montgomery Blair High School teacher Samir Paul by 9 votes. Paul filed for a recount of the results on July 10, 2018. Love maintained her lead over Paul after the recount, increasing her vote total in the district to 12 votes. He conceded from the election on July 27, 2018. She came in third place in the general election, receiving 29.4 percent of the vote. In the legislature. Love was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 9, 2019. She has served as a member of the Environment and Transportation Committee during her entire tenure, including as the chair of its motor vehicle and transportation subcommittee from 2023 to 2024. During the 2020 United States presidential election, Love canvassed for Joe Biden in the Pennsylvania cities of York and Harrisburg. In May 2022, ahead of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization", Love launched StandUp MD, a program to train college students and recent graduates about political organizing and to support pro-choice candidates in Maryland. The program was funded by Love's campaign, as she did not face any opposition in her re-election bid that year. In March 2024, after state senator Ariana Kelly announced that she would resign in May to become the executive director of the Maryland Commission for Women, Love said that she would apply to serve the remainder of Kelly's term in the Maryland Senate. The Montgomery County Democratic Central Committee nominated Love to fill the seat on June 3, 2024. Love was appointed to the seat by Governor Wes Moore and sworn in on June 13, 2024. In January 2025, Love was elected to serve as the president of the Chesapeake Executive Council. Political positions. Love is a self-described progressive Democrat. Environment. During the 2019 legislative session, Love introduced a bill to strengthen and codify the Keep Antibiotics Effective Act, which restricts the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals. The bill passed and became law without Governor Larry Hogan's signature. In February 2022, Love introduced the "George Taylor Act", which would ban products containing Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Hogan. During the 2023 legislative session, Love introduced the "Clean Trucks Act", which would require vehicle manufacturers and dealers to sell an increasing percentage of zero-emission vehicles beginning in model year 2027. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Wes Moore. Israel. In November 2023, following the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel and subsequent Israel–Hamas war, Love and other District 16 legislators released a statement condemning the attack and condemned antisemitic and Islamophobic hate crimes. Minimum wage. Love supports increasing the Maryland minimum wage to $15 an hour. Policing. During her time at the ACLU, Love lobbied for several policing bills, including one prevent police from searching a person's emails before obtaining a warrant, another that prevents police from tracking cellphones without warrants, and a bill to limit civil asset forfeiture abuse by requiring conviction before police could confiscate property. Social issues. During the 2019 legislative session, Love introduced a bill that would allow Maryland drivers to designate their gender as "X" on their license. The bill passed and became law without Governor Larry Hogan's signature. During the 2024 legislative session, Love introduced the "Maryland Online Privacy Act", which restricts the kinds of data companies can collect to only what is necessary and relevant to the product, would give consumers the right to know which data is being collected and the ability to have it deleted, and bans targeted advertising. Transportation. During the 2024 legislative session, Love introduced the "Sarah Debbink Langenkamp Memorial Act", which would make hitting a cyclist in a bike lane an offense punishable by up to two months in jail alongside a fine of up to $2,000. The bill was named after Sarah Debbnik Langenkamp, a Bethesda cyclist who was hit and killed by a flatbed truck in August 2022. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (1931–2021) Julian L. Lapides (September 17, 1931 – July 14, 2021) was an American politician who served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1963 to 1967 and in the Maryland Senate from 1967 to 1995. Known to his friends and colleagues as "Jack", Lapides was often called the conscience of the Maryland State Senate. He later served as a member of the Maryland State Ethics Commission. Early life and education. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, on September 17, 1931, Lapides attended Baltimore public schools and graduated from the Baltimore City College high school in 1949. He attended Johns Hopkins University and then Towson State College (now Towson University) where he earned his B.S. degree in 1954. After two years in the United States Army, Lapides was accepted at the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law, where he earned his LL.B., in 1961. Lapides was admitted to the Maryland Bar in 1965. Forty years after receiving his law degree, Lapides earned a Masters of Liberal Arts degree (MLA) from Johns Hopkins University. Career. Lapides was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1962, in 1966 he won his seat in the Maryland Senate, where he served until 1994 when redistricting caused him to lose the district he had served for 28 years. While in the Senate, he chaired the Joint Budget and Audit Committee and the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics. He was a member of the Budget and Taxation Committee and the Public Safety, Transportation, Economic Development & Natural Resources Subcommittees. Lapides was also a member of the Capital Budget Subcommittee, Pensions Subcommittee, the Legislative Policy Committee, and several other subcommittees and task forces. Lapides was a contributor to and a member of the Maryland State Arts Council, past president of Baltimore Heritage, the American Antiquarian Society, the Peale Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Walters Art Museum and Victorian Society in America. He was a life member of the NAACP, past President of the Maryland Kidney Foundation, Regional vice-president of the National Kidney Foundation (1970–72). He died of cancer on July 14, 2021, in Baltimore, Maryland, at age 89. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,043
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The 2018 Maryland House of Delegates elections were held on November 6, 2018, as part of the biennial United States elections. All 141 of Maryland's state delegates were up for reelection. Prior to the election, there was little doubt that Democrats would hold their majority in the chamber. Maryland's House of Delegates has had a Democratic majority since the elections of 1920, and it remains a solidly Democratic in elections at both the national and state level. Still, there was some discussion about whether or not Republicans would be able to make inroads in the chamber, especially considering that popular incumbent governor Larry Hogan was running for reelection at the top of the ticket simultaneously. These hopes were not met; though Hogan won his race by double digits, there was very little down-ballot appetite for Republicans, including in the House of Delegates. Democrats picked off eight seats from Republicans, while Republicans flipped one seat from Democrats. The result was a net gain of seven seats for the Democrats, which came from across the state. Six counties had seats flip to the Democrats, including two in Baltimore County. The one seat Republicans did pick up was in a conservative Anne Arundel County district where a retiring incumbent had switched parties from Republican to Democratic the month before the election. Overall, the results were a seen as a disappointment for Republicans, who had hoped Hogan's success would carry more Republicans to Annapolis. After the elections, Democrats held 99 seats to the Republicans' 42, meaning Democrats were in possession of more than 70% of seats in the chamber—maintaining their three-fifths supermajority capable of overriding gubernatorial vetoes. Many factors contributed to the Democrats' gains, but President Donald Trump's unpopularity in Maryland, as well as the state's large and growing minority population and its heavily suburban nature, were among the most important. Retiring incumbents. Democrats. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; List of districts. All election results are from the Maryland Board of Elections. District 1A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 1B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 1C. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 2A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 2B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 3A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 3B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 4. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 5. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 6. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 7. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 8. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 9A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 9B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 10. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 11. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 12. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 13. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 14. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 15. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 16. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 17. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 18. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 19. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 20. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 21. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 22. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 23A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 23B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 24. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 25. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 26. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 27A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 27B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 27C. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 28. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 29A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 29B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 29C. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 30A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 30B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 31A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 31B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 32. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 33. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 34A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 34B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 35A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 35B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 36. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 37A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 37B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 38A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 38B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 38C. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 39. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 40. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 41. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 42A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 42B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 43. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 44A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 44B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 45. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 46. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 47A. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes District 47B. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,044
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254
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42454206
American politician (died 1957) Frank Emerson Baker (died July 12, 1957) was an American politician from Maryland. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County's district from 1916 to 1917. He served as president of the board of commissioners of Aberdeen, Maryland, from 1916 to 1950. Early life. Frank Emerson Baker was born in Aberdeen, Maryland, to Emma Michael and Charles W. Baker. He was the nephew of William Benjamin Baker, state delegate, state senator and U.S. Representative. Career. Baker was a Republican. Baker served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County, from 1916 to 1917. He ran for the Maryland Senate in 1917, but lost to J. Royston Stifler. He ran for Maryland Senate again in 1921. Baker served as the president of the board of commissioners of Aberdeen from 1916 to 1950. He also served as chairman of the Republican State General Committee in Harford County and was a member of the Harford County Board of Elections. After retiring from the board of commissioners, Baker worked for C. W. Baker & Sons, the brokerage firm started by his father. Baker became a member of the board of directors of the First National Bank of Aberdeen in 1922. He was a director of the Philadelphia Electric Company and served as president of the Aberdeen Fire Department. Personal life. Baker married twice. Baker married Edith Claire Kimmell on October 31, 1905. They had one son. His wife died in 1907 Baker married Edythe A. Rogers of Portland, Oregon, on October 11, 1917. He had one son and two daughters, Emerson, Mrs. William Bechtol and Margaret Grace. Baker was a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Aberdeen. Baker died on July 12, 1957, at the age of 79. He was buried at Baker Cemetery. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,045
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158
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American politician Michael J. Wagner (October 20, 1941 – February 13, 2014) was an American businessman and politician. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he went to Glen Burnie High School in Glen Burnie, Maryland and then received his associate degree in 1996 from the University of Baltimore. Wagner was in the restaurant supplies and food service business. Wagner also owned a catering business. He served as a justice of the peace in Anne Arundel County, Maryland in 1963 to 1964. He then served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1975 to 1977 as a Democrat and then in the Maryland State Senate from 1977 to 1979 and 1982 to 1994. He died in Glen Burnie, Maryland. He was survived by his wife of 52 years, Carol Ann Hudson, and their two sons. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,046
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American politician Nicholas James Mosby (born 1978) is an American politician who was the president of the Baltimore City Council from 2020 to 2024. First elected to serve on the city council from 2011 to 2016, Mosby was subsequently appointed in 2017 to the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Baltimore City's 40th District. He was elected as Baltimore City Council president in November 2020, assuming the role in December of that year. Mosby ran for a second term in 2024, but was defeated in the Democratic primary by city councilmember Zeke Cohen. Early life. Mosby was born in the Northwood neighborhood of Baltimore. He attended Baltimore Polytechnic Institute where he participated in debate team and served as the student council president. According to classmates, Mosby aspired to be mayor while still in high school. Mosby then attended Tuskegee University, where he received his Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering in 2001. Mosby was inducted as a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity within the Pi Omega chapter in Baltimore. Mosby then worked as a network engineer and project manager with Verizon. Prior to his political career, Mosby served as a Senior Project Manager with Baltimore Gas and Electric. Political career. Baltimore City Council. Mosby's first attempt for office was as one of seven competitors in the 2007 Democratic primary for the open seat in Baltimore's District 11 City Council seat, vacated by Keiffer Mitchell Jr. In this race, competitor William H. Cole IV received the endorsement of "The Baltimore Sun", Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley and Congressman Elijah Cummings, and Mosby went on to place 4th in the election with 10.45% of the vote. In 2011, Mosby ran again for city council, this time for the city's 7th district seat (his home neighborhood of Reservoir Hill having since been transferred to that district). The district's incumbent, Belinda Conaway, was facing scrutiny for allegations including that her primary residence was outside the city, in violation of city law. Mosby cited this negative media coverage, and Conaway's $21 million libel suit against a blogger as an impetus for him to run against her. In the intervening years, Mosby had served as a member of the Baltimore City Democratic Central Committee from 2008-2010. Indeed, despite being the challenger, the "Baltimore Messenger" described the "politically-connected" Mosby as the establishment-backed candidate in the race, citing endorsements of him by Governor (and former Baltimore mayor) O'Malley, prominent union groups, the editors of "The Baltimore Sun", and the sitting Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake. Mosby ultimately defeated Conaway and the other challengers in the Democratic primary with a 51% share of the vote. His defeat of the incumbent Conaway was characterized as an "upset" in city media. Despite losing the primary nomination, Conaway launched a write-in campaign for the general election later that year. In a formal complaint to Maryland United States Attorney Rod Rosenstein, Conaway alleged illegal conduct on the part of Mosby's campaign in the primary relating to the use of the IRS logo on a mailer and allegations that she had lied on her tax returns, but Mosby's campaign denied any wrongdoing. In November, Conaway further alleged "major fraud" in absentee ballots sent for the wrong council district, writing a formal appeal to Attorney General of the United States Eric Holder, although local officials stated they had received no complaints about the process. In spite of the write-in challenge, Mosby still won "decisively" in the general election, winning 76.13% of the vote. Tenure. In his first year as councilmember, Mosby initially emerged as one of several council allies of Mayor Rawlings-Blake, helping that summer to approve her budget cut proposal, against the amendments of Council President Jack Young. Mosby voted against a proposal to amend the city charter to require biannual audits of city agencies, a stance which also aligned with the Rawlings-Blake administration. Instead, later that year Mosby put forward a separate bill, proposing a city wide commission "to provide input on city audits and how they are conducted," whose members would all be appointed by the mayor. The city's auditor opposed the move, saying the mayoral appointments would "jeopardize [their] independence." In the summer of 2012, Mosby questioned Mayor Rawlings-Blake's appointment of Anthony Batts, a city outsider, to head the Baltimore Police Department, although he ultimately deferred to her judgment in approving his appointment. In July 2013, when 20 city recreation centers were shut down as part of Mayor Rawlings-Blake's budget, Mosby spoke in favor of their continued operation under privatized administration, including one in Easterwood re-opened by his fraternity, Omega Psi Phi. In 2014, Mosby started the "Get Fit with Councilman Mosby" Challenge, partnering with close to 30 personal trainers, fitness organizations and chefs, the American Heart Association and Y of Central MD to provide free access to fitness and cooking classes. Mosby called for hearings on the effects of sweetened beverages on children, and proposed legislation that to require warning labels on all advertisements for sugary drinks. With the aim to support the phase-out of lightweight plastic bags, Mosby supported unsuccessful 2014 legislation that sought to reduce littering by imposing a fee on disposable plastic bags used in stores. In September 2014, following the contentious appointment of a replacement for another seat on the council (that of Eric Costello to the 11th district), Mosby supported a special election to replace any further empty seats. Mosby opposed proposed 2015 state budget cuts to the Baltimore City Public Schools, arguing the cuts would be "devastating." In 2016, Mosby was the sole "No" vote to limit the influence of the mayor on the city's powerful Board of Estimates. In August 2016, Mosby voted to raise the city's minimum wage to $15, though the bill failed to pass the full city council. Development and housing. In 2013, Mosby, along with fellow councilmember Carl Stokes, initially opposed the $107 million tax increment financing deal proposed by the Rawlings-Blake administration meant as incentive for the construction of Exelon's regional headquarters in the Harbor Point section of the city. However, in September, Mosby ultimately voted for the measure. In February 2014, Mosby supported Mayor Rawlings-Blakes' proposal for expansion of tax breaks for developers of apartment projects within the city. While praising support for new housing construction across his district and the city, Mosby recognized that investment in jobs and schools would be necessary in addition to development. He criticized Baltimore's affordable housing law as too weak, and sought to place more responsibility on developers to set aside units for low-income renters. As Baltimore overhauled its zoning regulations for the first time in decades, Mosby proposed "more stringent" requirements on liquor stores within residential neighborhoods, including a Public Nuisance Prevention Board that would have allowed community members to provide input on when to limit certain kinds of alcohol sales. Mosby criticized his fellow council members, who stripped his proposed amendment by an 11 to 3 vote, as "cocky" and "arrogant." Ban the Box. In 2013, Mosby sponsored Ban the Box legislation, which passed the city council the next year over the opposition of business groups like the Maryland Chamber of Commerce and the Greater Baltimore Committee. The bill, which Mosby characterized the act as the "most progressive" iteration in the country, expanded the city's existing prohibition on asking about criminal history on public job applications to private employers as well. Baltimore's business community proposed replacing the prohibition with voluntary commitments like "a pledge to hire a certain number of ex-offenders each year" During the spring of 2014, Mosby attempted to reach an agreement with the GBC and business interests, but reported that they were unable to come to a consensus, and so the legislation continued. In an attempt to assuage business critics, Mosby drafted an amendment to exclude job postings where a criminal record would be automatically disqualifying. In multiple editorials, the editors of "The Baltimore Sun" urged Mosby to accept the GBC's further proposed changes to the law, claiming it would improve Baltimore's perception as "business-friendly." Despite the opposition, the city council passed the bill 10 to 4 at its April 29 meeting. The final passed legislation applied to private employers with 10 or more employees, where a criminal history would not otherwise bar the candidate (such as in child care). In passing the legislation, Baltimore joined 10 states and about 60 local governments nationwide with similar legislation. Mayor Rawlings-Blake signed the bill into law at the end of May. Crime and violence. In 2012, Mosby proposed a city law, subsequently passed, banning the sale of items to minors by stores where more than 20% of sales were for alcohol. Mosby proposed further restrictions on liquor stores in 2016, requiring that they not "adversely affect, jeopardize or endanger public health," but was unable to gain majority support on the council, who voted to remove his amendment from the final zoning package. Mosby also lobbied to shut down operators of illegal after-hours clubs in his district, which he cited as a source of violence. In the hopes of diverting young men from work in the drug trade, Mosby encouraged urban farm projects within his district as an alternative way of making a living. He wrote in support of neighborhood farm activists in their fight to keep plots from being sold by the city for redevelopment. Mosby also worked with local activists in opposition to anti-LGBT violence. In August 2013, Mosby worked with fellow councilmember Mary Pat Clarke to close a methadone clinic in the Hampden neighborhood, following complaints from local merchants about associated crime. The two councilmembers supported increasing police foot patrols in the neighborhood. Following the 2013 killing of Trayvon Martin, Mosby proposed a non-binding resolution calling on the city of Baltimore to boycott Florida-based businesses in protest. In 2013, Mosby's wife, Marilyn, launched her campaign for Baltimore's State Attorney. The two made the city's increasing homicide rate a central part of their program. Beginning in April, the couple organized weekly "Enough is Enough" marches, working with police and community groups to reduce crime and violence in West Baltimore. Mosby noted the impact of increased police on suppressing crime in his district in June of that year. "The Baltimore Sun" reported Mosby as supporting a "criminal justice system that is tough on violent offenders and keeps them off the street." Following the death of Tyrone West in July of that year, Mosby criticized the State's Attorney's level of transparency and communication regarding the investigation. In January 2014, Mosby worked with fellow councilman Brandon Scott and community activists to call for greater citizen intervention against rising homicides in the city, in particular a proposal for a "mobilized street force" of city residents to patrol the Sandtown-Winchester and Belair-Edison neighborhoods. Mosby and Scott also collaborated in proposing a comprehensive security review of city buildings following a January 2015 security breach at a police station. In February 2015, Mosby was a supporter of requiring body cameras for police officers "as quickly as possible". Freddie Gray and the 2015 uprising. During the 2015 Baltimore protests following the death of Freddie Gray, Mosby's council district included Gray's residence in the Gilmor Homes project. Mosby received national coverage for his visible presence during the unrest, and for his calling attention to the roots of the violence. Mosby argued that fundamentally "folks in West Baltimore [...] don't feel they are part of the process." He drew both praise and criticism for his willingness, along with others on the city council, to work with community members including members of gangs in order to bring an end to the unrest. Mosby agreed that the unrest was "unproductive" but also the result of decades old of lack of investment and socio-economic decline. Mosby also criticized the Baltimore Police Department's early handling of the unrest as "incendiary," "not factual" and "problematic at best." Following the violence, Mosby advocated for the city to expand its "Safe Streets" anti-violence program to the Sandtown-Winchester neighborhood. He also praised Mayor Rawlings-Blake's decision to fire police commissioner Anthony Batts, saying he hoped it would allow for a "reset" of community-police relations. Mayoral bid. Several months after the Freddie Gray unrest, Mosby was reported among those considering a run for mayor of Baltimore. City residents began receiving phone calls polling their potential support for a run in August. Mosby published an op-ed in the "Sun" calling for "political will" to use data analysis, like the CitiStat program, to modernize the administration of the city. Finally, on October 26, Mosby formally announced his candidacy. When he announced his bid for the mayoral election, Mosby decided to forego a bid for re-election to
4,558,047
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184
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42454206
The Maryland Attorney General election of 2014 was held on November 4, 2014, to elect the Attorney General of Maryland. Incumbent Democratic Attorney General Doug Gansler was eligible to seek a third term in office, but instead ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination for Governor of Maryland. Primary elections were held on June 24, 2014. The Democrats nominated State Senator Brian Frosh and the Republicans nominated attorney Jeffrey Pritzker. Democratic primary. Endorsements. ;templatestyles src="Endorsements box/styles.css"/ ;Jon Cardin Organizations Federal politicians Members of Congress Maryland State Delegates ;templatestyles src="Endorsements box/styles.css"/ ;Brian Frosh Former Maryland Attorneys General National Leaders Members of Congress State-wide elected officials Maryland State Delegates Maryland State Senators Local elected officials Organizations Newspapers References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,048
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184
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American politician (born 1963) Robbyn T. Lewis (born July 18, 1963) is an American politician who has served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates representing the 46th district since 2017. Early life and education. Lewis was born in Gary, Indiana, on July 18, 1963. Her ancestors escaped slavery in America through the Underground Railroad, but returned following the Civil War. Lewis' parents were among the first beneficiaries of the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which allowed them to move from Gary to Chicago. She graduated from the Latin School of Chicago and later attended the University of Chicago, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in anthropology in 1990, and Columbia University, where she earned a Master of Public Health in international health in 1998. Career. Early career. After graduating from the Latin School, Lewis worked as a teacher at the YMCA International Language School in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, afterwards working as a courier for Frontier Nursing Service. From 1990 to 1991, Lewis volunteered for the Peace Corps in Niger. After graduating from Columbia, Lewis worked as a research coordinator at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and as a consultant for Population Services International in Haiti. After moving to Baltimore from Haiti in 1999, she worked at Jhpiego until 2006, first as a project specialist and then as a program manager for the organization's cervical cancer prevention program. Afterwards, Lewis worked for Family Health International from 2007 to 2009, as a senior research program manager for the Center for Immunization Research at the Bloomberg School of Public Health until 2011, and as a regional manager for the International Pregnancy Advisory Services in west and south Africa from 2012 to 2014. Since 2019, she has worked as a civic data fellow for the University of Baltimore. Political involvement. Lewis first became involved with politics in 2002 as the secretary of Friends of Patterson Park and as the vice president for the Patterson Park Neighborhood Association, where she aided with efforts to plant trees along sidewalks. From 2011 to 2012, she started and ran her own political action committee to support the Red Line and served on policymaking committees for transportation projects in Baltimore within the Maryland Transit Administration and the Baltimore City Department of Transportation. Lewis later served on policymaking committees for the Maryland Environmental Health Network and Blue Water Baltimore, and currently serves on the boards of various transit groups in east Baltimore, including Bikemore and the Southeast Community Development Corporation. From 2014 to 2017, Lewis served as a special assistant to the Maryland Health Benefit Exchange. In 2016, she graduated from a training course hosted by Emerge Maryland, an organization created to prepare potential female Democratic candidates for public office. Maryland House of Delegates. In December 2016, following the resignation of state delegate Peter A. Hammen to serve in the administration of Baltimore mayor Catherine Pugh, Lewis applied to serve the remainder of his term in the Maryland House of Delegates. Her candidacy was backed by state senator Bill Ferguson and state delegates Brooke Lierman and Luke Clippinger. The Baltimore City Democratic Central Committee voted 6-1 to nominate Lewis to fill the vacancy later that month, and was appointed by Governor Larry Hogan on December 30. Lewis was sworn in on January 10, 2017. She is the first African-American woman to represent the district. Lewis was a member of the Environment and Transportation Committee from 2017 to 2018, and has since served on the Health and Government Operations Committee. Lewis ran for a full four-year term in 2018, during which she ran on a slate with Ferguson, Lierman and Clippinger, and faced a primary challenge from political newcomer Nate Loewentheil. She defeated Loewentheil in the Democratic primary on June 26, 2018, receiving 23 percent of the vote to Loewentheil's 14.1 percent. In April 2019, ahead of the election to elect a new Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates, Lewis condemned homophobic comments made by Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland chair Darryl Barnes toward Speaker candidate Maggie McIntosh, calling them "disappointing and upsetting". Following the election, she stepped down as the secretary of the Legislative Black Caucus, saying that she felt disconnected from the caucus amid its role in the Speaker election. In 2024, Lewis applied to run as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention pledged to Joe Biden, but was denied by the Maryland Democratic Party. Personal life. Lewis lives in the Patterson Park neighborhood of Baltimore. She has not owned a car since October 2014, instead using a Lyft taxi to attend legislative sessions, and as of 2020 is the only car-free lawmaker in the Maryland General Assembly. Political positions. Business. During the 2018 legislative session, Lewis criticized Governor Larry Hogan's proposed $5 billion incentive package to encourage Amazon to build its second headquarters in Montgomery County, saying that the money would be better spent on reviving the Red Line. In 2022, Lewis supported legislation that would require companies on The Block in Baltimore to close at 10 p.m. nightly. Crime and policing. In July 2017, Lewis and other lawmakers from District 46 released an "anti-violence plan" that called for increased funding for social programs and strengthened gun laws. During the 2019 legislative session, Lewis voted against legislation that would allow Johns Hopkins University to have its own private police force, later stating on the House floor that the bill would "set Baltimore back in terms of our progress". In 2020, she said she was "neutral" on a bill to expand the powers of the Morgan State University police force. Environment. In April 2017, Lewis said she supported proposals to build a wind farm off the coast of Ocean City, Maryland, believing it would help the state achieve its renewable energy goals. During the 2018 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill to monitor air pollution levels around large chicken farms on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. In March 2018, she participated in a protest against the Potomac Pipeline, a planned natural gas pipeline beneath the Potomac River. In 2019, Lewis introduced the Maryland Healthy Children Act, a bill that would require the Maryland Department of the Environment to develop regulations on investigating and reporting lead hazards. Following amendments that weakened the bill, the bill unanimously passed and became law. Health care. During the 2020 legislative session, Lewis introduced legislation to expand protections, including hospital-provided financial assistance and charity care, for hospital patients with medical debt. In 2021, Lewis introduced bills that would require senior-level members of state government to be trained in trauma-informed care, and another that would require licensed health professionals to undergo implicit bias training. During the 2023 legislative session, Lewis introduced legislation that would provide create a program within the Maryland Health Benefit Exchange to help small businesses enroll their employees in health care plans. Gun policy. In March 2018, Lewis voted against a bill that would allow Baltimore school resource officers to carry guns inside schools. Social issues. In January 2019, Lewis was one of nine Maryland lawmakers to add their names to a manifesto signed by 326 state legislators to reaffirm their commitment to protecting abortion rights. During the 2023 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill that would provide Walters Art Museum employees with collective bargaining rights. The bill was withdrawn after the museum and its employees signed an agreement allowing for a union election. Transportation. Lewis supports the Red Line, and criticized Governor Larry Hogan's cancellation of the transit project. She also supports initiatives to build bike lanes and wheelchair-accessible areas in east and west parts of Baltimore. In May 2019, Lewis called on Mayor Jack Young to postpone the city's removal of protect bike lanes in east Baltimore, asking for the mayor to develop a compromise solution between city officials, property owners, and local residents. During the 2018 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill that would install traffic cameras to keep drivers out of bus lanes. In April 2019, Lewis criticized a proposal by Elon Musk to build a 35-mile Hyperloop connecting Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, calling it "utter nonsense" and arguing that the state should instead expand its MARC and light rail lines. In June 2019, Lewis started a "#TransitChallenge" campaign on social media to encourage Marylanders to use public transit for a week in an effort to point out inadequacies in Baltimore's public transit system. In September, Twitter suspended her account for "excessive" use of hashtags after she made a series of tweets promoting public transit and climate change, but reinstated her account a day later. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Lewis suggested that Baltimore close off certain streets to traffic to encourage outdoor exercise and promote social distancing after multiple other U.S. cities did the same. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician Joan Carter Conway (born April 5, 1951) is an American politician who represented district 43 in the Maryland State Senate. She is the first African American woman to be appointed chairman of any of the standing committees in the Maryland Senate. Background. Senator Conway was born to Floyd O. and Pauline N. Carter in Baltimore, Maryland, on April 5, 1951. She attended the Community College of Baltimore, earning her A.A. in human services in 1987 and then the University of Baltimore, with a B.A. in sociology in 1988. She is co-owner of CIG Professional Tax Services, Inc. Conway was appointed to the Senate, from the Baltimore City Council, when John A. Pica Jr. decided to retire in 1997. Since then she has won three elections without major opposition. In 2007, Conway headed a team of 3 incumbent delegates (Curt Anderson, Ann Marie Doory and Maggie McIntosh) and 7 state central committee members (Baltimore City Councilmen Ken Harris Sr. and Robert W. Curran, and Democrats Sherrod Barnes, Jeremy Rosendale, Beatrice Brown, and Sylvia Williams) to victory with every person on her ticket winning in the September primary. No other 11-person ticket achieved such distinction in the state primary election. In the Legislature. A member of Senate from January 8, 1997, to January 2019, Senator Conway was Chair of the Education, Health and Environmental Affairs Committee and a member of the Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland. Senator Conway was defeated in the 2018 democratic primary election by Mary L. Washington. Controversy in the news. Arrest. In 1999 Conway was arrested and charged with hindering a law enforcement officer after a six-year-old girl was struck by a vehicle in front of her office and she allegedly refused to provide space for the paramedics to work on the child. The charges were later dropped by State's Attorney Patricia Jessamy. Liquor Board conflict. In a 2005 complaint filed with the Baltimore Circuit Court, Chief liquor inspector Samuel Daniels Jr. accused Conway of acting in collusion with other members of Baltimore's Liquor Board to replace him with her husband, Vernon Conway. At the time the complaint was filed Daniels had been suspended for reasons he claimed stemmed from his attempts to investigate bars on The Block which had quid pro quo relationships with other liquor inspectors and with Senator Conway. Daniels was later found by the city's labor commissioner to have been unfairly suspended and after being reinstated he eventually dropped the charges. In 2010, while serving as the chair of the committee that hears alcohol bills, Conway went on the record saying that a bill that would allow wine to be shipped to residents of the state "is not going anywhere" despite the fact that 6 of the 9 members of her own committee and both chambers supporting the legislation. Conway cited the fact that it would be difficult for the state to ensure taxes were collected on wine shipped into the state and that it would give minors the ability to tap the internet to obtain alcohol. 37 of the 50 states currently allow wine to be shipped directly to residents. But some proponents of the direct-shipping bill question whether she is too personally tied to the system to be fair. Her husband, Vernon "Tim" Conway, is a city liquor inspector since 1995 who made $67,000 in his position last year, according to city records. According to a 2008 analysis by The Baltimore Sun, more than 80 percent of state legislators have received campaign contributions from the liquor lobby. Academic boycott legislation. In the 2014 Maryland legislative session, Senator Conway introduced legislation to prevent the use of public college and university funds to support scholarly involvement in academic organizations that have voted to boycott Israel. Editorial boards for both the "Washington Post" and the "Baltimore Sun" came out against the bill. The legislation failed to get out of committee but on the House side was incorporated as an amendment to the State's budget bill. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,050
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American politician (1738–1820) John Brice III (September 22, 1738 – July 1820) was an American lawyer, businessman and political leader from Annapolis, Maryland. He served on the Maryland state council and as mayor of Annapolis. Early life. John was born in Annapolis and was one of the sons of John Brice, Jr. and Sara (Howard) Brice. Like many fellow Marylanders, he attended Clare College, Cambridge, and studied law at the Middle Temple in London, being admitted to both in November 1757. He was back in Annapolis by June 1761, where he continued his legal studies. He married Mary MacCubbin in 1766 in the Anglican Church but after the revolution was accounted a member of the Episcopal Church. Revolutionary War. Brice was an active supporter of the revolution, and when a new government was established he served on the Governor's council in 1779 and 1780. The council acted as an upper house of the legislature. In the election of 1781 he tied with Stephen West, to whom he lost his seat by drawing lots. He was mayor of Annapolis in 1780 and 1781. Legacy. The home that John lived in still stands at 211 Prince George Street in Annapolis. It is a few doors away from his father's house which is locally known as the "Little Brice House". The home is privately owned by St. John's College. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,051
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42454206
The Maryland county executive elections of 2022 were held on November 8, 2022. Democratic and Republican primaries were held on July 19, 2022. Anne Arundel County, Baltimore County, Frederick County, Harford County, Howard County, Montgomery County, Prince George's County, and Wicomico County elected county executives. ;templatestyles src="Template:TOC limit/styles.css" / ; Anne Arundel County. The incumbent county executive was Democrat Steuart Pittman, who was elected in 2018 with 52.3 percent of the vote. He was eligible for re-election and was seeking a second term. Democratic primary. Endorsements. ;templatestyles src="Endorsements box/styles.css"/ ;Steuart Pittman (incumbent) Labor unions Organizations Results. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 130px"|Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em"|Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em"|Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em"|% ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em"| ;templatestyles src="Template:Tooltip/styles.css" / ;±% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes Notes. Partisan clients External links. Official campaign websites for Anne Arundel County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Baltimore County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Frederick County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Harford County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Howard County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Montgomery County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Prince George's County executive candidates Official campaign websites for Wicomico County executive candidates
4,558,052
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184
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American politician (died 1948) Thomas C. Hopkins (died May 5, 1948) was an American politician from Maryland. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County, from 1912 to 1914. Early life. Thomas C. Hopkins was born to Cassandra Lee (née Grover) and W. Worthington Hopkins. His father was a physician. His grandfather was Thomas Chew Hopkins, a member of the Maryland House of Delegates in 1843 and 1865. Career. Hopkins was a Democrat. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County, from 1912 to 1914. Hopkins ran for re-election in 1915, but was defeated by Thomas H. Ward by a margin of 10 votes. Hopkins contested the election, but was unsuccessful in his case. Personal life. Hopkins married Marie M. LeGare. Hopkins lived at Gover's Hill in Havre de Grace, Maryland. Hopkins died on May 5, 1948, at his home, the Repulta Farm in Govers Hill Road in Havre de Grace. He was buried at Darlington Cemetery. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1951) Karen Lewis Young (born June 21, 1951) is an American politician who has served in the Maryland Senate from District 3 since 2023. She previously served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from District 3A from 2015 to 2023. Early life and career. Lewis Young was born to a Jewish family in The Bronx on June 21, 1951, and was raised in Montoursville, Pennsylvania. She attended Franklin & Marshall College, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1973, and Columbia University, where she earned a Master of Arts degree in American history in 1974 and a Master of Business Administration degree in marketing in 1977. She worked at a variety of financial firms, including Citibank, Capital One, Chase Manhattan Bank, and American Express, from 1996 to 2008 and operated her own consulting business, Karen Lewis Market Research, from 2004 to 2006. Lewis Young moved to Frederick, Maryland in 1996 to do direct marketing for Farmers and Mechanics National Bank. In May 2009, Lewis Young announced that she would run for a seat on the Frederick Board of Aldermen, motivated by the 2008 United States presidential election and her community involvement. She earned 14.34 percent of the vote in the Democratic primaries and 11.57 percent of the vote in the general election. In 2013, Lewis Young unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Frederick, earning 31.10 percent of the vote in the general election. In the legislature. In February 2014, Lewis Young announced that she would for the Maryland House of Delegates, seeking to succeed delegate Galen R. Clagett, who was retiring that year. She received 34.5 percent of the vote in the Democratic primary election and defeated Republican challengers Victoria Wilkins and county commissioner Paul Smith in the general election with 26.3 percent of the vote. Lewis Young was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 14, 2015. She was a member of the Health and Government Operations Committee. Upon her swearing in, she and her husband Ronald N. Young became the first husband and wife to simultaneously serve together in the Maryland General Assembly. Lewis Young was subsequently re-elected to a second term in 2018. Lewis Young participated in the Women's March in Frederick following the inauguration of Donald Trump. During the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, she served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention, pledged to Joe Biden. In June 2021, Lewis Young announced that she would run for Maryland Senate in 2022, seeking to succeed her husband, Ronald, who later endorsed her campaign. Lewis Young won the Democratic primary on July 19, 2022, defeating county school board member Jay Mason with 68.3 percent of the vote, and later defeated Republican Angela Ariel McIntosh in the general election with 66.5 percent of the vote. Lewis Young was sworn into the Maryland Senate on January 11, 2023, becoming the first woman elected to represent western Maryland in the Senate. She is a member of the Education, Energy, and Environment Committee. Lewis Young was a delegate to the 2024 Democratic National Convention, pledged to Kamala Harris. Personal life. Lewis Young met her future husband Ronald N. Young in 2003 when she was working as the Weinberg Center's chairwoman. The couple married in 2006. Together, they have five sons, including Blaine Young, a former Republican member of the Frederick County Board of Commissioners; Brad Young, the president of the Frederick County Council as of 2023; and Brian Young, a former member of the Frederick County Democratic Central Committee. Political positions. Education. In December 2015, Lewis Young said she disagreed with Governor Larry Hogan's decision to withhold funding from Maryland's costliest public school systems. During the 2017 legislative session, Lewis Young supported a bill to give the student member of the Frederick County Board of Education partial voting rights. She criticized Republican members of the Frederick County Delegation for filibustering the bill and, following the bill dying in the Frederick County Delegation, introduced the bill in the General Assembly. The bill was reintroduced in 2020. Environment. During the 2023 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced legislation to strengthen the state's EmPOWER energy efficiency program by expanding its scope to include greenhouse gas emissions reductions. The bill, which was opposed by state electric utilities companies, died in committee. Health care. During the 2015 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced a bill to encourage the prescription of abuse-deterrent painkillers to combat the heroin epidemic. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Larry Hogan. In 2016, she introduced a bill criminalizing the improper prescribing of certain drugs, which died in committee. In 2019, she supported a bill to create supervised injection sites to prevent drug overdoses. During the 2016 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced a "right to try" bill that would allow terminally ill patients to try medication approved by the Food and Drug Administration but not available to the general public. The bill was reintroduced in 2017, during which it passed and became law. During the 2018 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced a bill to ask the federal government to divert money to Maryland used to offset the cost of high-risk patients on the Affordable Care Act's insurance pool, instead using it under a new "reinsurance program" under the Maryland Health Benefit Exchange. The bill passed and became law with Governor Hogan's signature, and the plan was approved by federal regulators in August 2018. In 2019, Lewis Young introduced a bill to establish a Patients' Bill of Rights. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Hogan. In March 2019, Lewis Young voted for the End-of-Life Option Act, which would have provided palliative care to terminally ill adults. During the 2022 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced a bill to protect public health officials and hospital workers from threats, citing harassment directed toward health officials following the COVID-19 pandemic. Minimum wage. During the 2017 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced a bill requiring companies to include salary information in job postings and limit employers' ability to ask job applicants about their salary history. Redistricting. In November 2015, Lewis Young said she supported using an independent redistricting commission to draw Maryland's congressional districts, but said she preferred a "national solution" to gerrymandering. Social issues. Lewis Young supported efforts to repeal "Maryland, My Maryland" as the official state song, noting in 2021 that the song was adopted during "one of the most racist periods in Maryland". She also supported the relocation of the Roger B. Taney Monument at the Maryland State House. During the 2015 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill to prevent people convicted of animal abuse from adopting or buying a pet. In 2017, Lewis Young introduced a bill requiring the Maryland State Police to create a statewide sexual assault tracking system. In January 2019, Lewis Young was one of nine Maryland lawmakers to add their names to a manifesto signed by 326 state legislators to reaffirm their commitment to protecting abortion rights. During the 2022 legislative session, Lewis Young introduced legislation to start a pilot program for court-ordered mental health treatment. Transportation. Lewis Young supports expanding Interstate 270 and increasing public transit options in Maryland. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,054
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184
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42454206
American activist and political candidate Laura Wells (born January 2, 1948) is an American political activist, perennial candidate, and financial and business analyst. She is a former candidate for U.S. Representative for California's 13th congressional district in the November 2018 election and the Green Party in the 2010 governor's race in California. She supports making significant changes to Proposition 13 and to the current super-majority voting rule in the Sacramento legislature. In 2002 she garnered nearly a half million votes in her run for California state controller. At the last 2010 gubernatorial debate in California, which excluded all third party candidates, Wells was arrested upon attempting to enter the building to watch the debate. Background and education. Laura Wells was born and raised in Michigan. She earned her BA from Wayne State University in 1969, where she was a scholarship student, majored in foreign languages, and was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa society. Wells earned a Masters of Education at Antioch University, and later worked in finance, business analysis and computer programming. Wells has resided in California for more than 30 years. She has one daughter, Natalia, born in Oakland, now a musician and graduate of the University of California at Santa Cruz. Wells is engaged to Charles Goodwin, a former probation counselor in the juvenile division. Politics and public service. Wells has served in numerous county and state-level leadership positions in the Green Party of California since she registered with the Green Party in 1992. She was a founding member of the Green Party County Council in Alameda County (1992–94; 2002–04) and co-founder and managing editor of the national Green Party newspaper, "Green Focus" (2002–2004). In 2006, Wells served on the executive committee of the "IRV for Oakland" (Instant Runoff Voting) campaign while running for state controller. IRV is a voting system in which voters rank candidates in order of preference, rather than selecting only one candidate, a method which eliminates the so-called spoiler effect in elections. Wells helped garner support for IRV from U.S. Representative Barbara Lee of Oakland and other local representatives of most political parties in Oakland, including Greens, Libertarians, Peace and Freedom, Republicans, and Democrats. In November 2006, IRV achieved 69% voter approval. On January 5, 2010, the Oakland City Council voted to adopt IRV for its mayoral and council elections. In 2002 and 2006, Wells ran campaigns for state controller, receiving 419,873 votes in 2002, the most ever for a Green Party candidate in a statewide partisan race in California. In 2009, Wells appeared on the Fox News program "Your World" several times to discuss tax fairness in California. Wells has also participated in ten international delegations to Canada and South America to study innovations in participatory democracy and new constitutions, and has broadly worked in a range of volunteer and professional capacities for community and labor organizations, including Pesticide Action Network (North America), Women's Economic Agenda Project, and SEIU United Healthcare Workers (West). She co-founded Green Focus, a party newspaper. 2010 campaign for California governor. In January 2010, Laura Wells announced her candidacy for governor of California in the 2010 election. Wells won the Green Party primary on June 8, 2010 with over 78% of the votes. Wells' campaign emphasized the California budget and tax issues, particularly Proposition 13, passed during Jerry Brown's tenure as governor, which she says must be changed, in part because it primarily benefits corporations over individuals. In a position paper on Proposition 13, Wells wrote: Prop. 13, in 1978, was promoted to California voters as a way to reduce taxes and to stop fixed-income seniors and others from losing their homes due to escalating property taxes. Since then, the bulk of the "tax relief" goes places the voters never intended--giant corporations. Corporate properties are rarely re-assessed since corporations don't die and seldom sell. Wells also favored lowering the margin needed to pass a budget and raise taxes in the state from two-thirds to a simple majority. She supported increasing funding for education, and the use of a 'split-roll tax' to keep cap residential property taxes while allowing higher property taxes for businesses. In a January 2010 interview with "The Sacramento Bee" discussing her views on taxes and the budget in California, Wells stated: The two parties, the Democrat and Republican parties, do not address the root causes of the problem," Wells said. "That's off the table for them. ... To get what we want and to have the revenue that pays for it we need to have a budget that makes sense. Wells has also addressed the difficulty that third parties have in running candidates for state elections: ... she says [the difficulty for third parties] is a result of the "locked-down" system the Democrats and Republicans have put in place. As a case in point, she said she had to pay $6,000 for a 300-word ballot statement when she ran for state controller in 2006, a fee she said blocks minor-party candidates from running. Wells supports a Single Payer Universal Health Care solution for California, and if given the opportunity, says that she would gladly sign SB 840 (the Single Payer bill introduced by State Senator Sheila Kuehl) into law. Wells also supports the use of clean, sustainable, local energy, including publicly owned utilities, Community Choice Aggregation (CCA) and localized (distributed) electricity generation, instead of nuclear power or carbon sequestration. Wells also opposes government bailouts of large corporations and banks and proposes the creation of a State Bank for California which could partner with local banks and credit unions, and potentially improve their ability to lend. Other Green Party candidates, such as the 2010 Illinois gubernatorial candidate Rich Whitney, also support a State Bank proposal. Wells has been endorsed by San Francisco for Democracy and numerous elected officials, described at her campaign website. Arrested at debates. On October 12, 2010, Laura Wells was given a ticket to watch the California gubernatorial debate at Dominican University in San Rafael by a friend of hers and used it to enter the building. Wells was initially allowed in, but upon being recognized as the Green Party gubernatorial candidate, she was approached by security and asked to surrender the ticket on the grounds that it was not issued to her, but to her friend. When she refused to surrender the ticket, she was handcuffed and taken from the building and put into a police car, and arrested for "trespassing at a private party". She was later released. Wells stated: Republicans and Democrats will go to any lengths, even arresting candidates, to keep the truth from California voters. There are solutions, but voters aren't being allowed to hear from independent candidates. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 17em" | Candidate ! scope="col" | Votes ! scope="col" | % ! colspan="2" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Invalid or blank votes ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! colspan="3" style="text-align: right; margin-right: 0.5em" | Turnout ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Invalid or blank votes ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! colspan="3" style="text-align: right; margin-right: 0.5em" | Turnout ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align: right; margin-right: 0.5em" | Turnout ! colspan="5" | Primary election ! colspan=2 style="width: 15em" |Party ! style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! style="width: 5em" |Votes ! style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! colspan="5" | General election ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! colspan="5" | Primary election ! colspan=2 style="width: 15em" |Party ! style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! style="width: 5em" |Votes ! style="width: 3.5em" |% ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes ! colspan="5" | General election ! colspan="3" style="text-align:right;" | Total votes References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,055
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42454206
American politician David R. Brinkley (born September 24, 1959) is an American politician who served as the Secretary of Budget and Management for the U.S. state of Maryland from 2015 to 2023. Early life, education, and pre-political career. David Brinkley was born in Frederick, Maryland, the only son of Dr. George Ross Brinkley and Jean Brinkley. He was raised in New Market, Maryland and graduated from Linganore High School in 1977. He attended Gettysburg College and received a Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Maryland, College Park in 1981. He entered the life insurance business with Acacia Mutual Life Insurance Company, and earned his professional designations – Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) & Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) – from The American College of Financial Services in Bryn Mawr, PA in October, 1984. During the early-1980s, David was an EMT/Firefighter with the New Market District Volunteer Fire Company, and a volunteer EMT driver as Frederick County initiated its Paramedic program. Maryland House of Delegates. In 1994, Brinkley was elected to the House of Delegates, serving two terms representing District 4A. He was elected to the House of Delegates along with Paul S. Stull defeating Thomas Hattery and Thomas Gordon Slater. Incumbent George Littrell ran for the State Senate seat left open by Charles H. Smelser. Littrell was defeated by Timothy R. Ferguson. As a member of the House of Delegates, he was Deputy Minority Whip from 1997 to 1998. In 1998, Stull and Brinkley easily won re-election defeating Democratic challenger Valerie M. Hertges. Maryland Senate. In 2002, Brinkley was elected to the Maryland Senate, representing District 4, which covers Carroll County and Frederick County. He defeated Republican incumbent Timothy R. Ferguson in the primary election. He went on to overwhelmingly defeat Timothy Schlauch in the general election. In 2006, he defeated Republican challenger Paul Chamberlain in the primary election. He ran unopposed to any Democrats in the general election and convincingly defeated the write-ins. Tenure. He was the Senate Minority Leader from 2007 to 2008. In 2010, he was selected as Minority Whip alongside Senator Allan H. Kittleman who was selected as Minority Leader. When Kittleman resigned in 2011, Brinkley again ran for Minority Leader, but was rejected in favor of the conservative Senator Nancy Jacobs. Brinkley immediately resigned his position as Minority Whip upon losing the election to the more conservative Jacobs. Brinkley returned to the position of minority leader in 2013 following a five-year hiatus. 2012 congressional election. After redistricting, 85-year-old Republican incumbent U.S. Congressman Roscoe Bartlett was placed into a district that Obama won. Portions of Baltimore and Harford counties as well as Carroll County were taken away from the 6th District during redistricting. More of Montgomery County was put into the district, while another part of Montgomery County was removed and added to northern Frederick County to reform the 8th District. His current district has Obama at just 40%, while the newly redrawn district has Obama at 56%. In November, his Chief of Staff, Bud Otis, was reportedly soliciting the support of Maryland Republicans to run for his seat should he decide to retire. On November 30, 2011 "Roll Call" reported that Brinkley will run for Maryland's 6th congressional district and, “if necessary,” will primary Bartlett, according to his friend and supporter, state Delegate LeRoy Myers. In the Republican primary election in 2012, Brinkley won nearly 20% of the vote, falling short of Bartlett's 43.6%. Bartlett went on to lose the general election to Democrat John Delaney. 2014 election. Brinkley faced another Republican challenge from Delegate Michael Hough, who aligned himself with the more conservative Tea Party faction Hough accused Brinkley of being a "tax-and-spend liberal" and of cooperating too much with the Democratic majority and then-Governor Martin O'Malley. Hough crushed Brinkley in the primary election, 68%-32%. Newly elected governor Larry Hogan appointed Brinkley to the position of Secretary of Budget and Management in January 2015. Voters to choose two: Voters to choose two: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,056
