Hieuman/wiki_en-doc · Datasets at Hugging Face

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44704152	International Kissing Day or World Kiss Day is an official holiday celebrated each year on July 6. The practice originated in the United Kingdom, and was adopted worldwide in the early 2000s. Another date, February 14, has also been identified as the International Kiss Day, as it is the romantic holiday Valentine's Day. July 6 is also the observance of the feast of Saint Valentine in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The concept is that International Kissing Day came about because many people may have forgotten the simple pleasures associated with kissing for kissing's sake, as opposed to kissing as mere social formality or prelude to other activities. 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44704152	Creator of Shavian alphabet and Quikscript Ronald Kingsley Read (19 February 1887 – February 1975) was one of four contestants chosen in 1959 to share the prize money for the design of the Shavian alphabet, a completely new alphabet intended for the writing of English. In 1960, he was appointed sole responsible designer of the alphabet. In the early 1960s, Read produced the quarterly journal "Shaw-script", which was printed using the Shavian alphabet. In 1966, after extensive testing of Shavian with English speakers from around the world, Read introduced Quikscript, a revised form of his Shavian alphabet. Quikscript, also known as the "Read alphabet", has more ligatures than Shavian, which makes it easier to write by hand. Its appearance is more cursive than Shavian. A few days before his death, he completed a new alphabet called "Soundspell" (now "Readspel"), based, probably for increased chances of popular acceptance, on the Latin script. He was an architect. 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46742609	Ívar Bárðarson (also known as Ivar Bardarson) was a Norwegian clergyman who was the Catholic Church's official representative in Greenland from 1341 to 1366. Little is known about his background or personal life. He is best known for his detailed first-hand account of the Eastern Settlement in Medieval Greenland. Bishop Hakon appointed Bárðarson an official representative of the Catholic Diocese of Bergen on 8 August 1341. His initial purpose in Greenland is unclear from historical records. Some historians believe that his goal was to register the Greenlandic churches for reorganization based on the detailed accounts that he wrote. At the time, the church owned about a third of the developed land in the colony. Bishop Árni served on the island at Garðar, Greenland, from 1315 until he died in 1347 or 1349. Until a new bishop was ordained, Bárðarson filled the vacancy at Garðar Cathedral as an official representative of the Catholic Church. Bárðarson returned to Bergen, Norway, by 1364 with information on Scandinavian Greenland. Over time, the colonists had grown increasingly isolated, and communications with the colony had greatly diminished. The Eastern Settlement had lost contact with the Western Settlement, which was being abandoned, and new sea ice was making the trip between Greenland and Iceland more perilous. He wrote that Gunnbjörn's skerries, a group of rocky islands along the eastern coast of Greenland, had once been the halfway point on voyages to the colonies, "but now ice has come down from the northeast out of the gulf of the sea so near to the aforesaid skerries, that no one without extreme peril can sail the old course, and be heard of again..." His original written report has not survived. It was translated into Danish with annotations in the early sixteenth century as "Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse", most likely by Danish Bishop Erik Valkendorf, who intended to reestablish the church in Greenland. Several manuscript copies of this Danish translation still exist. The best-preserved is the 17th-century manuscript "AM 777 a 4to" in the collection "Safn Árna Magnússonar" at the Arnamagnæan Institute. An early English translation was done by Samuel Purchas in 1625. There are several limitations to the Danish translation as a historical document. It may have been compiled from separate manuscripts by Ívar Bárðarson. It likely includes some interpolations, especially near the end, where exotic fruits are mentioned growing in Greenland. Nevertheless, it remains a significant primary source for historians, especially for the collapse of the Greenlandic Western Settlement. It is also one of only a handful of primary source documents covering interactions between the Precolumbian Norse explorers and Native Americans. The report has four sections: sailing from Norway to Greenland, an overview of fjords and church property, a description of a trip to the Western Settlement, and the overall living conditions in Greenland. According to Bárðarson, the Western Settlement had disappeared as a colony by the 14th century. The Eastern Settlement had not heard from the more remote colony, and when Bárðarson sought out colonists in the north, he found only abandoned farms. He wrote of the place, "There are no people, neither Christian nor Heathen." Feral sheep, goats, and cows descended from the Greenland livestock wandered the area. Native Americans, called "skrælingjar" by the Greenlanders, were the only people living nearby. His observations were corroborated by later archaeological excavations at "Gård Under Sandet" (Farm Beneath the Sand) where one of the feral domesticated goats, found preserved in permafrost, had lived and defecated inside an abandoned Norse home until it collapsed. 