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American politician (1939–2013) Gerald Curran (March 20, 1939 – March 27, 2013) was an American politician and lawyer. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Curran received his bachelor's and law degrees from the University of Baltimore. He practiced law and was in the insurance business. He served in the Maryland House of Delegates as a Democrat from 1967 to 1998. He was married to Anna Jeannette Curran and has five children. His first cousin was J. Joseph Curran Jr. He died in Baltimore, Maryland. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1989) Jazz M. Lewis (born February 26, 1989) is an American politician and Democratic member of the Maryland House of Delegates. Lewis represents Maryland's 24th district, and is currently serving as House Majority Whip. Early life and education. Lewis was born in Silver Spring, Maryland. He graduated from Charles Herbert Flowers High School and later attended the University of Maryland, College Park, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 2011 and a Master of Public Policy degree in acquisition management and international development in 2014. Political career. Lewis first entered politics as a campus organizer, organizing students in a protest against a proposed tuition increase. After graduating, he joined the Service Employees International Union as a community organizer. In 2012, he worked as a regional field director for Ben Cardin's Senate campaign. After graduating, he became a community organizer for the Good Jobs Better Baltimore campaign. Lewis also worked for U.S. Representative Steny Hoyer, first as a field director before becoming an executive director in July 2015. During the 2016 presidential primaries, he worked as the Maryland political director for former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. On January 11, 2017, state delegate Michael L. Vaughn resigned from the Maryland House of Delegates, citing unspecified health issues. Lewis applied to fill the vacancy left by Vaughn's resignation, and was nominated by the Prince George's County Democratic Central Committee on January 24. In the legislature. Lewis was appointed to the Maryland House of Delegates by Governor Larry Hogan on February 10, 2017, and was sworn in on the same day. He was subsequently elected for a full term in 2018, and re-elected in 2022. In September 2019, House Speaker Adrienne A. Jones named Lewis as the chair of the House Democratic Caucus. In January 2023, Jones named him as the House Majority Whip, succeeding then-delegate Talmadge Branch. From 2019 until October 2021, Lewis worked as a senior policy advisor to House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer. Lewis was an at-large delegate to the 2024 Democratic National Convention, pledged to Kamala Harris. 2022 congressional candidacy. In October 2021, Lewis announced his candidacy for Maryland's 4th congressional district, seeking to succeed outgoing Representative Anthony Brown, who was a candidate for Attorney General. During the primary, he was endorsed by House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and U.S. Representative Ritchie Torres. He withdrew his candidacy on April 14, 2022, saying that he would seek another term in the House of Delegates in lieu of a congressional bid. Political positions. Lewis has described himself as "unabashedly a progressive" who is also a "consensus-maker". During his 2022 congressional campaign, Lewis told "Jewish Insider" that he did not express a desire to align with The Squad, but hoped to befriend and work with its members. Criminal justice and policing. During the 2018 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill that would limit restrictive housing and its use for vulnerable members of the prison population, including pregnant women, older prisoners, and those with disabilities. He reintroduced the bill during the 2019 and 2020 legislative sessions. In 2019, Lewis said he opposed a controversial bill that would allow Johns Hopkins University to employ its own private police force. After realizing the bill had the votes to pass, he introduced a series of amendments to hold the police force accountable. The bill passed with the amendments. Also in 2019, Lewis introduced a bill that would require the Department of Legislative Services to prepare racial impact statements on bills creating or modifying misdemeanor and felony offenses. He later worked with legislative leaders Adrienne A. Jones and Bill Ferguson to initiate a pilot program requiring racial impact statements on criminal justice bills in 2021. In June 2020, Lewis pledged to stop taking campaign contributions from the Fraternal Order of Police. In July 2020, Lewis was appointed to represent the Maryland House of Delegates on the Law Enforcement Body Camera Task Force, a committee tasked with helping jurisdictions utilize police body cameras. During the 2023 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill that would require the Maryland Department of General Services to negotiate affordable police body camera contracts for police departments with small budgets. During the 2021 legislative session, Lewis introduced the Juvenile Restoration Act, a bill that would end life without parole sentences for juvenile offenders. The bill passed the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate, but was vetoed by Governor Larry Hogan; the veto was overridden by the Maryland General Assembly during the 2022 legislative session. During his 2022 House campaign, Lewis said he supported the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act, calling it one of his priorities. Also in 2022, he introduced the New Start Act, a bill that would offer small business loans and training to individuals who were formerly incarcerated and wanted to start a new business. Foreign policy. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Lewis traveled to Israel with the American Israel Education Foundation. He later encouraged progressive members of the U.S. House of Representatives who are critical of Israel to visit the country. In November 2021, Lewis called Israel "one of our core friends" and said that he supported increasing U.S. foreign aid to Israel. He also said that he would have voted for a bill providing supplemental funding to Israel's Iron Dome missile-defense system, which passed by a 420-9 vote. Health care. During the 2021 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill to establish five Health Equity Resource Communities, each tasked with reducing disparities in the incidence and treatment of diseases, funded by a one percent increase in the state's alcohol tax. During his 2022 congressional campaign, Lewis said he supported a single-payer health care system and expanding access to mental health services. Marijuana. Lewis supported 2022 Maryland Question 4, a ballot referendum to legalize recreational marijuana in Maryland, voting to pass legislation creating the referendum during the 2022 legislative session and later encouraging his constituents to vote for legalization in October 2022. He had previously sponsored legislation to legalize cannabis during the 2021 legislative session, which failed to move out of committee. National politics. In January 2021, Lewis condemned comments made by state delegate Dan Cox during the January 6 United States Capitol attack, replying to a post Cox made on Twitter with "Dan, you are better than this. Please don't cosign this lawlessness." Social issues. In 2019, Lewis voted to advance a bill that would lift a ban on candidates running in Prince George's County county-level political races from accepting developer contributions. During the 2021 legislative session, Lewis introduced a bill that would remove all flavored tobacco products from the market. Personal life. Lewis is married and lives in Glenarden, Maryland. Together, he and his wife have a son and a daughter. He is a fan of the Washington Commanders. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician Larry Young (born November 25, 1949) is a former member of the Maryland Senate from 1988 to 1998, representing Baltimore's 44th district. He was expelled from the Senate in 1998 over ethics charges, but later acquitted at his own trial. Background. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, on November 25, 1949, Young attended Baltimore City public schools. Career. Legislature. Young was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1975 to 1988, representing District 38 (Baltimore City). He was Chair of the Environmental Matters Committee, 1983–87 (member, 1975–83) and Chair of the Baltimore City Delegation, 1987–88. In June 1988 Young sought to become chairman of The Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland, a position that is determined by a vote of African-Americans serving in the Maryland General Assembly. The caucus elected Curt Anderson over Young when Young was under investigation by a Baltimore grand jury for assault and filing a false kidnapping report. Young was a member of the Maryland Senate from 1988 to 1998, representing Baltimore City District 44 (1992–98) and Baltimore City District 39 (1988–92). He served on the Senate Judicial Proceedings Committee from 1988 to 1990. From 1990 to 1998 he served on the Senate Finance Committee. Expulsion. The Maryland Senate expelled Young on January 16, 1998, for using his position to profit his private business. Young, who sat as chairman of the Health subcommittee of the Senate Finance Committee, was also president of a private, for-profit health consulting firm called the LY Group. The ethics committee found that Young used his position and influence to leverage $10,000–99,000 into the LY Group. In addition, the committee found that Young solicited and accepted a number of gifts in violation of the ethics law, including a $24,800 1995 blue Lincoln Town Car. He was later acquitted of criminal bribery charges. In popular culture. Young has since presented a talk radio show, and played a talk radio show host in the HBO drama "The Wire". In an essay in the official series guide, "The Wire: Truth Be Told", William Zorzi implies that the character of the corrupt and venal Maryland State Senator Clay Davis is patterned on Young. The details of Larry Young's false abduction report and the resulting political aftermath is described in David Simon's "". In the book, it is implied that Young's false report was an attempted cover up for his own assault against a political aide, in an argument over Young's sexual advances against the aide's fiancé. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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42454206
American philanthropist (1784–1878) Thomas Kelso (1784 – July 26, 1878) was an Irish-American philanthropist and businessman, who was born in Clones, a market town in the north of Ireland, August 28, 1784. He died on the morning of July 26, 1878 at his home of many years on East Baltimore Street in Baltimore, Maryland, at the age of 94. Life. Kelso's parents died when he was a child. He had two older brothers and a sister. Kelso came to the United States at age seven in 1791, arriving August 2 with his older brother John. The Kelso boys' oldest brother George was already in the U.S. working as a school teacher, and was known to be in the Baltimore vicinity. By chance, the three brothers were reunited while [John and Thomas?] were visiting the school George taught in. With $100 from George, the three began a successful butchering business. In 1807 he married Miss Ellen Cross, daughter of John and Jane Cross, well known and highly respected citizens of Cecil County in northeast Maryland. His daughter, Mrs. Jane Kelso Guiteau, later the widow of the Rev. S. Guiteau, never recovered from her father's death and died suddenly in December 1878, at the landmark Carrollton Hotel, at the northeast corner of Light and German (now Redwood) Streets. Public life. One of the most prominent and influential citizens of his adopted home city in the 19th Century. During his career, he was a director in the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad for 37 years, which built its southern terminus in 1849–1850, east of the harbor "basin" (today's modern "Inner Harbor") at President and Fleet Streets of the President Street Station, (which is today the Baltimore Civil War Museum, with its landmark architectural design, the oldest big city train depot left in America and a historic site in the American Civil War for the infamous "Pratt Street Riots" with the "First Bloodshed of the Civil War" of April 19, 1861). Kelso was also the president of the Baltimore Equitable Fire Insurance Company, one of the oldest such fire insurers in the nation. vice president and director in the First National Bank of Baltimore, principal Director and principal stockholder in the Baltimore Steam Packet Company (locally famous as "The Old Bay Line") and the Seaboard and Roanoke Railroad Company, president of the Preachers' Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and member and later President of the Board of Trustees of the Male Free School of Baltimore, organized 1802 under the direction of the trustees of the Methodist Episcopal Churches of Baltimore in the school room at the old Light Street Methodist Episcopal Church (between Baltimore and German (later Redwood) Streets, second site of the former historic Lovely Lane Meeting House or Chapel, (off German (now Redwood) Street, east of South Calvert Street), then known as the First Methodist Episcopal Church when constructing its 1884 "Centennial Monument of American Methodism" building at St. Paul and 23rd Streets in the Peabody Heights, now Charles Village neighborhood. From June 2, 1861 through March 29, 1862, Kelso served on the military-appointed Baltimore City Board of Police Commissioners, which oversaw the Baltimore Police Department. Later the Male Free School was incorporated in 1808, by January 1813, the school was moved to 39-1/2 Courtland Street by East Saratoga Street (today's St. Paul Street and Place, near "Preston Gardens"). Kelso succeeded the earlier presidents of the Board of Trustees, beginning with George Roberts 1808–1828, and William Wilkins, 1828–1833 at the death of Mr. Wilkins. Kelso remained in the presiding office until his death almost forty-five years later, he was succeeded by John B. Seidenstricker, a member of the Baltimore City Council and author of the resolution which established The High School of Baltimore in 1839, later the Male High School, then the Central High School of Baltimore – today's Baltimore City College, the third oldest public high school in America. The object of the Male Free School was to educate poor children without regard to creed and was increased by a bequest from Miss Rachel Colvin of $10,000 to enable the trustees of the Male Free School of Baltimore to expand its pupils to include girls, and so established the Colvin Institute for Girls. Kelso was a contemporary and associate of another well known Baltimore merchant, financier and philanthropist, Enoch Pratt, (1808–1896), who founded and endowed the first public library circulating system in America, and the city's new public library, the Enoch Pratt Free Library in 1882–1886. They served together on the board of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad Company. Politically, he was a member of the Baltimore City Council for several terms, when there was no salary attached to the position. His philanthropic efforts were his several gifts to the various charities of the national and local Baltimore Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church; including $14,000 to the Metropolitan Methodist Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C. and $12,000 to the M.E. denomination's Church Extension Society. He also established the Kelso Home (also known as the Kelso Orphans Asylum) with besides its property site at No. 87 East Baltimore Street, an original bequest of $120,000, included an annuity of $5,000 per year. It opened on January 1, 1874. for orphans in 1872. The first location for the home was almost directly across the street from his residence in the Jonestown or Old Town neighborhood, east of the Jones Falls. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,060
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42454206
An act to eliminate the 2013 statutory pay adjustment for Federal employees () is a bill that was introduced into and passed by the United States House of Representatives in the 113th United States Congress. It was introduced by Rep. Ron DeSantis (R-FL) on January 15, 2013 and it passed the House with a vote of 261-154 on February 15, 2013. The bill would prevent a 0.5% pay increase for all federal workers from taking effect, continuing a pay freeze that has been in effect since 2011. According to the Congressional Budget Office, this measure would save the federal government $11 billion over 10 years. Background. In December 2010, President Obama issued executive order carrying out a two-year federal employee pay freeze. Two years later, on December 27, 2012, he issued a new order, Executive Order , which would end the pay freeze and give civilian federal employees a 0.5% raise in 2013. The bill was proposed in response to this executive order. Procedural history. Introduction. The bill was introduced into the House by Rep. Ron DeSantis (R-FL) on January 15, 2013. By the time the Bill has passed in the House, H.R. 273 had gained 48 co-sponsors, all of them Republicans. The Bill was referred to the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. The Bill was freshman congressman Ron DeSantis' first bill introduced in Congress. Passage in the House. The Bill passed the House on February 15, 2013 with a vote of 261-154. The vote was Roll No. 44. 218 Republicans voted in favor, with only 10 voting against. 43 Democrats voted in favor, with 144 against. Referral to the Senate. The Bill was referred to the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. The Bill did not pass the Democratic-controlled Senate. Provisions of the Bill. The Bill would amend the Continuing Appropriations Act of 2011 (which was itself amended by the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (Pub. L. )), to extend through December 31, 2013: (1) the freeze on statutory pay adjustments for federal employees and officials, and (2) the prohibition against any member of the Senior Executive Service or any senior level employee in the executive branch from receiving an increase in his or her rate of basic pay absent a change of position that results in a substantial increase in responsibility or a promotion. The Bill also would eliminate the delayed statutory pay adjustment contained in the 2013 Continuing Appropriations Resolution that was permitted to take effect with the first applicable pay period beginning after March 27, 2013. The Bill would only prevent an across-the-board increase to all federal employees' pay. It would not effect merit pay, promotions, or tenure based pay increases. According to the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office, enacting the Bill would save the government $11 billion over 10 years. Arguments in favor. Republican lawmakers, such as Rep. Rob Woodall (R-GA), argued that it was necessary to freeze federal pay due to the debt crisis the government faced and further argued that this was appropriate because federal workers already make more money on average than their private sector counterparts, according to a 2012 Congressional Budget Office report. The two-year pay freeze that federal workers experienced was originally recommended by the bipartisan Simpson-Bowles Commission to last three-years instead of two. The Bill was supported by conservative groups such as the Club for Growth, Heritage Action, the National Taxpayers Union, Americans for Tax Reform, and FreedomWorks. Arguments against. The White House released a statement opposing the Bill, arguing that federal workers had not received any raises since 2011. The President did not, however, threaten to veto the Bill. Federal employee unions, as well as organizations such as the National Active and Retired Federal Employees Association, also expressed opposition to the Bill. Joseph Beaudoin, the President of NARFE, argued that “continuing the pay freeze will only exacerbate the problem of an underpaid federal workforce and weaken the quality of our federal civil service over time.” Other arguments against the Bill included one from Rep. Bill Pascrell (D-NJ) who said that “this is one of the dumbest bills I’ve ever seen come to this floor” because any savings would not significantly affect the deficit. Notes/References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,061
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401535, 3087558, 1891832, 2389322, 1077955, 2329019, 2358581, 1730299, 716164, 612981, 1716101, 1805650, 2392551, 4534637, 2463727, 2390225, 2262245, 3289907, 1162387, 2348149, 2738326, 1212749, 3778152, 2303362, 1080372, 1815905, 2467472, 1013618, 2338705, 99244, 1393215, 3558488, 2379704, 4534574, 2354367, 985678, 3407134, 349325, 1156983, 1809751, 2426047, 1431797, 3470868, 4436383, 3176371, 1557842, 1501260, 1220011, 1890927, 2313634, 3718306, 3699607, 4474004, 2922279, 254605, 192961, 3030540, 1734672, 1156907, 2345090, 2348032, 2268966, 1214261, 731269, 192954, 1062578, 1708790, 1709849, 2123188, 434357, 201411, 4184741, 2467839, 2113151, 2753858, 304743, 3655972, 2442232, 2585433, 193082, 4162033, 3950433, 2397580, 4300385, 3873278, 4144879, 2450405, 2332899, 1157115, 3555272, 2973453, 2190422, 2396513, 310642, 1865117, 1085173, 2367083, 2317788, 4394419, 1615652, 4286097, 1214236, 2687711, 4471712, 3973261, 3111309, 3080037, 117623, 1600322, 193100, 3852816, 2421468, 2443122, 3534094, 406278, 4449889, 2548148, 2434085, 4267820, 2448818, 3979339, 1623863, 4192283, 3254352, 1466840, 1253620, 3082127, 3403181, 1479230, 3418306, 2314707, 3454152, 1633608, 2448373, 2988697, 805370, 2320994, 3431188, 3176353, 3397718, 4422901, 99391, 3677403, 2786721, 2460277, 738428, 3512348, 2999983, 1009929, 608649, 2371140, 2967879, 2720465, 2412843, 3152613, 4255201, 4145446, 2338778, 597373, 2407097, 164617, 4069518, 824509, 3707545, 3914937, 1269173, 3385049, 1491458, 3239056, 2183231, 2381985, 4081916, 435900, 2449082, 690961, 2446804, 835647, 3342271, 2231754, 4326758, 2528939, 4190861, 1924843, 3240735, 1225772, 3778816, 3308408, 2429540, 441953, 2988671, 1780781, 3703357, 900042, 2362750, 1679519, 3582372, 2322440, 4221270, 2394923, 2777471, 2465596, 2877573, 2335695, 946141, 3183111, 99291, 917716, 1647508, 2331227, 1892211, 2209509, 1567461, 237196, 857719, 3910894, 403425, 748419, 2320005, 870225, 2442563, 3409687, 608587, 1320940, 1402480, 265486, 99372, 2405475, 1673697, 2388720, 3473842, 1891759, 438992, 1102928, 262634, 2362693, 782228, 851051, 387259, 1106685, 2323850, 584243, 3109905, 4453599, 854927, 2988619, 2373214, 1574707, 2359725, 3024209, 2322789, 2421972, 2419566, 819140, 2309627, 585202, 1584559, 2441505, 1749976, 3346197, 3315978, 531581, 1575424, 3881844, 2449711, 1759210, 3406718, 3430359, 3172744, 2339825, 162909, 862298, 3445151, 2201005, 1752274, 3152679, 793091, 1213009, 3145751, 554403, 1775413, 4296843, 660903, 3502645, 3008066, 895497, 922898, 921406, 4534564, 3881610, 1563523, 3375235, 1388669, 2439002, 1854984, 3080003, 3902759, 4128676, 2444874, 164694, 3407432, 2375224, 4228357, 3308591, 1189589, 914398, 1507784, 4066741, 1848195, 3391539, 2370965, 3909045, 3341564, 4506477, 4263512, 1485581, 3366045, 2358486, 680322, 197503, 3411776, 3481021, 4267651, 3811054, 3832007, 3451720, 526344, 3758481, 967489, 2397742, 3917402, 2887348, 156016, 812526, 4467951, 892684, 1317933, 4134894, 843125, 323045, 2409057, 3784380, 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The 2002 Maryland Senate election were held on November 5, 2002, to elect senators in all 47 districts of the Maryland Senate. Members were elected in single-member constituencies to four-year terms. These elections were held concurrently with various federal and state elections, including for Governor of Maryland. Summary. Closest races. Seats where the margin of victory was under 10%: Detailed results. All election results are from the Maryland State Board of Elections. District 1. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 2. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 3. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 4. Republican primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 5. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 6. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 7. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 8. Democratic state senator Thomas L. Bromwell resigned from the Maryland Senate on May 24, 2002, after Governor Parris Glendening appointed him to chair the Maryland Injured Workers' Insurance Fund. John R. Schneider, who Glendening appointed to replace Bromwell in the Senate, died from colon cancer on August 27, 2002. Therefore, the seat had no incumbent state senator. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 9. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 10. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 11. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 12. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 13. Republican primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 14. In January 2002, Governor Parris Glendening appointed Robert H. Kittleman to succeed Christopher J. McCabe in the Maryland Senate following his resignation to serve as the Director of the Office of Intergovernmental Affairs within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Following redistricting, the district had no incumbent. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 15. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 16. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 17. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 18. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 19. Republican primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 20. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 21. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 22. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 23. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 24. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 25. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 26. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 27. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 28. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 29. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 30. Republican primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 31. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 32. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 33. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 34. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 35. Republican primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 36. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 37. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 38. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 39. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 40. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 41. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 42. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 43. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 44. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 45. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 46. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 47. Democratic primary. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% General election. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,062
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American politician (born 1950) Benjamin Thomas Brooks Sr. (born April 23, 1950) is an American politician who has served as a member of the Maryland Senate for District 10, based in Baltimore County, since 2023. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously represented the district in the Maryland House of Delegates from 2015 to 2023. Early life and education. Benjamin Thomas Brooks Sr. was born in Sumter, South Carolina, on April 23, 1950. He was the fourth child and first son of Thomas Brooks Jr. and Hester Loouise Lane Brooks. Brooks graduated from Ebenezer High School. After graduating, Brooks served in the United States Army from 1969 to 1972, where he worked as a telephone repairman and earned the Accommodations Medal, Army Good Conduct Medal, National Defense Medal, and the Vietnam Service Medal, and afterwards attended South Carolina State University, where he earned a bachelor of science degree in accounting in 1976. Career. After graduating from South Carolina State, Brooks worked as an accountant for Seagram, first as a junior accountant from 1976 to 1978 and then as a cost accountant until 1987. He has run his own tax service company, B & R Brooks Professional Tax Service, since 1987 and his own investment firm, Brooks Family Investments Inc., since 2004. Brooks first got involved in politics in 2010, when he was elected as a member of the Baltimore County Democratic Central Committee. In December 2010, Baltimore County Executive Kevin Kamenetz appointed Brooks as chair of the county's liquor board, where he served until 2013. Maryland General Assembly. Brooks ran for the Maryland House of Delegates in District 10 in 2014, during which he won the Democratic primary alongside Jay Jalisi and incumbent Adrienne A. Jones. He was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 14, 2015, where he served on the Economic Matters Committee during his entire tenure and as the chair of its public utilities subcommittee from 2019 to 2023. Brooks also served as deputy majority whip from 2017 to 2023. In 2019, Brooks sought to run for Treasurer of Maryland, challenging incumbent Nancy Kopp, but missed the deadline for filing to run. Despite this, Brooks received 24 votes in the treasurer election. In 2022, Brooks ran for the Maryland Senate in District 10, seeking to succeed retiring state Senator Delores G. Kelley. During the Democratic primary, he was endorsed by Kelley and ran on a slate with Adrienne Jones, N. Scott Phillips, and Jennifer White. He also faced colleague Jay Jalisi, whom he defeated with 37.6 percent of the vote. Brooks was sworn into the Maryland Senate on January 11, 2023, and has since served on the Education, Energy, and the Environment Committee. Brooks is a member of the Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland and the Maryland Veterans Caucus. He was a delegate to the 2016 Democratic National Convention, pledged to Hillary Clinton. Political positions. In November 2015, Brooks signed onto a letter calling on Governor Larry Hogan to allow refugees of the Syrian civil war into Maryland after Hogan said that he would ask the Obama administration to stop sending such refugees to the state. During the 2020 legislative session, Brooks introduced a bill to create timelines for Maryland's remaining power plants to transition away from coal and establish a transition fund to mitigate economic impacts for employees. The bill was withdrawn after he and Senate sponsor Chris West announced a deal with AES Corporation that would cause the Warrior Run Generating Station to stop burning coal in 2030. In November 2020, Brooks expressed support for stricter regulations on police. He attended a simulated police training exercise hosted by the Maryland Fraternal Order of Police, which he said gave him emphasize with the split-second decisions officers have to make, but did not change his mind on policing reforms. In October 2021, Brooks joined a lawsuit against the Baltimore County Council's redistricting plan, which resulted in a new map with a second minority opportunity district. During the 2023 legislative session, Brooks introduced legislation to establish the Maryland Native Plants Program to encourage garden centers to plant native vegetation. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Wes Moore. Personal life. Brooks married his wife, Irene Theresa, on August 10, 1974. Together, they have three adult children. He is a member of the St. Gabriel Roman Catholic Church in Windsor Mill, Maryland. Awards and honors. In December 2024, during a visit to his hometown of Sumter, South Carolina, Brooks was issued a medallion by city officials and December 15, 2024, was declared Senator Benjamin T. Brooks Sr. Day. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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Bill Townsend (born c. 1965) is an entrepreneur who helped launch several leading Internet companies including search engine Lycos, social networking site SixDegrees, now LinkedIn, GeoCities (sold to Yahoo!) and Deja.com (sold to Google and eBay). He is President & CEO of TRICCAR, Inc., a publicly-held bioceutical research and development company focused on pharmaceutical and bioceutical solutions to common diseases. He is also President & CEO of Ontheline Corporation, a next generation communications and digital lifestyle platform Education. Townsend earned an MBA from Baylor University's Hankamer School of Business where he held the John Schoen Entrepreneur-in-Residence chair and lectured on leadership and entrepreneurship. He earned his BA at The College of Wooster and studied at Washington & Jefferson College and SDA Bocconi. Career. Townsend has founded, co-founded or served on the executive management team or on the board of directors at several global biomedicine, nutraceutical, Internet, and technology companies. Most notably of these companies is TRICCAR, Inc., a bioceutical firm focused on bioceutical and pharmaceutical research, development, and marketing, where he serves as President and Chief Executive Officer as well as the Internet search engine company Lycos. Lycos was acquired by Terra Networks, the Internet arm of the Spanish telecommunications giant Telefónica for $12.5 billion. Townsend served on the Board of Directors and oversaw the Marketplace division of the $2.8 billion Newegg.com company, the second largest pure-play e-commerce retailer behind Amazon. He oversaw the company's global marketplace division and its growth to over $280 million. Previously, he served on the boards of IAB, PacAirVentures, ReallyEasyInternet VOIP, and Futuristics.net. Philanthropy. In 2000, Townsend founded the Amati Foundation to help expand the stringed arts, specifically education in playing, making, and preserving the violin. Townsend began studying violin making under the tutelage of Ziang Mei and William Hilton (a student of Vhakn Nigogosian), and Alberti Genduso (who has studied with the German masters Horst Kloss and Karl Roy, director of the Bavarian State School of Violin Making in Mittenwald, Germany). Townsend has made musical instruments for the likes of Martie Maguire of The Chicks and concert violinist Anne Akiko Meyers. In 2005, he introduced a wood treatment system to increase sonority and harmonics in instrument making. This system, Il Cremonese Violin Treatments, matched the ground used by Antonio Stradivari on which to apply varnish and protect wood. Townsend is the son of Jacquelyn Mayer, Miss America 1963. He contributes time and funding to women's issues, education and animal welfare causes. Politics. Townsend was the 1992 Republican nominee for United States Congress in Pennsylvania's 20th Congressional District, narrowly losing to Democratic incumbent Austin Murphy. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician Eric M. Bromwell (born December 12, 1976) is an American politician from Maryland and a member of the Democratic Party. Bromwell represented district 8 in the Maryland House of Delegates from January 2003 to September 2019. In September 2019 he resigned from the Maryland House of Delegates to serve as opioid strategy coordinator for Baltimore County Executive Johnny Olszewski. Birth. Eric Bromwell was born in Baltimore, Maryland on December 12, 1976. Education. Eric Bromwell received his education from the following institutions: Caucuses/Non-Legislative Committees. Eric Bromwell has been a member of the following committees: Organizations. Eric Bromwell has been a member of the following organizations: Background. Bromwell was born in Baltimore and raised Catholic. He attended Calvert Hall College High School and Salisbury University and worked in various capacities for the media corporation Comcast both before and after being elected to office. In the legislature. As of 2008, Bromwell is serving in his 2nd term in the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Maryland's District 8 in Baltimore County. Bromwell is a member of the Health and Government Operations Committee. In 2007 he was Elected Chairman of the Baltimore County Delegation. Voters to choose three: Voters to choose three: Voters to choose three: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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State agency of Maryland, US The Maryland Department of Agriculture (MDA) is a state agency of Maryland. Its headquarters are in the Parole census-designated place in unincorporated Anne Arundel County, near Annapolis. The Department was established in 1972. As of 2023[ [update]], the Secretary of the department is Kevin Atticks, appointed by Governor Wes Moore. He was preceded in this position by Joseph Bartenfelder. The Department provides various initiatives to promote local agriculture, such as the "True Blue Maryland Crab Meat" ranking which allows local restaurants to certify restaurants that are serving local crabmeat rather than something imported from out of state. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1966) Juanita Sandra Bartlett (born January 6, 1966) is an American politician and lawyer who has served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates representing District 32 since 2019. Background. Bartlett was born in Washington, D.C. on January 6, 1966. She graduated from Howard University, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1987, and attended classes at the University of San Diego and Catholic University of America before receiving her Juris Doctor degree from Catholic University in 2007. Bartlett is a member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority and the NAACP. Bartlett worked as an intellectual property attorney with various D.C.-area law firms from 2000 to 2015, afterwards starting her own law office and working as an adjunct professor for Anne Arundel Community College since 2016. She was admitted to the Maryland Bar in 2014, and the Federal Bar in 2016. Bartlett first became involved in politics in 2006 as an alternate member of the Anne Arundel County Democratic Central Committee until 2010, when she became an elected member of the committee. In that same year, she also became a member of the West County Democratic Central Club and the District 32 Democratic Club. In August 2017, Bartlett announced that she would run for the Maryland House of Delegates in District 32. During the Democratic primary election, she ran on a slate with state delegates Mark S. Chang, Pamela Beidle, and Theodore J. Sophocleus (who was later replaced with Mike Rogers following his death). The district was targeted by the Maryland Republican Party and the Republican State Leadership Committee, who had hoped to defeat the Maryland Democratic Party's supermajority in the legislature. Bartlett won primary election in June 2018, and later defeated her Republican challengers in the general election with 20.7 percent of the vote. In the legislature. Bartlett was sworn in on January 9, 2019, and has been a member of the Judiciary Committee during her entire tenure, becoming its vice chair in 2023. She has also served as a deputy majority whip since 2020. In 2020, Bartlett became the first Black woman to serve as the chair of the Anne Arundel County Delegation, and became the first Black person elected to the position in December. Personal life. Bartlett lives in Maryland City, Maryland. She is married and has two children. She is Christian. In March 2019, Bartlett revealed that she had potentially terminal breast cancer and had a double mastectomy to remove it. Political positions. Crime and policing. During the 2020 legislative session, Bartlett introduced bills to automatically enroll inmates who complete their sentences into voter rolls. In June 2020, Bartlett attended a protest against police brutality in Severn, Maryland, where she promised to introduce regulations on police use of force. During the 2021 legislative session, she introduced a bill that would prohibit school resource officers from arresting and searching a student except in situations involving "serious bodily injury". The bill passed the House, but died in the Senate. In June 2021, she attended an NAACP protest in Annapolis after a video showing Ocean City police officers violently arrest five Black teenagers for vaping on the boardwalk surfaced on social media. During the 2022 legislative session, Bartlett introduced the Child Interrogation Act, which prevented police from interrogating underage defendants without first allowing them to consult with an attorney. The bill passed and became law. She also supported the Juvenile Justice Reform Act, which restricted the state's ability to charge children younger than thirteen for most offenses. Education. During the 2020 legislative session, Bartlett supported a bill to create a pilot program in elementary and middle schools to hire social workers to monitor students with behavioral, social, or legal difficulties. Gun policy. During the 2023 legislative session, Bartlett introduced Jaelynn's Law, which would require guns to be safely stored and inaccessible for children below the age of 18. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Wes Moore. In May 2023, she condemned a Severn man who gained national attention for protesting against gun control bills the legislature passed that year by carrying a semi-automatic rifle through his neighborhood, adding that she would look at introducing a bill in 2024 to prevent people from doing this. National politics. Bartlett condemned the January 6 United States Capitol attack as an "attempt at sedition" and expressed solidarity with congressional lawmakers and workers. Social issues. In 2019, Bartlett voted for a bill to allow palliative care for terminally ill patients. During the 2020 legislative session, Bartlett supported the CROWN Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of hair style and texture. The bill passed and became law. She also introduced a bill to ban "Request to Suspend Investigation" waiver forms in sexual assault cases. In July 2020, Bartlett signed onto a letter calling on regional news organizations to increase employee diversity. During the 2023 legislative session, Bartlett introduced a bill to prohibit police from arresting and charging child victims of trafficking. The bill passed and became law. Taxes. During the 2021 legislative session, Bartlett introduced a bill that would allow the Anne Arundel County Council to impose real estate transfer taxes on properties worth over $1 million. The bill passed the legislature, but was vetoed by Governor Larry Hogan. The legislature overrode Hogan's veto on the bill during the 2021 special legislative session. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1991) Teresa Saavedra Woorman (born September 2, 1991) is an American politician who is a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from the 16th district. Early life and education. Woorman was born in Puebla, Mexico on September 2, 1991. Woorman and her family immigrated to Montgomery County, Maryland when she was nine years old. After graduating from Northwest High School in 2009, she attended Montgomery College, where she earned an associate's degree in international business in 2012, and the University of Maryland, College Park, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in government and politics in 2015. Woorman became a U.S. citizen while attending college. Political career. Woorman worked for the Maryland General Assembly for seven years after graduating, including as chief of staff and legislative director for several of its members from 2016 to 2021 and as the campaign manager of 21st district incumbents in 2018. She was also the executive vice president of Maryland Young Democrats from 2023 to 2024, and the chair of Pro-Choice Maryland's board of directors from 2022 to 2024. Woorman ran for delegate to the 2020 Democratic National Convention, pledged to Pete Buttigieg in the primary. She attended the 2020 Democratic National Convention pledged to Joe Biden. She was a delegate to the 2024 Democratic National Convention pledged to Kamala Harris. During the 2022 Maryland elections, she served as the campaign manager for Marc Elrich's reelection campaign and as the deputy finance director for Brooke Lierman's Comptroller campaign. Since 2023, Woorman has worked as a public information officer for the Montgomery County government. Maryland House of Delegates. In April 2022, Woorman was selected to fill a vacancy on the Montgomery County Democratic Central Committee. She was then elected to this position in July 2022, and became the party's secretary in December 2022. In June 2024, following the appointment of state delegate Sara N. Love to the Maryland Senate after Ariana Kelly's resignation, Woorman applied to serve the remainder of Love's term in the Maryland House of Delegates. During interviews with the Montgomery County Democratic Central Committee (MCDCC), she told party members that she would prioritize housing affordability, ethics reforms, and health equity bills in the legislature. The MCDCC voted 14–10 to nominate Woorman on July 11, 2024. She was sworn in on August 12, 2024 and is a member of the Health and Government Operations Committee. Woorman has been recognized for her leadership and contributions within the political community. In 2023, she was honored with The Dorothy Davidson Award from the Montgomery County Young Democrats. In 2024, she received the Emerging Leader Award from the Latino Democratic Club of Montgomery County, highlighting her influence and dedication to the Latino community. Personal life. Woorman is married to her husband, Matthew, an opera singer, and they live in Bethesda, Maryland. Woorman received national attention during the 2024 Democratic National Convention, one week after being sworn in to the Maryland House of Delegates. The camera panned to Woorman during Oprah Winfrey's prime time speech, immediately after Winfrey's reference to JD Vance's remarks regarding "childless cat ladies." Many watching the convention live found this humorous, comparing the broadcast's camerawork to the comedic camera pans used on "The Wendy Williams Show", resulting in the moment going viral. Woorman responded to the moment graciously, confirming on social media that she currently has two cats (Snow White and Oscar), a dog (Gatsby), and no children. A few weeks after the convention in September 2024, Winfrey sent Woorman a bouquet of "over 300" roses, a basket of cat toys, a litter vacuum, and a note that said, "Thank you for rising to this moment with grace and humor". Woorman is fluent in Spanish, English, French, and Italian. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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Maryland, US law The Blueprint for Maryland's Future, also referred to as just The Blueprint, is a landmark law in the U.S. state of Maryland. The bill represents a 10-year plan that aims to implement a series of education reforms recommended by the Commission on Innovation and Excellence in Education, including expanding universal preschool, increasing funding for schools with high concentrations of poverty, increasing pay and opportunities for teachers, and creating career pathways for high school students. The law, as passed, will increase state education funding by $3.8 billion each year until 2032. Background. During the 2016 legislative session, the Maryland General Assembly unanimously passed House Bill 999, establishing the Commission on Innovation and Excellence in Education (also known as the "Kirwan Commission") to study whether state formulas in education are equitable and provide students with enough resources for preparing for college. The commission was seen as a successor to the Maryland Commission on Education Finance, Equity, and Excellence (also known as the "Thornton Commission", named after its chairman Alvin Thornton), whose final report led to the 2002 Bridge to Excellence in Public Schools Act that increased public school funding by more than 100 percent in the decade following its implementation. At the time of the commission's creation, Maryland students were performing at or below the median among the 50 states in reading and math, faced large achievement gaps based on race and income, and suffered a severe teacher shortage and retention problems. In August 2016, Governor Larry Hogan appointed University System of Maryland chancellor emeritus William Kirwan to chair the commission, which consisted of 26 members including Kirwan. The commission was tasked with making recommendations in five major policy areas, including early childhood education, increasing teacher pay, implementing rigorous school curricula, providing additional resources to struggling schools, and creating accountability for underperformance. The commission studied the practices of top-performing school systems in nations including Finland, Singapore, Canada, and China, as well as the U.S. states of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. In January 2019, the commission released an interim report, which included several proposals for boosting Maryland schools, including universal preschool for low-income 3- and 4- year olds, hiring and retaining teachers, increasing education standards, and establishing an accountability system to oversee the implementation of the commission's recommendations. The commission released its final 243-page report on November 21, 2019. The report included $4 billion in education reform proposals, with the state contributing $2.8 billion and counties and Baltimore City about $1.2 billion, and sought full implementation of its recommendations by fiscal year 2030. 19 of the commission's 22 members voted in favor of the proposal, with only state senator Mary Beth Carozza and Queen Anne's County commissioner Jack Wilson voting against it, citing concerns about funding. According to "Maryland Matters", the plan's recommendations included: Passage. The Blueprint for Maryland's Future bill was first introduced during the 2019 legislative session as House Bill 1413 (Senate Bill 1030) by Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates Michael E. Busch. The bill included $725 million in education funding through fiscal year 2022, which would pay for school-based health centers, free school lunches for schools in impoverished areas, raises for teachers, and grants for improving teacher standards. The bill passed the Maryland General Assembly on April 3, 2019, and became law without Governor Larry Hogan's signature. Passing the Blueprint for Maryland's Future became a major issue during the 2020 legislative session following the release of the commission's final report in November 2019. The Blueprint bill was introduced during the 2020 legislative session by Maryland Senate president Bill Ferguson and Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates Adrienne A. Jones. While in the Maryland Senate, multiple amendments were made to the bill, including a "checkpoint" to test the success of the reforms by 2026, as well as another that would limit the amount of extra spending on the Blueprint if the state's revenues drop by 7.5 percent per year. The bill passed the Maryland House of Delegates by a 96–41 vote on March 7, and later passed the Maryland Senate by a vote of 37–9. The bill was sent back to the House for final passage, where it passed by a 96–38 vote on March 17. In May 2020, Governor Hogan vetoed the Blueprint for Maryland's Future, citing the massive hit on Maryland's economy from the COVID-19 pandemic. This veto also blocked the implementation of the Build to Learn Act, a bill that would have provided $2.2 billion in extra funding for school construction which contained a provision preventing it from going into effect until the Kirwan bill became law. On February 12, 2021, the Maryland General Assembly voted to override Hogan's veto of the Kirwan bill. Leaders of the Maryland General Assembly also introduced a bill to adjust the implementation timeline of the Blueprint to account for Hogan's veto, which passed and became law without Governor Hogan's signature. Debate over funding. The final report's release in November 2019 sparked a debate between both Democrats and Republicans in the Maryland General Assembly. In January 2019, the Maryland Center of Economic Policy, a liberal think tank, released a report detailing ways to pay for the Blueprint for Maryland's Future through changes to the state's income tax, corporate tax, and sales tax systems. The Maryland Department of Budget and Management estimated that paying for the proposals would require a 39 percent in the personal income tax, an 89 percent increase in the sales tax, or a 535 percent increase in the property tax. In January 2020, the leaders of the Maryland General Assembly said they would not raise income, property, or sales tax rates to pay for the Blueprint's recommendations. Democratic lawmakers evaluated a series of proposals aimed at raising funds to pay for the Kirwan reforms, including cuts to tax credits, a carbon tax, and closing corporate tax loopholes. In January 2020, progressive members of the Maryland House of Delegates proposed a package of bills to pay for the Blueprint, including eliminating subsidy programs, combined reporting for multi-state corporations, and restructuring the state's income tax brackets. In March 2020, Maryland House Democrats introduced a bill that would apply the state's 6% sales tax to digital services, including video streaming services, cable and satellite plans, and online news subscriptions. Hogan vetoed the digital sales tax bill after it passed the Maryland General Assembly on May 7, 2020, citing the COVID-19 pandemic. The Maryland General Assembly voted to override the veto on February 12, 2021. As of March 2023, the Blueprint is fully funded only until 2026 and will run into deficit in 2027. David Romans, coordinator of fiscal and policy analysis for the Department of Legislative Services, said in March 2023 that "ongoing revenues in the Blueprint fund are nowhere near enough to pay for the costs, which continue to grow each year through 2034". Support and opposition. Support for the Blueprint for Maryland's Future consisted of a coalition of Democratic state legislators, educators, and labor unions. The opposition to the Blueprint consisted of Governor Larry Hogan and Maryland Republican politicians. Arguments supporting the Blueprint included rewriting state funding formulas, improving education outcomes for students, increasing support for teachers, and leveling educational inequities. Arguments in opposition to the Blueprint included how the reforms were funded. Republican members of the Maryland House of Delegates bitterly fought the proposals, arguing that they would cost taxpayers $32 billion over 10 years without a clear way to pay for them. Republican criticism continued through the 2021 legislative session, during which Republican leaders including Michael Hough and Bryan Simonaire called the bill's passage fiscally irresponsible. Simonaire called on Democratic lawmakers to scrap the bill in January 2021, saying that its recommendations had become outdated because of the changes made to learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. State senator Paul G. Pinsky, who led efforts to pass the Blueprint bill in 2020, acknowledged these criticisms in passing the Kirwan 2.0 bill, saying that the focus of the bill was "getting students up a grade level... who got crushed during the last 14 months." Governor Hogan repeatedly said that he would veto any proposed tax increase to pay for the Kirwan reforms, referring to the workgroup as the "Kirwan Tax Hike Commission" in public statements, even though the panel's role was not to change state tax rates. Kirwan called Hogan's criticism of the Blueprint "unfair" and urged him to back the plan. Hogan received further criticism for his subsequent veto of the bill, with members of the Maryland Parent-Teachers Association urging members of the Maryland General Assembly to override his veto during the 2021 legislative session. In May 2020, the Maryland House Minority Caucus sent a letter to Hogan urging him to veto the Blueprint bill and tax bills to fund it, citing the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the state. In January 2020, Prince George's County executive Angela Alsobrooks and Baltimore mayor Jack Young were supportive of the Kirwan Commission's proposed reforms, but expressed concern with the costs associated with implementing the recommendations and asked lawmakers to alter the funding formulas in the bill. Alsobrooks said that she would not raise taxes on Prince George's County residents to pay for the reforms, and told reporters that funding the Blueprint reforms would require the county to defund its police department. In response to Alsobrooks and Young's concerns, the bill was amended to limit the bill's financial burden on poorer areas of the state, cutting the costs for Baltimore City and Prince George's County by over 50 percent. 2022 gubernatorial election. Support for the Blueprint continued to be a relevant topic in the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, as the next governor's willingness to support or block the Blueprint plan would have a significant impact on Maryland schools. Most of the Democratic candidates for governor, including John King Jr., Wes Moore, and Tom Perez, made promises during their campaigns to support and provide funding for the Blueprint if they were elected governor. Comptroller Peter Franchot also said during his campaign that he would support the Blueprint as governor, but added that he had some skepticism toward the stability of Blueprint funding sources for the full decade. Franchot's opponents had accused him of flip-flopping on his support for the Blueprint, citing his opposition toward the proposal during legislative debates. The Republican candidates in the race were less committal to supporting the Blueprint, with Kelly M. Schulz emphasizing support for school choice and charter schools during her campaign, and Dan Cox saying he would "remove critical race theory from public schools" if elected governor. Cox was a vocal critic of the Blueprint's implementation, voting against the reforms during the 2021 legislative session. In April 2022, the Maryland State Education Association endorsed Moore's campaign, citing his support for the Blueprint reform effort. During his campaign, he promised to "work closely with local governments to make sure they are on board with their commitments to the Blueprint" and supported instituting universal preschool and increasing funding for school construction, teacher wages, and after-school programs. Moore and Cox won the nomination of their parties following the primary election on July 19, 2022. Both nominees ran on opposing education platforms in the general election, with Moore emphasizing his support for the Blueprint and Cox highlighting his support for letting parents restrict school curriculum. Moore defeated Cox in the general election on November 8. Implementation. The Accountability and Implementation Board (AIB), which was established through 2020 Blueprint bill, began accepting applicants to ensure the implementation of the Kirwan Commission's reforms on July 9, 2021. Governor Hogan nominated seven members to the AIB on October 1, which met for the first time on November 16. The AIB has struggled to meet the deadlines as proposed in the Blueprint law due to a lack of funding and staffing. In February 2022, the AIB approved a new timeline that pushed back select key dates for the Blueprint's implementation. Following this, the Maryland General Assembly voted in March 2022 to pass a bill to again delay the implementation of the Blueprint, aligning with the dates proposed in their timeline. In December 2022, the AIB unanimously voted to adopt the $3.8 billion education plan. School systems had until March 15, 2023, to submit plans for fulfilling the Blueprint's funding requirements for the 2023-2024 school year. As of December 2024, the AIB has approved Blueprint implementation plans for all school districts save for Baltimore County. In January 2023, Governor Wes Moore released his first budget, which proposed
4,558,069
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American mayor (1872–1926) James French Strange (February 9, 1872 – September 9, 1926) was a politician, banker and merchant from Maryland. He served as Mayor of Annapolis from 1909 to 1919 and as a member of the Maryland Senate from 1924 to 1925. Early life. James French Strange was born on February 9, 1872, in Annapolis, Maryland, to Caroline M. (née Yewell) and Robert Ellis Strange (1846–1908). He attended schools in Annapolis. Career. Strange worked as a merchant with his father in his contracting business Robert E. Strange & Sons. Strange enlisted in Company G, 1st Infantry Regiment of the Regular Army. He served for nine years. Strange worked as a banker and served as vice president of the Annapolis & Eastport Building & Loan Association. He was director of the Annapolis Banking & Trust Company. Strange served as president of the board of county almshouse Strange served as Mayor of Annapolis from 1909 to 1919. Strange served as vice president of the Fortification Conference of mayors of cities on the Chesapeake Bay. He served as election supervisor in Annapolis in 1921. He served as a member of the Annapolis City Council from 1903 to 1911. Strange was a Democrat. He served as a member of the Maryland Senate from 1924 to 1925. Personal life. Strange married Julia Maud Higgins on February 9, 1898. They had one son, Robert French (born 1898). They divorced in 1912 and she died in 1919. Strange married Geneva Kiddler on January 2, 1924, in Baltimore. He was a member and vestryman of St. Anne's Episcopal Church. Strange lived at 159 Main Street in Annapolis. Strange died on September 9, 1926, in Annapolis. He was buried at the family lot at St. Anne's Cemetery in Annapolis. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,070
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Governor of Wyoming since 2019 Mark Gordon (born March 14, 1957) is an American politician serving as the 33rd governor of Wyoming since January 7, 2019. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as state treasurer; then-governor Matt Mead appointed him to that position on October 26, 2012, to fill the vacancy created by the death of Joseph Meyer. Early life and education. Gordon was born in New York City, the son of Catherine (née Andrews) and Crawford Gordon. Gordon’s father grew up on Drumlin Farm, in Lincoln, Massachusetts. His parents married on October 27, 1945, at the First Unitarian Church of Kennebunk, Maine, before settling at their ranch in Kaycee, Wyoming, in 1947. Gordon’s paternal grandmother was the philanthropist Louise Ayer Hatheway. His paternal great-grandfather was the industrialist and mill magnate Frederick Ayer, founder of the American Woolen Company, and younger brother of the patent medicine tycoon James Cook Ayer, both of Lowell, Massachusetts. He is a nephew of the socialite Jean Gordon. Gordon is also a great-nephew by marriage of General George S. Patton, and a first cousin once removed of General George Patton IV. He was raised on his family's ranch in Johnson County, Wyoming. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Middlebury College in 1979. Career. 2008 congressional run. In 2008, Gordon was an unsuccessful candidate in the Republican primary for the United States House of Representatives for Wyoming's at-large congressional district seat held by Barbara Cubin, who was retiring. His main opponent was Cynthia Lummis, also a former state treasurer and the wife of a Democratic former state representative, Alvin Wiederspahn. Former U.S. senator Alan K. Simpson of Cody, considered a moderate Republican, defended Gordon's candidacy but stopped short of an outright endorsement because he was also friendly with Lummis. Former U.S. senator Malcolm Wallop endorsed Gordon, as did the late Joseph B. Meyer, who was serving as state treasurer at the time. In the primary, Gordon garnered the endorsements of Wyoming's two most prominent statewide newspapers, "The Casper Star-Tribune" and the "Wyoming Tribune Eagle". Though polls and the financial advantage rested with Gordon in the primary campaign, he lost the nomination to Lummis. Treasurer of Wyoming. Gordon was Treasurer of Wyoming from 2012 to 2019. He was sworn in as treasurer on November 1, 2012, by Wyoming Supreme Court Justice William Hill, after being selected by Governor Matt Mead. Gordon was elected to a full term as treasurer in 2014. Governor of Wyoming. 2018 election. Gordon declined to run for Cynthia Lummis's seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 2016, the one he ran for in 2008, and instead ran for governor of Wyoming in 2018. He won the Republican primary on August 21 and the general election on November 6, defeating Democratic state representative Mary Throne. Gordon was inaugurated on January 7, 2019. 2022 election. Gordon was reelected to a second term against Democratic nominee Theresa Livingston in the general election. Tenure. Gordon was sworn in on January 7, 2019. Amid a November 2020 spike in coronavirus cases, Gordon imposed some restrictions on indoor and outdoor public gatherings. He did not implement curfews, temporarily close any businesses or initially impose a statewide mask mandate. Gordon and his wife, Jennie Gordon, contracted COVID-19 later in the month. In December 2020, Gordon imposed a statewide mask mandate. In February 2021, he extended that order until the end of the month. On March 8, 2021, he announced that he would lift the mask mandate on March 16. On March 16, the mask mandate was lifted. As of March 30, Gordon has no plans to reinstate the mask mandate. In November 2020, Gordon proposed $500 million in cuts to the Wyoming budget to account for declining revenue from the fossil fuel industry (particularly coal mining), which is crucial to Wyoming's economy. On April 2, 2021, he signed a budget passed by the Wyoming legislature that cut $430 million instead of the $500 million Gordon proposed, due to improved budget forecasts for the year of 2021 and supplemental money from the American Rescue Plan Act signed by President Biden. The budget Gordon signed decreases the amount cut to the University of Wyoming and the Wyoming Department of Health. In 2021, a "New York Times" investigation revealed that Gordon had been targeted by hard-right conservatives, such as Susan Gore, the heiress to the Gore-Tex fortune. Gore funded secret operatives who targeted Gordon. Part of this is due to Gordon's investment in renewable energy and policy on climate change, which led to a vote of no confidence by the state party. Gordon has embraced wind energy as a part of Wyoming's economic exports, such as the developing Chokecherry and Sierra Madre Wind Energy Project. As of 2022, Gordon often polls as one of the nation's most popular governors. On March 7, 2024, Gordon banned Delta 8 hemp in Wyoming. Political positions. Abortion. On March 18, 2023, Gordon signed SF0109 into law, which banned abortion pills in Wyoming. Personal life. Gordon met his first wife, the former Sarah Hildreth Gilmore, at Middlebury College. They married on March 7, 1981, in the Second Congregational Church in Greenfield, Massachusetts, where her parents resided. In 1993, she died in an automobile accident. They had two daughters. In 1998 Gordon met his current wife, the former Jennie Muir Young, and they married in 2000. Together they own the Merlin Ranch east of Buffalo in Johnson County, Wyoming. In 2009, their ranch received the Society for Range Management Wyoming Section "Excellence in Rangeland Stewardship" award. On November 25, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Gordon tested positive for the virus on the same day his office was to be reopened, after an employee of his had tested positive earlier. Gordon's office remained closed temporarily for deep-cleaning after his diagnosis.
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American politician, attorney and journalist (1926–2020) Lansdale Ghiselin Sasscer Jr. (September 25, 1926 – April 13, 2020) was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, serving from 1955 to 1963. He was the son of former President of the Maryland Senate and member of the United States House of Representatives for seven terms from 1939–1953, Lansdale Sasscer During World War II Sasscer served in the United States Coast Guard. After the war he entered law school, his first year of law school in an accelerated postwar program at the University of Virginia, and finishing his degree at the University of Maryland at Baltimore. he decided to run for the House of Delegates representing Prince George's County, Maryland in 1954 at the age of 28 as a Democrat. In 1962, he ran for the Maryland State Senate and lost. Later he served on the board of Directors of the Bank of Brandywine. Sasscer's family has lived in Upper Marlboro, Maryland since the 1760s and he resided with his wife Anne in the historic Digges-Sasscer house. Sasscer died at his home on April 13, 2020, at the age of 93. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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24
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42454206
American politician (born 1969) Brenda Jeanette Thiam (born September 9, 1969) is an American politician who was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from District 2B from 2020 to 2023. A member of the Republican Party, she was the first African-American Republican woman to serve in the Maryland General Assembly. In 2024, she unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives in Maryland's 6th congressional district, losing to former state delegate Neil Parrott in the Republican primary election. Early life and education. Brenda Jeanette Thiam was born and raised in Raeford, North Carolina on September 9, 1969. She was one of four children and was raised in a single-mother family after her father, a radio personality, filed for divorce and moved to Memphis, Tennessee. Thiam graduated from Hoke County High School in 1987, and later attended North Carolina Central University in 1994, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in physical education. She later attended the University of Maryland, College Park, earning a Master of Education degree in 2002; Capella University, where she earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree in special-education leadership in 2015; and Pennsylvania State University, where she earned a graduate certificate in applied behavior management in 2017. Career. Early career. After graduating from North Carolina Central University, Thiam worked as a special-education teacher for Washington County Public Schools and for various nonprofits until 2019, While working for the Washington County Public Schools, she secured a $100,000 grant to support the ongoing education of teachers for students with intellectual disabilities. Thiam lost her job just before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, after which she started her own nonprofit, Oasis Community Support Services Inc., to support the needs of adults with autism. Thiam first got involved in politics as a member of student government in school. She was a registered Democrat until 2012, when she switched to the Republican Party. From 2016 to 2018, she served as the vice president of the Washington County Republican Club. In 2016, she applied to fill a vacancy on the Washington County Board of Commissioners, which was filled by Wayne Keefer, a small-business owner. In 2020, Thiam successfully ran for the Hagerstown City Council, placing sixth in the nonpartisan primary. Thiam later withdrew from the race after being appointed to the Maryland House of Delegates, but she remained on the ballot for the general election. Maryland House of Delegates. In September 2020, following the appointment of Paul D. Corderman to the Maryland Senate, Thiam applied to fill the vacancy left by his resignation in the Maryland House of Delegates. The Washington County Republican Central Committee nominated Thiam to fill the vacancy later that month, and she was appointed to the seat by Governor Larry Hogan on September 23, 2020. Thiam was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on October 6, 2020, where she served on the House Judiciary Committee and was a member of the Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland. She was the first black Republican woman to serve in the Maryland General Assembly and the first black Republican to serve in the legislature in the nearly three decades since Aris T. Allen died in office in 1991. In 2022, Thiam was appointed deputy minority whip. Thiam ran for election in 2022, seeking a full term in the Maryland House of Delegates. She won the Republican primary election on July 19, 2022, but was defeated by Democratic challenger Brooke Grossman in the general election on November 8. Following her defeat, Thiam called on the Republican Party to "embrace" mail-in voting if it hoped to win future elections. 2024 congressional campaign. On June 20, 2023, Thiam filed to run for Congress in Maryland's 6th congressional district in 2024 to succeed David Trone. She announced her candidacy on July 25, 2023. During the Republican primary, she ran on a platform including tackling the opioid epidemic and requiring recipients of disability benefits to undergo additional assessments to determine whether they're still eligible to continue receiving benefits. Thiam was defeated in the Republican primary election by former state delegate Neil Parrott on May 14, 2024, placing second-to-last with 3.3 percent of the vote. Political positions. During her run for Hagerstown city council, Thiam said she supported addressing the opioid epidemic and improving the city's bond credit rating, and opposed raising taxes. Upon being appointed to the Maryland House of Delegates, she said that her legislative priorities included the opioid epidemic and the Blueprint for Maryland's Future, which she opposed. She also described herself as "pro-life", expressing interest in working with legislators to promote family planning options other than abortions, and said she opposed the "defund the police" movement. Thiam supported the reelection campaign of President Donald Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election. During the 2021 legislative session, Thiam introduced a bill that would require students to pass a civics test before they could graduate from high school, as well as the "Learning at Home Relief Act", which would provide a $250 per child tax credit toward costs associated with online school, such as child care and internet services. Both bills failed to move out of committee. She also voted for the Maryland Police Accountability Act of 2021, which repealed the Law Enforcement Officers' Bill of Rights, and against the Plastic Bag Reduction Act, a bill to ban the sale of plastic bags and to require stores to charge a minimum of 10 cents for paper bags. In February 2021, during debate on a bill to extend the earned-income tax credit to immigrants, Thiam introduced an amendment that required that benefits only go to "taxpayers of lawful status in the United States". The amendment was rejected by a 48-91 vote. In October 2021, Thiam was one of five Maryland state legislators from Garrett, Allegany and Washington counties who sent a pair of letters to West Virginia officials asking about annexation of Western Maryland to West Virginia. The letters were later withdrawn by their authors, House Minority Leader Jason C. Buckel and state senator George C. Edwards, following criticism from local officials and some constituents. During the 2022 legislative session, Thiam introduced a bill to allow municipalities to establish Police Accountability Boards and another to prohibit dirt bike drivers from committing motor vehicle offenses; both bills died in committee. She also expressed concerns with proposals to legalize recreational marijuana in Maryland, questioning whether black Marylanders would be able to make money from the recreational market. In March 2022, during debate on a bill creating a statewide ballot referendum on codifying the right to abortion access, Thiam introduced an amendment requiring the Maryland Department of Health to collect data regarding abortions performed in the state, including gestational age and number of abortions performed. The amendment was rejected by the Maryland House of Delegates by a 39-83 vote. In January 2022, Thiam filed a lawsuit against the legislative district maps drawn by the Maryland General Assembly during the 2020 redistricting cycle, seeking to replace the newly passed map with one that uses only single-member districts. The Maryland Court of Appeals ruled 4-3 against the plaintiffs in April 2022, upholding the legislature's map. In April 2022, following a spike in gas prices as the result of the Russo-Ukrainian War, Thiam supported Maryland's brief gas tax holiday, which she later made efforts to extend by an additional 45 days. She also introduced legislation to decouple the state's gas tax from inflation, which failed to pass out of committee. In July 2022, Thiam said that she supported voter identification requirements, automatic voter registration, and increased purging of voter rolls. In 2023, Thiam testified in support of a bill to allow municipalities to enforce laws against driving dirt bikes on public roads. During her 2024 congressional campaign, Thiam said that she supported restarting construction on the Mexico–United States border wall and opposed mask and vaccine mandates imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic. She also said that she disagreed with Judge Deborah Boardman's ruling against requiring the Montgomery County Public Schools system to provide parents with the ability to opt their students out of classroom instruction on LGBTQ topics, and opposed removing Donald Trump from the 2024 presidential election ballot under the Fourteenth Amendment, saying that she did not believe that the January 6 U.S. Capitol attack was an insurrection. Thiam also expressed support for abolishing the U.S. Department of Education. In October 2023, amid the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel and subsequent Israel–Hamas war, Thiam expressed support for Israel and its right to defend itself, as well as the expansion of the Abraham Accords and humanitarian efforts in Gaza; however, she later said that she opposed giving foreign aid to any country without first addressing domestic issues and implementing limits on how much aid could be given and for how long. Thiam also opposed calls for a ceasefire in the war, saying that it would allow Hamas to retreat and restrategize for another, deadlier attack on Israel. Personal life. Thiam is married to her husband, Mam Malick Thiam, who migrated to the United States from Guinea in 2000 and unsuccessfully ran for Washington County Treasurer in 2022. Thiam moved to Germantown, Maryland in 1995. Together, they moved to Hagerstown in October 2006, and have a daughter. In July 2022, Thiam and her daughter were involved in a car crash in Hagerstown. Both were transported to Meritus Medical Center with minor injuries, and were released later that day. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 17em" | Candidate ! scope="col" | Votes ! scope="col" | % ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 17em" | Candidate ! scope="col" | Votes ! scope="col" | % ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1975) Craig Jason Zucker (born March 23, 1975) is an American politician who has represented District 14 in the Maryland Senate since 2016. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously represented the district in the Maryland House of Delegates from 2011 to 2016. Early life and education. Zucker was born in Englewood, New Jersey, and raised in nearby Teaneck. He earned his Bachelor of Science from St. Thomas Aquinas College in 1997, and his masters degree in government from Johns Hopkins University in 2004. Political career. Zucker first got involved in politics as a college intern for U.S. Senators Bill Bradley and Carl Levin, and later worked as a scheduler for Senator Barbara Boxer. He worked as a legislative director to Maryland state delegate Peter Franchot from 1999 to 2000, afterwards working as a deputy district director for U.S. Representative Albert Wynn until 2004. Zucker served as the vice-chair of the Mid-County Recreation Advisory Board in Montgomery County, Maryland from 2004 to 2006, and as the deputy chief of staff to Comptroller Peter Franchot until 2010. In 2002, Zucker unsuccessfully ran for the Maryland House of Delegates in District 14, placing fourth with 12.3 percent of the vote in the Democratic primary election. In August 2024, Zucker became a senior vice president of strategic development and government relations at Service Coordination Inc. Maryland General Assembly. Zucker was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 12, 2011, and was a member of the Appropriations Committee during his entire tenure. From 2015 to 2016, he served as the House chair of the Joint Audit Committee. In December 2015, following the resignation of state senator Karen S. Montgomery, Zucker applied to serve the remainder of her term in the Maryland Senate. His candidacy was backed by Senate president Thomas V. Miller Jr. In January 2016, the Montgomery County Democratic Central Committee voted to nominate Zucker to fill the seat, and Governor Larry Hogan appointed him to the seat at the end of the week. Zucker was sworn in on February 4, 2016. Zucker was a member of the Education, Health, and Environmental Affairs Committee until 2018, afterwards serving in the Budget and Taxation Committee. In December 2019, following the election of Bill Ferguson as President of the Maryland Senate, Zucker was named as the chair of the Senate Democratic Caucus. In August 2021, Ferguson appointed Zucker as the chair of the Capital Budget Subcommittee following the resignation of Douglas J. J. Peters. Since 2016, Zucker serves as the Senate member on the Maryland Commission on Disabilities. Personal life. Zucker is married to his wife, Jenny. Together, they have two children and live in Brookeville, Maryland. He is Jewish. Political positions. End the Wait Act. In 2022, Zucker sponsored the End the Wait Act, which reduces the wait for waiver services. Education. In 2018, Zucker introduced a bill that would require the state to teach sexual consent. The bill passed and became law. During the 2019 legislative session, Zucker introduced legislation that would add seats for a parent and teachers to the Maryland State Board of Education, and the Ready to Read Act, which requires school systems to provide additional support to kindergarten and first grade students with reading challenges. Both bills passed and became law. In 2022, Zucker introduced a bill that would prohibit public schools from secluding other students except under certain conditions. Electoral reform. In 2016, Zucker voted to overrode Governor Larry Hogan's veto on a bill that would restore voting rights to released felons. During the 2017 legislative session, Zucker introduced a bill that would require Maryland to use an independent redistricting commission to draw its congressional and legislative districts if New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania all passed legislation to do the same. The bill passed, but was vetoed by Governor Hogan. In 2018, Zucker introduced a bill that would require social media websites to record data on political advertisements and users targeted by them, which passed and became law without Governor Hogan's signature. Gambling. During the 2020 legislative session, Zucker introduced a bill to authorize the state to issue sports betting licenses to fund the state's sports wagering industry and public schools. The bill passed and became law. After voters approved a statewide referendum to legalize sports betting in the 2020 general election, Zucker led a workgroup to develop a bill regulating the state's sports wagering industry, which passed and was signed into law by Governor Larry Hogan. Housing. During the 2022 legislative session, Zucker introduced a bill that would require the Comptroller of Maryland to redirect $14 million from abandoned property funds to a fund providing the right to counsel in eviction cases. The bill passed and became law. Israel. In November 2023, Zucker and eight other state senators signed a joint letter that threatened to defund immigrants rights group CASA de Maryland because it had called for an immediate ceasefire in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and condemned the "utilization of US tax dollars to promote the ongoing violence." National politics. In December 2019, Zucker participated in and spoke at a rally in Olney, Maryland, to support of the first impeachment of Donald Trump. Social issues. In March 2011, Zucker said he supported the Civil Marriage Protection Act, which legalized same-sex marriage in Maryland. In 2013, Zucker voted for a bill to repeal the death penalty in Maryland. During the 2018 legislative session and amid the MeToo movement, Zucker introduced legislation that would ban employers from imposing non-disclosure agreements on workers reporting sexual harassment and require employers with more than 50 workers to disclose information about their records in maintaining harassment-free workplaces. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Larry Hogan. During the 2021 legislative session and following the suicide of Jamie Raskin's son, Tommy, Cullison introduced a bill named for Tommy that would allow people to opt into periodic calls from 2-1-1 crisis counselors. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Hogan. Taxes. During the 2012 legislative session, Zucker introduced legislation that would provide income tax breaks on up to $2 million of forgiven mortgage debt. The bill passed and was signed into law by Governor Martin O'Malley. In 2013, Zucker voted for a bill to index the state's fuel taxes to inflation to pay for transportation projects. Transportation. During the 2020 legislative session, Zucker introduced a bill that would require the state to provide at least $500 million toward Maryland Transit Administration projects annually for five years. The bill died in committee. In 2021, Zucker introduced legislation that would prohibit the Maryland Transit Administration from purchasing buses that are not zero-emission. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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42454206
American lawyer and politician Victor L. Crawford (April 19, 1932 – March 2, 1996) was an American lawyer and politician. Born in Richmond, Virginia. Crawford went to Hargrave Military Academy and to the Washington, D.C. public schools. Crawford served in the United States Army from 1952 to 1955. In 1958, Crawford received his bachelor's degree from University of Maryland and his law degree from Georgetown Law Center in 1960. He was admitted to the Maryland bar in 1960 and lived in Chevy Chase, Maryland. Crawford served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1967 to 1969 and was a Democrat. He then served in the Maryland Senate from 1969 to 1983. Crawford died from throat cancer in the Johns Hopkins University Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,075
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42454206
Subcommittee of the US House of Representatives House Armed Services Subcommittee on Seapower and Projection Forces is a subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee in the United States House of Representatives. The subcommittee's chair is Republican Trent Kelly of Mississippi and ranking member is Democrat Joe Courtney of Connecticut. Jurisdiction. The Seapower and Projection Forces Subcommittee exercises oversight and legislative jurisdiction over the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, Navy Reserve equipment, and maritime programs. The subcommittee does "not" have jurisdiction over strategic weapons (weapons of mass destruction), space or NASA, special operations, and information technology programs. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,076
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184
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42454206
American politician Philip H. Goodman (November 26, 1915 – May 1, 1976) was an American politician, 43rd Mayor of the City of Baltimore and a member of the Maryland Senate. He was Jewish of Polish descent and is buried at Har Sinai Cemetery in Owings Mills. Goodman was born in the shtetl of Kołki, then part of the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Kolky in the Volyn Oblast of Ukraine). His family moved to the United States when he was six. Education. Goodman grew up in Baltimore and attended the Baltimore City College high school. He earned his law degree from the University of Baltimore School of Law. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,077
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American politician (1861–1942) James T. Norris (March 27, 1861 – December 17, 1942) was an American politician from Maryland. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County, in 1922. Early life. James T. Norris was born on March 27, 1861, near The Rocks in Harford County, Maryland. He was educated in public schools of Harford County. Career. Norris was a Democrat. In 1909, he was elected as county commissioner and served in that role for 12 years. He was chairman of the board of commissioners for four years. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Harford County in 1922. He worked as a farmer for over 30 years. He served as vice president and director of the Harford County Fair Association. He was director of the Commercial and Savings Bank. Personal life. Norris married M. Seleste Davis on March 16, 1887. They had one daughter, Mrs. Charles Elderdice. He was a member of Union Chapel for 65 years. Norris died on December 17, 1942, at his home in Abingdon. He was buried at Union Chapel Cemetery. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1962) Mark Nicholas Fisher (born August 3, 1962) is an American politician who represents District 27C in the Maryland House of Delegates, which covers parts of Calvert County. He previously represented District 27B from 2011 to 2015. He also hosts a podcast called "Mark and the Millennials", which explores the divide between conservative millennials and the baby boomer generation. Early life and education. Fisher was born in Baltimore. He attended George Washington University, where he earned a B.A. in international affairs and economics. After graduating, he became a managing member for telecommunications infrastructure company Telecom Capital Group LLC. In 2003, Fisher founded Gray's Field Foundation, a nonprofit group to fund preservation of a baseball field in Owings, Maryland. Fisher is a Catholic. He is married and has three children, and lives in Prince Frederick, Maryland. In the legislature. Fisher ran for the Maryland House of Delegates in District 27B in 2010, challenging incumbent Democratic legislator Sue Kullen. In an upset, he defeated Kullen in the general election with 52.6 percent of the vote. He was sworn in on January 12, 2011. He was a member of the House Ways and Means Committee from 2011 to 2015, and has been a member of the House Economic Matters committee since 2015. A founding member of the Maryland Freedom Caucus, "Maryland Matters" has described Fisher as one of the most vocal conservatives in the House of Delegates. During the 2021 legislative session, Fisher spoke against the state's new legislative redistricting map, claiming that Democrats had gerrymandered multiple districts in Anne Arundel County to benefit the party. After the Maryland General Assembly passed the new maps, Fisher joined the lawsuit against the new maps and argued that his own district was gerrymandered, citing that it was drawn into Prince George's County. The Supreme Court of Maryland ruled that the new maps did not violate the state constitution in April 2022. During the 2025 legislative session, Fisher and other members of the Maryland Freedom Caucus forced a vote on whether the House of Delegates should hold pro forma sessions during the early weeks of the legislature; the vote failed 99–35, with two Republicans joining all Democrats in keeping the pro forma sessions as scheduled. The following day, Fisher attended a pro forma session and sought to raise a question on whether a quorum is present, but was not recognized by House Speaker Adrienne A. Jones, who gaveled the session to a close. Afterwards, Fisher called out to Jones from the House floor to raise questions about the constitutionality of pro forma sessions, arguing that the abbreviated sessions violated a section of the Constitution of Maryland that requires a "quorum of the majority" of members of the House of Delegates to hold a floor session. Jones acknowledged that she did not recognize Fisher during the session and that pro forma sessions were allowed under the House rules, which states that "a quorum is deemed present" for a pro forma session when the speaker and party leaders are present. Political positions. Economic issues. During the 2013 legislative session, Fisher voted against a bill to index the state's gas taxes to inflation. In February 2014, Fisher criticized Media Rights Capital, the production company behind "House of Cards", for threatening to leave the state unless it was given millions of dollars in tax credits, calling it "ransom". In March 2014, Fisher voted against a bill that would raise the state minimum wage to $10.10/hour. He also introduced an amendment to this bill that would exempt all businesses with 50 or fewer employees from the minimum wage increase, which would fail by a 45–88 vote. In 2019, he voted against a bill that would raise the state minimum wage to $15/hour, calling it "socialism". During the 2016 legislative session, Fisher voted against a bill requiring employers to provide workers with seven days of paid sick leave per year, arguing it would cause restaurants to automate low-paying jobs. In March 2020, Fisher introduced an amendment to House Bill 932, which would implement a sales tax on digital services, that would have exempted educational products from the tax on the basis that the generated revenue would be going to the Blueprint for Maryland's Future. The amendment failed along party lines. In 2022, following a spike in gas prices as the result of the Russo-Ukrainian War, Fisher said he supported holding a special legislative session to suspend gas and electric taxes, eliminate retirement income and business property taxes, and lower the income tax rate. During the 2023 legislative session, Fisher introduced a bill to ban people or businesses associated with the Government of China from buying farmland in Maryland. Education. During the 2011 legislative session, Fisher voted against Maryland's Dream Act, which provided in-state tuition to undocumented immigrants. In March 2019, Fisher introduced an amendment to the Maryland state budget that would restrict $1 million of the University System of Maryland budget until completion of a report to facilitate the exercise of First Amendment rights on campus. The amendment failed by a vote of 42–96. In March 2020, Fisher introduced an amendment to the Blueprint for Maryland's Future (HB1300) that would allow students attending "failing schools" to transfer to an "alternative school" within the same county. His amendment was rejected by a vote of 41–93. He opposes the Blueprint, saying that he would support "suspending and rewriting" the bill because of its cost. In April 2023, Fisher sent a letter to State Superintendent Mohammed Choudhury accusing the Maryland State Department of Education of hiding scores from failing scores by altering data files available on the department's website. An investigation conducted by the state inspector general found no evidence of these claims. Environment. In March 2020, Fisher voted against a bill that would prohibit stores from providing customers with plastic bags, calling it "Stalinist". He voted against the bill again when it was reintroduced in 2021. In 2021, Fisher introduced a bill that would have prevented elected officials at the state and local level from using the government's electric vehicle charging stations without paying for it. Democrats on the House Environment and Transportation Committee rewrote his bill to allow state employees and local elected officials free access to the charging stations for their personal vehicles. The committee then voted 17–5 to approve the changes and brought the bill to the House floor for debate, where Fisher proposed an amendment that would revert the bill back to its original state. His amendment was rejected by a vote of 47–80. During the 2022 legislative session, Fisher said he opposed the Climate Solutions Now Act, calling it a "takeover of the economy". Gun policy. During the 2013 legislative session, Fisher voted against the Firearm Safety Act of 2013, a bill that placed restrictions on firearm purchases and magazine capacity in semi-automatic rifles. Health policy. Fisher opposed legislation to establish the Prescription Drug Affordability Board, suggesting it was a "price control" bill. During the 2024 legislative session, he opposed a bill that would allow undocumented immigrants to buy their own health insurance. National politics. Fisher has criticized the indictments against Donald Trump, predicting that the United States would "devolve into a banana republic". In May 2024, he signed onto a letter condemning the jury's guilty verdict in the Trump hush money trial, calling the ruling a "political prosecution from a kangaroo court and left-leaning prosecutor" that is turning the U.S. justice system into a "third world parody of law and order". Nuclear energy. Fisher's district includes the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, Maryland's only nuclear power plant. In February 2021, Fisher suggested that investing in the nuclear power industry could be a solution to the climate crisis, arguing that there is not enough solar or wind infrastructure to address the climate emergency. He advocated for nuclear power investments in the Climate Solutions Now Act of 2021. In March 2019, Fisher introduced legislation to include nuclear as a Tier 1 Fuel that could be used as part of the state's renewable portfolio. He later amended his bill to instead mandate a study on the future of the nuclear industry in Maryland, causing it to pass the House Economic Matters Committee by a vote of 20–1. His bill passed the House of Delegates by a vote of 102–34, but would not receive a vote in the Senate. Social issues. Fisher opposed a bill to add an amendment codifying abortion access rights to the Constitution of Maryland. During the 2023 legislative session, Fisher opposed the Trans Health Equity Act, a bill that would require the state's Medicaid program to cover gender-affirming treatment, comparing transgender healthcare to "child mutilation" and the book "Brave New World", and calling it a violation of human rights. He introduced an amendment to the bill to allow cancer victims to have their ovum frozen, which was rejected by the legislature. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (1923–2004) Raymond A. Dypski (June 21, 1923 – October 31, 2004) was an American politician who served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates representing Baltimore, Maryland. Early life. Dypski was born in a two-story row house on Dillon Street in Baltimore on June 21, 1923. He attended Baltimore public schools. His father was an Austrian immigrant and his mother worked in a cannery in Canton. His father died from an automobile accident when he was a child. Dypski dropped out of junior high school to serve in World War II. He later got his GED at Patterson High School in 1969. Career. After dropping out, Dypski served with the U.S. Merchant Marines from 1943 to 1945, during World War II. He was a metallurgical tester and inspector for the Bethlehem Steel Corporation at Sparrows Point. Dypski served in the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Baltimore, from 1967 to 1986. He decided not to seek re-election due to failing health. Personal life. His younger brother, Cornell N. Dypski, was also a member of the Maryland House of Delegates and a member of the Maryland Senate. He was friends with state senator Julian L. Lapides. Death. Dypski died on October 31, 2004, of heart and kidney failure at Mercy Medical Center in Baltimore. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,080
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American politician from Maryland, US (1925–1991) Victor Cushwa IV (1925 – August 19, 1991) was a Democratic state senator representing Legislative District 2 in Western Maryland. In his 13 years as a member of the state Senate, he served as majority whip and chairman of the Rules Committee. He also served on the Constitutional and Public Law, Economic Affairs, and Finance committees. In 1989, Cushwa joined several other senators in a filibuster to block an abortion-rights bill, which eventually fell one vote shy of passing. Governor William Donald Schaefer appointed Cushwa to a five-year term on the state's utility-regulating Public Service Commission in July 1990 after Cushwa resigned from his state Senate seat. About a year after his appointment, Victor Cushwa died from lung cancer at Washington County Hospital in Hagerstown at the age of 66; he continued his duties on the commission until shortly before his death. Born in Hagerstown, Cushwa served in the Navy in the Pacific during World War II. He graduated from Georgetown University in 1948, and later served for 20 years as production manager of the Cushwa Brick Co. in Williamsport. The Victor Cushwa Memorial Bridge at Sideling Hill in Western Maryland is named in his honor. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,081
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24
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American politician Charles Clagett Marbury (1898 – July 19, 1991) was an American politician and judge, who served as a justice of the Maryland Court of Appeals from 1960 to 1969. Marbury was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1931 and served until he was elected to the state Senate in 1941. He was a member of the Democratic Party. A short while later, he was appointed to serve as a Circuit Court judge, and later, to one of two newly created seats on the Court of Appeals. He was born in Upper Marlboro, Maryland and attended the Emerson Preparatory School in Washington, D.C. and received a degree from the Johns Hopkins University in 1922. Part of his studies were conducted at the University of Bordeaux where he remained after serving in the field artillery of the 29th Division in World War I. He studied law at the University of Maryland School of Law and eventually graduated from Georgetown University law school in 1925. He was a member of Trinity Episcopal Church, the Society of the Cincinnati and the Southern Maryland Society, which awarded him its Distinguished Member Award in 1989. He died on July 19, 1991. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,082
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210
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American politician (1938–2024) Larry Eugene Haines (April 11, 1938 – January 13, 2024) was an American politician who was a Republican member of the Maryland Senate from 1991 to 2011. Background. Larry Haines was elected to the Maryland Senate in 1991 to represent district 5, which covers Carroll and Baltimore counties. Haines graduated from Mt. Airy High School and attended Frederick Community College. Career. Haines was a real estate broker and an appraiser and was a former dairy farmer. He was a member of the Maryland Association of Realtors (legislative committee, 1986–1990), chair of the Legislative Committee, Carroll County Association of Realtors, from 1986 to 1990, a member of the American Association of Certified Appraisers, and a director of the Bank of Maryland Carroll County. In 1975, he received the Realtor of the Year award by the Carroll County Association of Realtors. Haines was a member of the Housing Study Committee for the city of Westminster from 1974 to 1980, and a member of the Board of Zoning Appeals for the city of Westminster from 1983 to 1989. Death. Haines died on January 13, 2024, at the age of 85. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,083
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American politician Don B. Hughes (born September 22, 1940) in Salisbury in Wicomico County, Maryland, United States, was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates for District 37A, which covers portions of Dorchester and Wicomico Counties Background. Delegate Hughes was first elected in 1994 and only served for 1 term. He did not run for reelection in the House. Education. Delegate Hughes attended Wicomico High School in Salisbury, Maryland. After high school he graduated from the University of Delaware in Newark, Delaware. Career. Delegate Hughes served on the Environmental Matters Committee during his term in the Maryland House of Delegates. He was also a member of the forum for Rural Maryland, the Lead Poisoning Prevention Commission from 1996 until 1998, the Governor's Wetlands Restoration Steering Committee from 1997 until 1999, and finally the Solid Waste Management Task Force in 1998. Voters to choose one: References and notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,084
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American politician (born 1983) Melissa R. Wells (born October 3, 1983) is an American politician who has served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates representing District 40 since 2019. Early life and career. Wells was born on October 3, 1983. She attended University of California at Riverside in 2006, where she earned a B.A. degree in political science and law and sociology. She later attended American University in 2010, where she earned a M.A. degree in public policy. After graduating, she worked as a policy assistant for the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies until 2014 and as a field advisor at Triple Point Interactions and program associate at PolicyLink until 2015. She is currently the regional director of the Baltimore-DC Building Trades Union. In the legislature. Wells was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 9, 2019. She served as a member of the Environment and Transportation Committee from 2019 to 2022, afterwards serving in the Ways and Means Committee. In November 2019, Wells unsuccessfully ran for assistant majority leader of the House of Delegates, losing to state delegate Wanika B. Fisher in a 25-13 vote among the class of freshman Democratic legislators. Since 2020, she has served as Deputy Majority Whip. Since 2023, she has served as chief deputy majority whip. Political positions. Criminal justice and policing. In March 2019, Wells voted against a bill that would allow Johns Hopkins University to have its own private police force. During the 2021 legislative session, Wells introduced bills that would require prosecutors to undergo implicit bias training, and another that would create a referendum in Baltimore on transferring control of the Baltimore Police Department back to the city. Environment. In March 2022, Wells said that she would "reluctantly" vote for the Climate Solutions Now Act, an omnibus bill to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60 percent by 2030, saying that she felt that the bill "did not do enough to ensure strong labor standards". Gun policy. During the 2019 legislative session, Wells voted against a bill that would allow school resource officers to carry guns in Baltimore schools. Housing. During the 2021 legislative session, Wells introduced legislation to codify and extend the state's COVID-19 pandemic eviction moratorium until April 2022, and another that would extend judges' ability to delay eviction proceedings. In 2022, she introduced a bill that would allow judges to grant a recess in eviction proceedings to allow parties to seek legal representation. Social issues. During the 2022 legislative session, Wells introduced legislation to prohibit auto insurers from using a policy holder's credit score to set rates. The bill was heavily amended following auto insurance industry lobbying before passing the Maryland House of Delegates and did not receive a vote in the Maryland Senate. Transportation. During the 2019 legislative session, Wells introduced a bill that would cap Maryland Transit Administration fares at a monthly rate. Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,085
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42454206
American politician and businessman Russell O. Hickman (February 5, 1908 – November 5, 1988) was an American politician and businessman. Biography. Born in Showell, Maryland, Hickman owned a small loan business. From 1955 to 1979, he served in the Maryland House of Delegates as a Democrat, first representing Worcester County, then district 36. He died in Berlin, Maryland on November 5, 1988, at the age of 80. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,086
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42454206
Elected official The Baltimore County Executive is the highest elected official representing the government of Baltimore County, Maryland, United States. The office was established with the implementation of the county charter for Baltimore County on November 6, 1956. The county executive is elected to post every four years, coinciding with the elections for the county council and governor of Maryland. Two Baltimore county executives have later achieved prominence after leaving office: Spiro T. Agnew, who went on to become governor of Maryland and Vice President of the United States under Richard Nixon, resigned in 1973 due to scandal while serving in that office; and Dutch Ruppersberger, who went on to represent Maryland's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. The incumbent Baltimore County executive is Katherine A. Klausmeier. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,087
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American politician (1941–2012) Dennis Michael Callahan (September 3, 1941 – February 8, 2012) was an American politician from Annapolis, Maryland. A native of Baltimore, Callahan was mayor of Annapolis and director of the Recreation and Parks Department of Anne Arundel County, Maryland. He ran unsuccessfully in the Democratic primary for Anne Arundel County Executive in 2006. The general election winner, Republican John R. Leopold, appointed Callahan chief administrative officer of Anne Arundel County, a position he held at the time of his death. Career in Parks and Recreation Department. As director of the Recreation and Parks Department, he was at the center of two controversial park developments. One of the park developments involved the Smith Farm on the Broadneck Peninsula. The plan called for tearing down most of a horse farm and building ball fields over the land, leaving limited space for a community equestrian center. Local citizens organized against this proposal, and groups such as WHOA (We Hold Officials Accountable), SACReD (South Arundel Citizens for Responsible Development), and the Anne Arundel Green Party literally stood in front of the bulldozers to stop the farm from being torn down. Eventually the farm was preserved and is now the Andy Smith Equestrian Center. The other controversy entailed converting a substantial portion of wetlands on Franklin Point into ball fields and parking lots. The local community organized against the proposal, offering alternate sites for the ball fields. However, it was only after the Critical Area Commission ruled that plans for the park would have to be severely curtailed that Anne Arundel County backed out of the proposed development. Callahan stated that the new offer would "fundamentally change the character of the plan, substantially reduce the number of park activities available to the Shady Side community and the public, and make development of certain park features problematical or perhaps impossible." This ended 5 years of negotiations between county and state officials. During Callahan's tenure as the Recreation and Parks Director, football commissioners throughout the County petitioned the County Executive to have him removed from his position. On September 15, 2002, a fight broke out in the parking lot between the two competing football teams, the Cape St. Claire Cougars and Riviera Beach Buccaneers. During the incident, assistant coach Mike T. Pivec, 52, allegedly hit Rory Fracasse Jr., 15, in the face. The head coaches of both teams were put on two game suspensions. Cape St. Claire's Michael Harris, appealed the decision to county recreation officials under Callahans supervision. The officials lifted the two-game suspension, however "members of the football association said that Callahan, who is a friend of Harris, intervened in the appeals process." They later petitioned to have him removed from the position, but were unsuccessful. Political career. Callahan was a mayor of Annapolis, serving from 1985 to 1989. He was originally a Republican before serving as mayor. He was defeated in the 1989 mayoral primary. He ran again for mayor in 1993 as an Independent, placing second in the general election. Callahan was again the Democratic nominee for mayor in 1997. He was also an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for Anne Arundel County Executive in 1990 and 2006. Tenure as CEO. Callahan served as CEO of the P.O.I.N.T. Corp., which owned Chiro-Serve. After two years under his leadership, the P.O.I.N.T. Corp. and Chiro-Serve went under in 1996. Death. Callahan suffered a heart attack at his home on February 8, 2012, and died later that morning at Anne Arundel Medical Center. He was 70 years old. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (1922–1996) Lucille Maurer (née Darvin; 1922 – June 17, 1996) was the first woman Treasurer of Maryland. Life. Maurer graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill with a Bachelor of Arts in Economics, and she worked as an economist at the U.S. Tariff Commission. She obtained a Master of Arts in General Studies from Yale University and moved to Montgomery County, Maryland in 1950. In 1969, Maurer was appointed to fill a vacancy in the Maryland House of Delegates after serving two terms on the county school board. She was re-elected to several terms, serving as a member of the Ways and Means Committee for sixteen years and chairing the Education Committee and the Tax and Trade Committee. She was known for her work on educational issues, devising a formula to equalize public education funding by increasing state funds for poorer jurisdictions. Maurer ran for the State Senate in 1986 and lost. In 1987, she was elected by the General Assembly to serve as the state treasurer, winning over Governor Schaefer's favored candidate. She was the 21st elected treasurer of Maryland, and the first woman to serve in that role. As treasurer for nine years, Maurer implemented modern bookkeeping processes and was praised for her management of the state's stock portfolio. After being hospitalized with a brain tumor, Maurer resigned from her position in January 1996. She died at her home in Silver Spring, Maryland on June 17, 1996. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,089
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American politician (born 1942) Charles F. Wagaman Jr. (born February 20, 1942) is an American politician. He was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing District 3A from 1979 to 1986. Early life. Charles F. Wagaman Jr. was born on February 20, 1942, in Hagerstown, Maryland. He attended public schools in Hagerstown and The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. Wagaman graduated with a Bachelor of Science from Tufts University in 1965 and a Bachelor of Laws degree from University of Maryland School of Law in 1968. He was admitted to the bar in Maryland in 1968. Career. Wagaman served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Washington County, Maryland from 1971 to 1974. He then represented District 3A from 1975 to 1978. He was elected as a Republican. Personal life. Wagaman is married. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,090
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42454206
American businessman and politician Stewart W. Bainum Jr. (born March 25, 1946) is an American businessman and politician. Bainum is chairman of Choice Hotels International, Inc. Since the 1980s, Bainum has led businesses including four current or former publicly listed companies: Choice Hotels; HCR Manor Care, which operates nursing and assisted living facilities; Vitalink Pharmacy Services; and Sunburst Hospitality. A Democratic politician, Bainum was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1979 to 1982 and the Maryland Senate from 1983 to 1986. Background. Stewart W. Bainum Jr. was born March 25, 1946, and raised in Takoma Park, Maryland. He was the second of four children born to Stewart W. Bainum Sr., who was the founder of what became Choice Hotels and HRC Manor Care, and Jane Goyne. Bainum began working for his father's business at age 12 during summer breaks. Bainum was educated at Takoma Academy, where he was president of his senior class. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Pacific Union College in Napa Valley, California, in 1968. At Pacific Union, Bainum was president of the campus student association. He received a Master in Business Administration from the UCLA Anderson School of Management in 1970, and taught at Southern College in the Tennessee River Valley. After UCLA, Bainum studied theology at Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan, for 18 months from 1971 to 1972. Career. Business. Bainum joined his father's Manor Care business in 1972 as the director of development and became senior vice president two years later. In 1977, Bainum and his father created a five-year strategy to grow the business' nursing home development through a series of acquisitions and became the first nursing home operation with a corporate marketing department. The "Washington Business Journal" called Bainum the "quarterback of the company's expansion strategy". From 1972 to 1985, the company's net worth increased from $8 million to $767 million. Seven years after Bainum introduced its mergers and acquisitions plan, Manor Care annual revenues increased from $31 million in 1976 to about $500 million. Bainum led an unsolicited tender offer for Hillhaven Corporation in 1979. Manor Care, a company with a net worth of about $10 million in the late 1970s, gained ownership of 55 percent of Hillhaven's common stock, and sold it a year later making $5 million. Bainum led Manor Care's acquisition of Quality Inns, Inc., in 1980. In 1981, Manor Care acquired Cenco, a private-pay nursing home chain, tripling its size. By 1983, Manor Care became the United States' second-largest nursing home company. Bainum took over for his father, becoming chairman and CEO in 1987. With Bainum as chairman and CEO, the company spent $280 million to build 39 nursing homes over four years from the late 1980s into the 1990s. Bainum brought in executives from Marriott and The Walt Disney Company, including Disney's Chuck Shields, to bolster management, develop new human resources strategies and redesign compensation packages. Bainum instituted programs to reduce turnover of nursing care facility administrators and expanded Manor Care's subacute care facilities in the 1990s to take advantage of a trend in "dehospitalization". The "Washington Business Journal" credited Bainum with "turning the low-key company into a billion-dollar enterprise" and the hotels division, which became known as Choice Hotels, became the world's second-largest hotel franchisor. Of the 209 largest family influenced, publicly held companies from 1976 to 1996, the Bainums' Manor Care generated the second-highest average annual shareholder returns, second behind Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway. The company spun off its hotels business in 1996. As of 2017, Bainum remains chairman of Choice Hotels. Bainum joined the leadership team of Quality Inns, which later became Choice Hotels, in 1977. Since then, the company has grown from 240 Quality Inn hotels to more than 6,500 properties under 11 hotel brands in more than 40 countries. George Washington University's School of Business and Public Management named Bainum CEO of the year in 1997, citing the company's annual revenue growth from $500 million to 2.4 billion under his leadership. In 1998, Manor Care merged with Healthcare and Retirement Corporation to create a company with a combined value of $4 billion. Bainum was chairman of HRC Manor Care until 2001 and left the board in 2002. As of March 2017, Bainum is the manager of Artis Senior Living and is on the advisory board for SunBridge Capital Management, LLC. Bainum has also held leadership posts with Vitalink Pharmacy Services and Sunburst Hospitality. In 2019, Bainum received a Lifetime Achievement Award for his work in hospitality, from the Americas Lodging Investment Summit. The following year, he received the 2020 John E. Anderson Distinguished Alumni Award from UCLA Anderson School of Management. Politics. Bainum, who was described by "Forbes" as a "fiscal-minded Democrat", served for eight years in the Maryland General Assembly. Bainum first ran for elected office in 1974, when he sought to unseat incumbent Maryland state Senator Victor Crawford. The Maryland Court of Appeals ruled that Bainum was ineligible to run, as he did not meet the state's residency requirements at the time. In 1978, he was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates, a post he held until 1982, serving on the Ways and Means Committee and as chairman of its Transportation Subcommittee. In 1982, Bainum ran successfully for state senator. He served as state senator of Maryland's 20th District from 1983 to 1986, serving on the Budget and Taxation Committee, the Joint Committee on Budget and Audit, the Subcommittee on Corrections and Transportation, and the Capital Budget Subcommittee. Bainum is known for his efforts to end special tax breaks for private clubs, such as the all-male Burning Tree Club in Bethesda, Maryland. Bainum and his sister, Barbara Bainum, filed a lawsuit against the club. In 1984, as a result of the lawsuit, a Montgomery County, Maryland, judge ruled that Burning Tree must give up its $186,000 yearly real estate tax exemption if it does not allow women. In 1986, legislation he sponsored that barred private clubs that exclude women from receiving state tax breaks became law. This effort earned him "the hostility of Washington's politico-golfing community". Bainum also sponsored a child support bill to require employers to deduct court-ordered payments, similar to how taxes are deducted, as well as legislation requiring public officials to disclose withdrawals from failed savings and loans, increase penalties for illegal handgun use, make information public on toxic substances and hazardous waste, increase fees on heavy trucks to offset road repair costs, and tax relief for low-income tenants. He received awards from Common Cause and environmental advocates. Bainum ran for Maryland's 8th congressional district in 1986 when the seat became open. He won his party's primary but lost in the general election to Republican Constance A. Morella. Bainum was a supporter, 2008 Democratic National Convention delegate and fundraiser for President Barack Obama. He endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Philanthropy. In 2018, Bainum and his wife committed to The Giving Pledge, a campaign to encourage wealthy people to contribute a majority of their wealth to philanthropic causes. In February 2021, it was announced that Bainum was seeking to acquire "The Baltimore Sun", whose parent company was being acquired by Alden Global Capital. His bid was in response to the "Save Our Sun" campaign launched by some of "The Sun"'s staff to find a local owner to turn the paper into a non-profit. After he was unsuccessful in this effort, he committed $200 million of his own money to compete with Alden to acquire all of Tribune Publishing Company, with the goal of finding "responsible buyers" for each of the Tribune-owned publications. Bainum was unable to find a buyer for the "Chicago Tribune" and the effort failed. He then formed the Venetoulis Institute for Local Journalism with his family, as a non-profit organization focused on local Baltimore news and statewide news in Maryland. He is the chairman of the Institute, which was named after former Baltimore County executive Ted Venetoulis, an advocate for local news who died in 2021. In October 2021, he announced that he had established an online non-profit news outlet, named "The Baltimore Banner". The "Banner" is overseen by the Venetoulis Institute and initially supported by donations. "Inside Philanthropy" named Bainum as the "Journalism Hero of the Year Who Wasn’t (and Then Was)" in its 2021 Philanthropy Awards. Personal life. Bainum is married and has two children. Bainum first saw his wife, Sandy, while attending a play at the National Theatre, where she played the role of Annie in "42nd Street". Bainum called the theater to introduce himself to Sandy and they began dating shortly after. Bainum is a member of UCLA's Anderson School of Management's Board of Advisors. He has served on the boards of trustees for University of Maryland Medical System, St. Mary's College of Maryland, Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, Johns Hopkins University and Bowdoin College. He was an honorary co-chair of Marylanders Against Handgun Use. In 2008, Bainum helped fund and unsuccessfully advocated against a 2008 referendum that legalized slot machines in Maryland. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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24
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American politician (born 1935) S. Frank Shore (born December 3, 1935) is a former American politician from Maryland. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1971 to 1978 and served as a member of the Maryland Senate from 1978 to 1990. Early life. S. Frank Shore was born on December 3, 1935, in Washington, D.C. He studied at parochial and public schools. He also studied at Southeastern University, the Labor Studied Institute at Pennsylvania State University and American University. Career. Shore is a Democrat. He served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates. He represented the 1st district (part of Montgomery County) from 1971 to 1974. He then represented the 17th district from 1975 to 1978. He was appointed to replace Charles W. Gilchrist in the Maryland Senate in the post session of 1978. He served as a member of the senate representing the 17th district until 1990. In March 1990, Shore gave a filibuster that he described as "the Super Bowl for Life" on the senate floor against an abortion bill. In September of that year, he lost the Democratic nomination for Maryland Senate to Mary H. Boergers who supported abortion rights. Shore served with the 4th Armored Division in the U.S. Army. He worked for the Chesapeake & Potomac Telephone Company. Personal life. Shore lives in Rockville. He is Catholic. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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American politician (born 1963) Melony Ghee Griffith (born June 5, 1963) is an American politician who was a member of the Maryland Senate representing District 25 in Prince George's County from 2019 until her resignation on October 31, 2023. She previously served as president pro tempore of the Maryland Senate from 2020 to 2023, and as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1999 to 2015. Early life and education. Melony Ghee was born on June 5, 1963, in Abilene, Texas, to father Frank F. Ghee Jr., and mother Mary E. Ghee. She grew up as a military brat in Montana and graduated from Charles M. Russell High School. She later attended Eastern Montana College, where she earned her Bachelor of Science degree in psychology, criminology and rehabilitation in 1985. In 1987, she graduated from Howard University with a Master of Social Work degree. Career. After graduating from Howard, Griffith worked as a clinical social worker. From 1992 to 1993, she worked as a project coordinator for the National Basketball Players Association's Health Education Project at the Johns Hopkins University. She later served as a senior program officer for the Academy for Educational Development from 1998 to 2004, afterwards working in various positions for the Prince George's County Health Department until 2009. Griffith first got involved in politics in 1996, running as a write-in candidate for the Prince George's County Board of Education in District 7. Maryland House of Delegates. Griffith was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 13, 1999. She was a member of the Judiciary Committee until 2002, afterwards serving on the Appropriations Committee until she left the legislature in 2015. During her tenure, Griffith gained a reputation as a policy wonk, especially in health care policy. In 2000, Griffith served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention, pledged to Al Gore. Maryland Senate. Elections. On October 15, 2013, Griffith announced that she would run for the Maryland Senate in District 25, challenging incumbent state senator Ulysses Currie. Currie was seen as a vulnerable candidate following his federal corruption trial, in which he was acquitted after arguing that his conducts violated Senate ethics rules rather than federal laws, and subsequent censure. The Democratic primary was seen as the most competitive election in the district since Currie's election in 1994, with the Prince George's County establishment backing Currie and area newspapers backing Griffith. Griffith ran on a platform focusing on economic development, jobs, education, and public safety, and ran a "nice" campaign against Currie, whom she considered a friend, by not mentioning his corruption charges to voters. Currie enjoyed a significant fundraising advantage over Griffith, having almost three times the cash on hand as her. Griffith was defeated by Currie in the Democratic primary in June 2014, receiving 37.7 percent of the vote to Currie's 58.7 percent. In November 2016, after state senator Ulysses Currie announced he would resign from the Maryland Senate, Griffith applied to serve the remainder of his term in the Maryland Senate. However, Currie rescinded his resignation later in the month a few days before it was sent to go into effect, citing the "political fighting" over the selection of his replacement. In June 2017, after Currie announced that he would not seek re-election in 2018, Griffith announced that she would again run for the Maryland Senate in District 25. She received support from the Prince George's County establishment in her run against state delegate Angela Angel, whom she defeated in the Democratic primary with 55 percent of the vote. Tenure. Griffith was sworn into the Maryland Senate on January 9, 2019. She was a member of the Budget and Taxation Committee from 2019 to 2022, afterwards serving as the chair of the Finance Committee. In January 2020, Griffith was elected by the Maryland Senate to serve as president pro tempore, making her the first African American woman to have the role. She stepped down as president pro tempore in 2023. During the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, Griffith supported Joe Biden and served as a co-chair of the Maryland Women for Biden group, alongside Adrienne A. Jones, Angela Alsobrooks, and Yvette Lewis. In April 2022, Griffith signed 103 Maryland measures into law together with Republican Governor Larry Hogan and House Speaker Adrienne A. Jones. It was the first time that two Black women had taken part in such a ceremony as Maryland's presiding officers. Jones represented the house while Griffith as the President pro tem represented the Maryland Senate. On October 6, 2023, Griffith announced that she would resign from the Maryland Senate at the end of the month to become the head of the Maryland Hospital Association. She is the organization's fifth president, as well as the first African American woman to hold the position. Personal life. Griffith has two children and has lived in Suitland, Maryland since 2002. In May 1999, Jeb Bello, a maître d'hôtel at the Treaty of Paris restaurant in Annapolis, Maryland, filed a lawsuit against Griffith, asking for $3.1 million in damages and alleging that she defamed him by portraying him as "a bigot and a racist" for seating a white couple before her and a Black companion, which culminated into a campaign that prevented him from finding another job in Annapolis. The case was settled out of court in January 2001. Political positions. Healthcare. Griffith chaired a work group to develop House Speaker Adrienne A. Jones' "Black agenda", which included proposals to extend Medicaid coverage for pregnant women until 12 months postpartum. During the 2023 legislative session, Griffith said she supported a bill to allow non-citizens to enroll in health insurance programs, calling it a "first good step". Minimum wage. During the 2023 legislative session, during a committee hearing on the Fair Wage Act, a bill that would have raised the minimum wage to $15 an hour by October 2023 and indexed future increases to inflation, Griffith supported an amendment to the bill delaying the increase to 2024 and removing provisions indexing it to inflation. Redistricting. In October 2011, ahead of the special legislative session to redraw Maryland's congressional districts, Griffith expressed disappointment with the failed Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland pressure campaign toward Governor Martin O'Malley to draw a map that considered "specific issued raised by the caucus". Social issues. In 2001, Griffith voted for a bill to ban discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. During the 2006 legislative session, she voted against overturning a committee decision to kill a proposed constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage in Maryland. In December 2011, Griffith said she opposed the Civil Marriage Protection Act, a bill to legalize same-sex marriage in Maryland. During the 2007 legislative session, Griffith voted for a bill creating a referendum to legalize slot machine gambling in Maryland. In February 2012, she said she opposed a plan to build a casino in National Harbor, Maryland, noting that Prince George's County voted against slots in the 2008 referendum and saying that she preferred "other forms" of economic development for the county.