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46742609	Type of two-dimensional visual art A cartoon is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation. Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a "cartoonist", and in the second sense they are usually called an "animator". The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, beginning in "Punch" magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer – ironically at first – to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers. Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips. When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons. Fine art. In fine art, a cartoon (from and —words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard and cognates for carton) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or "modello" for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days ("giornate"). In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work. Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or "pounced" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster ("pouncing"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, Francisco Goya's tapestry cartoons, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design. As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver. Mass media. In print media, a cartoon is a drawing or series of drawings, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843, when "Punch" magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London. Sir John Tenniel—illustrator of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland—"joined "Punch" in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons. Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips. Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others. Many consider "New Yorker" cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day. Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in "The Washington Post" before creating his "Cul de Sac" comic strip. The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester "Chet" Brown's "All in Sport". "Editorial cartoons" are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe. "Comic strips", also known as "cartoon strips" in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the United States, they are not commonly called "cartoons" themselves, but rather "comics" or "funnies". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are usually referred to as "cartoonists". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Some noteworthy cartoonists of humorous comic strips are Scott Adams, Charles Schulz, E. C. Segar, Mort Walker and Bill Watterson. Political. Political cartoons are like illustrated editorials that serve visual commentaries on political events. They offer subtle criticism which are cleverly quoted with humour and satire to the extent that the criticized does not get embittered. The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is regarded as a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th century England. George Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s. The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon. George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s. His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day. Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning. His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down. Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast's cartoons. In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London. In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe. Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect. The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back. Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of "Black Friday", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation. To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination. Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law. Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation. Scientific. Cartoons such as "xkcd" have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology. For example, the cartoon "Wonderlab" looked at daily life in the chemistry lab. In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris. Many of Gary Larson's cartoons have a scientific flavor. Comic books. The first comic-strip cartoons were of a humorous tone. Notable early humor comics include the Swiss comic-strip book "Mr. Vieux Bois" (1837), the British strip "Ally Sloper" (first appearing in 1867) and the American strip "Yellow Kid" (first appearing in 1895). In the United States in the 1930s, books with cartoons were magazine-format "American comic books" with original material, or occasionally reprints of newspaper comic strips. In Britain in the 1930s, adventure comic magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. DC Thomson issued the first "The Dandy Comic" in December 1937. It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children's comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful. Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product "The Beano" in 1938. On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication. Animation. Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, "cartoon" came to refer to animation, and the word "cartoon" is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons. While "animation" designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word "cartoon" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes. 