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American politician Ryan Nawrocki (born 1983/1984) is an American politician and communications professional. He is a member of the Maryland House of Delegates for District 7A in north Baltimore County, Maryland. He was previously a candidate for the Baltimore County Council in District 6 in 2010 and 2018. Background. Nawrocki attended St. Mary's College of Maryland, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science, public policy, economics, and sociology, and Johns Hopkins University, where he earned a master's degree in public administration. After graduating, he started his own companies, including a medical aesthetics practice and a CBD company. Nawrocki first got involved in politics by working in the Maryland Transit Administration, at which time he was the youngest appointee in the administration of Maryland governor Bob Ehrlich. In 2010, Nawrocki unsuccessfully ran for the Baltimore County Council. He was defeated by Democratic nominee Cathy Bevins by 503 votes. After his 2010 loss, Nawrocki began working as a spokesman to U.S. Representative Andy Harris, eventually becoming Harris' communication director. In January 2016, Nawrocki was appointed as senior director for the Maryland Transit Administration. Nawrocki also operated his own public relations firm, Red White and Blue LLC, which was hired by Maryland Environmental Service director Roy McGrath at a cost of $10,000 per month for work that included "challenge coins", writing remarks for senior staff including McGrath, note cards, and installation of new artwork in conference room. Nawrocki once again challenged Bevins in the 2018 councilmanic elections, receiving endorsements from Ehrlich, Harris, and former county executive Roger B. Hayden. Bevins again defeated Nawrocki by 3,594 votes, or 8.5 percent. In February 2022, Nawrocki announced his candidacy for the Maryland House of Delegates in District 7A. In May 2022, incumbent state Delegate Kathy Szeliga announced that she would run on a ticket with Nawrocki over state Delegate Joseph C. Boteler III. The two were also endorsed by state Senator J. B. Jennings and county councilmember David Marks. Nawrocki won the Republican primary, coming in second place behind Szeliga with 27.6 percent of the vote. He defeated autistic rights advocate Lydia X. Z. Brown in the general election. In the legislature. Nawrocki was sworn into the Maryland House of Delegates on January 11, 2023. He is a member of the House Environment and Transportation Committee and the Maryland Freedom Caucus. In April 2023, Nawrocki sent a letter to State Superintendent Mohammed Choudhury accusing the Maryland State Department of Education of hiding scores from failing scores by altering data files available on the department's website. An investigation conducted by the state inspector general found no evidence of these claims. In May 2024, Nawrocki signed onto a letter condemning the jury's guilty verdict in the Trump hush money trial, calling the ruling a "political prosecution from a kangaroo court and left-leaning prosecutor" that is turning the U.S. justice system into a "third world parody of law and order". Personal life. Nawrocki is married to his wife Lauren. Together, the couple has five children, and lives in Middle River, Maryland. In November 2007, Nawrocki's then-girlfriend, now wife, twice called police to report a physical altercation between her and Nawrocki. In the first report, filed November 11, 2007, Nawrocki allegedly pushed her during an argument; Nawrocki denied it and she was not injured. In the second report, filed five days later, she told police that Nawrocki "hit her in the mouth, splitting her lip and then pushed her to the floor" during an argument at their Towson home. The report also alleges that Nawrocki "began to choke her and she had to dig her fingernails into his arms and back to make him let her go." Nawrocki was never charged with a crime in the incident and says the claims in the report were an exaggeration to police. His wife also said in an interview with "The Baltimore Sun" that the police reports don't represent what really happened. The police reports became relevant when he ran for county council in 2018, when protesters involved in women's organizations picketed outside Nawrocki campaign events holding signs that accused him of domestic violence. Nawrocki accused his opponent, incumbent county councilmember Cathy Bevins, of sending the protesters to his event, an accusation which Bevins called "absolutely ridiculous". Electoral history. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,094
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184
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The 2014 Maryland Senate election were held on November 4, 2014, to elect senators in all 47 districts of the Maryland Senate. Members were elected in single-member constituencies to four-year terms. These elections were held concurrently with various federal and state elections, including for Governor of Maryland. Background. The Democratic Party had held majority control of the Senate since the beginning of the 20th century. The closest that the Republican Party had come to gaining control since then was in 1918, when Democrats held a thin 14 to 13 majority. In the 2014 elections, Governor Martin O'Malley was term-limited and Republicans sought to succeed him with businessman Larry Hogan. Capitalizing on a national red wave, the party successfully retook the governor's office and picked up nine seats in the General Assembly, including two seats in the Maryland Senate. Despite these gains, Democrats still retained their veto-proof supermajorities in both chambers of the Maryland General Assembly. Overview. Closest races. Seats where the margin of victory was under 10%: Detailed results. District 1. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 2. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 3. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 4. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 5. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 6. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 7. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 8. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 9. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 10. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 11. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 12. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 13. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 14. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 15. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 16. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 17. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 18. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 19. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 20. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 21. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 22. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 23. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 24. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 25. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 26. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 27. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 28. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 29. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 30. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 31. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 32. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 33. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 34. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 35. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 36. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 37. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 38. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 39. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 40. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 41. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 42. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 43. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 44. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 45. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 46. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% District 47. ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% ! scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 15em" |Party ! scope="col" style="width: 17em" |Candidate ! scope="col" style="width: 5em" |Votes ! scope="col" style="width: 3.5em" |% References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,095
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Facial muscle paralysis from birth Medical condition Möbius syndrome or Moebius syndrome is a rare congenital neurological disorder which is characterized by facial paralysis and the inability to move the eyes from side to side. Most people with Möbius syndrome are born with complete facial paralysis and cannot close their eyes or form facial expressions. Limb and chest wall abnormalities sometimes occur with the syndrome. People with Möbius syndrome have normal intelligence, although their lack of facial expression is sometimes incorrectly taken to be due to dullness or unfriendliness. It is named for Paul Julius Möbius, a German neurologist who first described the syndrome in 1888. In 1994, the "Moebius Syndrome Foundation" was founded, and later that year the first "Moebius Syndrome Foundation Conference" was held in Los Angeles. Signs and symptoms. People with Möbius syndrome are born with facial paralysis and the inability to move their eyes laterally. Often, their upper lip is retracted due to muscle shrinkage. Occasionally, cranial nerves V and VIII are affected. Other symptoms that sometimes occur with Möbius syndrome are: Children with Möbius syndrome may have delayed speech because of paralysis of muscles that move the lips, soft palate and tongue root. However, with speech therapy, most people with Möbius syndrome can develop understandable speech. Möbius syndrome has been associated with increased occurrence of the symptoms of autism. Social and lifestyle effects. Möbius syndrome does not prevent individuals from experiencing personal and professional success. Due to the importance of facial expression and smiling in social interaction, the inability to form either can lead to individuals with Möbius being perceived as unhappy, unfriendly or uninterested in conversations. Individuals who are familiar with Möbius patients such as family or friends can recognize other signals of emotion such as body language, to the point that they sometimes report forgetting that the person has facial paralysis. People with Möbius syndrome are often adept at compensating for a lack of expression by using body language, posture, and vocal tone to convey emotion. Pathogenesis. Möbius syndrome results from the underdevelopment of the VI and VII cranial nerves. The causes of Möbius syndrome are poorly understood. It is thought to result from a vascular disruption (temporary loss of blood flow) in the brain during prenatal development. There can be many reasons for vascular disruption leading to Möbius syndrome. Most cases do not appear to be genetic. However, genetic links have been found in a few families. Some maternal trauma may result in impaired or interrupted blood flow (ischemia) or lack of oxygen (hypoxia) to a developing fetus. Some cases are associated with reciprocal translocation between chromosomes or maternal illness. The use of drugs and a traumatic pregnancy may also be linked to the development of Möbius syndrome. The use of the drugs misoprostol or thalidomide by women during pregnancy has been linked to the development of Möbius syndrome in some cases. Misoprostol is used to induce abortions in Brazil and Argentina as well as in the United States. Misoprostol abortions are successful 98-99% of the time, with failed procedures generally repeated or managed surgically meaning that continued pregnancies are incredibly rare after use of misoprostol. Studies show that the use of misoprostol during pregnancy increases the risk of developing Möbius syndrome by a factor of 30. While this is a dramatic increase in risk, the incidence of Möbius syndrome without misoprostol use is estimated at one in 50,000 to 100,000 births (making the incidence of Möbius syndrome with misoprostol use, less than one in 1,000 births). The use of cocaine (which also has vascular effects) has been implicated in Möbius syndrome. Oral/dental concerns. Neonatal. When a child is born with Möbius syndrome, there may be difficulty in closing the mouth or swallowing. The tongue may fasciculate (quiver) or be hypotonic (low muscle tone). The tongue may be larger or smaller than average. There may be low tone of the muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, and the masticatory system. The palate may be arched excessively (a high palate), because the tongue does not form a suction that would normally shape the palate down further. The palate may have a groove (this may be partially due to intubation early on if it is for an extended period of time) or may be cleft (incompletely formed). Primary dentition. The primary (baby) teeth generally start coming in by 6 months of age, and all 20 teeth may be in by two and a half years of age. The eruption timing varies greatly. There may be an incomplete formation of the enamel on the teeth (enamel hypoplasia) that makes the teeth more vulnerable to caries (cavities). There may be missing teeth eruptions. If the infant is not closing down properly, the lower jaws become more noticeably deficient (micrognathia or retrognathia). The front teeth may not touch when the child closes down because the back teeth have overerrupted or because of incomplete formation of the maxilla. This condition is called an anterior open bite and has facial/skeletal implications. Transitional dentition. Between age 5 and 7, most children start losing their primary teeth. Occasionally, some primary teeth are slow to exfoliate (fall out), and the dentist may want to remove a primary tooth early to prevent orthodontic problems. Likewise, premature loss of primary teeth may create orthodontic problems later on. When a tooth is lost prematurely, removable or fixed spacers may be needed to prevent the shifting of teeth. Interceptive orthodontic treatment can be initiated at this stage of development to help with crowding or to help relate the upper and lower jaws. Consistent with a high palate is a narrow arch shape of the upper teeth as they line up in the mouth. This may cause the upper front teeth to flare out and become more prone to fracture if accidentally hit. Interceptive orthodontics has an important role in this situation. Appliances that expand the upper arch tend to bring the front teeth back into a more-normal position. Some appliances can even help allow the front teeth to close to normal in an open-bite situation. The mouth and lips may tend to get dry with the Möbius patient. Permanent dentition. After the last primary tooth is lost, usually around the age of twelve, final orthodontic treatment can be initiated. A patient that has not been able to close or swallow well probably will have an open bite, deficient lower-jaw growth, a narrow archform with crowded teeth, and upper anterior flaring of teeth. Orthognathic (jaw) surgery may be indicated. Genetic links to 13q12.2 and 1p22 have been suggested. Diagnosis. Diagnosis is typically made by the physical characteristics and symptoms, patient history and a thorough clinical evaluation. There is no specific diagnostic test that confirms Möbius syndrome. Some specialised tests may be carried out to rule out other causes of facial palsy. Treatment. There is no single course of medical treatment or cure for Möbius syndrome. Treatment is supportive and in accordance with symptoms. If they have difficulty nursing, infants may require feeding tubes or special bottles to maintain sufficient nutrition. Physical, occupational, and speech therapy can improve motor skills and coordination and can lead to better control of speaking and eating abilities. Often, frequent lubrication with eye drops is sufficient to combat dry eye that results from impaired blinking. Surgery can correct crossed eyes, protect the cornea via tarsorraphy, and improve limb and jaw deformities. Sometimes called smile surgery by the media, muscle transfers grafted from the thigh to the corners of the mouth can be performed to provide the ability to smile. Although "smile surgery" may provide the ability to smile, the procedure is complex and can take twelve hours for each side of the face. Also, the surgery cannot be considered a "cure" for Möbius syndrome, because it does not improve the ability to form other facial expressions. Epidemiology. It is estimated that there are, on average, 2 to 20 cases of Möbius syndrome per million births. Although its rarity often leads to late diagnosis, infants with this disorder can be identified at birth by a "mask-like" lack of expression that is detectable during crying or laughing and by an inability to suck while nursing because of paresis (palsy) of the sixth and seventh cranial nerves. Society and culture. Literature and media with mentions of Möbius syndrome include: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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The name Sean has been used for four tropical cyclones worldwide, two in the Atlantic Ocean and two in the Australian Region of the Indian Ocean. In the Atlantic, the name replaced Stan, which was retired after the 2005 season. In the Atlantic: In the Australian region: ;templatestyles src="Dmbox/styles.css" / ; List of storms with the same or similar names This includes a list of named storms that share the same name (or similar names). ;br ;If an [ internal link] incorrectly led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended storm article.
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American reggae and dub band Stick Figure is an American reggae and dub band founded in 2005 In Duxbury, MA. The group has released eight full-length albums and one instrumental album (Prince Fatty Presents), all of which were written and produced by frontman and self-taught multi-instrumentalist Scott Woodruff. The live band consists of Woodruff, keyboardist Kevin Bong (KBong), drummer Kevin Offitzer, bassist Tommy Suliman, guitarist, keyboardist, and guitarist/backup vocalist Johnny Cosmic and percussionist Will Phillips. Cocoa, an Australian Shepherd, often joins the band onstage and has accordingly been nicknamed Cocoa the Tour Dog. Her full name is "Cocoa de Rasta". History. Early career. Stick Figure was founded in 2005 as a one-man band by multi-instrumentalist, songwriter, and producer Scott Woodruff. Woodruff, originally from his hometown of Duxbury, Massachusetts, began playing instruments at the age of 9, and was primarily drawn to reggae. His style of layering tracks to create songs was particularly inspired by Keller Williams who utilized a looping method to create music. Woodruff began writing and producing music in 2005, which incorporated roots reggae with dub, a subgenre of reggae. As a freshman in college, Woodruff began submitting instrumental tracks to the Sublime Archive website and consequently adopted the moniker "Stick Figure". Early releases. On December 11, 2007, Woodruff released his first album "The Sound of My Addiction" under Ruffwood Records (a pun on his last name). Founded by Scott Woodruff, Ruffwood Records released all of Woodruff's albums to date. "The Sound of My Addiction" established Stick Figure's style of self-production. Woodruff created this album by "recording instruments individually, [and] layering tracks on top of one another in unison", a style he used to create subsequent albums. On January 16, 2008, Woodruff released his sophomore album, "Burnin' Ocean" under Ruffwood Records. This album was one of the Top 10 Best Reggae Albums in 2008 on the Apple iTunes charts; notable tracks include "Burnin' Ocean", "So Good" and "We Get High". "Smoke Stack" and "Reprise Sessions" (2009–2011). In the summer of 2009, Woodruff moved to the San Diego area and shortly after released his subsequent album, "Smoke Stack". This album followed the same recording style of the previous two albums where he individually recorded and layered each track to create a song. Notable songs include "Livin' It", "Hawaii Song" and "Vibes Alive". "Smoke Stack" was well-received and peaked at #8 on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart and #17 on the Heatseekers Album Chart. Next, he released, "The Reprise Sessions" on August 3, 2010 under Ruffwood Records. This rarity album was an extension to "Smoke Stack". Notable tracks include "Your Way" and "Dead End Street". "Burial Ground" (2012). On June 12, 2012, two years after releasing "Reprise Sessions", Woodruff released the fourth Stick Figure studio album, "Burial Ground". All 14 tracks were written and produced by Woodruff, one of which features vocals by reggae singer Half Pint, and one of which features vocals from Woodruff's close friend, T.J. O'Neill. Woodruff co-wrote five of the tracks with O'Neill; the two had spent time traveling abroad together in Indonesia, Australia, Fiji, Thailand, and New Zealand starting in 2010, finding mutual inspiration for songwriting. The album reached #1 on the iTunes and Billboard Reggae charts, and reached #17 on the Heatseekers Albums chart in the United States. "Burial Ground" met with a positive critical response, with a number of critics noting the mixing of upbeat reggae and dub. According to "The Reggae Review", "Original, bass-heavy, one drop beats are consistent throughout the album, as are the subtle nuances...and sometimes not so subtle nuances...of dub. Stick Figure's digits remain firmly on the pulse of roots reggae/dub music." "The Pier" stated, "the album represents a new milestone in Stick Figure's musical growth and innovative abilities, with more layering, instrumental transcendence, and lyrical complexity [than their previous albums]." Live touring band. After the release of "Burial Ground" in 2012, Woodruff organized a live band, adding members Kevin Bong (KBong) on keyboards, Todd Smith on drums, and Tommy Suliman on bass. The newly formed quartet then went on tour with reggae band The Green starting in September 2012. This tour included eighteen stops along the East Coast of the United States. In August 2012, Stick Figure embarked on their first headlining tour with stops in major cities including Boston(With The Jackson Wetherbee Band), Austin, Denver and Chicago with multiple sold-out shows. That year they also went on three national tours alongside reggae bands Passafire, John Brown's Body, and Tribal Seeds. In 2014, they headlined their first national tour, with numerous sold-out shows including a performance at West Hollywood's renowned Roxy Theater that sold out two weeks before the show date. Within two years of forming a live band, Stick Figure toured with other major acts including Rebelution, Slightly Stoopid, Collie Buddz, Passafire, Tribal Seeds and The Expendables. They performed at various internationally recognized festivals including Reggae on the River, Cali Roots Festival, Life is Beautiful, Closer to the Sun, Levitate, and Bonnaroo, amongst others. Move to Northern California. In 2015, Scott Woodruff relocated from San Diego to a home in the woods in the outskirts of Santa Cruz. Immediately after relocating to his new home, Woodruff built Ruffwood Studios where he recorded the subsequent Stick Figure album, "Set in Stone". Woodruff found much inspiration for this album from the redwood forest just outside of his studio. "Set in Stone" and touring (2015–2018). On November 13, 2015, Woodruff released his fifth studio album, "Set in Stone". The album peaked at #1 on the "Billboard" Reggae Albums chart, and spent 78 weeks on the chart. It appeared on six "Billboard" charts overall, including #101 on the Billboard 200, #24 on Digital Albums, #1 on Heatseekers Albums, #7 on Independent Albums, and #65 on the Top Album Sales chart. Woodruff produced this album in the same way he produced the five previous albums. The 14-track album includes collaborations with Eric Rachmany of Rebelution, Slightly Stoopid, KBong, and Collie Buddz. Following the album's release, in January 2016, the live band embarked on a U.S. tour with the Southern California reggae band Fortunate Youth. John Gray (a.k.a. Johnny Cosmic), a multi-instrumentalist, made his debut appearance as a member of the Stick Figure live band on this tour playing keyboards, singing backup vocals and playing guitar. With the success and popularity of "Set In Stone", Stick Figure released their first instrumental album, "Set In Stone: Instrumentals" on April 1, 2016. "World on Fire" and "Fire & Stone" (2019–2021). Stick Figure collaborated with long-time friend and musician T.J. O'Neill on his first solo single, the Jimmy Buffett cover "A Pirate Looks at 40" also featuring KBong and Johnny Cosmic. The music video was shot live on location at a resort in Mexico with thousands of fans surrounding the band while performing. On August 30, 2019, Stick Figure released their sixth studio album, "World on Fire". Like previous projects, the album was written, recorded, and produced by Scott Woodruff, playing every instrument and recording each vocal himself. This time, however, the album was created at Stick Figure-owned Great Stone Studios in Oakland, California, former home of punk band Green Day. With assistance from associate producer Johnny Cosmic (Stick Figure live guitarist, keys, and back up vocals), the 15 track project included guest appearances from Slightly Stoopid, Citizen Cope, and longtime Stick Figure collaborator TJ O'Neill. The album debuted on a number of "Billboard charts", including #34 on the Top 200 chart, #1 Billboard Reggae Albums, #4 Digital Albums, #5 New Albums, #6 Current Albums, and #2 Independent Albums. The highest selling debut week album of the year, "World on Fire" sold more copies in week one (over 10,000) than the previous year's winner (Sting and Shaggy's "44/876"). The album remained at #1 on the Billboard Reggae Albums chart for four consecutive weeks. The album has garnered considerable radio play, including on SiriusXM's "The Joint", SiriusXM's "No Shoes Radio", and SiriusXM's "Margaritaville". Stick Figure was also the first artist to be named the face of Cali Reggae Countdown on Pandora Radio. In 2020, Stick Figure announced their first ever headline amphitheater tour. The tour featured support from Collie Buddz, Iya Terra, and The Movement, and visits to 19 cities nationwide. However, the tour was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On March 18, 2021, Stick Figure released their second instrumental album, "World on Fire: Instrumentals". Stick Figure teamed up with UK producer and dub music master Prince Fatty to remix some of the band's favorite songs from albums, "Set in Stone" and "World on Fire". The full remix album titled after these albums, "Fire & Stone" was released on April 30, 2021. A single from the album, "Weary Eyes (Prince Fatty Presents)" premiered on April 9. The new tracks have a hundred percent new instrumentation, giving each song a "fresh new taste and roots feel". "Wisdom" (2022). After three years in the making, Stick Figure recorded their seventh full-length studio album titled, "Wisdom", which was released on September 9, 2022. The 14-track album was once again recorded and mixed at Woodruff's Great Stone Studio with childhood friend TJ O'Neill assisting in the creative process, while original band members KBong, Kevin Offitzer, Tommy Suliman, and Johnny Cosmic, along with new member, percussionist Will Phillips bring their talents in Woodruff's songs to life. Woodruff also added a full brass section with Liam Robertson on saxophone, Quinn Carson on trombone and Glenn Holdaway on trumpet on some tracks. With beautiful cover art by Juan Manuel Orozco, the album features Barrington Levy, Collie Buddz, and Slightly Stoopid on two tracks. Woodruff describes the album's name, "Wisdom is a journey and a search for what matters in life—a search for meaning, purpose, place and belonging. Wisdom is a code to live by where we can accept that it is okay to start over, to make mistakes, to love, and to feel pain. It is a reminder to focus on the little things that bring joy and know that all of it is a part of our individual story." Wisdom debuted at No. 51 on the Billboard 200 chart, No. 1 on the Billboard Reggae Albums chart and No. 6 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart with 13,900 units sold from traditional sales and streaming during its first week of release. This made it the fourth consecutive Stick Figure album to debut at #1 on Billboard's Reggae Albums chart. By September 23, the album's total sales, including pre-released tracks, totaled over 41,000 units. Stick Figure's 'Wisdom' First Album To Debut No. 1 On Billboard Reggae Chart In Over Two Years. Stick Figure was one of the many featured reggae rock artists on Crossed Heart Clothing presents "Pop Punk Goes Reggae, Vol. 1", which was produced by frontman Nathan Aurora of Iya Terra. The 16-track album was released on September 15, 2023 by Ineffable Records. The band put a reggae spin with their cover of "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" by Green Day. Other projects. Stick Figure’s song, "Burial Ground" was featured on MLB The Show 16 MVP Edition video game. Stick Figure has collaborated with Wachusett Brewing Company to promote the new Cocoanut IPA, which is currently being distributed in New England. Stick Figure collaborated with Flying Embers of Ojai, California to create a limited-edition special release called Stick Figure X Flying Embers Mango Coconut Hard Kombucha. The tropical flavor combines mangos blended with coconut with hints of turmeric and chili in a 16-ounce can featuring the band's artwork with Cocoa the tour dog. Collaborations. Featured artist. Stick Figure (Scott Woodruff) has collaborated or was featured on songs with artists and bands throughout the years. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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Last people to be executed for sodomy in England James Pratt (1805–1835), also known as John Pratt, and John Smith (1795–1835) were two British men who, in November 1835, became the last people to be executed for sodomy in England. Pratt and Smith were arrested in August of that year after being spied on through a keyhole allegedly having "carnal knowledge" of each other in a room rented by William Bonill, a friend or acquaintance of one of the men, or possibly both. Bonill, although not present when the men were spied on, was nevertheless transported to Australia as an accessory to Pratt and Smith's alleged crime, where he died. Some modern human rights activists have cast doubt on the facts and legality of the conviction. In January 2017, Pratt and Smith were among those who were posthumously pardoned by the Alan Turing law which pardoned those who had been convicted of same-sex carnal offences which no longer exist in the UK. Biographies. James Pratt was born in 1805 and worked as a groom. He was married and lived with his wife and children at Deptford, Kent. John Smith was born in 1795 and was from Southwark Christchurch. He was described in court proceedings and contemporary newspaper reports as an unmarried labourer, although other sources state he was married and worked as a servant. Arrest. William Bonill, aged 68, had lived for 13 months in a rented room at a house near the Blackfriars Road, Southwark, London. His landlord stated that Bonill had frequent male visitors, who generally came in pairs, and that his suspicions became aroused on the afternoon of 29 August 1835, when Pratt and Smith came to visit Bonill. The landlord climbed to an outside vantage point in the loft of a nearby stable building, where he could see through the window of Bonill's room, before coming down to look into the room through the keyhole. Both the landlord and his wife later claimed they both looked through the keyhole and saw Pratt and Smith engaging in carnal relations with each other. The landlord after seeing what he saw broke open the door to confront them. Bonill was absent but returned a few minutes later with a jug of ale. The landlord went to fetch a police constable and all three men were arrested. Trial and execution. Pratt, Smith and Bonill were tried on 21 September 1835 at the Central Criminal Court, before Baron Gurney, a judge who had the reputation of being independent and acute, but also harsh. Pratt and Smith were convicted under section 15 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1828, which had replaced the 1533 Buggery Act, and were sentenced to death. William Bonill was convicted as an accessory and sentenced to 14 years of penal transportation. A number of witnesses came forward to testify to the good character of Pratt. No character witnesses came forward to testify on behalf of Smith. The conviction of the three men rested entirely on what the landlord and his wife claimed to have witnessed, and the evidence of the police constable who had examined the clothing of both men after his arrival at Bonhill's lodging house. Modern commentators have cast doubts on their testimony, based on the narrow field of vision afforded by a keyhole and the acts (some anatomically impossible) the couple claimed to have witnessed during the brief length of time they were looking. The magistrate, Hensleigh Wedgwood, who had committed the three men to trial, subsequently wrote to the Home Secretary, Lord John Russell, arguing for the commutation of the death sentences, stating: ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;It is the only crime where there is no injury done to any individual and in consequence it requires a very small expense to commit it in so private a manner and to take such precautions as shall render conviction impossible. It is also the only capital crime that is committed by rich men but owing to the circumstances I have mentioned they are never convicted. Although Wedgwood was a deeply religious man he did not concur with the then prevailing view of society that sodomy committed between humans should be a capital offence. He also judged it unjust that it was a sentence more likely to befall poorer men than richer men as richer men could afford a private space that would make their arrest less likely. And even if arrested, Wedgwood might have observed, a richer man would have had the resources to post bail money, and then flee abroad. However, despite this degree of sympathy, Wedgwood described the men as "degraded creatures" in another letter. On 5 November 1835, Charles Dickens and the newspaper editor John Black visited Newgate Prison; Dickens wrote an account of this in "Sketches by Boz" and described seeing Pratt and Smith while they were being held there: ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;The other two men were at the upper end of the room. One of them, who was imperfectly seen in the dim light, had his back towards us, and was stooping over the fire, with his right arm on the mantel-piece, and his head sunk upon it. The other was leaning on the sill of the farthest window. The light fell full upon him, and communicated to his pale, haggard face, and disordered hair, an appearance which, at that distance, was ghastly. His cheek rested upon his hand; and, with his face a little raised, and his eyes wildly staring before him, he seemed to be unconsciously intent on counting the chinks in the opposite wall. The gaoler who was escorting Dickens confidently predicted to him that the two would be executed and was proved right. Seventeen individuals were sentenced to death at the September and October sessions of the Central Criminal Court for offences that included burglary, robbery, and attempted murder. On 21 November, all were granted remission of their death sentences under the Royal Prerogative of Mercy with the exceptions of Pratt and Smith. There had been previous reprieves of men sentenced to death for sodomy, such as Martin Mellet and James Farthing who had been condemned in 1828 but were instead transported to Australia. But this was not granted to Pratt and Smith despite an appeal for mercy submitted by the men's wives that was heard by the Privy Council. A petition for mercy was even made by the landlord and his wife who had been witnesses against them. Pratt and Smith were hanged in front of Newgate Prison on the morning of 27 November. The crowd of spectators was described in "The Times"' newspaper report as larger than usual; this was possibly because the hanging was the first to have taken place at Newgate in nearly two years. The report of the execution in "The Morning Post" states that when the men were led onto the scaffold the crowd began to hiss, and this continued until the moment of their execution. Possibly this indicated the crowd's disagreement with the execution, or it may have indicated disapproval of the men's alleged acts. Pratt was reportedly too weak to stand, and had to be held upright by the executioner's assistants while preparations were made to hang him. The event was sufficiently notable for a printed broadside to be published and sold. This described the men's trial and included the purported text of a final letter that was claimed to have been written by Smith to a friend. Bonill was one of 290 prisoners transported to Australia on the ship "Asia", which departed England on 5 November 1835 and arrived in Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) on 21 February 1836. Bonill died at the age of 74 at New Norfolk Hospital in Van Diemen's Land on 29 April 1841. Legacy. A collection of contemporary documents, including petitions made on behalf of the men, and letters about their case are held by the United Kingdom National Archives. Both Pratt and Smith are central characters in the stage play "Particular Disposition", written by Benjamin Fulk. The song "45 George Street" by Bird in the Belly tells their story. The case of Pratt and Smith is the subject of the non-fiction book "James and John: A True Story of Prejudice and Murder" by Chris Bryant MP published in February 2024. In April 2024, Southwark Liberal Democrat councillor Victor Chamberlain proposed a rainbow plaque be unveiled on Blackfriars Road to commemorate Pratt and Smith. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; References. Citations. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. ;templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Ancestor of the Germanic languages Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. Proto-Germanic eventually developed from pre-Proto-Germanic into three Germanic branches during the fifth century BC to fifth century AD: West Germanic, East Germanic and North Germanic. North Germanic remained in contact with the other branches over a considerable time, especially with the Ingvaeonic languages (including English), which arose from West Germanic dialects, and had remained in contact with the Norse. A defining feature of Proto-Germanic is the completion of the process described by Grimm's law, a set of sound changes that occurred between its status as a dialect of Proto-Indo-European and its gradual divergence into a separate language. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the Migration Period in the fourth century AD. The alternative term "Germanic parent language" may be used to include a larger scope of linguistic developments, spanning the Nordic Bronze Age and Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe (second to first millennia BC) to include "Pre-Germanic" (PreGmc), "Early Proto-Germanic" (EPGmc) and "Late Proto-Germanic" (LPGmc). While Proto-Germanic refers only to the reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor of Germanic languages, the Germanic parent language refers to the entire journey that the dialect of Proto-Indo-European that would become Proto-Germanic underwent through the millennia. The Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any complete surviving texts; it has been reconstructed using the comparative method. However, there is fragmentary direct attestation of (late) Proto-Germanic in early runic inscriptions (specifically the Vimose inscriptions, dated to the 2nd century CE, as well as the non-runic Negau helmet inscription, dated to the 2nd century BCE), and in Roman Empire-era transcriptions of individual words (notably in Tacitus' "Germania", c. AD 90). Archaeology and early historiography. Proto-Germanic developed out of pre-Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe. According to the Germanic substrate hypothesis, it may have been influenced by non-Indo-European cultures, such as the Funnelbeaker culture, but the sound change in the Germanic languages known as Grimm's law points to a non-substratic development away from other branches of Indo-European. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after c. 500 BC, and Proto-Norse, from the second century AD and later, is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo-European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age. The Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia (Denmark, south Sweden and southern Norway) and the northern-most part of Germany in Schleswig Holstein and northern Lower Saxony, the "Urheimat" (original home) of the Germanic tribes. It is possible that Indo-European speakers first arrived in southern Scandinavia with the Corded Ware culture in the mid-3rd millennium BC, developing into the Nordic Bronze Age cultures by the early second millennium BC. According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the "Urheimat" ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the Jastorf culture. Early Germanic expansion in the Pre-Roman Iron Age (fifth to first centuries BC) placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the Continental Celtic La Tène horizon. A number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the first century AD, Germanic expansion reached the Danube and the Upper Rhine in the south and the Germanic peoples first entered the historical record. At about the same time, extending east of the Vistula (Oksywie culture, Przeworsk culture), Germanic speakers came into contact with early Slavic cultures, as reflected in early Germanic loans in Proto-Slavic. By the third century, Late Proto-Germanic speakers had expanded over significant distance, from the Rhine to the Dniepr spanning about . The period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the (historiographically recorded) Germanic migrations. The earliest available complete sentences in a Germanic language are variably dated to the 2nd century AD, around 300 AD or the first century AD in runic inscriptions (such as the Tune Runestone). The language of these sentences is known as Proto-Norse, although the delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse at about that time is largely a matter of convention. The first coherent text recorded in a Germanic language is the Gothic Bible, written in the later fourth century in the East Germanic variety of the Thervingi Gothic Christians, who had escaped persecution by moving from Scythia to Moesia in 348. Early West Germanic text is available from the fifth century, beginning with the Frankish Bergakker runic inscription. Evolution. The evolution of Proto-Germanic from its ancestral forms, beginning with its ancestor Proto-Indo-European, began with the development of a separate common way of speech among some geographically nearby speakers of a prior language and ended with the dispersion of the proto-language speakers into distinct populations with mostly independent speech habits. Between the two points, many sound changes occurred. Theories of phylogeny. Solutions. Phylogeny as applied to historical linguistics involves the evolutionary descent of languages. The phylogeny problem is the question of what specific tree, in the tree model of language evolution, best explains the paths of descent of all the members of a language family from a common language, or proto-language (at the root of the tree) to the attested languages (at the leaves of the tree). The Germanic languages form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, which in turn has Proto-Indo-European at its root. Borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of historical linguistics, various solutions have been proposed, none certain and all debatable. In the evolutionary history of a language family, philologists consider a genetic "tree model" appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. Early Indo-European had limited contact between distinct lineages, and, uniquely, the Germanic subfamily exhibited a less treelike behaviour, as some of its characteristics were acquired from neighbours early in its evolution rather than from its direct ancestors. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner. Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed Pre-Proto-Germanic. Whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage. Winfred P. Lehmann regarded Jacob Grimm's "First Germanic Sound Shift", or Grimm's law, and Verner's law, (which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic) as pre-Proto-Germanic and held that the "upper boundary" (that is, the earlier boundary) was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically on the first syllable. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch-accent consisting of "an alternation of high and low tones" as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of a word's syllables. The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the "lower boundary" was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, post-PIE ; Gothic , 'knows'. Elmer H. Antonsen agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not dropped: "ékwakraz … wraita", 'I, Wakraz, … wrote (this)'. He says: "We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic." Antonsen's own scheme divides Proto-Germanic into an early stage and a late stage. The early stage includes the stress fixation and resulting "spontaneous vowel-shifts" while the late stage is defined by ten complex rules governing changes of both vowels and consonants. By 250 BC Proto-Germanic had branched into five groups of Germanic: two each in the West and the North and one in the East. Phonological stages from Proto-Indo-European to end of Proto-Germanic. The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Indo-European up to the point that Proto-Germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects. The changes are listed roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. The stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on Ringe, who in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology. Pre-Proto-Germanic (Pre-PGmc). This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while it was still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language. Early Proto-Germanic. This stage began its evolution as a dialect of Proto-Indo-European that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed with other descendants of PIE, but it would have been strained, and the period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of the contrastive accent inherited from PIE for a uniform accent on the first syllable of the word root, and the beginnings of the reduction of the resulting unstressed syllables. Late Proto-Germanic. By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system that was rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent for a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had already begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables, which would continue in its descendants. The final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects and, most notably, featured the development of nasal vowels and the start of umlaut, another characteristic Germanic feature. Lexical evidence in other language varieties. Loans into Proto-Germanic from other (known) languages or from Proto-Germanic into other languages can be dated relative to each other by which Germanic sound laws have acted on them. Since the dates of borrowings and sound laws are not precisely known, it is not possible to use loans to establish absolute or calendar chronology. Loans from adjoining Indo-European groups. Most loans from Celtic appear to have been made before or during the Germanic Sound Shift. For instance, one specimen 'ruler' was borrowed from Celtic 'king' (stem ), with "g" → "k". It is clearly not native because PIE *"ē" → "ī" is typical not of Germanic but Celtic languages. Another is 'foreigner; Celt' from the Celtic tribal name "Volcae" with "k" → "h" and "o" → "a". Other likely Celtic loans include 'servant', 'mailshirt', 'hostage', 'iron', 'healer', 'lead', 'Rhine', and 'fortified enclosure'. These loans would likely have been borrowed during the Celtic Hallstatt and early La Tène cultures when the Celts dominated central Europe, although the period spanned several centuries. From East Iranian came 'hemp' (compare Khotanese , Ossetian 'flax'), 'hops' (compare Osset ), 'sheep' (compare Pers 'yearling kid'), 'tunic' (cf. Osset 'shirt'), 'cottage' (compare Pers 'house'), 'cloak', 'path' (compare Avestan , gen. ), and 'work' (compare Av ). The words could have been transmitted directly by the Scythians from the Ukraine plain, groups of whom entered Central Europe via the Danube and created the Vekerzug Culture in the Carpathian Basin (sixth to fifth centuries BC), or by later contact with Sarmatians, who followed the same route. Unsure is 'horse', which was either borrowed directly from Scytho-Sarmatian or through Celtic mediation. Loans into non-Germanic languages. Numerous loanwords believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic are known in the non-Germanic languages spoken in areas adjacent to the Germanic languages. The heaviest influence has been on the Finnic languages, which have received hundreds of Proto-Germanic or pre-Proto-Germanic loanwords. Well-known examples include PGmc 'warlord' (compare Finnish ), (later ) 'ring' (compare Finnish , Estonian ), 'king' (Finnish ), 'lamb' (Finnish ), 'ransom' (Finnish
4,558,100
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44704152
Theory of consciousness and subjective awareness The attention schema theory (AST) of consciousness (or subjective awareness) is a neuroscientific and evolutionary theory of consciousness which was developed by neuroscientist Michael Graziano at Princeton University. It proposes that brains construct subjective awareness as a schematic model of the process of attention. The theory is a materialist theory of consciousness. It shares similarities with the illusionist ideas of philosophers like Daniel Dennett, Patricia Churchland, and Keith Frankish. Graziano proposed that an attention schema is like the body schema. Just like the brain constructs a simplified model of the body to help monitor and control movements of the body, so the brain constructs a simplified model of attention to help monitor and control attention. The information in that model, portraying an imperfect and simplified version of attention, leads the brain to conclude that it has a non-physical essence of awareness. The construct of subjective awareness is the brain's efficient but imperfect model of its own attention. This approach is intended to explain how awareness and attention are similar in many respects, yet are sometimes dissociated, how the brain can be aware of both internal and external events, and also provides testable predictions. Summary of the theory. The AST describes how an information-processing machine can make the claim that it has a conscious, subjective experience of something. In the theory, the brain is an information processor that is captive to the information constructed within it. The machine has no means to discern the difference between its claim and reality. In this approach, the challenge of explaining consciousness is not, "How does the brain produce an ineffable internal experience," but rather, "How does the brain construct a quirky self description, and what is the useful cognitive role of that self model?" A crucial aspect of the theory is model-based knowledge. The brain constructs rich internal models that lie beneath the level of higher cognition or of language. Cognition has partial access to those internal models, and we report the content of those models as though we are reporting literal reality. The AST can be summarized in three broad points: In the theory, the attention schema provides the requisite information that allows the machine to make claims about consciousness. When the machine claims to be conscious of thing X (to have a subjective awareness or a mental possession of thing X), the machine is using higher cognition to access an attention schema, and reporting the information therein. For example, suppose a person looks at an apple. When the person reports, "I have a subjective experience of that shiny red apple," three items are linked together in that claim: the self, the apple, and a subjective experience. The claim about the presence of a self depends on cognitive access to a self model. Without a self model, without the requisite information, the system would be unable to make claims referencing the self. The claim about the presence of, and properties of, an apple depends on cognitive access to a model of the apple, presumably constructed in the visual system. Again, without the requisite information, the system would obviously be unable to make any claims about the apple or its visual properties. In the theory, the claim about the presence of subjective experience depends on cognitive access to an internal model of attention. That internal model does not provide a scientifically precise description of attention, complete with the details of neurons, lateral inhibitory synapses, and competitive signals. The model is silent on the physical mechanisms of attention. Instead, like all internal models in the brain, it is simplified and schematic for the sake of efficiency. Accessing the information within these three, linked internal models, cognitive machinery claims that there is a self, there is an apple, and the self has a mental possession of the apple; the mental possession, in and of itself, is invisible and has no physically describable properties, but has a general location somewhere inside the body and a specific anchor to the apple; and that mental essence empowers the self to understand, react to, and remember the apple. The machine, in relying on that incomplete and inaccurate model of attention, claims to have a metaphysical consciousness of the apple. In the AST, subjective experience, or consciousness, or the ineffable mental possession of something, is a simplified construct that is a fairly good, if detail poor, description of the act of attending to something. The internal model of attention is not constructed at a higher cognitive level. It is not a cognitive self theory. It is not learned. Instead, it is constructed beneath the level of cognition and is automatic, much like the internal model of the apple and the internal model of the self. You cannot help constructing those models in those particular ways. In that sense, one could call the attention schema a perception-like model of attention, to distinguish it from a higher-order cognitive model such as a belief or an intellectually reasoned theory. The AST explains how a machine with an attention schema contains the requisite information to claim to have a consciousness of something, whether consciousness of an apple, consciousness of a thought, or consciousness of the self; how the machine talks about consciousness in the same ways that we do; and how the machine, on accessing its internal information, does not find explanatory meta information, such as that it is a machine computing a conclusion, or that it is accessing an internal model, but instead learns only the narrow contents of the internal models. In AST, we are machines of that sort. AST is consistent with the perspective called illusionism. The term "illusion", however, may have connotations that are not quite apt for this theory. Three issues with that label arise. First, many people equate an illusion with something dismissable or harmful. If we can see through the illusion, we are better off. Yet in the AST, the attention schema is a well-functioning internal model. It is not normally dysregulated or in error. Second, most people tend to equate an illusion with a mirage. A mirage falsely indicates the presence of something that actually does not exist. If consciousness is an illusion, then by implication nothing real is present behind the illusion. There is no "there" there. But in the AST, that is not so. Consciousness is a good, if detail-poor, account of something real: attention. We do have attention, a physical and mechanistic process that emerges from the interactions of neurons. When we claim to be subjectively conscious of something, we are providing a slightly schematized version of the literal truth. There is, indeed, a "there" there. Third, an illusion is experienced by something. Those who call consciousness an illusion are extremely careful to define what they mean by "experience" so as to avoid circularity. But the AST is not a theory of how the brain has experiences. It is a theory of how a machine makes claims – how it claims to have experiences – and being stuck in a logic loop, or captive to its own internal information, it cannot escape making those claims. In the theory, an attention schema did not evolve so that we could walk around claiming to have consciousness. Instead it evolved because it has fundamental adaptive uses in perception, cognition, and social interaction. Two main types of functions have been proposed for the attention schema. One is to help control attention. A fundamental principle of control theory is that a good controller should incorporate an internal model. Thus the brain's controller of attention should incorporate an internal model of attention – a set of information that is continuously updated and that reflects the dynamics and the changing state of attention. Since attention is one of the most pervasive and important processes in the brain, the proposed attention schema, helping to control attention, would be of fundamental importance to the system. A growing set of behavioral evidence supports this hypothesis. When subjective awareness of a visual stimulus is absent, people can still direct attention to that stimulus, but that attention loses some aspects of control. It is less stable over time, and is less adaptable given training on perturbations. These findings support the proposal that awareness acts like the internal model for the control of attention. A second proposed function of an attention schema is for social cognition – using the attention schema to model the attentional states of others as well as of ourselves. A main advantage of this public, social use of an attention schema lies in behavioral prediction. As social animals, we survive in the world partly by predicting the behavior of other people. We also plan our futures partly by predicting our own actions. But attention is one of the dominant influences on behavior. What you are attending to, you are likely to behave toward. What you are not attending to, you are much less likely to behave toward. A good model of attention, of its dynamics and consequences, would be useful for predicting behavior. Analogy to the body schema. AST was developed in analogy to the psychological and neuroscientific work on the body schema, an area of research to which Graziano contributed heavily in his previous publications. In this section, the central ideas of AST are explained by use of the analogy to the body schema. Suppose a person, Kevin, has reached out and grasped an apple. You ask Kevin what he is holding. He can tell you that the object is an apple, and he can describe the properties of the apple. The reason is that Kevin's brain has constructed a schematic description of the apple, also sometimes called an internal model. The internal model is a set of information, such as about size, color, shape, and location, that is constantly updated as new signals are processed. The model allows Kevin's brain to react to the apple and even predict how the apple may behave in different circumstances. Kevin's brain has constructed an apple schema. His cognitive and linguistic processors have some access to that internal model of an apple, and thus Kevin can verbally answer questions about the apple. Now you ask Kevin, "How are you holding the apple? What is your physical relationship to the apple?" Once again Kevin can answer. The reason is that, in addition to an internal model of the apple, Kevin's brain also constructs an internal model of his body, including of his arm and hand. That internal model, also sometimes called the body schema, is a set of information, constantly updated as new signals are processed, that specifies the size and shape of Kevin's limbs, how they are hinged, how they tend to move, the state they are in at each moment, and what state they are likely to be in over the next few moments. The primary purpose of this body schema is to allow Kevin's brain to control movement. Because he knows the state that his arm is in, he can better guide its movement. A side-effect of his body schema is that he can explicitly talk about his body. His cognitive and linguistic processors have some access to the body schema, and therefore Kevin can answer, "I am grasping the apple with my hand, while my arm is outstretched." The body schema is limited. If you ask Kevin, "How many muscles are in your arm? Where do they attach to the bones?" he cannot answer based on his body schema. He may have intellectual knowledge gleaned from a book, but he has no immediate insight into the muscles of his particular arm. The body schema lacks that level of mechanistic detail. AST takes this analysis one step further. Kevin is doing more than physically grasping the apple. He is also paying attention to the apple. To understand AST, it is necessary to specify the correct definition of attention. The word is used colloquially in many ways, leading to some possible confusion. Here it is used to mean that Kevin's brain has focused some resources on the processing of the apple. The internal model of the apple has been boosted in signal strength, and as a result Kevin's brain processes the apple deeply, is more likely to store information about it in memory, and is more likely to trigger a behavioral response to the apple. In this definition of