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46742609	Software license allowing source code to be used, modified, and shared Open-source licenses are software licenses that allow content to be used, modified, and shared. They facilitate free and open-source software (FOSS) development. Intellectual property (IP) laws restrict the modification and sharing of creative works. Free and open-source licenses use these existing legal structures for an inverse purpose. They grant the recipient the rights to use the software, examine the source code, modify it, and distribute the modifications. These criteria are outlined in the Open Source Definition. After 1980, the United States began to treat software as a literary work covered by copyright law. Richard Stallman founded the free software movement in response to the rise of proprietary software. The term "open source" was used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI), founded by free software developers Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond. "Open source" emphasizes the strengths of the open development model rather than software freedoms. While the goals behind the terms are different, open-source licenses and free software licenses describe the same type of licenses. The two main categories of open-source licenses are permissive and copyleft. Both grant permission to change and distribute software. Typically, they require attribution and disclaim liability. Permissive licenses come from academia. Copyleft licenses come from the free software movement. Copyleft licenses require derivative works to be distributed with the source code and under a similar license. Since the mid-2000s, courts in multiple countries have upheld the terms of both types of license. Software developers have filed cases as copyright infringement and as breaches of contract. Background. Intellectual property (IP) is a legal category that treats creative output as property, comparable to private property. Legal systems grant the owner of an IP the right to restrict access in many ways. Owners can sell, lease, gift, or license their properties. Multiple types of IP law cover software including trademarks, patents, and copyrights. Most countries, including the United States (US), have created copyright laws in line with the Berne Convention with slight variations. These laws assign a copyright whenever a work is released in any fixed format. Under US copyright law, the initial release is considered an original work. The creator, or their employer, holds the copyright to this original work and therefore has the exclusive right to make copies, release modified versions, distribute copies, perform publicly, or display the work publicly. Modified versions of the original work are derivative works. When a creator modifies an existing work, they hold the copyright to their modifications. Unless the original work was in the public domain, a derivative work can only be distributed with the permission of every copyright holder. In 1980, the US government amended the law to treat software as a literary work. Software released after this point was restricted by IP laws. At that time, American activist and programmer Richard Stallman was working as a graduate student at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Stallman witnessed fragmentation among software developers. He blamed the spread of proprietary software and closed models of development. To push back against these trends, Stallman founded the free software movement. Throughout the 1980s, he started the GNU Project to create a free operating system, wrote essays on freedom, founded the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and wrote several free software licenses. The FSF used existing intellectual property laws for the opposite of their intended goal of restriction. Instead of imposing restrictions, free software explicitly provided freedoms to the recipient. In the 90s, the term "open source" was coined as an alternative label for free software, and specific criteria were laid out to determine which licenses covered free and open-source software. Two active members of the free software community, Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond, founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI). At Debian, Perens had proposed the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG). The DFSG were drafted to provide a more specific and objective standard for the FOSS that Debian would host in their repositories. The OSI adopted the DSFG and used them as the basis for their Open Source Definition. The Free Software Foundation maintains a rival set of criteria, the Free Software Definition. Historically, these three organizations and their sets of criteria have been the notable authorities in determining whether a license covers free and open-source software. There is significant diversity among individual licenses but little difference between the rival definitions. The three definitions each require that people receiving covered software must be able to use, modify, and redistribute the covered work. Eric S. Raymond was a proponent of the term "open source" over "free software". He viewed open source as more appealing to businesses and more reflective of the tangible advantages of FOSS development. One of Raymond's goals was to expand the existing hacker community to include large commercial developers. In "The Cathedral and the Bazaar", Raymond compared open-source development to the bazaar, an open-air public market. He argued that aside from ethics, the open model provided advantages that proprietary software could not replicate. Raymond focused heavily on feedback, testing, and bug reports. He contrasted the proprietary model where small pools of secretive workers carried out this work with the development of Linux where the pool of testers included potentially the entire world. He summarized this strength as "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow." The