4,558,101
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44704152
19th/20th-century Scottish writer and critic William Archer (23 September 1856 – 27 December 1924) was a Scottish author, theatre critic, and English spelling reformer based, for most of his career, in London. He was an early advocate of the plays of Henrik Ibsen, and a friend and advocate of George Bernard Shaw. Life and career. Archer was born in Perth, the eldest boy of the nine children of Thomas Archer and his wife Grace, "née" Morrison. Thomas relocated frequently seeking employment, and William attended schools in Perth, Lymington, Reigate and Edinburgh. He spent parts of his boyhood with relatives in Norway where he became fluent in Norwegian and became acquainted with the literature of Henrik Ibsen. Archer won a bursary to the University of Edinburgh to study English literature, moral and natural philosophy, and mathematics. When the family relocated to Australia in 1872, he remained in Scotland as a student. While still at the university he became a leader-writer for the "Edinburgh Evening News" in 1875, and after a year visiting his family in Australia, he returned to Edinburgh. In 1878, in accordance with his father's wishes, he relocated to London to train as a barrister. He was uninterested in law, and was by now fascinated with theatre, but he entered the Middle Temple and became a barrister in 1883: he never practised. He supported himself by working as dramatic critic of "The London Figaro", and after he finished his legal studies he began working for "The World", which he continued from 1884 to 1906. In London he soon became known well for his work. Archer played an important part in introducing Ibsen to the English public, starting with his translation of "The Pillars of Society", produced at the Gaiety Theatre in 1880. It was the first play by Ibsen to be produced in London but was little known. He also translated, alone or in collaboration, other productions of Scandinavian drama: Ibsen's "A Doll's House" (1889), "The Master Builder" (1893, with Edmund Gosse); Edvard Brandes's "A Visit" (1892); Ibsen's "Peer Gynt" (1892, with Charles Archer); Georg Brandes "William Shakespeare"; (1895) "Little Eyolf" (1895); and "John Gabriel Borkman" (1897); and he edited Ibsen's "Prose Dramas" (1890–1891). In 1881, Archer met Frances Elizabeth Trickett (1855–1929), the youngest of the eight children of John Trickett, a retired engineer. They married in October 1884; the next year they had their only child, Tom (1885–1918), who was killed in action in the First World War. The marriage was enduring and companionable, although Archer began a relationship in 1891, which lasted for the rest of his life, with the actress Elizabeth Robins. In 1897, Archer, along with Robins, Henry William Massingham, and Alfred Sutro, formed the Provisional Committee to organise an association to produce plays they considered to be of high literary merit, such as Ibsen's. The association was named the "New Century Theatre" but was a disappointment by 1899, although it continued until at least 1904. In 1899, a more successful association, named the Stage Society, was formed to replace it. Archer was an early friend of George Bernard Shaw, and arranged for his plays to be translated into German. An attempted collaboration on a play failed, although Shaw later used their joint ideas for his early work, "Widower's Houses". By Archer's influence Shaw obtained the post of art critic to the periodical "The World", before becoming its music critic. A biographer, J. P. Wearing, says of their relationship: ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;Their intimate friendship could also be very turbulent, since both men were forthright and honest. Shaw respected Archer's intelligence and integrity, and penetrated his formality and deliberately cultivated dour Scots façade. Archer thought Shaw brilliant if perverse, and concluded that he never achieved his great potential because he was too much a jester. During the First World War, Archer worked for the official War Propaganda Bureau. After the war, he achieved financial success with his play "The Green Goddess", produced by Winthrop Ames at the Booth Theatre in New York City in 1921. It was a melodrama, and a popular success, although, he admitted, of much less importance for the art of the drama than his critical work. Archer died in a London nursing home in 1924 of post-operative complications after the removal of a kidney tumour. Reviewing his life and career, Wearing's summary is that Archer was "a clear, logical man whom some saw as too narrowly rationalistic", but who was perceptive, intuitive and imaginative. Wearing attributes Archer's great influence as a critic to these qualities and to the length of time for which he was engaged in the theatre and reviewing, although ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ; Archer and Walter Ripman compiled the first dictionary for the English spelling reform system "Nue Spelling", which would assist the development of SoundSpel. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
British architect Edward Schroeder Prior (1852–1932) was a British architect, instrumental in establishing the Arts and Crafts movement. He was one of the foremost theorists of the second generation of the movement, writing extensively on architecture, art, craftsmanship and the building process and subsequently influencing the training of many architects. He was a major contributor to the development of the Art Workers Guild and other organisations that lay at the heart of the movement's attempts to bring art, craftsmanship and architecture closer together. His scholarly work, particularly "A History of Gothic Art in England" (1900), achieved international acclaim. He became one of the leading architectural educationalists of his generation. As Slade Professor of Fine Art at Cambridge University he established the School of Architectural Studies. Initially his buildings show the influence of his mentor Norman Shaw and Philip Webb, but Prior experimented with materials, massing and volume from the start of his independent practice. He developed a style that was intensely individual and a practical philosophy of construction that was perhaps nearer to Ruskin's ideal of the "builder designer" than that of any other arts and crafts architect. The buildings of his maturity, such as The Barn, Exmouth, and Home Place, Kelling are amongst the most original of the period. In St Andrew's Church, Roker, he produced his masterpiece, a church that is now recognised as one of the best of the early 20th century. Biography. Family. Edward Schroeder Prior was born in Greenwich on 4 January 1852, his parents' fourth son, one of eleven children. His father John Venn Prior, who was a barrister in the Chancery division, died at the age of 43 as a result of a fall from a horse. Edward was aged 10 at the time. His mother, Hebe Catherine Prior, moved the family from their house in Croom's Hill, Greenwich to Harrow, where Edward's eldest brother John Templer was at school and where local resident families paid reduced fees for day boys. Here, next door to the house of Matthew Arnold, she started a school for children whose parents were in India, and Edward was one of its first pupils. Harrow School. In 1863 at the unusually young age of 11, Edward entered Harrow School. Here his interest in natural history, art, architecture and science was fostered, particularly by F. W. Farrar, H. M. Butler and B. F. Westcott, his housemaster and private tutor. (Prior remained a committed naturalist throughout his life. His collections of Lepidoptera remain largely intact, held by the Museum of St Albans.) Prior remained connected to Harrow School and was later to design two buildings for the school. Cambridge University. In 1869 Prior won the Sayer Scholarship "for the promotion of classical learning and taste" to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge to read the Classical Tripos. He augmented the Sayer Scholarship by also gaining a college scholarship. He matriculated in 1870, graduating B.A. in 1874, M.A. in 1877. In the same year B. F. Westcott was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity. Prior continued to gain from his instruction in architectural drawing at Cambridge. Other influences were Matthew Digby Wyatt and Sidney Colvin, the first and second Slade Professors of Fine Art. Wyatt's lecture programme for 1871 included engraving, woodcutting, stained glass and mosaic. Prior's interest in the applied arts was probably strongly encouraged by Wyatt. Colvin, a friend of Edward Burne-Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, was elected Slade Professor in January 1873. At Cambridge, Prior was also exposed to the work of William Morris. For example, G. F. Bodley employed Morris & Co. to decorate All Saints Church in 1864–1866 and to design the glass for others of his Cambridge buildings. Prior was a noted athlete at Cambridge. He was a blue in long jump and high jump and won the British Amateur High Jump in 1872. Norman Shaw's pupil. In the autumn of 1874 Prior was articled to Norman Shaw at 30 Argyll Street. Shaw had made his name through country houses such as Cragside, Northumberland. His pupils were articled for three years, learning to measure buildings and to draw plans and elevations for contracts. At the time the practice was still small, with just three rooms shared with William Eden Nesfield. Shaw had a limited number of assistants and pupils, including Ernest Newton (1856–1922), who had joined Shaw in 1873 but who left to set up on his own in 1879, Richard Creed (1846–1914) and William West Neve (1852–1942), who was also soon to set up in practice on his own behalf. The St George's Art Society grew out of the discussions held amongst Shaw's circle at Newton's Hart Street offices. In the late 1870s and early 1880s Shaw's prestige rose with "spectacular perspectives" exhibited at Royal Academy exhibitions. As Chief Draftsman, Newton was probably the major influence on the drawing style, but Prior may have made a contribution. By 1877, however, Shaw's health was deteriorating. Prior was appointed Clerk of Works for St Margaret's Church, Ilkley, administering the work from November 1877 to August 1879. He was responsible for the contract drawings and possibly for the design of the roof reinforcement and some of the detailing and furniture, such as the font. Prior was eager to gain practical experience of construction, and the craftsmen at Ilkley made a deep impression on him: He [Prior] went (to Ilkley) and then found that the idea of wonderful construction was all an imposture: there was no science of construction, but there was an experience of construction to be gained by the man who worked with his hands and not the man who made the drawing. Practice and private life. Prior only stayed a few more months with Shaw on his return from Ilkley. In 1880 he began his own practice at 17, Southampton Road, near Shaw and others of his former employees; Reginald Blomfield leased an office on the second floor. Prior occupied the building until 1885 and again in 1889–94 and 1901. His early commissions were primarily located in areas where he had connections, in Harrow and around Bridport in Dorset, where his father had lived and his mother's relatives, the Templers, were prominent inhabitants, and in Cambridge where he had been at university. The opening of the Metropolitan Railway to Harrow in 1880 and his connections with Harrow in particular encouraged Prior to work in the Harrow area. His work in Dorset was to lead to his marriage. Whilst designing Pier Terrace at West Bay, Prior met Louisa Maunsell, the daughter of the vicar of nearby Symondsbury. They were married in Symondsbury Church on 11 August 1885, Mervyn Macartney being the best man. The Priors lived in 6 Bloomsbury Square from 1885 to 1889. Here his daughters Laura and Christobel were born. Prior leased Bridgefoot, Iver, Bucks, as a country residence in 1889, but on the birth of his second daughter it was leased to the architect G. F. Bodley. In 1894 Prior moved to 10 Melina Place, St John's Wood, next door to Voysey, resulting in the development of a long term friendship and exchange of ideas between the two men, to the extent that Voysey is recorded as having painted the roofs of Prior's seminal Model for a Dorsetshire Cottage. Prior moved to Sussex in 1907 initially living in an early 18th-century house at 7 East Pallant, Chichester. In 1908 he bought an 18th-century house in Mount Lane with an adjacent warehouse which he converted to provide a studio. He continued the London practice at 1 Hare Court, Temple until the middle of the First World War. On his appointment as Slade Professor at Cambridge Prior also bought a house, Fairview in Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge. After the First World War Prior unsuccessfully tried to restart his practice with H. C. Hughes. He started a commission for a house outside Cambridge but got into a dispute with the client over the materials for the boundary hedge. Hughes took over the job as his own. Prior's scheme for the ciborium at Norwich Cathedral was dropped, a deep disappointment for him. In the post war years he only undertook the design of war memorials at Maiden Newton in Dorset and for Cambridge University R.U.F.C. The Arts and Craft Guilds. Prior played a crucial role in the establishment of the Guilds that were the intellectual focus of the Arts and Crafts Movement. The St George's Art Society, 1883–1886, was founded by a group of architects who had seen service in the Shaw's offices, Ernest Newton, Mervyn Macartney, Reginald Barratt, Edwin Hardy, William Lethaby and Prior, to discuss Art and Architecture. It initially met in Newton's chambers by St George's Church, Bloomsbury. Prior was on the committee. Monthly meetings were held and papers read, Prior speaking on "Terracotta" and "Tombs". Trips were arranged to see buildings. At the October 1883 meeting it was decided that it would be preferable to found a new organisation that would bring together "craftsmen in Architecture, Painting, Sculpture and the kindred Arts." The proposals stemmed from the members' alarm at the lack of relationship between architects and artists and their dissatisfaction with the Institute of British Architects and the Royal Academy. Prior wrote in November 1883, ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;Painters, Sculptors, and Architects are in danger of settling permanently into three distinct professions, oblivious of one another's aims. A Society is wanted to restore their former union with one another with a programme of cohesion such as the Royal Academy hardly now suggests, and which the Institute of British Architects has deliberately rejected. After various consultations invitations were sent out to 24 artists including members of The Fifteen, founded by the designer and writer Lewis Day and the illustrator and designer Walter Crane and others, such as J. D. Sedding, Ernest George and Basil Champneys. Various names for the group were proposed and Prior's suggestion of the "Art Workers Guild" was accepted at the meeting of 11 March 1884. Prior also wrote the Guild's first prospectus. The Guild was highly influential on the architecture of the Arts and Crafts Movement, but Prior remained only a minor player for some time, until he was elected to the governing committee in 1889. However the contact with other members of the Society certainly encouraged Prior to rationalise and develop his theories. He was also able to call on the skills of a wide range of craft practitioners from the Guild for the design and construction of furniture for many of his buildings. Prior became Master in 1906. Prior was also active in various other organisations of the time, including the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society of 1886, set up to combat the exclusiveness of the Royal Academy, and the National Association for the Advancement of Art and its Application to Industry of 1888, at which he gave his inspired lecture on "Texture as a Quality of Art and a Condition for Architecture" that set out the rationale behind his most significant buildings. His involvement with the Clergy and Artists' Association of 1896, set up to improve the links between patron and producer, led directly to commissions for example for the lych gate at Methley Church. Scholarship. During the late 1890s Prior's practice received few commissions. The study of Gothic art and architecture became one of Prior's major concerns the period. In 1900 he published "A History of Gothic Art in England", which as rapidly recognised as a standard text. This was followed by "The Cathedral Builders in England" in 1905, "An Account of English Medieval Figure-Sculpture" in 1912, which provided an exhaustive account of figurative sculpture from the 7th –to the 16th Century for the first time. "A History of Gothic Art in England" made Prior's scholastic reputation and contributed to his appointment as Slade Professor of Fine Art at Cambridge University in 1905. Stained glass. In 1889 he developed Prior's glass, also known as Prior's Early English glass, a slab glass which is similar to the "luminosity and varied colouring of early medieval glass." It was made by blowing glass into a rectilinear box and then cutting off the sides. This yielded flat panes of uneven thickness, often streaked with colour. Whereas the prevailing style of glass relied on meticulous draughtsmanship and line control to create rich backgrounds of flat surface decoration such as gothic mouldings or foliage, the new glass could be used to create backgrounds with a more abstract pattern, as in the St Pancras roll of honour, or combined with lead alone to create bold and dramatic effects such
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44704152
Roman graffito The Alexamenos graffito (known also as the "graffito blasfemo", or blasphemous graffito) is a piece of Roman graffiti scratched in plaster on the wall of a room near the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy, which has now been removed and is in the Palatine Museum. Often said to be the earliest depiction of Jesus, the graffito is difficult to date, but has been estimated to have been made about the year 200. The image seems to show a young man worshipping a crucified, donkey-headed figure. The Greek inscription approximately translates to "Alexamenos worships [his] god," indicating that the graffito was apparently meant to mock a Christian named Alexamenos. Content. The image depicts a human-like figure affixed to a cross and possessing the head of a donkey or mule. In the top right of the image is what has been interpreted as either the Greek letter upsilon or a tau cross. To the left of the image is a young man – apparently intended to represent Alexamenos – as a Roman soldier or guard, raising one hand in a gesture possibly suggesting worship. The name Alexamenos (and its Latinate variant "Alexamenus") is also attested in the instances of Alexamenus of Teos, student of Socrates, and the general, Alexamenus of Aetolia (2nd century BC), possibly composed of the common Greek compound elements of ("alexo", "I defend, help") and ("menos", "strength, bravery, power, etc."). Alternatively, it may be derived from Greek ἀλεξάμενος (alexamenos), which is the participle of that same Greek verb. Beneath the cross is a caption written in crude can be understood as a variant spelling (possibly a phonetic misspelling) of Standard Greek "ϹΕΒΕΤΑΙ", which means "worships". The full inscription would then be read as , "Alexamenos worships [his] God". Several other sources suggest "Alexamenos worshipping a god", or similar variants, as the intended translation. In the next chamber, another inscription in a different hand reads ΑΛΕξΑΜΕΝΟϹ FIDELIS ("Alexamenos "), Latin for "Alexamenos is faithful" or "Alexamenos the faithful". This may be a retort by an unknown party to the mockery of Alexamenos represented in the graffito. Date. No clear consensus has been reached on when the image was made. Dates ranging from the late 1st century AD to the late 3rd century AD have been suggested, with the beginning of the 3rd century AD thought to be the most likely. Discovery and location. The graffito was discovered in 1857 when a building known as the "domus Gelotiana" was unearthed on the Palatine Hill. The emperor Caligula had acquired the house for the imperial palace, which, after Caligula died, became used as a "Paedagogium" (boarding school) for imperial page boys. Later, the street along which the house sat was walled off to give support to extensions to the buildings above, and it thus remained sealed for centuries. Interpretation. The inscription is usually considered to be a mocking depiction of a Christian in the act of worship. At the time, pagans derided Christians for worshipping a man who had been crucified. The donkey's head and crucifixion would both have been considered insulting depictions by contemporary Roman society. Crucifixion continued to be used as a method of execution for the worst criminals until its abolition by the emperor Constantine in the 4th century. It seems to have been commonly believed at the time that Christians practiced "onolatry" (donkey-worship). That was based on the misconception that Jews worshipped a god in the form of a donkey, a claim made by Apion (30–20 BC – c. AD 45–48) and denied by Josephus in his work "Against Apion". Origen reports in his treatise "Contra Celsum" that the pagan philosopher Celsus made the same claim against Christians and Jews. Tertullian, writing during the late 2nd or early 3rd century, reports that Christians, along with Jews, were accused of worshipping such a deity. He also mentions an apostate Jew who carried around Carthage a caricature of a Christian with ass's ears and hooves, labeled "Deus Christianorum" ("The God of the Christians conceived of an ass."). In the image, Alexamenos is portrayed venerating an image of the crucifix, a detail that Peter Maser believed to represent actual Christian practice, the veneration of icons. This practice, however, was not known to be a part of Christian worship until the 4th or 5th century. Some scholars have argued that the inscription is actually a depiction of the jackal-headed Egyptian god Anubis. For example, in his book on early Christian history published in 1876, Rev. John P. Lundy identifies the inscription as the "Gnostic Anubis." He writes that the inscription depicts the "head of Anubis, or Thoth, the Egyptian Mercury and custodian of the dead". 19th century scholar Charles William King says it is disputed whether it is a caricature of a Christian convert or an adoration of the jackal-headed god Anubis. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,104
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51
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44704152
Communication programme Makaton is an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) system which uses signs (hand gestures) and symbols (images) alongside speech & written words to support communication. Despite its use of signs, Makaton is not a sign language. Makaton is used by hearing people with communication challenges and learning disabilities to communicate and supports the development of essential communication skills such as attention, listening, comprehension, memory and expressive speech and language. The Makaton language programme has been used with individuals who have cognitive impairments, autism, Down syndrome, specific language impairment, multisensory impairment and acquired neurological disorders that have negatively affected the ability to communicate, including stroke and dementia patients. The name "Makaton" is derived from the names of three members of the original teaching team at Botleys Park Hospital in Chertsey, Surrey: Margaret Walker (the designer of the programme and speech therapist at Botleys Park), Katherine Johnston and Tony Cornforth (psychiatric hospital visitors from the Royal Association for Deaf People). Makaton is a registered trademark of The Makaton Charity, which was established in 2007 to replace the original charitable trust, the Makaton Vocabulary Development Project, established in 1983. The original trademark application for Makaton was filed in Britain on 28 August 1979, with registration approved as from that date under trademark registration no. 1119745. Programme. The Makaton Language Programme uses a multimodal approach to teach communication, language and, where appropriate literacy skills, through a combination of speech, signs, and graphic symbols used concurrently, or, only with speech with signs, or, only with speech with graphic symbols as appropriate for the student's needs. It consists of a Core Vocabulary of roughly 450 concepts that are taught in a specific order (there are eight different stages). For example, stage one involves teaching vocabulary for immediate needs, like "eat" and "drink". Later stages contain more complex and abstract vocabulary such as time and emotions. Once basic communication has been established, the student can progress in their language use, using whatever modes are most appropriate. Also, although the programme is organised in stages, it can be modified and tailored to the individual's needs. In addition to the Core Vocabulary, there is a Makaton Resource Vocabulary of over 11,000 concepts which are illustrated with signs and graphic symbols. Development. Original research was conducted by Margaret Walker in 1972/73, and resulted in the design of the Makaton Core Vocabulary based on functional need. This research was conducted with institutionalised deaf cognitively impaired adults resident at Botleys Park Hospital in Chertsey, Surrey (which closed in 2008). The aim was to enable them to communicate using signs from British Sign Language. Fourteen deaf and cognitively impaired adults participated in the pilot study, and all were able to learn to use manual signs; improved behaviour was also noted. Shortly after, the Core Vocabulary was revised to include both children and adults with severe communication difficulties (including individuals who could hear), and was used in many schools throughout Britain in order to stimulate communication and language. In the early stages of development, Makaton used only speech and manual signs (without symbols). By 1985, work had begun to include graphic symbols in the Makaton Language Programme and a version including graphic symbols was published in 1986. The Core Vocabulary was revised in 1986 to include additional cultural concepts. The Makaton Vocabulary Development Project was founded in 1976 by Margaret Walker, who worked in a voluntary capacity as director until her retirement in October 2008. The first Makaton training workshop was held in 1976 and supporting resources and further training courses were, and continue to be, developed. In 1983 the Makaton Vocabulary Development Project became a charitable trust, and in 2007 it changed its status to become the Makaton Charity. Use. Makaton is used extensively across Britain and has been adapted for use in different countries; signs from each country's deaf community are used, along with culturally relevant Makaton symbols. For example, within Britain, Makaton uses signs from British Sign Language; the signs are mainly from the London and South East England regional dialect. Makaton has also been adapted for use in over 40 countries, including France, Greece, Japan, Kuwait and the Gulf, Russia, South Africa and Switzerland. Using signs from each country's own existing sign language ensures that they reflect each country's unique culture and also provide a bank of further signs if required for use with Makaton. In 1991 The Makaton Charity produced a video/DVD of children's familiar nursery rhymes, signed, spoken and sung by a well-known children's TV presenter, Dave Benson Phillips, who had previously used Makaton with poems and rhymes in the Children's BBC show "Playdays". The aim was for it to be enjoyed by children with developmental disabilities and their peers and siblings. Following this major success, in 2003 it became a significant part of the BBC's "Something Special" programmes on the CBeebies programme thread, presented by Justin Fletcher as "Mr Tumble", which has won numerous awards and is now into its thirteenth series. On 16 November 2018, comedian Rob Delaney read a book on the BBC's children's channel CBeebies entirely in Makaton and English; he had used Makaton to communicate with his late son Henry, who was rendered unable to talk after a tracheotomy. Criticism. Members of the Deaf community, including the British Deaf Association, have been critical of Makaton. A 2022 statement by the British Deaf Association decried the rapid growth of social media posts using "sign supported communication systems" such as Makaton and Signalong, emphasizing the limited nature of these non-languages. The statement argued that it would make more sense to teach both hearing and deaf children signs from British Sign Language, enabling them to communicate with the Deaf community. Scholarly critique of Makaton has included questioning of its methodology of sign selection and usage, and suggestions that the "teaching method and vocabulary structure were highly restrictive and, if not revised, might impede communication skill development with some children." Other considerations focus on the proprietary nature of Makaton, believing that protecting the integrity of the signs & symbols with Copyright restricts access to Makaton. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
INTSINT is an acronym for INternational Transcription System for INTonation. It was originally developed by Daniel Hirst in his 1987 thesis as a prosodic equivalent of the International Phonetic Alphabet, and the INTSINT alphabet was subsequently used in Hirst & Di Cristo (eds) 1998 in just over half of the chapters. Description. INTSINT codes the intonation of an utterance by means of an alphabet of 8 discrete symbols constituting a surface phonological representation of the intonation: T (Top), H (Higher), U (Upstepped), S (Same), M (mid), D (Downstepped), L (Lower), B (Bottom). These tonal symbols are considered "phonological" in that they represent discrete categories and "surface" since each tonal symbol corresponds to a directly observable property of the speech signal. Tonal alignment. The tones can be aligned with phonological constituents by means of the following alignment diacritics following the tonal symbol: [ (initial), ; (early), : (medial), ; (late), ] (final) The relevant phonological constituent with which the tonal segments are aligned can be taken as the sequence of symbols between the following pair of slashes /.../. The following is an example of a transcription using the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) of a possible reading of the sentence "It's time to go : M:T:D ;B] This corresponds to a "Mid" tone aligned with the middle of the syllable "It's" then a "Top" tone aligned with the middle of the unit "time to" and then a "Downstepped" tone aligned early in the syllable "go" and a "Bottom" tone aligned with the end of the same syllable. Phonetic interpretation. The phonetic interpretation of the INTSINT tonal segments can be carried out using two speaker dependent (or even utterance dependent) parameters. *key: like a musical key, this establishes an absolute point of reference defined by a fundamental frequency value (in hertz). *range: this determines the interval between the highest and lowest pitches of the utterance. In the current algorithm (Hirst 2004, 2005) the tonal segments can be converted to target points, like those generated by the Momel algorithm, using the following equivalences. P(i) in the following formulae refers to the current Pitch target, P(i-1) to the preceding pitch target. Pitch targets are normally calculated on a logarithmic scale. The targets T, M and B are defined 'absolutely' without regard to the preceding targets *T: P(i) := key + range/2 *M: P(i) := key *B: P(i) := key - range/2 Other targets are defined with respect to the preceding target: *H: P(i) := (P(i-1) + T) / 2 *U: P(i) := (3*P(i-1) + T) / 4 *S: P(i) := P(i-1) *D: P(i) := (3*P(i-1) + B) / 4 *L: P(i) := (P(i-1) + B) / 2 Example. A sequence of tonal targets such as: [M T L H L H D B] assuming values for a female speaker of "key" as 240 Hz and "range" as 1 octave, would be converted to the following F0 targets: [240 340 240 286 220 273 242 170] An interesting consequence of this model is that it automatically introduces an asymptotic lowering of sequences such as H L H... such as has often been described both for languages with lexical tone and for languages where tone is only introduced by the intonation system, without the need to introduce a specific downdrift or declination component. The particular values used for calculating the value of D and U were chosen so that in a sequence [T D] for example, the D tone is lowered by the same amount as the H tone in the sequence [T L H]. In many phonological accounts, Downstepped tones are analysed as a High tone which is lowered by the presence of a "floating" low tone, so that the surface tone [D] can be considered as underlyingly [L H]. External links. INTSINT automatic annotation can be performed with SPPAS: SPPAS - Automatic Annotation of Speech
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44704152
Variation in pitch In linguistics, intonation is the variation in pitch used to indicate the speaker's attitudes and emotions, to highlight or focus an expression, to signal the illocutionary act performed by a sentence, or to regulate the flow of discourse. For example, the English question "Does Maria speak Spanish or French?" is interpreted as a yes-or-no question when it is uttered with a single rising intonation contour, but is interpreted as an alternative question when uttered with a rising contour on "Spanish" and a falling contour on "French". Although intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, its effects almost always work hand-in-hand with other prosodic features. Intonation is distinct from tone, the phenomenon where pitch is used to distinguish words (as in Mandarin) or to mark grammatical features (as in Kinyarwanda). Transcription. Most transcription conventions have been devised for describing one particular accent or language, and the specific conventions therefore need to be explained in the context of what is being described. However, for general purposes the International Phonetic Alphabet offers the two intonation marks shown in the box at the head of this article. Global rising and falling intonation are marked with a diagonal arrow rising left-to-right and falling left-to-right , respectively. These may be written as part of a syllable, or separated with a space when they have a broader scope: "He found it on the street?" Here the rising pitch on "street" indicates that the question hinges on that word, on where he found it, not whether he found it. "Yes, he found it on the street." "How did you ever escape?" Here, as is common with "wh-" questions, there is a rising intonation on the question word, and a falling intonation at the end of the question. In many descriptions of English, the following intonation patterns are distinguished: It is also common to trace the pitch of a phrase with a line above the phrase, adjacent to the phrase, or even through (overstriking) the phrase. Such usage is not supported by Unicode as of 2015, but the symbols have been submitted. The following example requires an SIL font such as Gentium Plus, either as the default browser font or as the user-defined font for IPA text, for which see . Functions. All vocal languages use pitch pragmatically in intonation—for instance for emphasis, to convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa use intonation in addition to using pitch for distinguishing words. Many writers have attempted to produce a list of distinct functions of intonation. Perhaps the longest was that of W.R. Lee, who proposed ten. J.C. Wells and E. Couper-Kuhlen both put forward six functions. Wells's list is given below; the examples are not his: example: a fall from a high pitch on the 'mor' syllable of "good morning" suggests more excitement than a fall from a low pitch example: it is claimed that in English a falling pitch movement is associated with statements, but a rising pitch turns a statement into a yes–no question, as in "He's going ↗home?". This use of intonation is more typical of American English than of British. example: in English "I saw a ↘man in the garden" answers "Whom did you see?" or "What happened?", while "I ↘saw a man in the garden" answers "Did you hear a man in the garden?" example: subordinate clauses often have lower pitch, faster tempo and narrower pitch range than their main clause, as in the case of the material in parentheses in "The Red Planet (as it's known) is fourth from the sun" example: the utterance "You can have it in red blue green yellow or ↘black" is more difficult to understand and remember than the same utterance divided into tone units as in "You can have it in ↗red | ↗blue | ↗green | ↗yellow | or ↘black" example: group membership can be indicated by the use of intonation patterns adopted specifically by that group, such as street vendors or preachers. The so-called high rising terminal, where a statement ends with a high rising pitch movement, is said to be typical of younger speakers of English, and possibly to be more widely found among young female speakers. It is not known whether such a list would apply to other languages without alteration. English. The description of English intonation has developed along different lines in the US and in Britain. British analyses. British descriptions of English intonation can be traced back to the 16th century. Early in the 20th century the dominant approach in the description of English and French intonation was based on a small number of basic "tunes" associated with intonation units: in a typical description, Tune 1 is falling, with final fall, while Tune 2 has a final rise. Phoneticians such as H. E. Palmer broke up the intonation of such units into smaller components, the most important of which was the "nucleus", which corresponds to the main accented syllable of the intonation unit, usually in the last lexical word of the intonation unit. Each nucleus carries one of a small number of nuclear tones, usually including fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall, and possibly others. The nucleus may be preceded by a "head" containing stressed syllables preceding the nucleus, and a "tail" consisting of syllables following the nucleus within the tone unit. Unstressed syllables preceding the head (if present) or nucleus (if there is no head) constitute a "pre-head". This approach was further developed by Halliday and by O'Connor and Arnold, though with considerable variation in terminology. This "Standard British" treatment of intonation in its present-day form is explained in detail by Wells and in a simplified version by Roach. Halliday saw the functions of intonation as depending on choices in three main variables: "Tonality" (division of speech into intonation units), "Tonicity" (the placement of the tonic syllable or nucleus) and "Tone" (choice of nuclear tone); these terms (sometimes referred to as "the three T's") have been used more recently. Research by Crystal emphasized the importance of making generalizations about intonation based on authentic, unscripted speech, and the roles played by prosodic features such as tempo, pitch range, loudness and rhythmicality in communicative functions traditionally attributed to intonation alone. The transcription of intonation in such approaches is normally incorporated into the line of text. A typical example would be: We ˌlooked at the ↗sky | and ˈsaw the ↘clouds In this example, the | mark indicates a division between intonation units. An influential development in British studies of intonation has been Discourse Intonation, an offshoot of Discourse Analysis first put forward by David Brazil. This approach lays great emphasis on the communicative and informational use of intonation, pointing out its use for distinguishing between presenting new information and referring to old, shared information, as well as signalling the relative status of participants in a conversation (e.g. teacher-pupil, or doctor-patient) and helping to regulate conversational turn-taking. The description of intonation in this approach owes much to Halliday. Intonation is analysed purely in terms of pitch movements and "key" and makes little reference to the other prosodic features usually thought to play a part in conversational interaction. American approaches. The dominant framework used for American English from the 1940s to the 1990s was based on the idea of pitch phonemes, or tonemes. In the work of Trager and Smith there are four contrastive levels of pitch: low (1), middle (2), high (3), and very high (4). (The important work of Kenneth Pike on the same subject had the four pitch levels labelled in the opposite way, with (1) being high and (4) being low). In its final form, the Trager and Smith system was highly complex, each pitch phoneme having four pitch allophones (or allotones); there was also a Terminal Contour to end an intonation clause, as well as four stress phonemes. Some generalizations using this formalism are given below. The American linguist Dwight Bolinger carried on a long campaign to argue that pitch "contours" were more important in the study of intonation than individual pitch levels. Thus the two basic sentence pitch contours are rising-falling and rising. However, other within-sentence rises and falls result from the placement of prominence on the stressed syllables of certain words. For declaratives or wh-questions with a final decline, the decline is located as a step-down to the syllable after the last prominently stressed syllable, or as a down-glide on the last syllable itself if it is prominently stressed. But for final rising pitch on yes–no questions, the rise always occurs as an upward step to the last stressed syllable, and the high (3) pitch is retained through the rest of the sentence. The ToBI system. A more recent approach to the analysis of intonation grew out of the research of Janet Pierrehumbert and developed into the system most widely known by the name of ToBI (short for "Tones and Break Indices"). The approach is sometimes referred to as autosegmental. The most important points of this system are the following: *Only two tones, associated with pitch accents, are recognised, these being H (high) and L (low); all other tonal contours are made up of combinations of H, L and some other modifying elements. *In addition to the two tones mentioned above, the phonological system includes "break indices" used to mark the boundaries between prosodic elements. Breaks may be of different levels. *Tones are linked to stressed syllables: an asterisk is used to indicate a tone that must be aligned with a stressed syllable. *In addition, there are phrasal accents which signal the pitch at the end of an intermediate phrase (e.g. H− and L−), and boundary tones at full phrase boundaries (e.g. H% and L%). *A full ToBI transcription includes not only the above phonological elements, but also the acoustic signal on which the transcription is based. The ToBI system is intended to be used in computer-based transcription. A simplified example of a ToBI transcription is given below. In this example, two phrases "we looked at the sky" and "and saw the clouds" are combined into one larger intonational phrase; there is a rise on "sky" and a fall on "clouds": L*L*H−H*H* L−L% we looked at the sky and saw the clouds Because of its simplicity compared with previous analyses, the ToBI system has been very influential and has been adapted for describing several other languages. French. French intonation differs substantially from that of English. There are four primary patterns. Continuation pattern. The most distinctive feature of French intonation is the continuation pattern. While many languages, such as English and Spanish, place stress on a particular syllable of each word, and while many speakers of languages such as English may accompany this stress with a rising intonation, French has neither stress nor distinctive intonation on a given syllable. Instead, on the final syllable of every "rhythm group" except the last one in a sentence, there is placed a rising pitch. For example (as before the pitch change arrows ↘ and ↗ apply to the syllable immediately following the arrow): Adjectives are in the same rhythm group as their noun. Each item in a list forms its own rhythm group: Side comments inserted into the middle of a sentence form their own rhythm group: Finality pattern. As can be seen in the example sentences above, a sharp fall in pitch is placed on the last syllable of a declarative statement. The preceding syllables of the final rhythm group are at a relatively high pitch. Yes/no pattern. Most commonly in informal speech, a yes/no question is indicated by a sharply rising pitch alone, without any change or rearrangement of words. For example A form found in both spoken and written French is the "Est-ce que ..." ("Is it that ...") construction, in which the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch: The most formal form for a yes/no question, which is also found in both spoken and written French, inverts the order of the subject and verb. There too, the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch: Sometimes yes/no questions begin with a topic phrase, specifying the focus of the utterance. Then, the initial topic phrase follows the intonation pattern of a declarative sentence, and the rest of the question follows the usual yes/no question pattern: Information question pattern. Information questions begin with a question word such as "qui, pourquoi, combien," etc., referred to in linguistics as interrogatives. The question word may be followed in French by "est-ce que" (as in English "(where) is it that ...") or "est-ce qui", or by inversion of the subject-verb
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44704152
British politician and linguist Montefiore Follick (31 December 1887 – 10 December 1958) was a British Labour Party politician, a campaigner for spelling reform, polyglot and advocate of decimal currency. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Loughborough from 1945 to 1955, having previously held the post of Professor of English at the University of Madrid in Spain. He had been adopted by the Loughborough Labour Party in 1936 as prospective parliamentary candidate but had a long wait because of the war years before being elected. In 1949 and again in 1952 he introduced private member's bills in the UK parliament for the reform of English spelling. He also bought the Loughborough Labour Party's current Building Unity House in 1947. Follick was born in Cardiff and educated at the Sorbonne, Halle (Dr Phil) and Padua. His family was Jewish, and he was named after Sir Moses Montefiore. He served as secretary to the Aga Khan, Sir Robert Philp (Premier of Queensland) and Mulay Hafid (Sultan of Morocco). He stood unsuccessfully for the Parliamentary constituencies of Ashford (1929), East Surrey (1931) and Fulham West (1935) before his successful bid for Loughborough in 1945. Follick was also the founder and proprietor of the Regent School of Languages (destroyed by enemy action, but now part of the University of Westminster). On his death, he bequeathed the substantial sums raised by this venture to found and endow a professor's chair of Comparative Philology "in which spelling reform (not merely the teaching of reading) should form a principal part". The bequest was finally accepted by the University of Manchester, and a chair bearing Follick's name is still in existence. His publications include "The Adam’s Lottery", 1919; "Influence of English", 1934; "Facing Facts", 1935; "Efforts of Chance", 1938; "English Grammar for Foreigners", 11 editions; and "The Twelve Republics", 1952. In his book "Facing Facts", (started in 1932) Follick accurately foretold the aggressions of Germany and the Japanese invasion of China. The book started with the words "Beware Europe" and ended with "You have been warned". "The Case for Spelling Reform" was published posthumously in 1965 by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons; on p. v are the phrases "To the schoolchildren of Britain a consistent alphabet; To the nations of the world an international language". Follick was a member of the Fabian Society, and fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and of the Royal Society of Arts. He was also the inventor and patentee of the Geodok system of teaching geography. Proposed spelling. Follick’s proposed English spelling removed q, x and y, while giving all the remaining letters their most usual sound value in English and adding standardized use of the digraphs dh and zh, as well as the trigraph tsh. Rules. Follick's system is completely phonemic to the extent of using '-t' for traditional '-ed' when unvoiced (as in 'poazt'), and '-d' when voiced (as in 'ruumerd'). References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Revised English spelling system Regularized Inglish is a revised English spelling system devised and advocated by Swedish linguist Axel Wijk, set out in his 1959 book "Regularized English: An investigation into the English spelling reform problem with a new, detailed plan for a possible solution." Wijk's spelling system is moderate compared to other 20th century reforms. Instead of replacing current English spelling with, for example, a fully phonetic notation, Wijk's aim was to replace "inconsistencies with more regular equivalents." Furthermore, certain inconsistencies such as the use of ⟨g⟩ for two separate consonant sounds (as in "gent" and "goat") are preserved, as are ⟨k⟩, ⟨c⟩ and ⟨qu⟩ for /k/ and ⟨c⟩ and ⟨s⟩ for /s/. The digraph ⟨ph⟩ is abandoned, but ⟨gh⟩ is preserved where used silently: thus "high" but not "rough". Consequently, "Regularized Inglish" agrees with 90-95% of words spelled using the current English spelling system. Wijk proposed that there should be a separate American and English standard orthography, each based on "the dialect of its cultivated circles". However, he felt that this variation should not be extended to English regional varieties. Example text. The following is a version of the story of Dick Whittington written by Wijk and slightly simplified and Americanized by John Cowan: Wunce upon a time thare livd a poor boy named Dick Whittington, hooze faather and muther were bothe ded. Having neether home nor frends, he roamed about the cuntry trying to ern hiz living. Sumtimes he cood not finde any wurk, and he offen had to go hungry. On market days he herd the farmers tauk about the greit city of Lundon. They sed that its streets were paved with gold. So Dick made up hiz minde to go to Lundon and seek hiz fortune. Packing hiz clothes into a bundle and cauling hiz faithful cat he started out. After days and days ov wauking, the hungry lad finally reached Lundon. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Ukrainian writer and historian (1919–2001) George Stephen Nestor Luckyj (born Юрій Луцький, transcribed: Yuriy Lutskyyyn; 1919 — 22 November 2001) was a scholar of Ukrainian literature, who greatly contributed to the awareness of Ukrainian literature in the English-speaking world and to the continuation of legitimate scholarship on the subject during the post-war period. Biography. Luckyj was born in 1919 in the village Yanchyn, today Ivanivka, close to Lviv. His father was Ostap Luckyj, a Ukrainian modernist poet and member of the Polish Senate, and his mother was Irena Smal-Stotska, daughter of Stephan Smal-Stotsky, a Ukrainian philologist and Austrian parliament member. After studying German literature at the University of Berlin, he fortunately went to England right before World War II for a summer program at Cambridge University. After the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine, formerly Poland, in 1939, his father was taken by the NKVD and eventually died in a concentration camp. In 1943, Luckyj joined the British army and worked as a Russian interpreter in occupied Germany. In 1947, he moved to Saskatoon, Canada for a position teaching English literature at the University of Saskatchewan. After two years he moved to New York to pursue a doctorate at Columbia University. His Ph.D. dissertation became the key Ukrainian literary scholarly text, "Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934". He participated in the activities of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences, an important scholarly institution begun by Ukrainian émigrés in New York. He became a professor at the University of Toronto and was involved in the creation of the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies and Canadian Association of Slavists. His writing, both scholarly and of translation, was prodigious until his death in 2001. Translations. Luckyj was well known for his translations of Ukrainian literature, which have exposed large new audiences to its depth and quality.
4,558,110
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]
44704152
English printer William Bullokar was a 16th-century printer who devised a 40-letter phonetic alphabet for the English language. Its characters were presented in the black-letter or "gothic" writing style commonly used at the time and also in Roman type. Taking as his model a Latin grammar by William Lily, Bullokar wrote the first published grammar of the English language, in a book titled "Brief Grammar for English", which appeared in 1586. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,111
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8
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44704152
English diphthongs have undergone many changes since the Old and Middle English periods. The sound changes discussed here involved at least one phoneme which historically was a diphthong. Old English. Old English diphthongs could be short or long. Both kinds arose from sound changes occurring in Old English itself, although the long forms sometimes also developed from Proto-Germanic diphthongs. They were mostly of the height-harmonic type (both elements at the same height) with the second element further back than the first. The set of diphthongs that occurred depended on dialect (and their exact pronunciation is in any case uncertain). Typical diphthongs are considered to have been as follows: As with monophthongs, the length of the diphthongs was not indicated in spelling, but in modern editions of OE texts the long forms are often written with a macron: ⟨īo⟩, ⟨īe⟩, ⟨ēo⟩, ⟨ēa⟩. In the transition from Old to Middle English, all of these diphthongs generally merged with monophthongs. Middle English. Development of new diphthongs. Although the Old English diphthongs merged into monophthongs, Middle English began to develop a new set of diphthongs. Many of these came about through vocalization of the palatal approximant (usually from an earlier ) or the labio-velar approximant (sometimes from an earlier voiced velar fricative ), when they followed a vowel. For example: Diphthongs also arose as a result of vowel breaking before (which had allophones and in this position – for the subsequent disappearance of these sounds, see "h"-loss). For example: The diphthongs that developed by these processes also came to be used in many loanwords, particularly those from Old French. For a table showing the development of the Middle English diphthongs, see Middle English phonology (diphthong equivalents). "Vein–vain" merger. Early Middle English had two separate diphthongs and . The vowel was typically represented orthographically with "ei" or "ey", and the vowel was typically represented orthographically with "ai" or "ay". These came to be merged, perhaps by the fourteenth century. The merger is reflected in all dialects of present-day English. In early Middle English, before the merger, "way" and "day", which came from Old English "weġ" and "dæġ" had and respectively. Similarly, "vein" and "vain" (borrowings from French) were pronounced differently as and . After the merger, "vein" and "vain" were homophones, and "way" and "day" rhymed. The merged vowel was a diphthong, something like or . Later (around the 1800s) this diphthong would merge in most dialects with the monophthong of words like "pane" in the "pane–pain" merger. Late Middle English. The English of southeastern England around 1400 had seven diphthongs, of which three ended in : and four ended in : Typical spellings are as in the examples above. The spellings "eu" and "ew" are both and , and the spellings "oi" and "oy" are used for both and . The most common words with "ew" pronounced were "dew", "few", "hew", "lewd", "mew", "newt", "pewter", "sew", "shew" ("show"), "shrew", "shrewd" and "strew". Words in which was commonly used included "boil", "coin", "destroy", "join", "moist", "point", "poison", "soil", "spoil", "Troy", "turmoil" and "voice", although there was significant variation. Modern English. 16th century. By the mid-16th century, the Great Vowel Shift had created two new diphthongs out of the former long close monophthongs and of Middle English. The diphthongs were as in "tide", and as in "house". Thus, the English of south-eastern England could then have had nine diphthongs. By the late 16th century, the inventory of diphthongs had been reduced as a result of several developments, all of which took place in the mid-to-late 16th century: That left , , , and as the diphthongs of south-eastern England. 17th century. By the late 17th century, these further developments had taken place in the dialect of south-eastern England: The changes above caused only the diphthongs , and to remain. Later developments. In the 18th century or later, the monophthongs (the products of the "pane"–"pain" and "toe"–"tow" mergers) became diphthongal in Standard English. That produced the vowels and . In RP, the starting point of the latter diphthong has now become more centralized and is commonly written . RP has also developed centering diphthongs , , , as a result of breaking before /r/ and the loss of when it is not followed by another vowel (see English-language vowel changes before historic). They occur in words like "near", "square" and "cure". Present-day RP is thus normally analyzed as having eight diphthongs: the five closing diphthongs , , , , (of "face", "goat", "price", "mouth" and "choice") and the three centering diphthongs , , . General American does not have the centering diphthongs (at least, not as independent phonemes). For more information, see English phonology (vowels). Variation in present-day English. "Coil"–"curl" merger. The "coil"–"curl" or "oil"–"earl" merger is a vowel merger that historically occurred in some non-rhotic dialects of American English, making both and become . This is strongly associated with New York City English and New Orleans English, but only the latter has any modern presence of the feature. "Cot"–"coat" merger. The "cot"–"coat" merger is a phenomenon exhibited by some speakers of Zulu English in which the phonemes and are not distinguished, making "cot" and "coat" homophones. Zulu English often also has a cot-caught merger, so that sets like "cot", "caught" and "coat" can be homophones. This merger can also be found in some broad Central Belt Scottish English accents. The merger of both sounds into is standard in Central Scots. "Line"–"loin" merger. The "line"–"loin" merger is a merger between the diphthongs and that occurs in some accents of Southern English English, Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, and Caribbean English. Pairs like "line" and "loin", "bile" and "boil", "imply" and "employ" are homophones in merging accents. Long mid mergers. The earliest stage of Early Modern English had a contrast between the long mid monophthongs (as in "pane" and "toe" respectively) and the diphthongs (as in "pain" and "tow" respectively). In the vast majority of Modern English accents these have been merged, so that the pairs "pane"–"pain" and "toe"–"tow" are homophones. These mergers are grouped together by Wells as the long mid mergers. All accents with the pane–pain" merger have the toe–tow" merger and vice versa. "Pane"–"pain" merger. The "pane"–"pain" merger is a merger of the long mid monophthong and the diphthong that occurs in most dialects of English. In the vast majority of Modern English accents, the vowels have been merged; whether the outcome is monophthongal or diphthongal depends on the accent. However, in a few regional accents, including some in East Anglia, South Wales, and even Newfoundland and older Maine accents, the merger has not gone through (at least not completely) and so pairs like "pane"-"pain" are distinct. Some Indian speakers also maintain this distinction, possibly influenced by spelling. A distinction, with the "pane" words pronounced with and the "pain" words pronounced with , survived in Norfolk English into the 20th century. Trudgill describes the disappearance of the distinction in Norfolk: "This disappearance was being effected by the gradual and variable transfer of lexical items from the set of to the set of as part of dedialectalisation process, the end-point of which will soon be (a few speakers even today maintain a vestigial and variable distinction) the complete merger of the two lexical sets under — the completion of a slow process of lexical diffusion." Walters (2001) reports the survival of the distinction in the Welsh English spoken in the Rhondda Valley, with in the "pane" words and in the "pain" words. In accents that preserve the distinction, the phoneme is usually represented by the spellings "ai", "ay", "ei" and "ey" as in "day", "play", "rain", "pain", "maid", "rein", "they" etc. and the phoneme is usually represented by "aCe" as in "pane", "plane", "lane", "late" etc. and sometimes by "é" and "e" as in "re", "café", "Santa Fe" etc. "Toe"–"tow" merger. The "toe"–"tow" merger is a merger of the Early Modern English vowels (as in "toe") and (as in "tow") that occurs in most dialects of English. (The vowels in Middle English and at the beginning of the Early Modern English period were and respectively, and they shifted in the second phase of the Great Vowel Shift.) The merger occurs in the vast majority of Modern English accents; whether the outcome is monophthongal or diphthongal depends on the accent. The traditional phonetic transcription for General American and earlier Received Pronunciation in the 20th century is , a diphthong. But in a few regional accents, including some in Northern England, East Anglia and South Wales, the merger has not gone through (at least not completely), so that pairs like "toe" and "tow", "moan" and "mown", "groan" and "grown", "sole" and "soul", "throne" and "thrown" are distinct. In 19th century England, the distinction was still very widespread; the main areas with the merger were in the northern Home Counties and parts of the Midlands. The distinction is most often preserved in East Anglian accents, especially in Norfolk. Peter Trudgill discusses this distinction, and states that "...until very recently, all Norfolk English speakers consistently and automatically maintained the nose-knows distinction... In the 1940s and 1950s, it was therefore a totally unremarkable feature of Norfolk English shared by all speakers, and therefore of no salience whatsoever." In a recent investigation into the English of the Fens, young people in west Norfolk were found to be maintaining the distinction, with back or in the "toe" set and central in the "tow" set, with the latter but not the former showing the influence of Estuary English. Walters reports the survival of the distinction in the Welsh English spoken in the Rhondda Valley, with in the "toe" words and in the "tow" words. Reports of Maine English in the 1970s reported a similar "toad-towed" distinction among older speakers, but was lost in subsequent generations. Some Indian speakers also maintain this distinction, possibly influenced by spelling; much less so than the "pane-pain" merger, however. In accents that preserve the distinction, the phoneme descended from Early Modern English is usually represented by the spellings "ou", and "ow" as in "soul", "dough", "tow", "know", "though" etc. or through L-vocalization as in "bolt", "cold", "folk", "roll" etc., while that descended from Early Modern English is usually represented by "oa", "oe", or "oCe" as in "boat", "road", "toe", "doe", "home", "hose", "go", "tone" etc. "Mare"–"mayor" merger. The "mare"–"mayor" merger occurs in British English and the Philadelphia—Baltimore dialect, and among scattered other American English speakers. The process has bisyllabic pronounced with a centering diphthong as in in many words. Such varieties pronounce "mayor" as , homophonous with "mare". North American English accents with the merger allow it to affect also sequences without since some words with the sequence merge with , which is associated with /æ/ tensing before nasal consonants. The best-known examples are "mayonnaise" (), "crayon" , and "Graham" (, a homophone of "gram"). "Pride"–"proud" merger. The "pride"–"proud" merger is a merger of the diphthongs and before voiced consonants into monophthongal occurring for some speakers of African American Vernacular English; making "pride" and "proud", "dine" and "down", "find" and "found", etc. homophones. Some speakers with this merger may also have the rod–ride merger hence having a three–way merger of , and before voiced consonants, making "pride", "prod", and "proud" and "find", "found" and "fond" homophones. "Rod"–"ride" merger. The "rod"–"ride" merger is a merger of and occurring for some speakers of Southern American English and African American Vernacular English, in which "rod" and "ride" are merged as . Some other speakers may keep the contrast, so that "rod" is and "ride" is . This is similar to an earlier sound change where Proto-Germanic *ai shifted to Old English "ā". Smoothing of. Smoothing of is a process that occurs in many varieties of British English where bisyllabic becomes the triphthong in certain words with . As a result, "scientific" is pronounced with three syllables and "science" is pronounced with one syllable. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. ;templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Gallo-Italic language spoken in the Italian region of Lombardy The Lombard language (, , or , depending on the orthography; pronunciation: ) belongs to the Gallo-Italic group within the Romance languages. It is characterized by a Celtic linguistic substratum and a Lombardic linguistic superstratum and is a cluster of homogeneous dialects that are spoken by millions of speakers in Northern Italy and southern Switzerland. These include most of Lombardy and some areas of the neighbouring regions, notably the far eastern side of Piedmont and the extreme western side of Trentino, and in Switzerland in the cantons of Ticino and Graubünden. The language is also spoken in Santa Catarina in Brazil by Lombard immigrants from the Province of Bergamo, in Italy. History. Origins. The most ancient linguistic substratum that has left a mark on the Lombard language is that of the ancient Ligures. However, available information about the ancient language and its influence on modern Lombard is extremely vague and limited. That is in sharp contrast to the influence left by the Celts, who settled in Northern Italy and brought their Celtic languages and culturally and linguistically Celticised the Ligures. The Celtic substratum of modern Lombard and the neighbouring languages of Northern Italy is self-evident and so the Lombard language is classified as a Gallo-Italic language (from the ancient Roman name for the Celts, Gauls). Roman domination shaped the dialects spoken in the area, which is called Cisalpine Gaul ("Gaul, this side of the mountains") by the Romans, and much of the lexicon and grammar of the Lombard language have their origin in Latin. However, that influence was not homogeneous since idioms of different areas were influenced by previous linguistic substrata, and each area was marked by a stronger or weaker Latinisation or the preservation of ancient Celtic characteristics. The Germanic Lombardic language also left strong traces in modern Lombard, as it was the variety of Germanic that was spoken by the Germanic Lombards (or Longobards), who settled in Northern Italy, which is called Greater Lombardy after them, and in other parts of the Italian Peninsula after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Lombardic acted as a linguistic superstratum on Lombard and neighboring Gallo-Italic languages since the Germanic Lombards did not impose their language by law on the Gallo-Roman population, but they rather acquired the Gallo-Italic language from the local population. Lombardic left traces, mostly in lexicon and phonetics, without Germanicising the local language in its structure and so Lombard preserved its Romance structure. From the 15th to the 17th century. From the 15th century onwards, literary Tuscan began to supplant the use of northern vernaculars such as Lombard, even regardless of the fact that Lombard itself began to be heavily influenced by the Tuscan vernacular. Prior to that, the Lombard language was widely used in administrative spheres. Among those who favoured the strengthening of Tuscan influences over Lombard culture was the Duke of Milan Ludovico il Moro; during his reign he brought numerous men of culture from the Republic of Florence to the Sforza court, the most famous of whom was certainly Leonardo da Vinci. At the same time, however, Lancino Curzio still wrote some works in Milanese dialect at the Sforza court. Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the Lombard language was widely and actively discredited in Italian literary circles. Tuscan writers and humanists such as Luigi Pulci and Benedetto Dei recorded aspects of the language spoken in Milan in the form of parodies; similarly, the Asti-born writer Giorgio Alione parodied Milanese in his "Commedia e farse carnovalesche nei dialetti astigiano, milanese e francese misti con latino barbaro" (eng. "Comedy and carnival farces in the Asti, Milanese and French dialects mixed with barbaric Latin") composed at the end of the 15th century. The Florentine humanist Leonardo Salviati, one of the founders of the Accademia della Crusca, an important Italian linguistic academy operating to this day, published a series of translations of a Boccaccian tale into various vernaculars (including Bergamo and Milanese) explicitly in order to demonstrate how ugly and awkward they were compared to Tuscan. At the same time, the 15th century saw the first signs of a true Lombard literature: in the eastern parts of Lombardy, the Bergamo-born Giovanni Bressani composed numerous volumes of satirical poetry and the Brescia-born Galeazzo dagli Orzi wrote his "Massera da bé", a sort of theatrical dialogue; in the west of the region area, the Mannerist painter Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo lead the composition of the "arabesques" in the Accademia dei Facchini della Val di Blenio, a Milanese academy founded in 1560. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Ossola native Giovanni Capis published the "Varon milanes de la lengua de Milan" (eng. "Varrone Milanese on the language of Milan"), a sort of etymological dictionary was published. An example of a text in ancient Milanese dialect is this excerpt from "Il falso filosofo" (1698), act III, scene XIV, where Meneghino, a traditional Milanese character from the commedia dell'arte, presents himself in court (Lombard on the left, Italian translation on the right): ;poem ; «E mì interrogatus ghe responditt. Sont Meneghin Tandœuggia, Ciamæ par sora nomm el Tananan, Del condamm Marchionn ditt el Sginsgiva; Sont servitor del sior Pomponi Gonz, C'al è trent agn che'l servj» ;/poem ; ;poem ; E io interrogatus risposi: Sono Meneghino Babbeo chiamato per soprannome il Ciampichino del fu Marchionne detto il Gengiva; sono servitore del signor Pomponio Gonzo che servo da trent'anni ;/poem ;—Meneghino appears in court in "The False Philosopher" (1698), act III, scene XIV The 17th century also saw the rise of the figure of the playwright Carlo Maria Maggi, who normalised the spelling of the Milanese dialect and who created, among other things, the Milanese mask of Meneghino. A friend and correspondent of Maggi was Francesco De Lemene, author of La sposa Francesca (the first literary work in modern Lodi dialect) and of a translation of "Gerusalemme liberata". Moreover, the 17th century saw the emergence of the first bosinade: popular poems written on loose sheets and posted in the squares or read (or even sung) in public; they were widely diffused until the first decades of the 20th century. In the modern era. Milanese literature in the 18th century was quickly developing: some important names which emerged in that period include Domenico Balestrieri, who was associated the famous poet Giuseppe Parini. The latter wrote some compositions in the Lombard language. One of the most important writers of the period was the Bergamo-based abbot Giuseppe Rota, author of a substantial (unpublished) Bergamo-Italian-Latin vocabulary and of several poetic works in the Orobic idiom, which he always called "lingua". In this period the linguistic characteristics of Lombard were well recognizable and comparable to the modern ones, except for some phonetic peculiarities and the presence of a remote past tense, replaced almost fully by the past perfect tense by 1875. The beginning of the 19th century was dominated by the figure of Carlo Porta, recognized by many as the most important author of Lombard literature, also included among the greatest poets of Italian national literature. With him some of the highest peaks of expressiveness in the Lombard language were reached, which clearly emerged in works such as "La Ninetta del Verzee, Desgrazzi de Giovannin Bongee", "La guerra di pret" and "Lament del Marchionn de gamb avert". Milanese poetic production assumed such important dimensions that in 1815 the scholar Francesco Cherubini published an anthology of Lombard literature in four volumes, which included texts written from the seventeenth century to his day. In the contemporary era. In the first part of the 20th century, the greatest exponent of Lombard literature was the Milanese lawyer Delio Tessa, who distanced himself from the Portian tradition by giving his texts a strong expressionist tone. In Bergamo, the most prominent advocate of Lombard language was Bortolo Belotti, a lawyer, historian and minister in the liberal governments of the time. The Lombard language became known outside its linguistic borders thanks to I Legnanesi, a theatre company that performed comedies in the Legnanese dialect and which is the most famous example of travesti theatre in Italy. In their comic shows the actors propose to the public satirical figures of the typical Lombard court; founded in Legnano in 1949 by Felice Musazzi, Tony Barlocco and Luigi Cavalleri, it is among the most famous companies in the European dialect theatre scene. The 21st century has also seen the use of Lombard in contemporary music, such as in the musical pieces of Davide Van De Sfroos and in the translations into Lombard of the works of Bob Dylan. There is no shortage of translations of great literary classics; in fact, there are numerous versions in Lombard of works such as Pinocchio, The Betrothed, The Little Prince, the Divine Comedy and – in religious literature – of the Gospels. Status. Lombard is considered a minority language that is structurally separate from Italian by both Ethnologue and the UNESCO "Red Book on Endangered Languages". However, Italy and Switzerland do not recognize Lombard-speakers as a linguistic minority. In Italy, that is the same as for most other minority languages, which have been for a long time incorrectly classed as corrupted regional dialects of Italian. However, Lombard and Italian belong to different subgroups of the Romance language family, and Lombard's historical development is not related to Standard Italian, which is derived from Tuscan. Speakers. Historically, the vast majority of Lombards spoke only Lombard, as "Italian" was merely a literary language, and most Italians were not able to read or write. After the Italian economic miracle, Standard Italian arose throughout Italy and Lombard-speaking Switzerland, wholly-monolingual Lombard-speakers became a rarity as time went by, but a small minority may still be uncomfortable speaking Standard Italian. Surveys in Italy find that all Lombard-speakers also speak Italian, and their command of both two languages varies according to their geographical position as well as their socio-economic situation. The most reliable predictor was found to be the speaker's age. Studies have found that young people are much less likely to speak Lombard as proficiently as their grandparents. In some areas, elderly people are more used to speaking Lombard than Italian even though they know both. Classification. Lombard belongs to the Gallo-Italic (Cisalpine) group of Gallo-Romance languages, which belongs to the Western Romance subdivision. Varieties. Traditionally, the Lombard dialects have been classified into the Eastern, Western, Alpine and Southern Lombard dialects. The varieties of the Italian provinces of Milan, Varese, Como, Lecco, Lodi, Monza and Brianza, Pavia and Mantua belong to Western Lombard, and the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia and Cremona are dialects of Eastern Lombard. All varieties spoken in the Swiss areas (both in the Canton of Ticino and the Canton of Graubünden) are Western, and both Western and Eastern varieties are found in the Italian areas. The varieties of the Alpine valleys of Valchiavenna and Valtellina (Sondrio) and upper-Valcamonica (Brescia) and the four Lombard valleys of the Swiss canton of Graubünden have some peculiarities of their own and some traits in common with Eastern Lombard but should be considered Western. Also, dialects from the Piedmontese provinces of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola and Novara, the Valsesia valley (province of Vercelli), and the city of Tortona are closer to Western Lombard than to Piedmontese. Alternatively, following the traditional classification, the varieties spoken in parts of Sondrio, Trentino, Ticino and Grigioni can be considered as Alpine Lombard, and those spoken in southern Lombardy such as in Pavia, Lodi, Cremona and Mantova can be classified as Southern Lombard. Literature. Lacking a standard language, authors in the 13th and 14th language created Franco-Lombard, a mixed language including Old French, for their literary works. The Lombard variety with the oldest literary tradition (from the 13th century) is that of Milan, but Milanese, the native Lombard variety of the area, has now almost completely been superseded by Italian from the heavy influx of migrants from other parts of Italy (especially from Apulia, Sicily and Campania) during the rapid industrialization after the Second World War. Ticinese is a comprehensive denomination for the Lombard varieties that are spoken in Swiss canton Ticino (Tessin), and the "Ticinese koiné" is the Western Lombard koiné used by speakers of local dialects (particularly those diverging from the "koiné" itself) when they communicate with speakers of other Lombard dialects of Ticino, Grigioni or Italian Lombardy. The koiné is similar to Milanese and the varieties of the neighbouring provinces on the Italian side of the border. There is extant literature in other varieties of Lombard like "La masséra da bé", a theatrical work in early Eastern Lombard, written by Galeazzo dagli Orzi
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44704152
1446 Korean document on Hangul script (Korean: ; Hanja: ; lit. 'The Correct/Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People') is a 15th-century manuscript that introduced the Korean script Hangul. The name of the manuscript was also the original name of the script. King Sejong the Great commissioned the royal research institute Hall of Worthies to write the "Hunminjeongeum" to describe the writing system he had invented in 1443. The manuscript was then published in 1446. "Hunminjeongeum" was intended to be a simpler alternative to the incumbent Chinese-based Hanja, in order to promote literacy among the general populace. It originally included 28 letters, but over time, four of those (ㆆ, ㆁ, ㅿ, ·) were abandoned, leading to the current 24 letters of Hangul. Sejong the Great also commissioned the creation of a companion explanatory manuscript entitled "Hunminjeongeum Haerye". In 1940, a copy of the "Hunminjeongeum Haerye" was discovered in Andong, Gyeongsang Province. An early copy of the document is in the Gansong Art Museum in Seoul, South Korea. In 1962, "Hunminjeongeum Haerye" was designated a National Treasure in South Korea and was registered by UNESCO in the Memory of the World Programme in 1997. History. Before Hangul, the Korean alphabet, was created, Chinese characters were used to transcribe Korean words through systems such as "idu", "hyangchal" and "gugyeol". Since Chinese language and Korean language share few similarities, borrowing Chinese characters proved to be inefficient to reflect the spoken language. In addition, at the time when Sejong the Great was inventing Hangul the Ming dynasty had just come to power in China, which changed the pronunciation of Chinese characters, making it harder for Koreans to learn the new standard pronunciation to record their words. The illiteracy level also stayed high since reading and learning Chinese characters was restricted among the ordinary people. They were generally used in official documents by the ruling class. The ruling class took advantage of this and learning the Chinese characters became a symbol of power and privilege. In order to make written language more accessible for common people, Sejong the Great started creating Hangul secretly, since the ruling class would be appalled by the news. Hangul was personally created by Sejong the Great, the fourth king of the Joseon dynasty, and revealed by him in 1443. Although it is widely assumed that Sejong the Great ordered the Hall of Worthies to invent Hangul, contemporary records such as the "Veritable Records of King Sejong" and Chŏng Inji's preface to the "Hunminjeongeum Haerye" emphasize that he invented it himself. This is stated in Book 113 of The Annals of King Sejong (Sejongsillok) on the 9th month and the 28th year of reign of King Sejong and at the end of "An Illustrated Explanation of Hunminjeongeum" (; "Hunminjeongeum Haerye"). Afterward, King Sejong wrote the preface to the "Hunminjeongeum", explaining the origin and purpose of Hangul and providing brief examples and explanations, and then tasked the Hall of Worthies to write detailed examples and explanations. The head of the Hall of Worthies, Chŏng Inji, was responsible for compiling the "Hunminjeongeum". The "Hunminjeongeum" was published and promulgated to the public in 1446. The writing system is referred to as Hangul today but was originally named as "Hunminjeongeum" by King Sejong. "Hunmin" and "Jeongeum" are respective words that each indicate "to teach the people" and "proper sounds." Together "Hunminjeongeum" means "correct sounds for the instruction of the people." Versions and content. There are three versions of "Hunminjeongeum." "Hunminjeongeum Yeui" is written in Classical Chinese/Hanja and contains a preface, the alphabet letters"," and brief descriptions of their corresponding sounds. The Classical Chinese (Hanja) of the "Hunminjeongeum" has been partly translated into Middle Korean. This translation is found together with : an annotated Buddhist scripture and is called the "Hunminjeongeum Eonhae". The first paragraph of the document reveals Sejong the Great's motivation for creating Hangul: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Play by George Bernard Shaw Caesar and Cleopatra (Shavian: ·𐑕𐑰𐑟𐑩𐑮 𐑨𐑯𐑛 ·𐑒𐑤𐑰𐑩𐑫𐑐𐑨𐑑𐑮𐑩) is a play written in 1898 by George Bernard Shaw that depicts a fictionalized account of the relationship between Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. It was first published with "Captain Brassbound's Conversion" and "The Devil's Disciple" in Shaw's 1901 collection "Three Plays for Puritans". It was first performed in a single staged reading at Newcastle upon Tyne on 15 March 1899, to secure the copyright. The play was produced in New York in 1906 and in London at the Savoy Theatre in 1907. Plot. Prologue and Alternative to the Prologue. The play has a prologue and an "Alternative to the Prologue". The prologue consists of the Egyptian god Ra addressing the audience directly, as if he could see them in the theater (i.e., deliberately breaking the fourth wall). He says that Pompey represents the old Rome and Caesar represents the new Rome. The gods favored Caesar, according to Ra, because he "lived the life they had given him boldly". Ra recounts the conflict between Caesar and Pompey, their battle at Pharsalus, and Pompey's eventual assassination in Egypt at the hands of Lucius Septimius. In "An Alternative to the Prologue", we find Cleopatra has been driven into Syria by her brother, Ptolemy, with whom she is vying for the Egyptian throne. A messenger appears to warn the captain of Cleopatra's guard that Caesar has landed and is invading Egypt. The messenger warns that Caesar's conquest is inevitable and irresistible. A Nubian watchman flees to Cleopatra's palace and warns those inside that Caesar and his armies are less than an hour away. The guards, knowing of Caesar's weakness for women, plan to persuade him to proclaim Cleopatra—who may be controllable—Egypt's ruler instead of Ptolemy. They try to locate her, but are told by Cleopatra's nurse, Ftatateeta, that she has run away. Act I. opens with Cleopatra sleeping between the paws of a Sphinx. Caesar, wandering lonely in the desert night, comes upon the sphinx and speaks to it profoundly. Cleopatra wakes and, still unseen, replies. At first Caesar imagines the sphinx is speaking in a girlish voice, then, when Cleopatra appears, that he is experiencing a dream or, if he is awake, a touch of madness. She, not recognizing Caesar, thinks him a nice old man and tells him of her childish fear of Caesar and the Romans. Caesar urges bravery when she must face the conquerors, then escorts her to her palace. Cleopatra reluctantly agrees to maintain a queenly presence, but greatly fears that Caesar will eat her anyway. When the Roman guards arrive and hail Caesar, Cleopatra suddenly realizes he has been with her all along. She sobs in relief, and falls into his arms. Act II. In a hall on the first floor of the royal palace in Alexandria, Caesar meets King Ptolemy (aged ten), his tutor Theodotus (very aged), Achillas (general of Ptolemy's troops), and Pothinus (his guardian). Caesar greets all with courtesy and kindness, but inflexibly demands a tribute whose amount disconcerts the Egyptians. As an inducement, Caesar says he will settle the dispute between the claimants for the Egyptian throne by letting Cleopatra and Ptolemy reign jointly. However, the rivalry exists because, even though the two are siblings and already married in accordance with the royal law, they detest each other with a mutual antipathy no less murderous for being childish. Each claims sole rulership. Caesar's solution is acceptable to none and his concern for Ptolemy makes Cleopatra fiercely jealous. The conference deteriorates into a dispute, with the Egyptians threatening military action. Caesar, with two legions (three thousand soldiers and a thousand horsemen), has no fear of the Egyptian army but learns Achillas also commands a Roman army of occupation, left after a previous Roman incursion, which could overwhelm his relatively small contingent. As a defensive measure, Caesar orders Rufio, his military aide, to take over the palace, a theatre adjacent to it, and Pharos, an island in the harbour accessible from the palace via a causeway that divides the harbour into eastern and western sections. From Pharos, which has a defensible lighthouse at its eastmost tip, those of Caesar's ships anchored on the east side of the harbour can return to Rome. His ships on the west side are to be burnt at once. Britannus, Caesar's secretary, proclaims the king and courtiers prisoners of war, but Caesar, to the dismay of Rufio, allows the captives to depart. Only Cleopatra (with her retinue), fearing Ptolemy's associates, and Pothinus (for reasons of his own), choose to remain with Caesar. The others all depart. Caesar, intent on developing his strategy, tries to dismiss all other matters but is interrupted by Cleopatra's nagging for attention. He indulges her briefly while she speaks amorously of Mark Antony, who restored her father to his throne when she was twelve years old. Her gushing about the youth and beauty of Mark Antony are unflattering to Caesar, who is middle-aged and balding. Caesar nevertheless, impervious to jealousy, makes Cleopatra happy by promising to send Mark Antony back to Egypt. As she leaves, a wounded soldier comes to report that Achillas, with his Roman army, is at hand and that the citizenry is attacking Caesar's soldiers. A siege is imminent. Watching from a balcony, Rufio discovers the ships he was ordered to destroy have been torched by Achillas' forces and are already burning. Meanwhile, Theodotus, the savant, arrives distraught, anguished because fire from the blazing ships has spread to the Alexandrian library. Caesar does not sympathize, saying it is better that the Egyptians should live their lives than dream them away with the help of books. As a practicality, he notes the Egyptian firefighters will be diverted from attacking Caesar's soldiers. At scene's end, Cleopatra and Britannus help Caesar don his armor and he goes forth to battle. Act III. A Roman sentinel stationed on the quay in front of the palace looks intently, across the eastern harbour, to the west, for activity at the Pharos lighthouse, now captured and occupied by Caesar. He is watching for signs of an impending counter-attack by Egyptian forces arriving via ship and by way of the Heptastadion (a stone causeway spanning the five miles of open water between the mainland and Pharos Island). The sentinel's vigil is interrupted by Ftatateeta (Cleopatra's nurse) and Apollodorus the Sicilian (a patrician amateur of the arts), accompanied by a retinue of porters carrying a bale of carpets, from which Cleopatra is to select a gift appropriate for Caesar. Cleopatra emerges from the palace, shows little interest in the carpets, and expresses a desire to visit Caesar at the lighthouse. The sentinel tells her she is a prisoner and orders her back inside the palace. Cleopatra is enraged, and Apollodorus, as her champion, engages in swordplay with the sentinel. A centurion intervenes and avers Cleopatra will not be allowed outside the palace until Caesar gives the order. She is sent back to the palace, where she may select a carpet for delivery to Caesar. Apollodorus, who is not a prisoner, will deliver it since he is free to travel in areas behind the Roman lines. He hires a small boat, with a single boatmen, for the purpose. The porters leave the palace bearing a rolled carpet. They complain about its weight, but only Ftatateeta, suffering paroxysms of anxiety, knows that Cleopatra is hidden in the bundle. The sentinel, however, alerted by Ftatateeta's distress, becomes suspicious and attempts, unsuccessfully, to recall the boat after it departs. Meanwhile, Rufio, eating dates and resting after the day's battle, hears Caesar speaking somberly of his personal misgivings and predicting they will lose the battle because age has rendered him inept. Rufio diagnoses Caesar's woes as signs of hunger and gives him dates to eat. Caesar's outlook brightens as he eats them. He is himself again when Britannus exultantly approaches bearing a heavy bag containing incriminating letters that have passed between Pompey's associates and their army, now occupying Egypt. Caesar scorns to read them, deeming it better to convert his enemies to friends than to waste his time with prosecutions; he casts the bag into the sea. As Cleopatra's boat arrives, the falling bag breaks its prow and it quickly sinks, barely allowing time for Apollodorus to drag the carpet and its queenly contents safe ashore. Caesar unrolls the carpet and discovers Cleopatra, who is distressed because of the rigors of her journey and even more so when she finds Caesar too preoccupied with military matters to accord her much attention. Matters worsen when Britannus, who has been observing the movements of the Egyptian army, reports that the enemy now controls the causeway and is also approaching rapidly across the island. Swimming to a Roman ship in the eastern harbour becomes the sole possibility for escape. Apollodorus dives in readily and Caesar follows, after privately instructing Rufio and Britannus to toss Cleopatra into the water so she can hang on while he swims to safety. They do so with great relish, she screaming mightily, then Rufio takes the plunge. Britannus cannot swim, so he is instructed to defend himself as well as possible until a rescue can be arranged. A friendly craft soon rescues all the swimmers. Act IV. Six months elapse with Romans and Cleopatra besieged in the palace in Alexandria. Cleopatra and Pothinus, who is a prisoner of war, discuss what will happen when Caesar eventually leaves and disagree over whether Cleopatra or Ptolemy should rule. They part; Cleopatra to be hostess at a feast prepared for Caesar and his lieutenants, and Pothinus to tell Caesar that Cleopatra is a traitress who is only using Caesar to help her gain the Egyptian throne. Caesar considers that a natural motive and is not offended. But Cleopatra is enraged at Pothinus' allegation and secretly orders her nurse, Ftatateeta, to kill him. At the feast the mood is considerably restrained by Caesar's ascetic preference for simple fare and barley water versus exotic foods and wines. However, conversation grows lively when world-weary Caesar suggests to Cleopatra they both leave political life, search out the Nile's source and a city there. Cleopatra enthusiastically agrees and, to name the city, seeks help from the God of the Nile, who is her favorite god. The festivities are interrupted by a scream, followed by a thud: Pothinus has been murdered and his body thrown from the roof down to the beach. The besieging Egyptians, both army and civilian, are enraged by the killing of Pothinus, who was a popular hero, and they begin to storm the palace. Cleopatra claims responsibility for the slaying and Caesar reproaches her for taking shortsighted vengeance, pointing out that his clemency towards Pothinus and the other prisoners has kept the enemy at bay. Doom seems inevitable, but then they learn that reinforcements, commanded by Mithridates of Pergamos have engaged the Egyptian army. With the threat diminished, Caesar draws up a battle plan and leaves to speak to the troops. Meanwhile, Rufio realizes Ftatateeta was Pothinus' killer, so he kills her in turn. Cleopatra, left alone and utterly forlorn discovers the bloodied body concealed behind a curtain. Act V. Act V is an epilogue. Amidst great pomp and ceremony, Caesar prepares to leave for Rome. His forces have swept Ptolemy's armies into the Nile, and Ptolemy himself was drowned when his barge sank. Caesar appoints Rufio governor of the province and considers freedom for Britannus, who declines the offer in favor of remaining Caesar's servant. A conversation ensues that foreshadows Caesar's eventual assassination. As the gangplank is being extended from the quay to Caesar's ship, Cleopatra, dressed in mourning for her nurse, arrives. She accuses Rufio of murdering Ftatateeta. Rufio admits the slaying, but says it was not for the sake of punishment, revenge or justice: he killed her without malice because she was a potential menace. Caesar approves the execution because it was not influenced by spurious moralism. Cleopatra remains unforgiving until Caesar renews his promise to send Mark Antony to Egypt. That renders her ecstatic as the ship starts moving out to sea. Themes. Shaw wanted to prove that it was not love but politics that drew Cleopatra to Julius Caesar. He sees the Roman occupation of ancient Egypt as similar to the British occupation that was occurring during his time. Caesar understands the importance of good government, and values these things above art and love. A second theme, apparent both from the
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44704152
British general (1803–1863) Lieutenant-General Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet (29 January 1803 – 11 March 1863) was a British general who fought in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Early life. James Outram was the son of Benjamin Outram of Butterley Hall, Butterley, Derbyshire, a civil engineer, and Margaret Anderson, a daughter of James Anderson of Hermiston, a Scottish writer on agriculture. His father died in 1805, and his mother moved to Aberdeenshire in 1810. From Udny school the boy went in 1818 to the Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1819 an Indian cadetship was given to him. Soon after his arrival at Bombay his remarkable energy attracted notice, and in July 1820 he became acting adjutant to the first battalion of the 12th regiment on its embodiment at Poona, an experience which he found to be of immense advantage to him later in his career. Khandesh – 1825. In 1825, he was sent to Khandesh, where he trained a light infantry corps, formed of the Bhils, a tribe native to the densely forested hills of that region. He gained over them a marvellous personal influence, and employed them with great success in checking outrages and plunder. Their loyalty to him had its principal source in their admiration of his hunting achievements, which in cool daring and hairbreadth escapes have perhaps never been equalled. Originally a puny lad, and for many years after his arrival in India subject to constant attacks of sickness, Outram seemed to gain strength by every new illness, eventually acquiring a strong constitution and "nerves of steel, shoulders and muscles worthy of a six-foot Highlander." Gujarat and Sindh campaigns. In 1835 he was sent to Gujarat to make a report on the Mahi Kantha district, and for some time he remained there as political agent. On the outbreak of the First Afghan War in 1838 he was appointed extra aide-de-camp on the staff of Sir John Keane, and went to Afghanistan, where he conducted various raids against Afghan tribes and performed an extraordinary exploit in capturing a banner of the enemy before Ghazni. In 1839, he was promoted to major and appointed political agent in Lower Sindh, later being moved to Upper Sindh (at this time, Gujarat and Sindh were both under the Bombay Presidency). While in Sindh, he strongly opposed the policy of his superior, Sir Charles Napier, which led to the annexation of Sindh into British India. However, when war broke out, he heroically defended the residency at Hyderabad against 8000 Baluchis, causing Sir Charles Napier to describe him as the "Bayard of India." On his return from a short visit to England in 1843, he was, with the rank of brevet lieutenant-colonel, appointed to a command in the Mahratta country, and in 1847 he was transferred from Satara to Baroda, where he incurred the resentment of the Bombay government by his fearless exposure of corruption. Lucknow – 1854. In 1854 he was appointed resident at Lucknow, in which capacity two years later he carried out the annexation of Oudh and became the first chief commissioner of that province. Appointed in 1857, with the rank of lieutenant-general, to command an expedition against Persia during the Anglo-Persian War, he defeated the Persian forces in February 1857 after an attempted ambush by their commander Khanlar Mirza at Khushab. Outram conducted the campaign with such rapid decision that peace was concluded by the Treaty of Paris in March 1857, his services being rewarded by the grand cross of the Bath. Later that year, the Governor-General's wife, Lady Canning was unimpressed with him when he stayed at Government House in August 1857: she recorded that ‘he is a very common looking little dark Jewish bearded man, with a desponding slow hesitating manner, very unlike descriptions — or rather the idea raised in one’s mind by the old Bombay name the "Bayard of the East" . . . He is not the least my idea of a hero.’ From Persia he was summoned in June to India, with the brief explanation "We want all our best men here". It was said of him at this time that a fox is a fool and a lion a coward by the side of Sir J. Outram. Immediately on his arrival in Calcutta he was appointed to command the two divisions of the Bengal army occupying the country from Calcutta to Cawnpore; and to the military control was also joined the commissionership of Oudh. Already hostilities had assumed such proportions as to compel Henry Havelock to fall back on Cawnpore, which he held only with difficulty, although a speedy advance was necessary to save the garrison at Lucknow. On arriving at Cawnpore with reinforcements, Outram, in admiration of the brilliant deeds of General Havelock, conceded to him the glory of relieving Lucknow, and, waiving his rank, tendered his services to him as a volunteer. During the advance he commanded a troop of volunteer cavalry, and performed exploits of great brilliancy at Mangalwar, and in the attack at the Alambagh; and in the final conflict he led the way, charging through a very tempest of fire. The volunteer cavalry unanimously voted him the Victoria Cross, but he refused the choice on the grounds that he was ineligible as the general under whom they served. Resuming supreme command, he then held the town until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell, after which he conducted the evacuation of the residency so as completely to deceive the enemy. In the second capture of Lucknow, on the commander-in-chief's return, Outram was entrusted with the attack on the side of the Gomti, and afterwards, having recrossed the river, he advanced through the Chattar Manzil to take the residency, thus, in the words of Colin Campbell, putting the finishing stroke on the enemy. After the capture of Lucknow he was gazetted lieutenant-general. While in Lucknow he employed a code whereby letters were transliterated using the Greek alphabet, which was a common practice in the military at the time. Thanks – Bayard of India. In February 1858, he received the special thanks of both houses of Parliament, and in the same year the dignity of baronet with an annuity of £1000. When, on account of shattered health, he returned finally to England in 1860, a movement resulted in the presentation of a public testimonial, and the erection of statues in London (by sculptor Matthew Noble) and Calcutta. He died at Pau in the south of France on 11 March 1863, and was buried on 25 March in the nave of Westminster Abbey, where the marble slab on his grave bears the poignant epitaph "The Bayard of India". Family. He was married to Margaret Clementine Anderson (1813-1911). She is buried in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The grave is also to the memory of Sir James. Their son Sir Francis Boyd Outram lies with her. Legacy. A memorial to Outram was erected in Westminster Abbey in 1863 to the designs of Matthew Noble. Fictional portrayals. General James Outrum appears as a character in "Flashman in the Great Game" by George MacDonald Fraser. Outram is played by Richard Attenborough in the 1977 Satyajit Ray film "The Chess Players". References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Attribution:
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44704152
For centuries, many people have called for language reforms of English, which vary in approach from the radical (completely overhauling existing conventions) to the conservative (preserving most while removing irregularities). Phonetic alphabets limited to English do not belong here. See . Spelling reforms. Spelling reforms are attempts to regularize English spelling either by reducing the number of irregularities or by making it completely phonemic. This may be done using the existing basic English alphabet (basic), by extending it (extended) or by replacing it entirely (replaced). Such historical proposals include: Subsets. "Subsets" are reforms that use a restricted wordlist and grammar. English subsets include: Vocabulary reforms. "Vocabulary reforms" seek to reform English by changing or restricting its words without changing its grammar.
4,558,117
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118
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44704152
Word that expresses a property it also possesses An autological word (or homological word) expresses a property that it also possesses. For example, the word "word" is a word, the word "English" is (in) English, the word "writable" is writable, and the word "pentasyllabic" has five syllables. The opposite, a heterological word, does not apply to itself. For example, the word "palindrome" is not a palindrome, "unwritable" is writable, and "monosyllabic" has more than one syllable. Unlike more general concepts of autology and self-reference, this particular distinction and opposition of autological and heterological words is uncommon in linguistics for describing linguistic phenomena or classes of words, but is current in logic and philosophy where it was introduced by Kurt Grelling and Leonard Nelson for describing a semantic paradox, later known as Grelling's paradox or the Grelling–Nelson paradox. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,118
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118
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44704152
"Deux amis" or "Two Friends" is a short story by the French author Guy de Maupassant, published in 1883. The story is set in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, when the city lay under siege. The story examines French bravery, German stereotypes and, unusually for Maupassant, discusses the nature and justification of war in the form of a conversation between the two protagonists. Algirdas Julien Greimas has famously analysed the text's semiotic features in "Maupassant" (1976). Plot. The story opens in Paris in January 1871, at the height of the Siege of Paris, and introduces the main character, Monsieur Morissot, a watchmaker who has enrolled in the National Guard. Morissot, who is bored, hungry and depressed, is walking along the boulevard when by chance he bumps into an old friend, Monsieur Sauvage, a draper from the Rue Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, with whom he used to go fishing before the war. The two old friends reminisce over several glasses of absinthe in a café, gain a "laissez-passer" from their officer, and walk along the river to Argenteuil, a few miles west of the city, in the no man's land between the French and Prussian lines. The two start fishing and when they see the nearby fortress of Mont-Valérien firing at the Prussians, they start discussing the war, which turns into a friendly debate at the end of which they both agree that the war is a tragedy for both France and Prussia, and that as long as there are governments, there will be wars. At this point, the two friends turn round to see four Prussian soldiers pointing their rifles at them. The two are captured and taken to a nearby island, where a Prussian officer makes them an offer: he explains that he can legally shoot them on the spot as spies, but that he will spare their lives and let them return to Paris if they give him the password they used to get through their own defense lines. The two heroically refuse to give him the password, even when the officer reminds them that their deaths will cripple their families. Realizing that they will not give him the password, the officer lines up his men into a firing squad. The two friends shake hands and exchange a tearful farewell before they are executed. The German officer orders their bodies thrown into the river, and without showing any sign of emotion, orders a soldier to cook the two friends' fish, and returns to his chair to smoke his pipe. Themes. Unlike Maupassant's other stories set during the war, "Deux Amis" is set in Paris rather than the provinces, where Maupassant spent the war. The tension between Paris and the provinces is hinted at in the story – Maupassant describes how Paris is starving, but that its inhabitants are simply sitting around drinking, unlike the inhabitants of the provinces who have to put up with the war, and the occupying Germans, on a daily basis. The two French characters are portrayed heroically as brave, stoic Frenchmen who are bitterly opposed to the war. Maupassant uses the characters as mouthpieces for alternative political views – Monsieur Sauvage complains bitterly that the Third Republic would never have declared war and that the war is the result of Napoleon III's meddling, to which Monsieur Morissot replies that Napoleon's government saw war abroad, while the Republic sees war at home, reflecting the opposing Imperial and Republican political factions of France during the Franco-Prussian War. Maupassant also uses the characters as a mouthpiece for his views on the futility of the war; the characters' sadness on seeing Mont-Valérien shelling German soldiers reflects this, mourning the pointless loss of life in both countries, and that countless girlfriends, wives, mothers, and children in both France and Prussia will weep for the loss of their loved ones in a pointless war. Despite mourning the loss of Prussian soldiers, Maupassant maintains his stereotyping of German soldiers in this story. While Maupassant is careful to develop the individual characters of Morissot and Sauvage, he portrays the German soldiers who capture the two as faceless men who do not count as individual human beings, but simply as stereotyped representatives of the German race. The officer, like German officers in Maupassant's other works, is portrayed as a cold-hearted, unfeeling automaton. He feels no compassion for the two men he has executed, and seems unable to empathise with them. The fact that he orders the fish to be fried alive, and that he returns calmly to smoking his pipe after the execution, enhances the image of a cold, inhuman barbarian, the antithesis of the heroic Frenchmen who refuse to betray their fellow countrymen, and pay the ultimate price for their patriotism.
4,558,119
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91
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44704152
Writing systems are used to record human language, and may be classified according to certain common features. The usual name of the script is given first; the name of the languages in which the script is written follows (in brackets), particularly in the case where the language name differs from the script name. Other informative or qualifying annotations for the script may also be provided. Proto-writing and ideographic systems. Ideographic scripts (in which graphemes are ideograms representing concepts or ideas rather than a specific word in a language) and pictographic scripts (in which the graphemes are iconic pictures) are not thought to be able to express all that can be communicated by language, as argued by the linguists John DeFrancis and J. Marshall Unger. Essentially, they postulate that no "true" writing system can be completely pictographic or ideographic; it must be able to refer directly to a language in order to have the full expressive capacity of a language. Unger disputes claims made on behalf of Blissymbols in his 2004 book "Ideogram". Although a few pictographic or ideographic scripts exist today, there is no single way to read them because there is no one-to-one correspondence between symbol and language. Hieroglyphs were commonly thought to be ideographic before they were translated, and to this day, Chinese is often erroneously said to be ideographic. In some cases of ideographic scripts, only the author of a text can read it with any certainty, and it may be said that they are "interpreted" rather than read. Such scripts often work best as mnemonic aids for oral texts or as outlines that will be fleshed out in speech. There are also symbol systems used to represent things other than language: Logographic systems. In logographic writing systems, glyphs represent words or morphemes (meaningful components of words, as in "mean-ing-ful") rather than phonetic elements. No logographic script is composed solely of logograms. All contain graphemes that represent phonetic (sound-based) elements as well. These phonetic elements may be used on their own (to represent, for example, grammatical inflections or foreign words), or may serve as phonetic complements to a logogram (used to specify the sound of a logogram that might otherwise represent more than one word). In the case of Chinese, the phonetic element is built into the logogram itself; in Egyptian and Mayan, many glyphs are purely phonetic, whereas others function as either logograms or phonetic elements, depending on context. For this reason, many such scripts may be more properly referred to as logosyllabic or complex scripts; the terminology used is largely a product of custom in the field, and is to an extent arbitrary. Syllabaries. In a syllabary, graphemes represent syllables or moras. (The 19th-century term "syllabics" usually referred to "abugidas" rather than true syllabaries.) Semi-syllabaries. In most of these systems, some consonant-vowel combinations are written as syllables, but others are written as consonant plus vowel. In the case of Old Persian, all vowels were written regardless, so it was "effectively" a true alphabet despite its syllabic component. In Japanese a similar system plays a minor role in foreign borrowings; for example, [tu] is written [to]+[u], and [ti] as [te]+[i]. Paleohispanic semi-syllabaries behaved as a syllabary for the stop consonants and as an alphabet for the rest of consonants and vowels. The Tartessian or Southwestern script is typologically intermediate between a pure alphabet and the Paleohispanic full semi-syllabaries. Although the letter used to write a stop consonant was determined by the following vowel, as in a full semi-syllabary, the following vowel was also written, as in an alphabet. Some scholars treat Tartessian as a redundant semi-syllabary, others treat it as a redundant alphabet. Other scripts, such as Bopomofo, are semi-syllabic in a different sense: they transcribe half syllables. That is, they have letters for syllable onsets and rimes "(kan = "k-an")" rather than for consonants and vowels "(kan = "k-a-n")." Segmental systems. A segmental script has graphemes which represent the phonemes (basic unit of sound) of a language. Note that there need not be (and rarely is) a one-to-one correspondence between the graphemes of the script and the phonemes of a language. A phoneme may be represented only by some combination or string of graphemes, the same phoneme may be represented by more than one distinct grapheme, the same grapheme may stand for more than one phoneme, or some combination of all of the above. Segmental scripts may be further divided according to the types of phonemes they typically record: Abjads. An abjad is a segmental script containing symbols for consonants only, or where vowels are "optionally" written with diacritics ("pointing") or only written word-initially. True alphabets. A true alphabet contains separate letters (not diacritic marks) for both consonants and vowels. Linear nonfeatural alphabets. "Linear" alphabets are composed of lines on a surface, such as ink on paper. Featural linear alphabets. A featural script has elements that indicate the components of articulation, such as bilabial consonants, fricatives, or back vowels. Scripts differ in how many features they indicate. Manual alphabets. Manual alphabets are frequently found as parts of sign languages. They are not used for writing "per se", but for spelling out words while signing. Other non-linear alphabets. These are other alphabets composed of something other than lines on a surface. Abugidas. An abugida, or "alphasyllabary", is a segmental script in which vowel sounds are denoted by diacritical marks or other systematic modification of the consonants. Generally, however, if a single letter is understood to have an inherent unwritten vowel, and only vowels other than this are written, then the system is classified as an abugida regardless of whether the vowels look like diacritics or full letters. The vast majority of abugidas are found from India to Southeast Asia and belong historically to the Brāhmī family, however the term is derived from the first characters of the abugida in Ge'ez: አ (A) ቡ (bu) ጊ (gi) ዳ (da) — (compare with "alphabet"). Unlike abjads, the diacritical marks and systemic modifications of the consonants are not optional. Final consonant-diacritic abugidas. In at least one abugida, not only the vowel but any syllable-final consonant is written with a diacritic. That is, if representing [o] with an under-ring, and final [k] with an over-cross, [sok] would be written as . Vowel-based abugidas. In a few abugidas, the vowels are basic, and the consonants secondary. If no consonant is written in Pahawh Hmong, it is understood to be /k/; consonants are written after the vowel they precede in speech. In Japanese Braille, the vowels but not the consonants have independent status, and it is the vowels which are modified when the consonant is "y" or "w". List of writing systems by adoption. The following list contains writing systems that are in active use by a population of at least 50,000. Undeciphered and possible writing systems. These systems have not been deciphered. In some cases, such as Meroitic, the sound values of the glyphs are known, but the texts still cannot be read because the language is not understood. Several of these systems, such as Isthmian script and Indus script, are claimed to have been deciphered, but these claims have not been confirmed by independent researchers. In many cases it is doubtful that they are actually writing. The Vinča symbols appear to be proto-writing, and quipu may have recorded only numerical information. There are doubts that the Indus script is writing, and the Phaistos Disc has so little content or context that its nature is undetermined. Undeciphered manuscripts. Comparatively recent manuscripts and other texts written in undeciphered (and often unidentified) writing systems; some of these may represent ciphers of known languages or hoaxes. Phonetic alphabets. This section lists alphabets used to transcribe phonetic or phonemic sound; not to be confused with spelling alphabets like the ICAO spelling alphabet. Some of these are used for transcription purposes by linguists; others are pedagogical in nature or intended as general orthographic reforms. Special alphabets. Alphabets may exist in forms other than visible symbols on a surface. Some of these are: Fictional writing systems. See List of constructed scripts for an expanded version of this table. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