OSI succeeded in bringing open-source development to corporate developers including Sun Microsystems, IBM, Netscape, Mozilla, Apache, Apple Inc., Microsoft, and Nokia. These companies released code under existing licenses and drafted their own to be approved by the OSI. Types. Open-source licenses are categorized as copyleft or permissive. Copyleft licenses require derivative works to include source code under a similar license. Permissive licenses do not, and therefore the code can be used within proprietary software. Copyleft can be further divided into strong and weak depending on whether they define derivative works broadly or narrowly. Licenses focus on copyright law, but code is also covered by other forms of IP. Major open-source licenses written since the late 1990s contain patent grants. These open-source patent grants cover the patents held by the developers. Software patents cover ideas and, rather than a specific implementation, cover "any" implementation of a claim. Patent claims give the holder the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing products based on the idea. Because patents grant the right to exclude rather than the right to create, it is possible to have a patent on an idea but still be unable to legally implement it if the invention relies on another patented idea. Thus, open-source patent grants can offer permission only from covered patents. They cannot guarantee that a third party has not patented any concepts embodied in the code. The older permissive licenses do not discuss patents directly and offer only implicit patent grants in their offers to use or sell covered material. Newer copyleft licenses and the 2004 Apache License offer explicit patent grants and limited protection from patent litigation. These patent retaliation clauses protect developers by terminating grants for any party who initiates a patent lawsuit regarding covered software. Trademarks are the only form of IP not shared by free and open-source software. Trademarks on FOSS function the same as any other trademark. A trademark is a design that identifies the distinct source of a product. Because they distinguish products, the same designs can be used in different fields where there is no risk of confusing similar sources. To give up control of a trademark would result in the loss of that trademark. Therefore, no open-source license freely offers the use of a trademark. Trademark restrictions can overlap copyrights and affect material otherwise freely available. The US Supreme Court described using trademark law to restrict public domain content as "mutant copyright". In "Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp.", the court "caution[ed] against misuse or over-extension of trademark" law without providing a firm decision on those mutant copyrights. Trademark overlap can leave open-source and free content projects vulnerable to a "hostile takeover" if outside parties file for trademarks on derivative works. Notably, Andrey Duskin applied for trademarks on the SCP Foundation, a collaborative writing project, when creating derivative works based on SCP stories. Permissive. Permissive licenses, also known as academic licenses, allow recipients to use, modify, and distribute software with no obligation to provide source code. Institutions created these licenses to distribute their creations to the public. Permissive licenses are usually short, often less than a page of text. They impose few conditions. Most include disclaimers of warranty and obligations to credit authors. A few include explicit provisions for patents, trademarks, and other forms of intellectual property. The University of California, Berkeley created the first open-source license when they began distributing their Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating system. The BSD license and its later variations permit modification and distribution of the covered software. The BSD licenses brought the concept of academic freedom of ideas to computing. Early academic software authors had shared code based on implied promises. Berkeley made these concepts explicit with clear disclaimers for liability and warranty along with conditions, or clauses, for redistribution. The original had four clauses, but subsequent versions have further reduced the restrictions. As a result, it's common to specify if the covered software uses a 2-clause or 3-clause version. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created an academic license based on the BSD original. The MIT license clarified the conditions by making them more explicit. For example, the MIT license describes the right to sublicense. One of the strengths of open-source development is the continual process where developers can build on the derivative works of each other and combine their projects into collective works. Explicitly making covered code sublicensable provides a legal advantage when tracking the chain of authorship. The BSD and MIT are template licenses that can be adapted to any project. They are widely adapted and used by many FOSS projects. The Apache License is more comprehensive and explicit. The Apache Software Foundation wrote it for their Apache HTTP Server. Version 2, published in 2004, offers legal advantages over simple licenses and provides similar grants. While the BSD and MIT licenses offer an implicit patent grant, the Apache License includes a section on patents with an explicit grant from contributors. Additionally, it is one of the few permissive licenses with a patent retaliation clause. Patent retaliation, or patent suspension, clauses take effect if a licensee initiates patent infringement litigation on covered code. In that situation, the