The influence of English playwright, poet, and actor, William Shakespeare William Shakespeare's influence extends from theater and literatures to present-day movies, Western philosophy, and the English language itself. William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the history of the English language, and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He transformed European theatre by expanding expectations about what could be accomplished through innovation in characterization, plot, language and genre. Shakespeare's writings have also impacted many notable novelists and poets over the years, including Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, and Maya Angelou, and continue to influence new authors even today. Shakespeare is the most quoted writer in the history of the English-speaking world after the various writers of the Bible; many of his quotations and neologisms have passed into everyday usage in English and other languages. According to Guinness Book of World Records Shakespeare remains the world’s best-selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the over 400 years since his death. He is also the third most translated author in history. Changes in English at the time. Early Modern English as a literary medium was unfixed in structure and vocabulary in comparison to Greek, Hebrew and Latin, and was in a constant state of flux. When William Shakespeare began writing his plays, the English language was rapidly absorbing words from other languages due to wars, exploration, diplomacy and colonization. By the age of Elizabeth, English had become widely used with the expansion of philosophy, theology and physical sciences, but many writers lacked the vocabulary to express such ideas. To accommodate this, writers such as Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare expressed new ideas and distinctions by inventing, borrowing or adopting a word or a phrase from another language, known as neologising. Scholars estimate that, between the years 1500 and 2018, nouns, verbs, pronouns and modifiers of Latin, Greek and modern Romance languages added 30,000 new words to the English language. Influence on theatre. Shakespeare's works have been a major influence on subsequent theatre. He developed theatre to an amazing extent and changed the way theatre is today. Shakespeare created some of the most admired plays in Western literature (with "Macbeth, Hamlet" and "King Lear" being ranked among the world's greatest plays), and transformed English theatre by expanding expectations about what could be accomplished through plot and language. Specifically, in plays like "Hamlet", Shakespeare "integrated characterization with plot," such that if the main character was different in any way, the plot would be totally changed. In "Romeo and Juliet", Shakespeare mixed tragedy and comedy together to create a new romantic tragedy genre (previous to Shakespeare, romance had not been considered a worthy topic for tragedy). Through his soliloquies, Shakespeare showed how plays could explore a character's inner motivations and conflict (up until Shakespeare, soliloquies were often used by playwrights to "introduce [characters], convey information, provide an exposition or reveal plans"). Characters. His plays exhibited "spectacular violence, with loose and episodic plotting, and with a mingling of comedy with tragedy". In "King Lear", Shakespeare had deliberately brought together two plots of different origins. Shakespeare's work is also lauded for its insight into emotion. His themes regarding the human condition make him more acclaimed than any of his contemporaries. Humanism and contact with popular thinking gave vitality to his language. Shakespeare's plays borrowed ideas from popular sources, folk traditions, street pamphlets, and sermons. Shakespeare also used groundlings widely in his plays. The use of groundlings "saved the drama from academic stiffness and preserved its essential bias towards entertainment in comedy". "Hamlet" is an outstanding example of "groundlings" quickness and response. Use of groundlings enhanced Shakespeare's work practically and artistically. He represented English people more concretely and not as puppets. His skills have found expression in chronicles, or history plays, and tragedies. Shakespeare's earliest years were dominated by history plays and a few comedies that formed a link to the later written tragedies. Nine out of eighteen plays he produced in the first decade of his career were chronicles or histories. His histories were based on the prevailing Tudor political thought. They portrayed the follies and achievements of kings, their misgovernment, church and problems arising out of these. "In shaping, compressing, and altering chronicles, Shakespeare gained the art of dramatic design; and in the same way he developed his remarkable insight into character, its continuity and its variation". His characters were very near to reality. "Shakespeare's characters are more sharply individualized after "Love's Labour's Lost"". His Richard II and Bolingbroke are complex and solid figures whereas Richard III has more "humanity and comic gusto". The Falstaff trilogy is in this respect very important. Falstaff, although a minor character, has a powerful reality of his own. "Shakespeare uses him as a commentator who passes judgments on events represented in the play, in the light of his own superabundant comic vitality". Falstaff, although outside "the prevailing political spirit of the play", throws insight into the different situations arising in the play. This shows that Shakespeare had developed a capacity to see the plays as whole, something more than characters and expressions added together. In the Falstaff trilogy, through the character of Falstaff, he wants to show that in society "where touchstone of conduct is a success, and in which humanity has to accommodate itself to the claims of expediency, there is no place for Falstaff", a loyal human being. Shakespeare united the three main streams of literature: verse, poetry, and drama. To the versification of the English language, he imparted his eloquence and variety giving highest expressions with elasticity of language. The second, the sonnets and poetry, was bound in structure. He imparted economy and intensity to the language. In the third and the most important area, the drama, he saved the language from vagueness and vastness and infused actuality and vividness. Shakespeare's work in prose, poetry, and drama marked the beginning of the modernization of English language by introduction of words and expressions, style and form to the language. Influence on European and American literature. Shakespeare influenced many writers in the following centuries, including major novelists such as Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy and William Faulkner. Examples of this influence include the large number of Shakespearean quotations throughout Dickens' writings and the fact that at least 25 of Dickens' titles are drawn from Shakespeare, while Melville frequently used Shakespearean devices, including formal stage directions and extended soliloquies, in "Moby-Dick". In fact, Shakespeare so influenced Melville that the novel's main antagonist, Captain Ahab, is a classic Shakespearean tragic figure, "a great man brought down by his faults." Shakespeare has also influenced a number of English poets, especially Romantic poets such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge who were obsessed with self-consciousness, a modern theme Shakespeare anticipated in plays such as "Hamlet". Shakespeare's writings were so influential to English poetry of the 1800s that critic George Steiner has called all English poetic dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes." Organisms named after Shakespeare's works include "Iago", a genus of houndsharks, and "Oberonia", a genus of orchids. Influence on the English language. Shakespeare's writings greatly influenced the entire English language. Prior to and during Shakespeare's time, the grammar and rules of English were not standardized. But once Shakespeare's plays became popular in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century, they helped contribute to the standardization of the English language, with many Shakespearean words and phrases becoming embedded in the English language, particularly through projects such as Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language" which quoted Shakespeare more than any other writer. He expanded the scope of English literature by introducing new words and phrases, experimenting with blank verse, and also introducing new poetic and grammatical structures. Vocabulary. Shakespeare introduced or invented countless words in his plays, with estimates of the number in the several thousands. Warren King clarifies by saying that, "In all of his work – the plays, the sonnets and the narrative poems – Shakespeare uses 17,677 words: Of those, 1,700 were first used by Shakespeare." He is also well known for borrowing from the classical literature and foreign languages. He created these words by "changing nouns into verbs, changing verbs into adjectives, connecting words never before used together, adding prefixes and suffixes, and devising words wholly original." Many of Shakespeare's original phrases are still used in conversation and language today. These include, but are not limited to; "seen better days, strange bedfellows, a sorry sight," and "full circle". Shakespeare added a considerable number of words to the English language when compared to additions to English vocabulary made in other times. Shakespeare helped to further develop style and structure to an otherwise loose, spontaneous language. Written Elizabethan English stylistically closely followed the spoken language. The naturalness gave force and freedom since there was no formalized prescriptive grammar binding the expression. While lack of prescribed grammatical rules introduced vagueness in literature, it also expressed feelings with profound vividness and emotion which created, "freedom of expression" and "vividness of presentment". It was a language which expressed feelings explicitly. Shakespeare's gift involved using the exuberance of the language and decasyllabic structure in prose and poetry of his plays to reach the masses and the result was "a constant two way exchange between learned and the popular, together producing the unique combination of racy tang and the majestic stateliness that informs the language of Shakespeare". While it is probable that Shakespeare created many new words, an article in "National Geographic" points out the findings of historian Jonathan Hope who wrote in "Shakespeare's 'Native English'" that "the Victorian scholars who read texts for the first edition of the OED paid special attention to Shakespeare: his texts were read more thoroughly and cited more often, so he is often credited with the first use of words, or senses of words, which can, in fact, be found in other writers." Blank verse. Many critics and scholars consider Shakespeare's first plays experimental and believe the playwright was still learning from his own mistakes. Gradually his language followed the "natural process of artistic growth, to find its adequate projection in dramatic form". As he continued experimenting, his style of writing found many manifestations in plays. The dialogues in his plays were written in verse form and followed a decasyllabic rule. In "Titus Andronicus", decasyllables have been used throughout. "There is a considerable pause; and though the inflexibility of the line sound is little affected by it, there is a certain running over of sense". His work is still experimental in "Titus Andronicus". However, in "Love's Labour's Lost" and "The Comedy of Errors", there is "perfect meter-abundance of rime [rhyme], plenty of prose, the arrangement in stanza". After these two comedies, he kept experimenting until he reached a maturity of style. "Shakespeare's experimental use of trend and style, as well as the achieved development of his blank verses, are all evidence of his creative invention and influences". Through experimentation of tri-syllabic substitution and decasyllabic rule he developed the blank verse to perfection and introduced a new style. "Shakespeare's blank verse is one of the most important of all his influences on the way the English language was written". He used the blank verse throughout in his writing career experimenting and perfecting it. The free speech rhythm gave Shakespeare more freedom for experimentation. "Adaptation of free speech rhythm to the fixed blank-verse framework is an outstanding feature of Shakespeare's poetry". The striking choice of words in commonplace blank verse influenced "the run of the verse itself, expanding into images which eventually seem to bear significant repetition, and to form, with the presentation of character and action correspondingly developed, a more subtle and suggestive unity". Expressing emotions and situations in form of a verse gave a natural flow to language with an added sense of flexibility and spontaneity. Poetry. He introduced in poetry two main factors – "verbal immediacy and the moulding of stress to the movement of living emotion". Shakespeare's words reflected the passage of time with "fresh, concrete vividness" giving the reader an idea of the time frame. His remarkable capacity to analyze and express emotions in simple words was noteworthy: ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;"When my love swears that she is made of truth, I do believe her, though I know she lies–" In the sonnet above, he has expressed in very simple words "complex and even contradictory attitudes to a single emotion". The sonnet
4,558,121
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219
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44704152
Ancient Middle Indo-Aryan language Shauraseni Prakrit () was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit. Shauraseni was the chief language used in drama in medieval northern India. Most of the material in this language originates from the 3rd to 10th centuries, and represented a regional language variety with minor modifications to the same linguistic substratum as other Dramatic Prakrit varieties. Among the Prakrits, Shauraseni is said to be the one most closely related to Classical Sanskrit in that it "is derived from the Old Indian Indo-Aryan dialect of the Madhyadeśa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based." Its descendants include Punjabi, Lahnda, Sindhi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, and Western Hindi. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,122
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14
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44704152
Writing system whose symbols encode phonological features of the phonemes that they represent In a featural writing system, the shapes of the symbols (such as letters) are not arbitrary but encode phonological features of the phonemes that they represent. The term featural was introduced by Geoffrey Sampson to describe the Korean alphabet and Pitman shorthand. Joe Martin introduced the term featural notation to describe writing systems that include symbols to represent individual features rather than phonemes. He asserts that "alphabets have no symbols for anything smaller than a phoneme". A "featural" script represents finer detail than an alphabet. Here, symbols do not represent whole phonemes, but rather the elements (features) that make up the phonemes, such as voicing or its place of articulation. In the Korean alphabet, the featural symbols are combined into alphabetic letters, and these letters are in turn joined into syllabic blocks, so the system combines three levels of phonological representation. Some scholars (e.g. John DeFrancis) reject this class or at least labeling the Korean alphabet as such. Others include stenographies and constructed scripts of hobbyists and fiction writers (such as Tengwar), many of which feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonologic properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character "features". Examples of featural systems. This is a small list of examples of featural writing systems by date of creation. The languages for which each system was developed are also shown. Semi-featural systems. Other scripts may have limited featural elements. Many languages written in the Latin alphabet make use of diacritics, and those letters using diacritics are sometimes considered separate letters within the language's alphabet. The Polish alphabet, for example, indicates a palatal articulation of some consonants with an acute accent. The Turkish alphabet uses the presence of one or two dots above a vowel to indicate that it is a front vowel. The Japanese kana syllabaries indicate voiced consonants with marks known as dakuten. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) also has some featural elements, for example in the hooks and tails that are characteristic of implosives, , and retroflex consonants, . The IPA diacritics are also featural. The Fraser alphabet used for Lisu rotates the letters for the tenuis consonants ꓑ , ꓔ , ꓝ , ꓚ , and ꓗ 180° to indicate aspiration. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,123
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118
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44704152
Seven expressions of Jesus during his crucifixion The sayings of Jesus on the cross (sometimes called the Seven Last Words from the Cross) are seven expressions biblically attributed to Jesus during his crucifixion. Traditionally, the brief sayings have been called "words". The seven sayings are gathered from the four canonical gospels. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus cries out to God. In Luke, he forgives his killers, reassures the penitent thief, and commends his spirit to the Father. In John, he speaks to his mother, says he thirsts, and declares the end of his earthly life. This is an example of the Christian approach to the construction of a gospel harmony, in which material from different gospels is combined, producing an account that goes beyond each gospel. Since the 16th century, these sayings have been widely used in sermons on Good Friday, and entire books have been written on theological analysis of them. The Seven Last Words from the Cross are an integral part of the liturgy in the Catholic, Protestant, and other Christian traditions. Several composers have set the sayings to music. Overview. In the following table, the seven sayings are arranged according to their traditional order. However, all seven sayings cannot be found in any one account of Jesus' crucifixion. The ordering is a harmonisation of the texts from each of the four canonical gospels. Three of the sayings appear only in Luke and three only in John. One other saying appears both in Matthew and Mark, and another ("It is finished") is only directly quoted in John but alluded to in Matthew and Mark. The sayings form part of the Stations of the Cross, a Christian meditation that is often used during Lent, Holy Week and Good Friday. The Dominican author Timothy Radcliffe sees the number seven as significant, as the number of perfection in the Bible. He writes that as God created the world in seven days, "these seven words belong to God's completion of that creation". Historicity. James Dunn considers the seven sayings weakly rooted in tradition and sees them as a part of the elaborations in the diverse retellings of Jesus' final hours. He does, however, argue in favour of the authenticity of the Mark/Matthew saying, in which Jesus seems to describe himself as forsaken by God. This would have been an embarrassment to the early Church, and hence would likely not have been invented. Leslie Houlden suggests that Luke may have deliberately excluded this saying from his gospel because it did not fit in with the model of Jesus he was presenting. Michael Licona suggests that John has redacted Jesus' authentic statements as recorded in Matthew, Mark and Luke. Where Matthew and Mark have Jesus quote Psalm 22:1, John records that "in order that the Scripture may be fulfilled, Jesus said, 'I am thirsty'." Jesus' final words as recorded in Luke are simplified in John into "It is finished." The seven sayings. 1. Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do. ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;Then said Jesus, Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do. This first saying of Jesus on the cross is traditionally called "The Word of Forgiveness". It is theologically interpreted as Jesus' prayer for forgiveness for the Roman soldiers who were crucifying him and all others who were involved in his crucifixion. Some early manuscripts do not include this sentence in Luke 23:34. Biblical scholars such as Bart Ehrman have argued that it was omitted by some scribes because of anti-Judaic sentiment around the second century. 2. To day shalt thou be with me in paradise. ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, To day shalt thou be with me in paradise. This saying is traditionally called "The Word of Salvation". According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was crucified between two thieves (traditionally named Dismas and Gestas), one of whom supports Jesus' innocence and asks him to remember him when he comes into his kingdom. Jesus replies, "Verily I say unto thee..." (), followed with the only appearance of the word "Paradise" in the gospels (, originally from Persian , "paradise garden"). A seemingly simple change in punctuation in this saying has been the subject of doctrinal differences among Christian groups, given the lack of punctuation in the original Greek texts. Catholics and most Protestant Christians usually use a version which reads "today you will be with me in Paradise". This reading assumes a direct voyage to Heaven and has no implications of purgatory. On the other hand, some Protestants who believe in soul sleep have used a reading which emphasizes "I say to you today", leaving open the possibility that the statement was made today, but arrival in Heaven may be later. 3. Woman, behold, thy son! Behold, thy mother! ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;When Jesus therefore saw his mother, and the disciple standing by, whom he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman, behold thy son! Then saith he to the disciple, Behold thy mother! And from that hour that disciple took her unto his own home. This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Relationship" and in it Jesus entrusts Mary, his mother, into the care of "the disciple whom Jesus loved". Jesus also addresses his mother as "woman" in John 2:4. Although this sounds dismissive in English, the Greek word is a term of respect or tenderness. Catholic commentators, on the basis of these two passages, often connect Mary with the "woman" of Genesis 3:15, and the "woman clothed with the sun" in Revelation 12, and therefore see this title of "woman" as a justification for the veneration of Mary as a second Eve. 4. My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;And at the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani? which is, being interpreted, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;And the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? that is to say, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? This is the only saying which appears in more than one gospel. In both accounts, the words spoken by Jesus have been transliterated from Aramaic into Greek, and there are slight differences between the two versions (Mark: ; Matthew: ). In both cases, σαβαχθανί seems to be the Greek transliteration of Aramaic שבקתני "šəḇaqtanī," meaning "forsaken me". Both versions can be said to be in Aramaic rather than in closely related Hebrew because of the verb ;templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" / ;שבק‎ ("šbq") "abandon", which exists only in Aramaic. The Hebrew counterpart to this word, ;templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" / ;עזב‎ ("zb"), is seen in the second line of the Old Testament's Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version ("ēlī ēlī lāmā 'azabtānī"), attributed in some Jewish interpretations to King David himself, but rather the version in an Aramaic Targum (translation of the Bible). Surviving Aramaic Targums do use the verb "šbq" in their translations of the Psalm 22. In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah ("Ēlīyā" in Aramaic). The Aramaic word form שבקתני "šəḇaqtanī" is based on the verb "šǝḇaq"/"šāḇaq", 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect tense ending "-t" (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix "-anī" (1st person singular: 'me'). In Hebrew, the saying would be " ;templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" / ;אֵלִי אֵלִי, לָמָה עֲזַבְתָּנִי‎" ("ēlī ēlī, lāmā 'azabtānī" in Biblical Hebrew, "eli eli lama azavtani" in Modern Hebrew pronunciation), while the Syriac-Aramaic phrase according to the Peshitta would be (Matthew 27:46) or (Mark 15:34). This saying is taken by some as an abandonment of the Son by the Father. Another interpretation holds that at the moment when Jesus took upon himself the sins of humanity, the Father had to turn away from the Son because the Father is "of purer eyes than to see evil and cannot look at wrong" (ESV). Other theologians understand the cry as that of one who was truly human and who felt forsaken. Put to death by his foes, very largely deserted by his friends, he may have also felt deserted by God. Others see these words in the context of Psalm 22 and suggest that Jesus recited these words, perhaps even the whole psalm, "that he might show himself to be the very Being to whom the words refer; so that the Jewish scribes and people might examine and see the cause why he would not descend from the cross; namely, because this very psalm showed that it was appointed that he should suffer these things." 5. I thirst. ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;After this, Jesus knowing that all things were now accomplished, that the scripture might be fulfilled, saith, I thirst. This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Distress" and is compared and contrasted with the encounter of Jesus with the Samaritan woman at the well in John 4. Only John records this saying, but all four gospels relate that Jesus was offered a drink of sour wine (possibly posca). In Mark and Matthew, a sponge was soaked in the wine and lifted up to Jesus on a reed; John says the same, but states that the sponge was affixed to a hyssop branch. This may have been intended as symbolically significant, as hyssop branches are often mentioned in the Old Testament in the context of the use of sacrificial blood for ritual purification. This statement of Jesus is interpreted by John as fulfilment of the prophecy given in Psalm 69:21, "in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink"; hence the quotation from John's gospel includes the comment "that the scripture might be fulfilled". The Jerusalem Bible cross-references Psalm 22:15: "my palate is drier than a potsherd, and my tongue is stuck to my jaw". 6. It is finished. ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;When Jesus therefore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished: and he bowed his head, and gave up the ghost. This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Triumph" and is theologically interpreted as the announcement of the end of the earthly life of Jesus, in anticipation for the Resurrection. The Greek word translated "It is finished" is (). The verse has also been translated as "It is consummated." The utterance after consuming the beverage and immediately before death is mentioned, but not explicitly quoted, in Mark 15:37 and Matthew 27:50 (both of which state that Jesus "cried with a loud voice, and gave up the ghost"). 7. Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit. ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ;And when Jesus had cried with a loud voice, he said, Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit: and having said thus, he gave up the ghost. From Psalm 31:5, this saying, which is an announcement and not a request, is traditionally called "The Word of Reunion" and is theologically interpreted as the proclamation of Jesus joining God the Father in Heaven. The words of Luke 23:46, or the fuller Psalm 31:5, have subsequently been attributed as last words of famous people, especially those considered pious Christians, such as martyrs or saints. These include Philip the Apostle (died AD 80), Basil the Great (AD 379), Charlemagne (died 814), Ansgar (865), Thomas Becket (1170), Jan Hus (1415), Christopher Columbus (1506), Ludovica Albertoni (1533), Martin Luther (1546), George Wishart (1546), Lady Jane Grey (1554), her father Henry, Duke of Suffolk (1555), Thomas of Villanova (1555), Mary, Queen of Scots (1587), Aloysius Gonzaga (1591), Torquato Tasso (1595), Turibius of Mogrovejo (1606), John Bruen (1625), George Herbert (1633), Covenanters including Hugh Mackail (1666) and James Renwick (1688), and Christian Friedrich Schwarz (1798). References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
16th-century English scholar and diplomat (1513–1577) Sir Thomas Smith (23 December 1513 – 12 August 1577) was an English scholar, parliamentarian and diplomat. Early life. Born at Saffron Walden in Essex, Smith was the second son of John Smith of Walden by Agnes, daughter of John Charnock of Lancashire. The Smiths of Essex are said to be descendants of Sir Roger de Clarendon, an illegitimate son of the Black Prince. He was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow in 1530, and, in 1533, was appointed a public reader or professor. He lectured in the schools on natural philosophy, and on Greek in his own College. In 1540, Smith went abroad, and, after studying in France and Italy and taking a degree in law at the University of Padua, he returned to Cambridge in 1542. He took the lead in the reform of the pronunciation of Greek, his views being universally adopted after considerable controversy. He and his friend, Sir John Cheke, were the great classical scholars of the time in England. In January 1543/44 he was appointed the first Regius Professor of Civil Law. He was vice-chancellor of the university the same year[]. In 1547, he became Provost of Eton College and Dean of Carlisle Cathedral. Sir Thomas was an early convert to Protestantism, which brought him into prominence when Edward VI came to the throne. During the protectorate of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, he entered public life and was made the Secretary of State, and was sent on an important diplomatic mission to Brussels. In 1548, he was knighted. On the accession of Queen Mary I he lost all his offices, but in the reign of her sister, Elizabeth I, he was prominently employed in public affairs. He was returned as Member of Parliament for Liverpool in 1559. It became clear that he supported the religious settlement and Confessions of Westminster (1560), sitting on two committees of Inquiry. When an expert handler of the son of the King of Sweden visiting Westminster, he was sent in 1562 as ambassador to France as an emerging diplomatic talent; he remained in France from September 1562 with experienced envoy Sir Nicholas Throckmorton. Smith came to dagger blows with Throckmorton over character and policy differences. He returned from France in disgrace after suffering illness in April 1566. Nonetheless, Smith remained one of Elizabeth's most trusted Protestant counsellors. He had long been a friend of Sir William Cecil. Ennobled as Lord Burghley, Cecil appointed Smith to the Privy Council, only a month before he was elected to Commons as a knight of the shire for Essex. Smith, a prime mover behind the Conformity Bills, sought to restrain extremism and secure a subsidy from his fellow members. But when he proposed that the bishops be consulted, the puritan William Fleetwood defeated his motion. As a Privy Councillor he was influential on a number of committees. He spoke on the Treason Bill on the floor of the house, and examined witnesses to the Catholic plot led by the Duke of Norfolk. He was noted as upholding a religious objection to torture. His outstanding work elevated him to the higher ministerial echelons: in 1572 he was appointed Chancellor of the Order of the Garter and in July, principal secretary. In 1572, Smith again went to France as an ambassador for a short time, and attended the receptions held at the arrival of Lord Clinton. Smith, Clinton, and Francis Walsingham had an audience with Catherine de' Medici at the Madrid Palace (while she was in bed) and Charles IX of France showed them her gardens and banqueting pavilion at the Tuileries Palace. Failed colony in Ireland. In 1571, Elizabeth I granted Smith of East Ulster. The lands were to be used to plant English settlers in an effort to control areas claimed by Clandeboye O'Neill territory and thus control the native Irish. The grant included all of the area known today as North Down and the Ards, apart from the southern tip of the Ards peninsula which was controlled by the Anglo-Norman Savage family. Unfortunately for Smith, the booklet he printed to advertise his new lands was read by the Clandeboye O'Neill chief, Sir Brian MacPhelim, who just a few years earlier had been knighted by Elizabeth. Furious at what he saw as her "duplicity" in secretly arranging for the colonisation of unsettled areas claimed by O'Neill, he burned down all the major buildings in the area. The owners objected, but could do nothing. This made it difficult for the plantation to take hold. Then launching a wave of attacks on these early English settlers when they arrived, the O'Neills scorched the land Smith was to develop, burning abbeys, monasteries and churches, and leaving Clandeboye "totally waste and void of inhabitants". Smith, who was also a Member of Parliament for Essex in 1571 and 1572, died on 12 August 1577 at Hill Hall in Essex. Marriages and heirs. Smith married twice. First he wed Elizabeth Carkeke, daughter of a London printer, April 15, 1548; she died in 1553. His second marriage, which took place July 23, 1554, was to Philippa Wilford, the widow of Sir John Hampden of Great Hampden, Buckinghamshire, and the daughter of the London merchant Henry Wilford. She died 15 June 1578. Smith had no issue by either marriage, although he had one illegitimate son named Thomas, who was killed during the failed Ards settlement. His heirs were his younger brother, George, and George's son, Sir William Smith (died 12 December 1626) of Theydon Mount, Essex. Sir William Smith's daughter, Frances Smith, married Sir Matthew Brend, owner of the land on which the first and second Globe Theatres were built. Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, was brought up in Smith's house and his early education was supervised by him. Smith left his books to Queen's College, Cambridge, except a few volumes that he had given to rector of Theydon Mount. He made provision for finishing the building of Hill Hall in his will, and a monument for himself and his wife (designed by Richard Kyrbie). Lady Phillipa Smith's will details some of the furnishings of Hill Hall. Works. Sir Thomas Smith's book "De Republica Anglorum: the Maner of Gouernement or Policie of the Realme of England", written between 1562 and 1565, was first published in 1583. In it, he described England as a mixed government and a commonwealth, and stated that all commonwealths are of mixed character. Smith also authored "De recta & emendata lingvæ Anglicæ scriptione, dialogus" ("Correct and Improved English Writing, a Dialogue", 1568). Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. Attribution:
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44704152
Units of volume for non-liquid commodities Dry measures are units of volume to measure bulk commodities that are not fluids and that were typically shipped and sold in standardized containers such as barrels. They have largely been replaced by the units used for measuring volumes in the metric system and liquid volumes in the imperial system but are still used for some commodities in the US customary system. They were or are typically used in agriculture, agronomy, and commodity markets to measure grain, dried beans, dried and fresh produce, and some seafood. They were formerly used for many other foods, such as salt pork and salted fish, and for industrial commodities such as coal, cement, and lime. The names are often the same as for the units used to measure liquids, despite representing different volumes. The larger volumes of the dry measures apparently arose because they were based on heaped rather than "struck" (leveled) containers. Today, many units nominally of dry measure have become standardized as units of mass (see bushel); and many other units are commonly conflated or confused with units of mass. Metric units. In the original metric system, the unit of dry volume was the stere, equal to a one-meter cube, but this is not part of the modern metric system; the liter and the cubic meter are now used. However, the stere is still widely used for firewood. Imperial and US customary units. In US customary units, most units of volume exist both in a dry and a liquid version, with the same name, but different values: the dry hogshead, dry barrel, dry gallon, dry quart, dry pint, "etc." The bushel and the peck are only used for dry goods. Imperial units of volume are the same for both dry and liquid goods. They have a different value from both the dry and liquid US versions. Many of the units are associated with particular goods, so for instance the dry hogshead has been used for sugar and for tobacco, and the peck for apples. There are also special measures for specific goods, such as the cord of wood, the sack, the bale of wool or cotton, the box of fruit, "etc." Because it is difficult to measure actual volume and easy to measure mass, many of these units are now also defined as units of mass, specific to each commodity, so a bushel of apples is a different weight from a bushel of wheat (weighed at a specific moisture level). Indeed, the bushel, the best-known unit of dry measure because it is the quoted unit in commodity markets, is in fact a unit of mass in those contexts. Conversely, the ton used in specifying tonnage and in freight calculations is often a volume measurement rather than a mass measurement. In US cooking, dry and liquid measures are the same: the cup, the tablespoon, the teaspoon. US dry measures are 16% larger than liquid measures. Struck and heaped measurement. The volume of bulk goods is usually measured by filling a standard container, so the containers' names and the units' names are often the same, and indeed both are called "measures". Normally, a level or struck measure is assumed, with the excess being swept off level ("struck") with the measure's brim—the stick used for this is called a "strickle". Sometimes heaped or heaping measures are used, with the commodity heaped in a cone above the measure. There was historically a tendency for landowners to demand heaped bushels of commodities from their peasants, while at the same time peasants were obliged to purchase commodities from stricken containers. Rules outlawing this practice were circumvented through use of heavy round strickles, which would compress the contents of a bushel. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
British organization The English Spelling Society is an international organisation, based in the United Kingdom. It was founded in 1908 as the Simplified Spelling Society. It primarily aims to raise awareness of problems caused by English spelling's irregularity and to improve literacy and reduce learning costs, including through the use of spelling reform. The Society publishes leaflets, newsletters, journals, books, and bulletins. Its spokespeople feature regularly on TV, radio, and in print. Structure. The Society is based in the United Kingdom, but has a worldwide membership, including Ireland, the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. It is governed by a committee elected at its Annual General Meeting. The Society maintains links with the American Literacy Council, which has similar objectives. Aims. The English Spelling Society primarily aims to make known the problems caused by English spelling's irregularity in an effort to improve literacy and reduce learning costs, including through the use of spelling reform. It also wishes to raise awareness of the alphabetic principle and its "corruption during the long history of written English" and to prepare a graded set of proposals for a more regular English orthography. The Society believes that both recent research and the continuing governmental concern about literacy rates in the English-speaking world strengthen its position. In particular, it points to evidence that Anglophone children have a harder time learning to read and write than do Italian children. It also quotes evidence that dyslexia is less of a problem in Italy and linguistically similar countries which have more phonemic writing systems than English. Finally, it points to a recent study by the KPMG Foundation that estimates the total costs to the public purse till age 37 arising from failure to read in the primary school years at £1.73 billion to £2.05 billion a year. Specific reform systems. As of September 2021, the Society has not endorsed any specific alternative English spelling system. However, through its "Personal View" series, it provides a forum for authors of alternative systems to publish their work and submit them to peer review. The forum includes resources for Simple-Fonetik and SoundSpel, among others. Its listed proposals vary in their recommendations from regularising only a few words to making English almost completely phonemically written. In the November 1983 edition of the Society's newsletter, it printed a five-part reform proposal called "Stage 1". One of these was Harry Lindgren's SR1 proposal. In April 1984, SR1 was adopted as the Society's house style at its yearly meeting. The Society said that the newsletter's proposed reforms could be used either together or individually (as a step-by-step change). In April 2021, Stephen Linstead's Traditional Spelling Revised (TSR) was approved by the International English Spelling Congress as the best alternative to English Orthography. The Society, sponsor of the Congress, is affording TSR a degree of support and publicity. Spelling bee protests. Protesters from the Society have regularly taken good-humoured action against orthodox English spelling and its promotion (e.g. by demonstrating, most conspicuously in the form of 'BeeMan,' at the annual Scripps National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C.). Presidents. The Society has had 8 presidents to date since its creation in 1908. With the exception of the politician Sir James Pitman, all of the presidents have been academics. See also. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
Transient loss of consciousness and postural tone Medical condition Syncope ((), commonly known as fainting or passing out, is a loss of consciousness and muscle strength characterized by a fast onset, short duration, and spontaneous recovery. It is caused by a decrease in blood flow to the brain, typically from low blood pressure. There are sometimes symptoms before the loss of consciousness such as lightheadedness, sweating, pale skin, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, or feeling warm. Syncope may also be associated with a short episode of muscle twitching. Psychiatric causes can also be determined when a patient experiences fear, anxiety, or panic; particularly before a stressful event, usually medical in nature. When consciousness and muscle strength are not completely lost, it is called presyncope. It is recommended that presyncope be treated the same as syncope. Causes range from non-serious to potentially fatal. There are three broad categories of causes: heart or blood vessel related; reflex, also known as neurally mediated; and orthostatic hypotension. Issues with the heart and blood vessels are the cause in about 10% and typically the most serious while neurally mediated is the most common. Heart related causes may include an abnormal heart rhythm, problems with the heart valves or heart muscle and blockages of blood vessels from a pulmonary embolism or aortic dissection among others. Neurally mediated syncope occurs when blood vessels expand and heart rate decreases inappropriately. This may occur from either a triggering event such as exposure to blood, pain, strong feelings or a specific activity such as urination, vomiting, or coughing. Neurally mediated syncope may also occur when an area in the neck known as the carotid sinus is pressed. The third type of syncope is due to a drop in blood pressure when changing position such as when standing up. This is often due to medications that a person is taking but may also be related to dehydration, significant bleeding or infection. There also seems to be a genetic component to syncope. A medical history, physical examination, and electrocardiogram (ECG) are the most effective ways to determine the underlying cause. The ECG is useful to detect an abnormal heart rhythm, poor blood flow to the heart muscle and other electrical issues, such as long QT syndrome and Brugada syndrome. Heart related causes also often have little history of a prodrome. Low blood pressure and a fast heart rate after the event may indicate blood loss or dehydration, while low blood oxygen levels may be seen following the event in those with pulmonary embolism. More specific tests such as implantable loop recorders, tilt table testing or carotid sinus massage may be useful in uncertain cases. Computed tomography (CT) is generally not required unless specific concerns are present. Other causes of similar symptoms that should be considered include seizure, stroke, concussion, low blood oxygen, low blood sugar, drug intoxication and some psychiatric disorders among others. Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Those who are considered at high risk following investigation may be admitted to hospital for further monitoring of the heart. Syncope affects about three to six out of every thousand people each year. It is more common in older people and females. It is the reason for one to three percent of visits to emergency departments and admissions to hospital. Up to half of women over the age of 80 and a third of medical students describe at least one event at some point in their lives. Of those presenting with syncope to an emergency department, about 4% died in the next 30 days. The risk of a poor outcome, however, depends very much on the underlying cause. ;templatestyles src="Template:TOC limit/styles.css" / ; Causes. Causes range from non-serious to potentially fatal. There are three broad categories of causes: heart or blood vessel related; reflex, also known as neurally mediated; and orthostatic hypotension. Issues with the heart and blood vessels are the cause in about 10% and typically the most serious while neurally mediated is the most common. There also seems to be a genetic component to syncope. A recent genetic study has identified first risk locus for syncope and collapse. The lead genetic variant, residing at chromosome 2q31.1, is an intergenic variant approximately 250 kb downstream of the ZNF804A gene. The variant affected the expression of ZNF804A, making this gene the strongest driver of the association. Neurally mediated syncope. Reflex syncope or neurally mediated syncope occurs when blood vessels expand and heart rate decreases inappropriately leading to poor blood flow to the brain. This may occur from either a triggering event such as exposure to blood, pain, strong feelings, or a specific activity such as urination, vomiting, or coughing. Vasovagal syncope. Vasovagal (situational) syncope is one of the most common types which may occur in response to any of a variety of triggers, such as scary, embarrassing or uneasy situations, during blood drawing, or moments of sudden unusually high stress. There are many different syncope syndromes which all fall under the umbrella of vasovagal syncope related by the same central mechanism. First, the person is usually predisposed to decreased blood pressure by various environmental factors. A lower than expected blood volume, for instance, from taking a low-salt diet in the absence of any salt-retaining tendency. Or heat causing vaso-dilation and worsening the effect of the relatively insufficient blood volume. The next stage is the adrenergic response. If there is underlying fear or anxiety (e.g., social circumstances), or acute fear (e.g., acute threat, needle phobia), the vaso-motor centre demands an increased pumping action by the heart (flight or fight response). This is set in motion via the adrenergic (sympathetic) outflow from the brain, but the heart is unable to meet requirements because of the low blood volume, or decreased return. A feedback response to the medulla is triggered via the afferent vagus nerve. The high (ineffective) sympathetic activity is thereby modulated by vagal (parasympathetic) outflow leading to excessive slowing of heart rate. The abnormality lies in this excessive vagal response causing loss of blood flow to the brain. The tilt-table test typically evokes the attack. Avoiding what brings on the syncope and possibly greater salt intake is often all that is needed. Associated symptoms may be felt in the minutes leading up to a vasovagal episode and are referred to as the prodrome. These consist of light-headedness, confusion, pallor, nausea, salivation, sweating, tachycardia, blurred vision, and sudden urge to defecate among other symptoms. Vasovagal syncope can be considered in two forms: Syncope has been linked with psychological triggers. This includes fainting in response to the sight or thought of blood, needles, pain, and other emotionally stressful situations. One theory in evolutionary psychology is that fainting at the sight of blood might have evolved as a form of playing dead which increased survival from attackers and might have slowed blood loss in a primitive environment. "Blood-injury phobia", as this is called, is experienced by about 15% of people. It is often possible to manage these symptoms with specific behavioral techniques. Another evolutionary psychology view is that some forms of fainting are non-verbal signals that developed in response to increased inter-group aggression during the paleolithic. A non-combatant who has fainted signals that they are not a threat. This would explain the association between fainting and stimuli such as bloodletting and injuries seen in blood-injection-injury type phobias such as needle phobia as well as the gender differences. Much of this pathway was discovered in animal experiments by Bezold (Vienna) in the 1860s. In animals, it may represent a defense mechanism when confronted by danger ("playing possum"). A 2023 study identified neuropeptide Y receptor Y2 vagal sensory neurons (NPY2R VSNs) and the periventricular zone (PVZ) as a coordinated neural network participating in the cardioinhibitory Bezold–Jarisch reflex (BJR) regulating fainting and recovery. Situational syncope. Syncope may be caused by specific behaviors including coughing, urination, defecation, vomiting, swallowing (deglutition), and following exercise. Manisty et al. note: "Deglutition syncope is characterised by loss of consciousness on swallowing; it has been associated not only with ingestion of solid food, but also with carbonated and ice-cold beverages, and even belching." Fainting can occur in "cough syncope" following severe fits of coughing, such as that associated with pertussis or "whooping cough". Neurally mediated syncope may also occur when an area in the neck known as the carotid sinus is pressed. A normal response to carotid sinus massage is reduction in blood pressure and slowing of the heart rate. Especially in people with hypersensitive carotid sinus syndrome this response can cause syncope or presyncope. Cardiac. Heart-related causes may include an abnormal heart rhythm, problems with the heart valves or heart muscle, or blockages of blood vessels from a pulmonary embolism or aortic dissection, among others. Cardiac arrhythmias. The most common cause of cardiac syncope is cardiac arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) wherein the heart beats too slowly, too rapidly, or too irregularly to pump enough blood to the brain. Some arrhythmias can be life-threatening. Two major groups of arrhythmias are bradycardia and tachycardia. Bradycardia can be caused by heart blocks. Tachycardias include SVT (supraventricular tachycardia) and VT (ventricular tachycardia). SVT does not cause syncope except in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Ventricular tachycardia originate in the ventricles. VT causes syncope and can result in sudden death. Ventricular tachycardia, which describes a heart rate of over 100 beats per minute with at least three irregular heartbeats as a sequence of consecutive premature beats, can degenerate into ventricular fibrillation, which is rapidly fatal without cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation. Long QT syndrome can cause syncope when it sets off ventricular tachycardia or torsades de pointes. The degree of QT prolongation determines the risk of syncope. Brugada syndrome also commonly presents with syncope secondary to arrhythmia. Typically, tachycardic-generated syncope is caused by a cessation of beats following a tachycardic episode. This condition, called tachycardia-bradycardia syndrome, is usually caused by sinoatrial node dysfunction or block or atrioventricular block. Obstructive cardiac lesion. Blockages in major vessels or within the heart can also impede blood flow to the brain. Aortic stenosis and mitral stenosis are the most common examples. Major valves of the heart become stiffened and reduce the efficiency of the hearts pumping action. This may not cause symptoms at rest but with exertion, the heart is unable to keep up with increased demands leading to syncope. Aortic stenosis presents with repeated episodes of syncope. Rarely, cardiac tumors such as atrial myxomas can also lead to syncope. Structural cardiopulmonary disease. Diseases involving the shape and strength of the heart can be a cause of reduced blood flow to the brain, which increases risk for syncope. The most common cause in this category is fainting associated with an acute myocardial infarction or ischemic event. The faint in this case is primarily caused by an abnormal nervous system reaction similar to the reflex faints. Women are significantly more likely to experience syncope as a presenting symptom of a myocardial infarction. In general, faints caused by structural disease of the heart or blood vessels are particularly important to recognize, as they are warning of potentially life-threatening conditions. Among other conditions prone to trigger syncope (by either hemodynamic compromise or by a neural reflex mechanism, or both), some of the most important are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, acute aortic dissection, pericardial tamponade, pulmonary embolism, aortic stenosis, and pulmonary hypertension. Other cardiac causes. Sick sinus syndrome, a sinus node dysfunction, causing alternating bradycardia and tachycardia. Often there is a long pause (asystole) between heartbeats. Adams-Stokes syndrome is a cardiac syncope that occurs with seizures caused by complete or incomplete heart block. Symptoms include deep and fast respiration, weak and slow pulse, and respiratory pauses that may last for 60 seconds. Subclavian steal syndrome arises from retrograde (reversed) flow of blood in the vertebral artery or the internal thoracic artery, due to a proximal stenosis (narrowing) and/or occlusion of the subclavian artery. Symptoms such as syncope, lightheadedness, and paresthesias occur while exercising the arm on the affected side (most commonly the left). Aortic dissection (a tear in the aorta) and cardiomyopathy can also result in syncope. Various medications, such as beta blockers, may cause bradycardia induced syncope. A pulmonary embolism can cause obstructed blood vessels and is the cause of syncope in less than 1% of people who present to the emergency department. Blood pressure. "Orthostatic (postural) hypotensive syncope" is caused primarily by an excessive drop in blood pressure when standing up from a previous position of lying or sitting down. When the head is elevated above the feet the pull of gravity causes blood pressure in the head to drop. This
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44704152
The following is a list of last words uttered by individuals during the 19th century (1801-1900). A typical entry will report information in the following order: — Ralph Abercromby, Scottish soldier and politician (28 March 1801). Wounded at the Battle of Alexandria, he asked what had been placed under his head and was told it was "Only a soldier's blanket." — Benedict Arnold, American military officer and traitor (14 June 1801), referring to his Continental Army uniform — Erasmus Darwin, English physician and natural philosopher (18 April 1802), urging his daughter to bleed him — George Fordyce, Scottish physician (25 May 1802), to his daughter, who had been reading to him — Daniel Morgan, American pioneer, soldier and politician (6 July 1802), when his physician advised him to settle his affairs — Sophie Arnould, French operatic soprano (18 October 1802), when a priest asked how much she had suffered — Jean-François de La Harpe, French playwright, writer and literary critic (11 February 1803); his final recorded words, spoken the day before his death — Robert Emmet, Irish Republican and Irish nationalist patriot, orator and rebel leader (20 September 1803), during execution by hanging for treason. The executioner carried out the hanging in the middle of Emmet's attempt to say "Not yet" for the third time. — Vittorio Alfieri, Italian dramatist and poet (8 October 1803), to Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern — Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, theologian, poet and literary critic (18 December 1803) — Samuel Hopkins, American Congregationalist theologian and abolitionist (20 December 1803) — Joseph Priestley, English chemist, natural philosopher and theologian (6 February 1804), while dictating revisions to his works — Immanuel Kant, German philosopher (12 February 1804), thanking his physicians and attendants — Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien (21 March 1804), prior to execution by firing squad 1801–1809. Alexander's other final words were "If they break this Union, They will break my heart" (as per Ron Chernow's biography on Alexander Hamilton) " — Alexander Hamilton, American statesman (12 July 1804), addressing his wife after being mortally shot by his rival Aaron Burr in a duel — William Woodville, English physician and botanist (26 March 1805), to a carpenter he had summoned to measure him for his coffin; final recorded words — Friedrich Schiller, German writer, philosopher and physician (9 May 1805) — Arthur Murphy, Irish writer (18 June 1805), quoting Alexander Pope — Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, Royal Navy admiral (21 October 1805), mortally wounded at the Battle of Trafalgar — William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (23 January 1806) — Edward Thurlow, 1st Baron Thurlow, British lawyer and politician (12 September 1806) — Charles James Fox, British statesman (13 September 1806) — Joseph Brant, Mohawk military and political leader (24 November 1807), to his adopted nephew John Norton — John Newton, English Anglican cleric and abolitionist, author of "Amazing Grace" (21 December 1807); final recorded words — Adrienne de La Fayette (24 December 1807), French marchioness who married Marquis de Lafayette — Fisher Ames, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (4 July 1808) — Theophilus Lindsey, English Unitarian theologian and clergyman (3 November 1808), to a friend who suggested that Lindsey was strengthened by the saying, "Whatever is, is right" — John Moore, British Army general (16 January 1809), mortally wounded at the Battle of Corunna. Moore then spoke of his mother and some other people, including Lady Hester Stanhope, before dying. — Beilby Porteus, Bishop of London and abolitionist (13 May 1809) — Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer (31 May 1809), playing his own "Emperor's Hymn" — Thomas Paine, English-born American political activist and theorist, philosopher and revolutionary (8 June 1809) — Meriwether Lewis, American explorer (11 October 1809), apparent suicide/possible murder — Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist (16 December 1809) — Alexander Adam, Scottish teacher (18 December 1809), imagining himself still at work — Andreas Hofer, leader of the Tyrolean Rebellion (20 February 1810), to his firing squad — Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen of Prussia (19 July 1810) — Raphaël Bienvenu Sabatier, French anatomist and surgeon (19 July 1811), to his son — Spencer Perceval, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (11 May 1812), mortally wounded by gunshot — John Bellingham, English merchant, assassin of Spencer Perceval (18 May 1812), prior to hanging — Isaac Brock KB, British Army officer (13 October 1812), mortally wounded at the Battle of Queenston Heights — Harriet Newell, American Christian missionary and memoirist (30 November 1812), dying in Mauritius — John Moody, Irish actor (26 December 1812), quoting Shakespeare ("Measure for Measure", Act 3, Scene 1) — Sir William Erskine, 2nd Baronet, British Army officer and Member of Parliament (1813), after jumping from a window in Lisbon, Portugal — Benjamin Rush, American physician, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (19 April 1813), dying of typhus — James Lawrence, United States naval officer (4 June 1813), mortally wounded by British fire. His words became a popular naval battle cry. — Alexander Wilson, American ornithologist (23 August 1813) — Theodor Körner, German poet and soldier (26 August 1813); final lines of the "Schwertlied", written two hours before his death in battle — William Ward Burrows II, United States naval officer (5 September 1813), mortally wounded while commanding USS "Enterprise" in the capture of HMS "Boxer" — Tecumseh, leader of the Shawnee (10 September 1813), to his son — Józef Poniatowski, Polish general and Marshal of the Empire (19 October 1813). While he was covering the French Army's retreat during the Battle of Leipzig, French forces prematurely blew up the only bridge over the White Elster before Poniatowski could reach it. — Johann Georg Jacobi, German poet (4 January 1814), referring to a poem for New Year's Day that he had completed on New Year's Eve; he in fact lived 5 more days — Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher (29 January 1814), to an attendant who brought him medicine — Empress Joséphine, former wife of Napoleon (29 May 1814), looking at a picture of her former husband, who was exiled to the island of Elba at the time — Joanna Southcott, English self-described religious prophetess (27 December 1814); final recorded words — Andrew Fuller, English Particular Baptist minister and theologian (7 May 1815), to a young minister — Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (16 May 1815), to his aide Major von Wachholtz asking for whereabouts of adjutant-general Elias Olfermann shortly after being shot in the liver at the Battle of Quatre Bras — Thomas Picton, Welsh officer of the British Army (18 June 1815), before being shot in the temple at the Battle of Waterloo — Joachim Murat, King of Naples (13 October 1815), to his firing squad — Michel Ney, Marshal of the Empire (7 December 1815). When executed by firing squad, he refused to wear a blindfold and was allowed the right to give the order to fire himself. — Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish satirist, playwright and poet (7 July 1816), dying in poverty — Gouverneur Morris, American statesman and Founding Father of the United States (6 November 1816), quoting from "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" by Thomas Gray on being told the weather was fine — Timothy Dwight IV, American academic and educator (11 January 1817), finishing his final manuscript — Germaine de Staël, French woman of letters and political theorist (14 July 1817) — Jane Austen, English novelist (18 July 1817), being asked by her sister Cassandra if she wanted something — John Philpot Curran, Irish orator, politician and wit (14 October 1817), when his doctor said he was coughing "with more difficulty" — Tadeusz Kościuszko, Polish-Lithuanian military engineer, statesman, and military leader (15 October 1817) — Gomes Freire de Andrade, Portuguese military officer (18 October 1817), sentenced to death after being accused of leading a conspiracy against the country's British military government in the name of King John VI. — Princess Charlotte of Wales (6 November 1817), dying of postpartum bleeding — Policarpa Salavarrieta, Neogranadine seamstress and spy (14 November 1817), prior to execution by firing squad for high treason — George Rogers Clark, American surveyor, soldier and militia officer (13 February 1818), dying after a stroke — Abigail Adams, First Lady of the United States (28 October 1818), to her husband, John Adams — John Wolcot, English satirist (14 January 1819), when asked, "Is there anything I can do for you?" — Sophie Blanchard, French aeronaut (6 July 1819), prior to lighting fireworks that ignited the gas in her balloon, causing it to crash and Blanchard to fall to her death — Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prussian field marshal (12 September 1819), to his aide-de-camp, August Ludwig von Nostitz — Jesse Appleton, second president of Bowdoin College and father of First Lady of the United States Jane Pierce (12 November 1819) — Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry (14 February 1820), assassinated at the Paris Opera by Louis Pierre Louvel, a Bonapartist — Lavinia Fisher, American alleged serial killer (18 February 1820), prior to execution by hanging — Stephen Decatur, United States naval officer (22 March 1820), mortally wounded in duel with James Barron — Manuel Belgrano, Argentine economist, lawyer, politician, journalist, and military leader (20 June 1820) — Daniel Boone, American pioneer and frontiersman (26 September 1820) — Elizabeth Ann Seton, SC, American Catholic religious sister and educator (4 January 1821), saying the Anima Christi — John Keats, English poet (23 February 1821) — John Crome, English landscape artist (22 April 1821) — Athanasios Diakos, Greek military commander (24 April 1821), prior to execution for refusal to convert from Christianity to Islam and become an Ottoman officer — Napoleon, emperor of the French (5 May 1821) — Ali Pasha of Ioannina, Ottoman Albanian ruler (24 January 1822), ordering that his mistress be killed to save her from enemy soldiers of Mahmud II. Vasiliky was captured but pardoned and lived until 1834. — Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Anglo-Irish statesman (12 August 1822); to his personal physician, Dr. Charles Bankhead, after cutting his throat — Eva Marie Veigel, Viennese dancer and wife of David Garrick (16 October 1822), telling a servant to put down a cup of tea prior to dying at age 98 — Sarah Wesley, wife of Charles Wesley (28 December 1822) — John Heckewelder, American missionary for the Moravian Church (21 January 1823) — Markos Botsaris, Greek general, hero of the Greek War of Independence (21 August 1823), killed in action in attack on Karpenisi — Jane Taylor, English poet and novelist, author of "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star" (13 April 1824) — Lord Byron, English poet (19 April 1824) — Louis XVIII, King of France (16 September 1824) — Henry Fuseli, Swiss painter, draughtsman and writer on art (17 April 1825), anticipating the arrival of a friend — Jean Paul, German Romantic writer (14 November 1825), touching a wreath of flowers he had been given. Jean Paul had lost his senses of sight and smell before his death. — Alexander I of Russia (1 December [O.S. 19 November] 1825), to his wife, Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden) — Thomas Jefferson, president of the United States (4 July 1826), correctly remembering the national day of his country — John Adams, president of the United States (4 July 1826), unaware that Jefferson had died earlier that same day — Jereboam O. Beauchamp, American lawyer and murderer (7 July 1826), to his wife. Beauchamp had murdered Kentucky legislator Solomon P. Sharp to avenge his wife's honor. Beauchamp and his wife both stabbed themselves on the morning of his execution; his wife died of her wounds, while Beauchamp survived to be hanged. — Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Russian officer (25 July N.S. 1826), when the rope broke during his hanging for having helped organize the Decembrist revolt — François-Joseph Talma, French actor (19 October 1826) — Ann Hasseltine Judson, American foreign missionary (24 October 1826), dying of smallpox in Amherst, Burma — Pierre-Simon Laplace, French scholar and polymath (5 March 1827) — Ludwig van Beethoven, German composer (26 March 1827), being informed that his publisher had gifted him 12 bottles of wine — Legh Richmond, Church of England clergyman and writer (8 May 1827) — Edward Payson, American Congregational preacher (22 October 1827) — Hongi Hika, New Zealand Māori rangatira (chief) and war leader of the iwi of Ngāpuhi (6 March 1828). Despite his wishes, New Zealand would go on to become a British colony. — Franz Schubert, Austrian composer (19 November 1828) — Sam Patch, American daredevil (13 November 1829), prior to fatal leap from Genesee Falls — Joseph Fourier, French mathematician and physicist (16 May 1830), calling to his physician, who had stepped out of the room — Antonio José de Sucre, Venezuelan independence leader and President of Peru and Bolivia (4 June 1830), after being shot while riding in the jungle of Colombia. He was said to be an educated gentleman who had never cursed until that day. — George IV, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
4,558,129
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8
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44704152
Interspel, or International English Spelling, is a set of principles introduced by Valerie Yule that aims to address the unpredictability and inconsistency of present English spelling, while preserving its heritage of print through minimal changes in appearance. Interspel seeks to maximize the advantages of present spelling for users and learners by applying psychological research on their needs and abilities, facilitating both visual and auditory reading processes, and taking into account the special features of the English language. This approach also promotes visible relationships between English and international vocabulary. Principles for systematization are used to reduce present disadvantages. Interspel uses a phonemic spelling for beginners and includes dictionary pronunciation guides as a base that can be modified. Such a combination of advantages has been thought to be impossible. However, psychological and linguistic research, as well as technological advances, make such a systematic reforum more feasible, including innovations that go against the usual proposals for spelling reform. Levels. Interspel-style reform, still in process of development and testing, has the following four levels for learning and use: In this way, readers accustomed to present spelling are not inconvenienced. Writers, including poor spellers, can use the predictable spellings that can be accepted as alternative spellings in dictionaries until usage determines public preference. The first principle for present spellers can be to omit surplus letters in words that serve no purpose to represent meaning or pronunciation, and can often mislead. This streamlining trend is already occurring, especially in text messaging. The English spelling reform based on Interspel envisages an "International English Spelling Commission" to monitor research and authorize testing and implementation of findings. Consistency principles. Summary of the principles for making English spelling more consistent, as applied in the experimental form Interspel: 1. Retain the spelling of the most common hundred words, which make up about half of everyday text. 31 of these have irregular spelling: "all, almost, always, among, are, come, some, could, should, would, half, know, of, off, one, only, once, other, pull, push, put, as, was, what, want, who, why," and international word endings "-ion/-tion/-ssion" plus "-zion", as in "question, passion, vizion". 2. Regard spelling as a standardized conventionalized representation of the language (not merely its sounds), set out as in formal speech with minimal slurring. 3. Apply the alphabetic principle of systematic sound-symbol , including regularizing current spelling patterns for final vowels, as in "pity, may, be, hi-fi, go, emu, spa, her, hair, for, saw, cow, boy, too". The primary vowels letters ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, and ‘u’ are used to spell both 'long' and 'short' vowels, distinguishing long vowels as necessary by a diacritic (grave accent) as in "national/nàtion, repetition/repèt, finish/fìnal, consolàtion/consòl", and "consumtion/consùmer". The remaining vowel sounds are spelled as in "car, perturb" ("ur" = stressed, "er" = unstressed), "hair, fort, taut, round, boil, boot", and, still unsolved, spelling for the vowel sound with no spelling of its own, as in "book" (perhaps as "buuk"). Sequences of vowels can then be represented very simply in Interspel. Accents for learners are optional. 'Spelling for reading' vowel spellings are included below: a – bazaar, pàella, dàis, (paid), càos, taut, e – idèa, (year), (meet), bèing, crèol, hidèus i – dìal, dìet, flìing, ìota, pìus o – òasis, (boat), pòet, gòing, (boil), Zoo/zòolojy, out u – dùal, sùet, flùid, dùo, inocùus. Doubled consonants have only three purposes: to indicate irregular stress; "rr" for short vowels as in "carrot" and "current", and possibly final /ss/ for nouns. 4. This alphabetic base that relates letters to English speech sounds is modified with morphemic principles that represent grammar and meaning visually, as in plural and tense endings "–s/es" and "–d/ed". 5. Only a few sets of words that sound the same (homophones) are found to be so confusable that they need differentiated spellings. 6. Names and places can be spelled as they please. 7. Seven alternative vowel spellings with one-way pronunciation for reading: "ai, ea, ee, igh, oa, ew, ir"; and two possible pronunciations each for "th, c, g" and "y", can also be recognized at the level of ‘Spelling for reading without traps’. Nobody has to memorize these alternative spellings to use in their own writing. The seven principles above are proposed for investigation. They offer a feasible way to prevent English spelling remaining a serious barrier to literacy. They change only around 2.6% of the letters in everyday text, so present readers would be hardly inconvenienced. Its more consistent visible relationship of related words regularizes the 'Chomsky' features of English spelling, to promote faster automatic visual recognition in reading for meaning and a more predictable relationship to the spoken language for international users and learners. Example. An extract from H.G. Wells' ‘The Star’, often used by spelling reformers, is given in two levels of Interspel. (a) Interspel ‘Spelling without traps for reading’: It was on the first day of the new year that the announcement was made, almòst simultàneusly from three observatorys, that the mòtion of the planet Neptùne, the outermòst of all the planets that wheel about the Sun, had become very erratic. a retardàtion in its velocity had been suspected in December. Then a faint, remòte speck of light was discovered in the règion of the perturbed planet. At first this did not caus eny very gràt exìtement. sìentific pèpl, however, found the intelligence remarkabl enuf, èven befor it became known that the new body was rapidly gròwing larger and brìghter, and that its mòtion was quìte different from the orderly prògress of the planets. (b) The basic Interspel spelling for beginners with morphemic modifications, and 31 retained irregularly spelled words: It was on the furst day of the new yèar that the anounsment was màd, almòst simultàneusly from thrè obsurvatorys, that the mòtion of the planet Neptùn, the outermòst of all the planets that whèl about the Sun, had become very erattic. a retardàtion in its velossity had bèn suspected in Desember. Then a fànt, remòt spek of lìt was discovered in the rèjon of the perturbd planet. At furst this did not cauz eny very gràt exìtment. sìentific pèpl, however, found the intellijens remarkabl enuf, èven befor it becàm known that the nù body was rapidly gròing larjer and brìter, and that its mòtion was quìt difrent from the orderly prògres of the planets. Here is another Interspel example. We may nowadays be chary about ùsing the word "gènius", but we still have a good idèa what is ment by it. For exampal, there are graet numbers of very gifted miùsicians who are admird but not calld gèniuses. But there are others, manifestly prodijius, performing offen at extraordinarily erly àjes, a variety of feats so complex that the miùsical layman could hardly imajin, èven with the mòst desperat làbor, accomplishing eny of them, while èven miùsicians are astonishd and we then reach for the good, handy, vaeg Enlaitenment werd and call them gèniuses. The list includes Mozart and Mendelssohn; and, despite all the limiting jujments, it includes Benjamin Britten. ;br ;- Frank Kermode, 'Britten when yung' Comparison with other English spelling reform proposals. By way of comparison, other proposals for English spelling reform are of four types: Interspel, however, is a systematic reform of present spelling with three levels, to match established needs and abilities of users and learners, in which the basic alphabetic principle is modified by morphemic principles, long and short vowels are visibly related, and the 31 most common irregular words are retained. It is more complex in design, but more practicable in use. Until there is a breakthrough to an international script that can cross languages, like Chinese, Interspel proposes an improved spelling for English, the world's present lingua franca that could be essential for wider literacy and global communication. The International English Spelling Commission envisaged by this language reform proposal would oversee and monitor informal and formal experimental research in English spelling improvement, and to implement the outcomes. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,130
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118
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44704152
Earliest historical form of Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi) Old Hindi or Khariboli was the earliest stage of the Hindustani language, and so the ancestor of today's Hindi and Urdu. It developed from Shauraseni Prakrit and was spoken by the peoples of the region around Delhi, in roughly the 10th–13th centuries before the Delhi Sultanate. During the Muslim rule in India, Old Hindi began acquiring loanwords from the Persian language, which led to the development of Hindustani. It is attested in only a handful of works of literature, including some works by the Indo-Persian Muslim poet Amir Khusrau, verses by the Vaishnava Hindu poet Namdev, and some verses by the Sufi Muslim Baba Farid in the "Adi Granth". The works of Bhakti Hindu poet Kabir also may be included, as he used a Khariboli-like dialect. Old Hindi was originally written in the Nagari script (ancestor to the standardized Devanagari) and later in the Perso-Arabic script as well, in Nastaliq calligraphy. Some scholars include Apabhraṃśa poetry as early as 769 AD (Dohakosh by Siddha Sarahapad) within Old Hindi, but this is not generally accepted. With loanwords from Persian added to Old Hindi's Prakritic base, the language evolved into Hindustani, which further developed into the present-day standardized varieties of Hindi and Urdu. Etymology. The term "Old Hindi" is a retrospectively coined term, to indicate the ancestor language of Modern Standard Hindi, which is an official language of India. The term "Hindi" literally means "Indian" in Classical Persian, and was also called "Hindustani" to denote that it was the language of Hindustan's capital during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. References. Citations. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,131
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14
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44704152
English scholar, spelling reformer, and high-master of St Paul's School, London (1565–1635) Alexander Gill the Elder (7 February 1565 – 17 November 1635), also spelled Gil, was an English scholar, spelling reformer, and high-master of St Paul's School, where his pupils included John Milton. He was the author of an English grammar, which was written, however, in Latin. Life. He was born in Lincolnshire 7 February 1565, admitted as a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in September 1583, and earned a B.A. in 1586 and an M.A. in 1589. Wood believed that he was a schoolmaster in Norwich, where he was living in 1597. On 10 March 1607-8 he was appointed high-master of St. Paul's School, succeeding Richard Mulcaster. Milton was among his pupils from 1620 to 1625. He had two sons, George and Alexander (b. 1597), and a daughter, Annah. George Gill would eventually become ordained. In 1628, his son Alexander was overheard drinking to the health of John Felton, who had stabbed George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham was a favorite of King Charles I, but hated by the public. Felton was widely acclaimed as a hero for assassinating him. Gill the Younger was sentenced to have both ears removed and was fined £2000. However, his father intervened directly with William Laud. This effort managed a remission of the punishment inflicted by the Star Chamber. Alexander Gill the Younger would later become a noted scholar in his own right. Gill the Elder died at his house in St. Paul's Churchyard 17 November 1635, and was buried 20 November in Mercers' Chapel. He was survived by his wife, Elizabeth. Works. Grammar. "Logonomia Anglica, qua gentis sermo facilius addiscitur", London, by John Beale, 1619, 2nd edit. 1621, was his English grammar dedicated to James I. Gill's book, written in Latin, opens with suggestions for a phonetic system of English spelling (see below). In his section on grammatical and rhetorical figures Gill quotes freely from Edmund Spenser, George Wither, Samuel Daniel, and other English poets. It was more comprehensive than earlier works, and devoted attention to syntax and prosody. An edition was produced in 1903 by Otto Luitpold Jiriczek; a facsimile of the 1619 edition was published in 1972. Phonetic spelling. The following table lays out Gill's proposed system of phonetic spelling: Word-final 'ü' is sometimes spelt 'u', as in 'tu chanʒ'. Theological works. Gil published two theological works: A further work, referred to in Gil's "Sacred Philosophie" as "[t]he second part of Logonomia which I call Logicke", is lost. According to Gil, it "was especially meant to be an helpe to them that needed helpe for the understanding of ["Sacred Philosophie"]". The work which, despite its name, was distinct from "Logonomia Anglica", probably dates from the period between the second edition of "Logonomia Anglica" (1621) and the "Sacred Philosophie". Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,132
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8
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44704152
Ninth-century illuminated psalter The Utrecht Psalter (Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32.) is a ninth-century illuminated psalter which is a key masterpiece of Carolingian art; it is probably the most valuable manuscript in the Netherlands. It is famous for its 166 lively pen illustrations, with one accompanying each psalm and the other texts in the manuscript (Chazelle, 1055). The precise purpose of these illustrations, and the extent of their dependence on earlier models, have been matters of art-historical controversy. The psalter spent the period between about 1000 to 1640 in England, where it had a profound influence on Anglo-Saxon art, giving rise to what is known as the "Utrecht style". It was copied at least three times in the Middle Ages. A complete facsimile edition of the psalter was made in 1875 (Lowe, 237), and another in 1984 (Graz). The other texts in the book include some canticles and hymns used in the office of the hours, including various canticles, the Te Deum and Athanasian Creed. The latter text was the subject of intense study by Thomas Duffus Hardy and others after scholarly interest in the psalter grew in the 19th century. History and copies. The entire volume contains 108 vellum leaves, approximately in size. The pages are formed by quires of 8 pages folded (Birch, 64, 67). There was probably at least an author portrait of David at the start, and the surviving text begins with a large initial with insular-style interlace (picture at top). The psalter was at one time thought to be a 6th-century work largely because of the use of archaic conventions in the script. The Psalter is written in rustic capitals, a script which by the 9th century had fallen out of favour in Carolingian manuscripts. These are now widely viewed as imitation rustic capitals, and the manuscript is dated no earlier than the 9th century (Lowe, 237). It has been suggested that because of the capitals and the book's size, the Utrecht Psalter was intended as a choir book for several monks to read at the same time while singing; alternatively that it was intended for young monks learning the Psalms by heart in groups, a suggestion that perhaps better explains the amount of illustration. The psalter is believed to have been made near Reims, as its style is similar to that of the Ebbo Gospels (Benson, 23). It may have been sponsored by Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims, and so is usually dated between 816 and 835. Others have argued for a date c. 850, saying that the psalm illustrations draw from the travels of Gottschalk of Orbais, and the illustration with the Athanasian Creed and other details pertain more to Ebbo's successor, Hincmar (Chazelle, 1058, 1068, 1073). A period spent in the late 9th century in the area of Metz, perhaps at the court of Charles the Bald, has been suggested on the basis of apparent influences from the manuscript in the art of the area. The manuscript had reached Canterbury Cathedral by c. 1000, at which time a copy began to be made of it; this, the Harley Psalter, is in the British Library as MS Harley 603 (Benson, 14). The Psalter was copied in full three times in the Middle Ages, the second copy being the Eadwine Psalter (Trinity College, Cambridge, MS R.17.1) of 1155–60, with additions 1160–70, and the texts extended to five versions of each psalm. The last copy is a fine version in full colour with gold backgrounds that is known as the "Anglo-Catalan Psalter" or MS Lat. 8846 in the BnF, of 1180-90 (Morgan, 47–9). This was half-illustrated by an English artist in about 1180–1200, and completed by a Catalan artist in 1340–50, naturally using a different Gothic style. The images are necessarily somewhat simplified, and the number of figures reduced. Earlier there were derivative works in other media; similar groups of figures appear in a Carolingian engraved crystal in the British Museum (the Lothair Crystal, stylistically very different) and metalwork, and some late Carolingian ivories repeat figure compositions found in the Utrecht psalter (Calkins, 211). The original manuscript spent at least two centuries at Canterbury from the year 1000, and after the English Dissolution of the Monasteries (Canterbury was a monastic cathedral) came into the possession of Robert Bruce Cotton, the famous English antiquary, at which point it was rebound, with his arms on the cover. Cotton lent the manuscript to the great collector Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who took it into exile with him during the English Civil War; it was taken to the Netherlands in around 1642 and sold on Howard's death by his widow and son. It reached Utrecht University in 1716, at which point it was incorporated into the University Library. It was rediscovered in the library in 1858 (Benson, 13). Illumination. The Utrecht Psalter is lavishly illustrated with lively pen and ink drawings for each psalm. The miniatures consist of outline drawings in plain bistre, a technique which gained popularity in the Carolingian Renaissance; it was cheaper than full coloured illustrations and quicker to produce. However the Gospel book still remained the main focus of illumination at this period, and the Utrecht Psalter is highly unusual both in the number of illustrations, their size, and the large groups of small figures they contain. The Utrecht Psalter is important to the development of Anglo-Saxon art in the late tenth century, as the artistic style of its artwork seems to have been drawn on and adapted by Anglo-Saxon artists of this time (Pächt, 172). Although it is hardly likely that this single manuscript was solely responsible for beginning an entire new phase, the style which developed from it is sometimes known as the 'Utrecht' style of outline drawing, and survived almost unchanged into the 1020s (Wormald). The style of the outline drawings is dramatic, marked by activity, leaping creatures and fluttering folds of drapery set in faintly sketched landscape backgrounds stretching the full span of a page. Unlike traditional medieval Psalter decoration, which focused on general narrative or symbolic aspects of the texts, the Utrecht Psalter provides a very literal, concrete depiction of every line of the text for each Psalm, all combined into one elaborate scene which directly precedes the psalm it illustrates. The purpose of this unusual mode of illustration is unclear. Some have argued it was designed to enable easier memorization of the psalm texts by associating every line with a striking image, in accordance with classical and medieval mnemonic arts (Gibson-Wood, 12–15). However, these composite images sometimes go beyond a purely literal reading of the text, incorporating New Testament scenes or motifs from Christian iconography (Pächt, 168–170). Despite the individuality of the style, the hands of eight different artists have been detected. The Psalter is the earliest and most fully illustrated of a "narrative" group of Carolingian Psalters and other manuscripts; the much greater freedom of their illustrations may represent a different, probably monastic, audience for them from the more hieratic productions for the court and the altar. Images are unframed, often varied and original in iconography, showing a "liveliness of mind and independence of convention" not found in the more formal books (Hinks, 117). Other members of the group are the Golden Psalter of St. Gall and the Drogo Sacramentary, which made the important innovation of placing most illustrations in inhabited initials. The Byzantine Chludov Psalter represents a comparable tradition in the East (Hinks, 115–119), and the Reims style was also influenced by artists fleeing Byzantine iconoclasm (Berenson, 163). Meyer Schapiro is among those who have proposed that the Psalter copied illustrations from a Late Antique manuscript; apart from an original perhaps of the 4th or 5th centuries, details of the iconography led him to believe in an intermediary "Latin model" of after about 700 (Shapiro, 77, 110 and passim). That the miniatures are in large part based on an earlier manuscript, initially disputed by some (Tselos, 334 etc.), seems to have gained general acceptance, though the precise nature and dates of earlier postulated versions vary. The illustration for Psalm 27 centers on they "that go down into the pit". Winged figures poke the "workers of iniquity" with spears. On the left a king stands before a temple; Christ and his angels are shown above. The umbrella held over the king was considered strong evidence that the manuscript was not produced by an Anglo-Saxon artist (Birch, 232). The illustration for Psalm 115 shows a crucifixion with a chalice catching the blood flowing from the side of Christ. The earliest known comparable images are a miniature from the Drogo Sacramentary (dated 840–855), and an ivory from the Pericopes of Henry II (dated 840–870). This illustration leads to one argument for a later date for the Utrecht Psalter, because dating the illustration before about 835 would make it substantially predate other extant Carolingian examples of this theme (Chazelle, 1072). According to Getrud Schiller, the manuscript has the first Western images to show Christ dead on the cross, with eyes closed, though it must be said it is hard to tell from such small drawings. Additional texts. After the Psalms, like many psalters the manuscript includes various canticles and other material, including the Canticles of Isaiah the Prophet ( and ), and a third Canticle of Isaiah (). The canticle of Moses the Prophet () includes 17-20 added on the lower margin. The canticle of Habakkuk () follows with the canticle of Moses to the children of Israel (). The following canticle is the blessing of the three children, then the Te Deum attributed to St. Ambrose of Milan, the Benedictus of Zachary () with a nativity group, and the Magnificat (). The Magnificat is accompanied by an illustration of the Virgin holding a small child which is not the child Jesus, but a representation of her "spirit" ("exultavit spiritus meus"). The Nunc Dimittis () folio includes the Gloria in Excelsis. Next follows the “Oratio Dominica secundum Matheum” (), with the Apostles' Creed on the same folio. In the illustration for the creed, the Virgin holds the child Jesus with a cruciform halo. Next comes the Athanasian Creed. The illustration appears to be a group of churchmen, with a central figure wearing the pallium of an archbishop. This need not be Athanasius at the Council of Nicea; it may also be Ebbo, or it may represent an archbishop generically as personifying the doctrinal orthodoxy of a creed. The psalter's creed had been mentioned by James Ussher in his 1647 "De Symbolis" when the manuscript was part of the Cotton library, but it was gone by 1723 (Vinton, 161). When the psalter was rediscovered again in the 19th century, it was thought to be the oldest manuscript containing the Latin text of the creed (Schaff, 70), as some thought the psalter dated from the 6th century. The oldest manuscripts of the Athanasian creed date from the late 8th century (Chazelle, 1056). After this is the "Apocryphal psalm", Psalm 151. The Psalter is bound with 12 leaves of a different Gospel book written in uncial characters with a text similar to the Codex Amiatinus. These leaves date from around 700 and show characteristics typical of an Anglo-Saxon scribe (Lowe, 273), and is the only other text identified as by the same scribe as the St Cuthbert Gospel, working at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey (T. Julian Brown, "Stonyhurst Gospel", 7–10). The psalter was at one time also bound with the Reculver charter (Birch, 77), but this was later removed (Benson, 14). Robert Cotton may have bound them together due to their similar folio size. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,133
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51
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44704152
English spelling reform proposal SoundSpel is a regular and mostly phonemic English-language spelling reform proposal which uses the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Though SoundSpel was originally based on American English, it can represent dialectal pronunciation, including British English. With roots extending as far back as 1910 but largely complete by 1986, SoundSpel was developed "in response to the widely held conviction that English spelling is more complex than it needs to be." The American Literacy Council has endorsed the reform because anglophones can easily read it. Additionally, according to its proponents, "[SoundSpel] is fully compatible with traditional spelling and can be mixed with it in any proportion desired." History. In 1910, philologist Alexander John Ellis played a major role in developing an English-language spelling system now known as "Classic New Spelling". Walter Ripman and William Archer wrote the system's first dictionary, "New Spelling" (NuSpelling), which was republished in 1941 by the Simplified Spelling Society. In the early 1960s, Sir James Pitman developed the Initial Teaching Alphabet, which would become one of SoundSpel's predecessors. In 1969, Godfrey Dewey improved upon Ripman's and Archer's work, producing "World English Spelling". Dewey and Edward Rondthaler, a prominent typesetter and CEO of the International Typeface Corporation, corresponded from 1971. In 1986, the American Language Academy published the "Dictionary of Simplified American Spelling", a book written by Rondthaler and Edward Lias. It calls for the improvement of English spelling, with clearer rules and better grapheme/phoneme correspondence. Its guidelines are less strictly phonemic than Classic New Spelling. For example, the sounds and are represented by the grapheme ⟨th⟩ in order to follow traditional spelling. Classic New Spelling opts instead for ⟨th⟩ and ⟨dh⟩, respectively. The system was further reformed from 1987 on and became SoundSpel. Description. Phonetics. Spellings here are matched to their sounds using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). SoundSpel examples are accompanied by traditional spellings in italics if different. Note that writings in SoundSpel may not follow these tables exactly due to their time of writing or the author's personal preferences. These tables also do not account for proper nouns (which are discussed under "Exceptions"). Rules. SoundSpel has changed slightly over time. Listed below are generally the most recent guidelines. Obsolete or optional rules are also listed. Furthermore, the system is not a fait accompli. The "Dictionary of Simplified American Spelling" reads: "[F]urther fine tuning [of SoundSpel] is [now] appropriate. Recommendations are welcome from all—phoneticians, linguists, educators, publishers, those with a special interest in the subject, and, very importantly, the public at large." If a pair of vowel letters do not match a SoundSpel digraph—such as "ea"—then the syllable ends with the first vowel (as in "react", read as 're-act'), "jeenius" ('genius'), and "creaetiv" ('creative'). With three or more vowel letters, the syllable ends with the first digraph. For example: "flooid" ('fluid', read as "floo-id"), "hieest" ('highest'), and "inueendo" ('innuendo'). Hyphens separate adjacent letters that can be mistaken for digraphs. Examples include ⟨nk⟩ in "man-kiend" ('mankind'), ⟨th⟩ in "pent-hous" ('penthouse'), and ⟨wh⟩ in "cow-hand" ('cowhand'). Where ⟨n-g⟩ would be visually awkward, ⟨nn⟩ marks the end of the syllable, as in "enngaej" ('engage') and "enngraev" ('engrave'). Hyphens also indicate when ⟨y⟩ is a consonant beginning a syllable (such as in "barn-yard") rather than a vowel ending a syllable (as in "handyman" or "apreeshyaet", 'appreciate'), as the latter is much more common. Where ⟨-y⟩ would be visually awkward, a double consonant marks the end of the syllable (as in "millyon" for 'million' and "compannyon" for 'companion'). Beyond these examples and those double consonants following (like in "fall" and "cross"), all double consonants surround a syllable break. Examples include "meelles" ('mealless'), "buukkeeper" ('bookkeeper'), and "cattael" ('cattail'). Additionally, double consonants often represent geminates. Following a prefix, a hyphen indicates that a vowel is long ("co-ed", "re-arm", "bi-lateral"). Any adjacent preceding vowel is also long ("bio-", "neo-"). Compare "jeo-sentrik" ('geocentric') and "jeolojy" ('geology'). The spelling of (schwa) in unstressed syllables remains unchanged (as in "organ", "novel", and "lemon") unless traditional spelling would suggest a mispronunciation (hence 'mountain' is spelled "mounten"). To represent schwi (variably described as or ), there are three rules. First, ⟨e⟩ is used in a word's first syllable ("event"; "eqip" for 'equip'). Second, ⟨i⟩ is followed by a schwa in the combinations ⟨ia⟩, ⟨io⟩, and ⟨iu⟩ ("insomnia"; "joevial" for 'jovial'). Third, ⟨y⟩ is used terminally, or medially when not followed by schwa ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩ ("raedyo" for 'radio', "joevyality" for 'joviality'). Using ⟨y⟩ terminally in monosyllabic words such as "bee" and "see" (instead of ⟨ee⟩) and their derivatives is discouraged. The letter ⟨y⟩ is also used to prevent ambiguity, such as in "terryer" ('terrier') and "audyens" ('audience'), in which ⟨ie⟩ would otherwise represent . SoundSpel retains the spellings of schwers (a portmanteau of schwa and ⟨er⟩). In other words, though (⟨ar⟩) and (⟨or⟩) may reduce to (⟨er⟩) in rapid speech, they keep their original spelling. This is for two reasons. First, the reform's "immediate goal... is to reflect a word's "full" pronunciation", and second, these words' derivatives often contain the syllable's stressed equivalent (as in "victor" and "victorious"), so keeping the old spelling is useful for maintaining aesthetic relationships. Exceptions. The word "I", like in traditional spelling, remains capitalized. The word "U", a respelling of "you", is also capitalized. As Edward Rondthaler wrote: "Since we accept the flattery of capital I for 'me', let us extend the courtesy of capital U for 'you'." In SoundSpel's 1978 form, however, neither "I" nor "U" were capitalized. SoundSpel retains the spellings of proper nouns to the extent that these are the names of living people, functional institutions, government agencies, brand names, and so on. If both the visual recognition of a name and its correct pronunciation are important, the latter will be given in SoundSpel but in square brackets [ ]. Foreign words that are too awkward to be converted to SoundSpel are represented in italics. Otherwise, most well known proper nouns may be written in SoundSpel. Naturally, SoundSpel dictionaries may use SoundSpel to indicate an irregular proper noun's pronunciation, and months and days of the week may also be respelled. Neither the plural suffix ⟨-s⟩ (as in "jobs"), the possessive suffix ⟨-'s⟩ (as in "man's"), nor the third-person present singular verb suffix ⟨-s⟩ (as in "he runs") are changed, even though in all these cases the ⟨s⟩ may be pronounced at times. A doubled ⟨ss⟩ is used to distinguish words when necessary, as in "caes" ('cays', ) versus "caess" ('case', ). This exception is a break from the "Dictionary of Simplified American Spelling", in which plurals were spelled on a strictly phonetic basis ("caez" and "caes" respectively). The letter ⟨x⟩ does not form the plurals of words ending with a sound; for example, the plural of "dok" ('dock') is not "dox", but "doks". This follows (formal) traditional spelling. Text examples. Note that any given example may not exactly follow this article's guidelines due to its time of writing, the author's personal preferences, or the author's (eye) dialect. "Th Star" by H. G. Wells. It was on th furst dae of th nue yeer th anounsment was maed, aulmoest siemultaeniusly frum three obzervatorys, that th moeshon of th planet Neptune, th outermoest of all planets that wheel about th Sun, had becum verry erratic. A retardaeshon in its velosity had bin suspected in Desember. Then, a faent, remoet spek of liet was discuverd in th reejon of th perterbd planet. At furst, this did not cauz eny verry graet exsietment. Sieentific peepl, however, found th intelijens remarkabl enuf, eeven befor it becaem noen that th nue body was rapidly groeing larjer and brieter, and that its moeshon was qiet different frum th orderly progres of th planets. [657 characters] ("It was on the first day of the new year the announcement was made, almost simultaneously from three observatories, that the motion of the planet Neptune, the outermost of all planets that wheel around the sun, had become very erratic. A retardation in its velocity had been suspected in December. Then a faint, remote speck of light was discovered in the region of the perturbed planet. At first this did not cause any very great excitement. Scientific people, however, found the intelligence remarkable enough, even before it became known that the new body was rapidly growing larger and brighter, and that its motion was quiet different from the orderly progress of the planets.") [680 characters] "Britten wen yung" by Frank Kermode. We mae nowadaes be chaery about uezing th wurd 'jeenius', but we stil hav a guud iedeea whot is ment bi it. For exampl, thaer ar graet numbers of verry gifted muezishans hoo ar admierd but not cauld jeeniuses. But thaer ar uthers, manifestly prodijus, performing offen at extraordinerrily urly aejes, a varieety of feets so complex that th muezical laeman cuud hardly imajin, eeven with th moest desperat laebor, acomplishing eny of them, whiel eeven muezishans ar astonisht and we then reech for th guud, handy, vaeg Enlietenment wurd and caul them jeeniuses. Th list incloods Mozart and Mendelssohn; and, despiet all th limiting jujments, it incloods Benjamin Britten. [670 characters] ("We may nowadays be chary about using the word ‘genius’, but we still have a good idea what is meant by it. For example, there are great numbers of very gifted musicians who are admired but not called geniuses. But there are others manifestly prodigious, performing, often at extraordinarily early ages, a variety of feats so complex that the musical layman could hardly imagine, even with the most desperate labour, accomplishing any one of them, while even musicians are astonished: and we then reach for the good, handy, vague Enlightenment word and call them geniuses. The list includes Mozart and Mendelssohn; and, despite all the limiting judgments, it includes Benjamin Britten.") [684 characters] See also. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
English vicar, naturalist, philologist, musician, and beekeeper Charles Butler (1571 – 29 March 1647), sometimes called the "Father of English Beekeeping", was a logician, grammarian, author, priest (Vicar of Wootton St Lawrence, near Basingstoke, England), and an influential beekeeper. He was also an early proponent of English spelling reform. He observed that bees produce wax combs from scales of wax produced in their own bodies; and he was among the first to assert that drones are male and the queen female, though he believed worker bees lay eggs. Biography. Butler was born into a poor family in Buckinghamshire, South East England, but became a boy chorister at Magdalen College, Oxford at the age of eight. At the age of ten, he matriculated, taking his BA in 1584 and his MA in 1587. In 1593, Butler became Rector of Nately Scures in Hampshire in 1593 and in 1595 became also Master at the Holy Ghost School, Basingstoke. He resigned to accept an incumbency at Wootton St Lawrence in 1600 and served that rural post until his death on 29 March 1647. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the chancel of his church. Beekeeping. Butler was engaged in beekeeping at his rural parsonage in Hampshire and made the first recorded observations about the generation of beeswax, which was previously thought to be gathered by honeybees from plant materials. He was not the first to describe the largest honeybee as a queen, rather than king - a distinction usually granted to Spaniard Luis Mendez de Torres for his 1586 observation, which was confirmed by Swammerdam's later microscopic dissections. However, Butler popularized the notion with his classic book "The Feminine Monarchie", 1609. Butler may have misinterpreted the queen's function when he found queenless colonies sometimes develop eggs laid by "laying workers", however there is no doubt he saw the queen as an Amazonian ruler of the hive. As an influential beekeeper and author, his assertion that drones are male and workers female, was quickly accepted. For his discoveries and his book, Butler is sometimes called the "Father of English Beekeeping". The Feminine Monarchie. "The Feminine Monarchie", originally published by Joseph Barnes, Oxford, in 1609, is the first full-length English-language book about beekeeping. It remained a valid and practical guide for beekeepers for two hundred fifty years, until Langstroth and others developed and promoted moveable comb hives. Butler revised "The Feminine Monarchie" in 1623 and 1634. It was translated into Latin in 1678 and 1682, then from Latin back to English again in 1704. The title expresses Butler's main idea that the colony is governed, not by a king-bee, as Aristotle claimed, but by a queen-bee. The last edition written by Butler contains ten chapters, including sections regarding bee gardens, hive-making materials, swarm catching, enemies of bees, feeding bees, and the benefits of bees to fruit (pollination). The book gives an excellent account of skep beekeeping, including methods of predicting - from tone pitch of the buzzing bees - when swarming might occur. Butler even transliterated the tones and included the Bees' Madrigal on a musical score in the 1623 edition. He further suggested that musicians may trace the roots of music back to the sounds of the hive. Spelling reform. Charles Butler published "The English grammar" (1633) with proposals to improve spelling to a phonetic alphabet. In his book, Butler condemned the vagaries of traditional English spelling and proposed the adoption of a system whereby 'men should write altogeđer according to đe sound now generally received'. The 1634 edition of his beekeeping classic was written and published in his new orthography. Other writings. Butler authored a bestselling school textbook, "The Logic of Ramus" (1597), an introduction to the philosophy of the Protestant French contemporary Pierre de la Ramée. He also published a book on music theory, "The principles of musik in singing and setting" (1636), and a theological defence of marriage between first cousins, coinciding with the engagement and subsequent marriage of his daughter to his nephew. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
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44704152
The history of Dutch orthography covers the changes in spelling of Dutch both in the Netherlands itself and in the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in Belgium. Up until the 18th century there was no standardization of grammar or spelling. The Latin alphabet had been used from the beginning and it was not easy to make a distinction between long and short vowels ("a" / "aa"). The word "jaar" (year) for instance, could be spelt "jar," "jaer," "jair," or even "yaer" and "iaer". With the spirit of the French Revolution, attempts were made to unify Dutch spelling and grammar. Matthijs Siegenbeek, professor at Leiden was officially asked in 1801 to draw up a uniform spelling. This did not prove popular however and another attempt was made in 1844. Still not entirely satisfactory, an ambitious project was proposed in 1851 to produce a large dictionary incorporating vocabulary of the past centuries. This led to a large degree of uniformity of spelling in the Netherlands and Belgium. Various other attempts at simplification followed, culminating in the Spelling Act of 15 September 2005. This gives the Committee of Ministers of the Dutch Language Union the authority to determine the spelling of Dutch by ministerial decision. The law requires that this spelling be followed "at the governmental bodies, at educational institutions funded from the public purse, as well as at the exams for which legal requirements have been established". In other cases, it is recommended, but not mandatory to follow the official spelling. Dutch spelling in the Middle Ages. The Dutch spoken between 1150 and 1500 is referred to as Middle Dutch. During this period there was no standardization of grammar. Authors generally wrote in their own dialects. Very often it is possible to tell from the language whether a text comes from Limburg, Brabant, or Holland. There was a lot of variation in the spelling. Words were often written as they were pronounced: "lant" (land), "hi vint" (he finds). The sound determined the spelling, irrespective of the basic word. This is no longer the case with modern Dutch, where "land" is still pronounced [lant] but spelled to conform with the plural "landen", and "hij vindt" (he finds) (still [vint]) has both "d" of the infinitive ("vinden") and the 3rd person singular ending "t". From the very start of its written history, Dutch used the Latin alphabet. At first there were 23 letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, y, z. It was not until later that the j, u, and w were added. A problem with the Latin alphabet was that it was not easy to make a distinction between long and short vowels ("a" / "aa"). Various solutions were found. At the beginning of the 13th century the word "jaar" (year) was spelt "jar" but other variants soon appeared: "jaer" and "jair" and later "jaar" or even "yaer" and "iaer". Another feature of Middle Dutch is that articles or prepositions were often joined onto the word they belonged to: (the year) and (the land), as in the accompanying fragment from "Karel ende Elegast". The text translates: “I will tell you a marvelous story, and a true one. Listen! One evening Charles was sleeping in Ingelheim on the Rhine. All the land you could see was his.” There were also regional differences. Thus a clerk in Amsterdam in the 14th century would usually write "lant", but one in Utrecht would write "land". The invention of printing led to a more standardized approach. The Siegenbeek spelling (1804, the Netherlands). With the spirit of the French Revolution pervading all areas of thought, attempts were made to unify Dutch spelling and grammar. Matthijs Siegenbeek, professor at Leiden was officially asked in 1801 to draw up a uniform spelling; the priest Petrus Weiland was asked to write a grammar book. A few years later Siegenbeek published his spelling in "Verhandeling over de Nederduitsche spelling ter bevordering van de eenparigheid in dezelve" (Treatise on Lower Dutch spelling to promote uniformity herein) (1804) and a "Woordenboek voor de Nederduitsche spelling" (Dictionary for the Dutch Spelling) (1805). The government of the Batavian Republic officially introduced Siegenbeek's spelling on 18 December 1804. Siegenbeek thought that the spelling should reflect refined Dutch pronunciation, taking into account the uniformity, etymology, and analogy. From the Siegenbeek spelling reforms, one gets the modern Dutch "ij" (called "lange ij" ("long y") as distinct from the usually identically pronounced "ei," called "korte ei" (short "ei")). The word for iron used to be written . Other spellings from Siegenbeek include: (modern Dutch: / report), ( / blue), ( / Tuesday), ( / to throw), ( / power), ( / stove), ( /kingdom), ( / music) and ( / together). Siegenbeek's spelling never achieved real popularity. In particular the poet Willem Bilderdijk fought against it, largely out of personal spite. He produced some of his own spellings which were popular in the 1830s and 1840s including the modern (stove), (instead of /duty) and (to throw). However, other spellings of his did not last: ( / answer), ( /hair/her), ( / to receive), ( / at present) and ( / world). The Willems spelling (1844, Belgium). In the Dutch-speaking areas in the south of the Netherlands, the Siegenbeek spelling was always unpopular. After Belgium declared independence in 1830, the spelling was denounced as “Hollandish” and “Protestant”. The spelling situation was quite chaotic with much discussion about whether to use "a" or "ae", "oo" or "oó", "ee" or "eé", "ei" or "ey", "ui" or "uy", "ambt" or "ampt", "u" or "ue", and about the spelling of verbs. In 1836, the Belgian government offered a reward for a proposal for a new spelling. In the end, the jury, headed by Jan Frans Willems, produced their own suggestion in 1839 which remained quite close to the Siegenbeek spelling in use in the Netherlands. They retained their own spelling of a few words such as "kaes" (cheese), "ryden" (to ride) and "vuerig" (fiery). The Willems spelling was given royal approval on 9 January 1844. The De Vries and Te Winkel spelling (1864, Belgium; 1883, The Netherlands; 1888, South Africa). The spelling used today both in the Netherlands and in Flanders (Dutch-speaking Belgium) is based on an orthography originally intended only for use in a dictionary. An ambitious project was proposed in 1851 at the Taal- en Letterkundig Congres (Linguistic and Literary Congress) in Brussels at which both the Netherlands and Flanders were represented. The project aimed to produce a large dictionary: Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT) (Dictionary of the Dutch Language), incorporating vocabulary of the past centuries. There was a problem with this project: which spelling was to be used for the dictionary? There were three spelling systems in use at the time: the Willems spelling in Belgium, the Siegenbeek spelling in the Netherlands, and several variants of Bilderdijk's system. It would have been unacceptable to have used a mixture of these systems. In addition, the Siegenbeek system did not address certain issues such as when compounds were to be written as one word or the interpolation of letters in between. It was proposed to create a special dictionary spelling. This spelling was established by the linguists Matthias de Vries and L.A. te Winkel. In 1863 Te Winkel published the results in "De grondbeginselen der Nederlandsche spelling. Ontwerp der spelling voor het aanstaande Nederlandsch Woordenboek" (The foundations of Dutch spelling. Project for the spelling of the forthcoming Dutch Dictionary). The spelling of De Vries and Te Winkel combined elements of the three current systems, providing a much needed solution to the chaos. By 21 November, the decision was accepted by a royal decree in Belgium. In 1866 De Vries and Te Winkel produced "Woordenlijst voor de spelling der Nederlandsche taal" (Vocabulary for the spelling of the Dutch language), which can be seen as a precursor of today's Groene Boekje (Green Booklet). The Netherlands was slower in accepting the De Vries and Te Winkel spelling. Schools continued to use the Siegenbeek spelling until 1870, and in government circles it was not until 1883 that the new spelling started to be used. The De Vries and Te Winkel spelling eventually led to a large degree of uniformity of spelling in the Netherlands and Belgium. The De Vries and Te Winkel spelling was introduced to the South African Republic (Transvaal) in 1888, after Dutch was declared to be the sole official language of the country by a constitutional amendment. The Kollewijn Spelling (1906, South Africa). Teachers and linguists continued to object to certain features of the spelling. It was thought that too great an emphasis was being given to etymology. For instance, was spelt differently in "lezen" ("to read", single "e" in open syllable for ) and in "heeten" ("to be called", double "e" in open syllable for the same ). This reflected the etymological distinction between "sharp-long" "e" (from Old Dutch long "ē") and "soft-long" "e" (from Old Dutch short "e" and "i" that were lengthened in open syllables). However, the etymological reasoning was hard to teach, as the distinction was not made by most Dutch speakers anymore. R.A. Kollewijn produced an article in 1891 "Onze lastige spelling. Een voorstel tot vereenvoudiging" (Our difficult spelling: a proposal for simplification). He emphasized the need for spelling to relate to pronunciation, therefore "mensch" (person/human) and "Nederlandsch" ought to become "mens" and "Nederlands", respectively. "Russisch" (Russian) he thought should be spelt "Russies" and "moeilijk" (difficult) "moeilik". "Heeten" would be written "heten", but "lezen" would stay the same. However, academics from the Netherlands and Flanders challenged Kollewijn's proposals with the argument that said proposals would break down "the unity of the Dutch language" and would make it too "vulgar". In South Africa, however, there was no such opposition to Kollewijn's proposals. This was due to the fact that by the end of the 19th century, many Afrikaners viewed Dutch as a difficult language to write, and as a consequence, there was a movement among many Dutch-language promoters in the South African states and colonies to simplify Dutch as a written language. This movement came from the "Zuid-Afrikaansche Taalbond" (South African Language Association), as well as from teachers and journalists in the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (both of which had Dutch as an official language).[#endnote_] The Language Association was founded in 1890 to promote the knowledge and usage of "the people's language", which was decided by 47 votes to 36 votes would be the Dutch language, as opposed to Afrikaans. The members of the Language Association came to realize that Dutch would be in a much stronger position to compete with the English language in South Africa if its spelling were to be simplified, and so convened a joint conference of Afrikaners from the Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal to suggest simplification of the written Dutch language in the direction of Kollewijn's proposals. After the Second Boer War, the conference met again in Stellenbosch on 23 January 1903, and reaffirmed the simplification of Dutch orthography. The conference asked Willem Viljoen (a professor of language at Victoria College (the modern-day Stellenbosch University) and a member of the Language Association) to prepare a report on simplification. Viljoen consulted linguists and experts from the Netherlands and Flanders, and on 19 September 1903, the "Commissie voor Taal en Letteren bij de Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde te Leiden" (the Commission for Language and Literature in Leiden at the Society for Dutch Literature) held a meeting which twenty professors attended.[#endnote_] Viljoen received support from the management for the simplification of written Dutch on 5 October 1903. On 28 December 1904, a language conference was held in Cape Town, and included delegates invited by the Language Association from Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, and created the "Vereenvoudigde Hollandse Spelling" (the "Simplified Dutch Spelling") with the aim of reviving Dutch as a medium of education and as a public language.[#endnote_] The Simplified Dutch Spelling deviates from the De Vries-Te Winkel Spelling in the following manner: The Simplified Dutch Spelling was not without opposition. The Dutch Reformed Church opposed the new spelling as it broke with the tradition of the Dutch language, and proponents of Afrikaans felt that the simplified orthography was still too difficult to learn.[#endnote_] In 1917, the Zuid-Afrikaanse Akademie voor Taal, Letteren en Kunst (the South African Academy for Language, Literature and Art) published the first edition of the
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44704152
Performance art by Abel Azcona Amen, more commonly known as The Pederasty ("La pederastia" in Spanish), is a conceptual, critical and process artwork by Abel Azcona. Over several months, Azcona (who had received a Catholic education from the age of seven following his adoption) attended Eucharists in churches and parishes that were linked to his childhood. At each Eucharist, he kept the communion wafer rather than eating it. He thus gathered two hundred and forty-two wafers, the number of cases of pederasty reported in the north of Spain during the decade before that. He arranged the wafers into a work that spelled out the word "Pederasty". It was first exhibited at a gallery in central Madrid in the summer of 2015. Exhibition. At the end of 2015, a section of the work by Abel Azcona was selected to be part of a retrospective exhibition of the artist's works inside the city of Pamplona's Monument to the Fallen in the Spanish Civil War. The work was located on the altar of the old monument, which was formerly the cathedral of Pamplona, but at the time of Azconas' show, it was desacralized. Along with Amen's other critical works about child abuse such as "The Shadow" was displayed. In "The Shadow," he denounced cases of child abuse in a piece in which the survivors are the protagonists. In the work, Azcona presented more than two hundred actual cases of pedophilia in museums and galleries in various cities in Spain. At each show, Azcona gave a live performance from a wooden swing of the experiences of the survivors. A swing was also installed inside the Monument to the Fallen of Pamplona. Controversy. The day after the inauguration of the exhibition, multiple demonstrations and demands for its closure occurred. The Catholic Church called it the greatest offense to Christian belief on numerous occasions. Azcona documented all these situations of confrontation and included them in the exhibitions of the work. The artist endured more than five years of judicial proceedings for complaints about the work at many different courts and judicial entities. Abel Azcona's work denounces child abuse and has been persecuted and denounced for being critical of the Church in works such as "Amen or The Pederasty". This last one was sued three times before the Superior Court of Justice of Navarra for three crimes and alleged desecration and blasphemy. The first one was by the Archbishopric of Pamplona and Tudela, who are representatives of the Catholic Church in the north of Spain. The second one, by the Delegation of the Government in Navarra, controlled by the Popular Party at the time, and the third one was by The Asociación Española de Abogados Cristianos (Spanish Association of Christian Lawyers), who also made criminal complaints against Azcona. The lawsuits were won by Azcona, however the group took the complaint to the Supreme Court. Whilst awaiting the case being heard by the Supreme Court, the Association of Christian Lawyers, in this instance acting alone, started an action against Spain in the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg for not condemning Azcona, and according to them, to protect him. Each time the work was shown, the complaint was re-formulated, so Azcona was cited in the Court of Justice of Palma de Mallorca and the High Court of Justice of Catalonia in Barcelona. After five years of judicial proceedings for critical works against the Catholic Church and more specifically, with pedophilia, Azcona declared his " disobedience" in relation to charges, and the complainants included obstruction of justice in their complaints. When the High Court of Justice of Catalonia issued a judicial arrest warrant in 2019 after Azcona failed to appear before the court for the third time, Azcona went into exile and settled in Lisbon, Portugal. This has not prevented him from opening new exhibitions in the Spain and publishing critical works. He defends his artistic ideology and his political ideas, which are supported by certain sectors of the Spanish left-wing. Conversely, his works are seen as desecrations and sacrileges by the most conservative sector of Spanish and Latin American society. Collection. The work has been exhibited in various museums in Berga, Mallorca, Murcia, Madrid and Lleida, cities of Spain. The latest exhibition in Lleida was presented by art collector Tatxo Benet. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,137
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220
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44704152
Word that changes meaning when capitalized A capitonym is a word that changes its meaning (and sometimes pronunciation) when it is capitalized; the capitalization usually applies due to one form being a proper noun or eponym. It is a portmanteau of the word "capital" with the suffix "-onym". A capitonym is a form of homograph and – when the two forms are pronounced differently – is also a form of heteronym. In situations where both words should be capitalized (such as the beginning of a sentence), there will be nothing to distinguish between them except the context in which they are used. Although some pairs, such as "march" and "March", are completely unrelated, in other cases, such as "august" and "catholic", the capitalized form is a name that is etymologically related to the uncapitalized form. For example, "August" derives from the name of Imperator Augustus, who named himself after the word "augustus", whence English "august" came. Likewise, both "Catholic" and "catholic" derive from a Greek adjective meaning "universal". Capital letters may be used to differentiate between a set of objects, and a particular example of that object. For instance in astronomical terminology a distinction may be drawn between a moon, any natural satellite, and the Moon, the natural satellite of Earth. In English. Philosophical, religious, and political terms. A particular example of where capitonyms are prominent is in terminology relating to philosophy, religion, and politics. Capitalized words are often used to differentiate a philosophical concept from how the concept is referred to in everyday life, or to demonstrate respect for an entity or institution. Words for transcendent ideas in the Platonic sense are often capitalized, especially when used in a religious context. Examples include "Good", "Beauty", "Truth" or "the One". The word "god" is capitalized to "God" when referring to the single deity of monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, or Islam, and common to capitalize pronouns related to God (He, Him, His, etc.) as well; this practice is followed by many versions of the Bible, such as the NKJV. In this tradition, possessive pronouns are also capitalized if one is quoting God; "My" and "Mine" are capitalized, which should not be done when a human speaks. The pronouns "You", "Your", and "Yours" are also sometimes capitalized in reference to God. Other distinctions sometimes made include "church" (meaning a building) and "Church" (meaning an organization or group of people), and the liturgical "Mass", versus the physical "mass". As political parties are often named after philosophies or ideologies, a capital letter is used to differentiate between a supporter of the philosophy, and a supporter of the party, for instance "Liberal", a supporter of any Liberal Party, and "liberal", a supporter of the philosophy of liberalism. Terms such as "small-l liberal" may be used to indicate the concept that an individual supports. Similar examples are conservative/Conservative, democrat/Democrat, libertarian/Libertarian, republican/Republican, socialist/Socialist, communist/Communist, and a supporter of labour/Labour. List of capitonyms in English. The following list includes only "dictionary words". Personal names ("Mark"/"mark", "Will"/"will"), place-names ("China"/"china", "Turkey"/"turkey"), company names ("Fiat"/"fiat"), names of publications ("Time"/"time") etc. are all excluded as too numerous to list. Adjectives distinct from placenames (e.g. "Polish"/"polish") are allowed. Pairs in which one word is simply a secondary meaning of the other – e.g. "Masonry" (secret society), which is in essence a peculiar use of the word "masonry" (wall building) – are omitted. Example in poetry. The poem "Job's Job" from Richard Lederer's "The Word Circus" is an example of the use of capitonyms: ;templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" / ; Other languages. In other languages there are more, or fewer, of these pairs depending on that language's capitalization rules. For example, in German, where all nouns are capitalized, there are many pairs such as "Laut" 'sound' ~ "laut" 'loud' or "Morgen" 'morning' ~ "morgen" 'tomorrow'. In contrast, in Italian, as well as Spanish, very few words (except proper names) are capitalized, so there are extremely few, if any, such pairs. An example in Spanish is "Lima" (city) ~ "lima" 'file (tool)' or 'lime (fruit)'. In Portuguese, an example is "Peru" (country) ~ "peru" 'turkey' (bird). References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;
4,558,138
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44704152
Crucifixions and crucifixes have appeared in the arts and popular culture from before the era of the pagan Roman Empire. The crucifixion of Jesus has been depicted in a wide range of religious art since the 4th century CE, frequently including the appearance of mournful onlookers such as the Virgin Mary, Pontius Pilate, and angels, as well as antisemitic depictions portraying Jews as responsible for Christ's death. In more modern times, crucifixion has appeared in film and television as well as in fine art, and depictions of other historical crucifixions have appeared as well as the crucifixion of Christ. Modern art and culture have also seen the rise of images of crucifixion being used to make statements unconnected with Christian iconography, or even just used for shock value. Art. Late Antiquity. The earliest known artistic representations of crucifixion predate the Christian era, including Greek representations of mythical crucifixions inspired by the use of the punishment by the Persians. The Alexamenos graffito, currently in the museum in the Palatine Hill, Rome, is a Roman graffito from the 2nd century CE which depicts a man worshiping a crucified donkey. This graffito, though apparently meant as an insult, is the earliest known pictorial representation of the crucifixion of Jesus. The text scrawled around the image reads in Greek , which approximately translates to "Alexamenos worships God". In the first three centuries of Early Christian art, the crucifixion was rarely depicted. Some engraved gems thought to be 2nd or 3rd century have survived, but the subject does not appear in the art of the Catacombs of Rome, and it is thought that at this period the image was restricted to heretical groups of Christians. The earliest Western images clearly originating in the mainstream of the church are 5th-century, including the scene on the doors of Santa Sabina, Rome. Constantine I forbade crucifixion as a method of execution, and early church leaders regarded crucifixion with horror, and thus, as an unfit subject for artistic portrayal. The purported discovery of the True Cross by Constantine's mother, Helena, and the development of Golgotha as a site for pilgrimage, together with the dispersal of fragments of the relic across the Christian world, led to a change of attitude. It was probably in Syria Palaestina that the image developed, and many of the earliest depictions are on the Monza ampullae, small metal flasks for holy oil, that were pilgrim's souvenirs from the Holy Land, as well as 5th-century ivory reliefs from Italy. Prior to the Middle Ages, early Christians preferred to focus on the "triumphant" Christ, rather than a dying one, because the concept of the risen Christ was so central to their faith. The plain cross became depicted, often as a "glorified" symbol, as the crux gemmata, covered with jewels, as many real early medieval processional crosses in goldsmith work were. Eastern church. Early depictions showed a living Christ, and tended to minimize the appearance of suffering, so as to draw attention to the positive message of resurrection and faith, rather than to the physical realities of execution. In the early history of the church in Ireland, important events were often commemorated by erecting pillars with elaborate crucifixes carved into them, such as where Saint Patrick, returning as a missionary bishop, saw the place he was held captive in his youth. Early Byzantine depictions such as that in the Rabbula Gospels often show Christ flanked by Longinus and Stephaton with their spear and pole with vinegar. According to the gospels, the vinegar was offered just before Christ died, and the lance used just after, so the presence of the two flanking figures symbolizes the "double reality of God and man in Christ". In images from after the end of the Byzantine Iconoclasm, Christ is shown as dead, but his "body is undamaged and there is no expression of pain"; the Eastern church held that Christ's body was invulnerable. The S-shaped slumped body type was developed in the 11th century. These images were one of the complaints against Constantinople given by Rome in the Great Schism of 1054, although the Gero Cross in Cologne is probably nearly a century older. Greek painters from Constantinople heavily influenced Italian Byzantine art. Nikolaos Philanthropinos, Theophanes of Constantinople, and Apollonios were active in the Venetian Empire and taught painting. Philanthropinos painted St Mark's Basilica after the fire in the 1430s. Crete became the epicenter of Greek painting during the Renaissance and Baroque eras the style became known as the Cretan school of painting. Countless painters depicted the Crucifixion. Their work was heavily influenced by Venetian painting but followed the Greek mannerism prevalent at the time known as the Maniera Greca. Andreas Pavias uniquely depicted the "Crucifixion" following a gothic style and the painter depicted the impenitent thief turned around with his back facing the viewers to denote the difference between the two historical biblical figures. Other Cretan painters followed his style Theophanes the Cretan depicted the reversed figure in his Crucifixion fresco at Stavronikita Monastery on Mount Athos, Greece. Emmanuel Lambardos also continued the style in his Crucifixion. By the mid-1600s, Konstantinos Paleokapas completed his work entitled 'The Crucifixion' following the traditional Maniera Greca. A mixture of Venetian painting and the traditional Greek Byzantine Style influenced the paintings but new colors were added painters chose to use gold-gilded backgrounds while also modernizing the dimensionality of the figures. Around 1647, Georgios Margkazinis finished his version of "The Crucifixion (Margkazinis)" which was an oil painting on limestone for San Giorgio dei Greci. The painter chose to emulate the "Passion of Jesus" a work by Jan Sadeler I a Flemish engraver. Greek painters in the Venetian world began to follow the new style. Another notable painting that falls between the late Cretan school and Heptanese school is "The Crucifixion (Moskos)" by Ioannis Moskos painted in 1711. Western church. The earliest Western images of a dead Christ may be in the Utrecht Psalter, probably before 835. Other early Western examples include the Gero Cross and the reverse of the Cross of Lothair, both from the end of the 10th century. The first of these is the earliest near life-size sculpted cross to survive, and in its large scale represents "suffering in its extreme physical consequences", a trend that was to continue in the West. Such figures, especially as roods, large painted or sculpted crucifixes hung high in front of the chancel of churches, became very important in Western art, providing a sharp contrast with Eastern Orthodox traditions, where the subject was never depicted in monumental sculpture, and increasingly rarely even in small Byzantine ivories. By contrast, an altar cross, almost always a crucifix, became compulsory in Western churches in the Middle Ages. That it should be a crucifix was first specified in the Roman Missal of 1570 and small wall-mounted crucifixes were increasingly popular in Catholic homes from the Counter-Reformation, if not before. The image of a crucifix that bled when mocked and struck by Jews also gained popularity during this time. As a broad generalization, the earliest depictions, before about 900, tended to show all three crosses (those of Jesus, the Good Thief and the Bad Thief), but later medieval depictions mostly showed just Jesus and his cross. From the Renaissance either type might be shown. The number of other figures shown depended on the size and medium of the work, but there was a similar trend for early depictions to show a number of figures, giving way in the High Middle Ages to just the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist, shown standing on either side of the cross, as in the Stabat Mater depictions, or sculpted or painted on panels at the end of each arm of a rood cross. The soldiers were less likely to be shown, but others of the party with Mary and John might be. Angels were often shown in the sky, and the Hand of God in some early depictions gave way to a small figure of God the Father in the heavens in some later ones, those these were always in the minority. Other elements that might be included were the sun and moon (evoking the darkening of the heavens at the moment of Christ's death), and Ecclesia and Synagoga. There were also representations of the alleged aggressors, including depictions of Jews mocking, glaring, slapping, and ultimately crucifying Jesus. Although according to the Gospel accounts his clothing was removed from Jesus before his crucifixion, most artists have thought it proper to represent his lower body as draped in some way. In one type of sculpted crucifix, of which the Volto Santo in Lucca is the classic example, Christ continued to wear the long "collobium" robe of the Rabbula Gospels. The motif of the Pelican in her Piety – a mother pelican plucking flesh from her breast to feed her chicks – appears at the top of the cross in many medieval crucifixion scenes. The mother pelican signifies Jesus, sacrificing his flesh for man's (the chicks') salvation. In the Gothic period more elaborate narrative depictions developed, including many extra figures of Mary Magdalene, disciples, especially The Three Marys behind the Virgin Mary, soldiers often including an officer on a horse, and angels in the sky. The moment when Longinus the centurion pierces Christ with his spear (the "Holy Lance") is often shown, and the blood and water spurting from Christ's side is often caught in a chalice held by an angel. In larger images the other two crosses might return, but most often not. In some works donor portraits were included in the scene. Such depictions begin in the late 12th century, and become common where space allows in the 13th century. Related scenes such as the "Deposition of Christ", "Entombment of Christ" and "Nailing of Christ to the Cross" developed. In the Late Middle Ages, increasingly intense and realistic representations of suffering were shown, paired with increasingly grotesque and malicious depictions of Pontius Pilate and the allegedly murderous Jews, reflecting the development of highly emotional andachtsbilder subjects and devotional trends such as German mysticism; some, like the Throne of Mercy, Man of Sorrows and Pietà, related to the Crucifixion. The same trend affected the depiction of other figures, notably in the "Swoon of the Virgin", who is very commonly shown fainting in paintings of between 1300 and 1500, though this depiction was attacked by theologians in the 16th century, and became unusual. After typically more tranquil depictions during the Italian Renaissance—though not its Northern equivalent, which produced works such as the Isenheim Altarpiece—there was a return to intense emotionalism in the Baroque, in works such as Peter Paul Rubens's "Elevation of the Cross". The scene always formed part of a cycle of images of the "Life of Christ" after about 600 (though it is noticeably absent before) and usually in one of the "Life of the Virgin"; the presence of Saint John made it a common subject for altarpieces in churches dedicated to him. From the late Middle Ages various new contexts for images were devised, from such large scale monuments as the "calvaire" of Brittany and the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy to the thousands of small wayside shrines found in many parts of Catholic Europe, and the Stations of the Cross in the majority of Catholic churches. Modern art. Crucifixion has appeared repeatedly as a theme in many forms of modern art. The surrealist Salvador Dalí painted "Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus)", representing the cross as a hypercube. Fiona Macdonald describes the 1954 painting as showing a classical pose of Christ superimposed on a mathematical representation of the fourth dimension that is both unseeable and spiritual; Gary Bolyer assesses it as "one of the most beautiful works of the modern era." The sculpture "Construction (Crucifixion): Homage to Mondrian", by Barbara Hepworth, stands on the grounds of Winchester Cathedral. Porfirio DiDonna's abstract "Crucifixion" is one of a number of religious works he painted in the 1960s, "blending the artist's devotion to the liturgy and his commitment to painting". The "Welsh Window", given to the 16th Street Baptist Church after it was bombed by four Ku Klux Klansmen in 1963, is a work of support and solidarity. The stained glass window depicts a black man, arms outstretched, reminiscent of the crucifixion of Jesus; it was sculpted by John Petts, who also initiated a campaign in Wales to raise money to help rebuild the church. Photographer Robert Mapplethorpe's 1975 self-portrait
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