patent grants are revoked. These clauses protect against patent trolling. Copyleft. Copyleft licenses require source code to be distributed with software and require the source code to be made available under a similar license. Like the permissive licenses, most copyleft licenses require attribution. Most, including the GPL, disclaim implied warranties. Copyleft uses the restrictions of IP law—contrary to their usual purpose—to mandate that the code remain open. The term and it's related slogan, "All rights reversed", had been previously used in a playful manner by the "Principia Discordia" and Tiny BASIC; the modern usage begins with Richard Stallman's efforts to create a free operating system. In 1984, programmer Don Hopkins mailed a manual to Stallman with a "Copyleft Ⓛ" sticker. Stallman, who was working on the GNU operating system, adopted the term. An early version of copyleft licensing was used for the 1985 release of GNU Emacs. The term became associated with the FSF's later reciprocal licenses, notably the GNU General Public License (GPL). Traditional, proprietary software licenses are written with the goal of increasing profit, but Stallman wrote the GPL to increase the body of available free software. His reciprocal licenses offer the rights to use, modify, and distribute the work on the condition that people must release derivative works under a license offering these same freedoms. Software built on a copyleft base must come with the source code, and the source code must be available under the same or a similar license. This offers protection against proprietary software consuming code without giving back. Richard Stallman stated that "the central idea of copyleft is to use copyright law, but flip it over to serve the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of a means of privatizing software, [copyright] becomes a means of keeping software free." Free software licenses are also open-source software licenses. The separate terms free software and open-source software reflect different values rather than a legal difference. 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46742609	American author (1925–1998) Ladee Hubbard (born 1970) is an American author and English professor at Tulane University. Her debut novel, "The Talented Ribkins" won multiple awards. She released its prequel, "The Rib King", in 2021. Hubbard has received a Berlin Prize and a Radcliffe Institute Fellowship. Early life. Hubbard was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her mother found work as a lawyer on Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands, so she spent some of her childhood in the Virgin Islands, and spent summers in Florida with her grandparents. Hubbard has lived in New Orleans since 2003. She earned her bachelor's degree from Princeton University, and studied at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where she received her Master of Fine Arts in creative writing. She has a PhD in Folklore and Mythology from the University of California, Los Angeles. Work. Hubbard began work on her first novel, "The Talented Ribkins", while studying at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The book won the Ernest J. Gaines Award for Literary Excellence and the Hurston-Wright Legacy Award for Debut Novel, and Hubbard herself won the Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award. The central characters of the story each possess odd superpowers. Protagonist Johnny Ripkins is capable of drawing a map of any place regardless of whether he has any firsthand knowledge. Ripkins begins the novel on the run, and Hubbard has said that "debt and paying back what you owe" as motivating factors inspired her. The odd powers were influenced by W. E. B. Du Bois's idea of the talented tenth and common misinterpretations of the concept. "The Rib King", her second novel, is a revenge story set in the early 20th century in a fictional city based on Chicago, Illinois. It is a prequel to her debut novel. The first half follows the story of Mr. Sitwell, the Black groundskeeper for the White Barclay family. The Barclays sell bottled barbecue sauce with a cartoonish version of Sitwell—the "Rib King"—on the label. The book focuses on racism, inequality, the Black middle class, and unpunished violence. Released in 2022, "The Last Suspicious Holdout", is a collection of short stories, all set in the 1990s to early 2000s in a mostly Black suburb. The stories were written over a period several years beginning when Barack Obama was elected as the United States' first Black president. Hubbard says the stories reflect her experience growing up in "the post-civil rights era" and "the resiliency and artistry" in the Black community. Critic Mike Peed noted how the stories chart personal and political traumas that are intertwined. 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46742609	Fictional product, created for movies or TV A fictional brand is a nonexistent brand depicted in movies, television shows, books, comics, or music. The fictional brand may be designed to imitate, satirize, or differentiate itself from a real corporate brand. Using branded products in fictional media requires permission from the trademark owner. Fictional brands can overcome situations where the creators do not want pay for permission, where a trademark owner is unwilling to license their brand, or where the product is shown in a negative light. More recently, fictional brands have been used for commercial purposes through the process of reverse product placement. Consumer attachment to those brands in the fictional world may be leveraged through “defictionalisation” or “productisation” in the real world. It has been suggested that the fictional brands represent brand potential rather than brand reality; they are in effect, “protobrands” that can be leveraged and transformed into registered trademarks which can derive revenue for their owners through reverse product placement or, more accurately, reverse brand placement. Examples include Harry Potter’s Bertie Botts’ Every Flavour Beans, now available as real candy manufactured by the Jelly Belly Company; Duff Beer, a beer brand now available for consumption in Europe which initially appeared in "The Simpsons"; and Staples' Dunder Mifflin paper, from TV show, "The Office". Purposes. For fictional media to use a trademarked product, it needs an agreement with the trademark's owner. Many movies and television shows opt to use prominent but nonexistent brands. Some are tied to specific fictional universes, like the Big Kahuna Burger fast food restaurants in Quentin Tarantino's films, but many appear in unrelated properties. For example, the fictional cigarette Morleys were created to avoid paying royalties to Marlboro when actors are filmed smoking. They first appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho", and have since been used in many films and shows including "The Twilight Zone", "Naked City", "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "Friends", "Perry Mason", "Curb Your Enthusiasm" "The X-Files", and "Mission: Impossible". Fictional brands offer more realism than unbranded objects because they have packaging, logos, and aesthetic designs similar to real-world products. The most well-known fictional brands, like Wonka Bars, have brand recognition comparable to actual products. The demand for Duff Beer was so high that multiple breweries sold "Duff" beers until legally blocked by Fox Broadcasting Company. Fox partnered with Breweries to sell Duff beer in markets that did not have strong protection for fictional products, starting in Chile and later expanding into other parts of South America and Europe. Trademarks have been granted to prominent fictional brands. Trademark protection has its origin in establishing signifiers that link products to their manufacturers. The mark allows a consumer to distinguish high-quality products from reputable manufacturers. In the United States, court rulings in the 1980s extended trademark protection of fiction to cover characters, settings, and objects from the fictional universe. This allowed a trademark to cover products and services that are not available to real customers. For example, a restaurateur filed for a trademark on and attempted to open "THE KRUSTY KRAB" seafood restaurants in California in 2014. Viacom sued, and in 2017, the Southern District of Texas ruled that the restaurant would violate Viacom's trademarks for "SpongeBob SquarePants", even though Viacom only ever planned to depict a fictional Krusty Krab and had no plans to open a physical restaurant. Some films and shows incorporate brands as "characters" in the story. The quirky brands of Tanrantino's films are juxtaposed with scenes of extreme violence. Set decorator Sandy Reynolds-Wasco says that an object like Tarantino's Red Apple Cigarettes, with its prominent grinning worm emerging from an apple, can "soften the characters, even among the incredibly bloody scenes". In the HBO series "Succession", the fictional family business "Waystar" is used to characterize the Roy family who run it. The science fiction series "Severance" introduces the fictional "Lumon" brand and intentionally presents it in a negative light, as cold and dystopian. Well-known fictional brands. Acme. The Acme Corporation is a fictional manufacturer of a vast range of products. The Acme products first appeared in silent films, but are most associated with cartoons, especially those of Warner Bros. There are many backronyms to explain the word, but Acme is Greek for "zenith" or "peak". During the Second Industrial Revolution, "Acme" was used as a brand name for many mass-produced consumer goods, in part for the benefit of appearing at the front of alphabetical listings like a telephone directorys or mail order catalogs. Acme products are known to fail in outlandish ways that result in cartoon violence. Duff. \| align = right \| caption_align = center \| total_width = 220 \| image1 = Duff beverage GmbH beer.jpg \| alt1 = Can reading The Legendary Duff Beer Bier Cerveza \| caption1 = German \| image2 = Australian Duff beer can.jpg \| alt2 = Can reading Duff Beer brewed in Australia \| caption2 = Australian \| footer = Unofficial cans of "Duff" beer Duff Beer began as a fictional brand in "The Simpsons". Beers using the Duff branding have been brewed in a number of countries, resulting in legal battles with varying results. An official version is sold in three variations near the Simpsons Ride at Universal Studios. In 2015, 20th Century Fox, the producer of "The Simpsons", began selling licensed Duff beer in Chile, with a view to driving out brandjacking. In 2016, "Time" included Duff Beer in a list of the most influential fictional companies of all time. Finder-Spyder. Finder-Spyder is a fictional Web search engine that appears in numerous television shows, used in the same manner as the fictitious 555 telephone number in TV and film. It has been called "an unofficial, open source stand-in for Google and its competitors" (used as a legality-free alternative to a brand-name product), and "the most popular search engine in the TV universe." Finder-Spyder appears as a top 10 pick in "best fictional brand" lists by various online media, along with Oceanic Airlines, Morley cigarettes, Acme Corporation, and others. Morley. Morley is a fictional brand of cigarettes with packaging that resembles Marlboro cigarettes. The name "Morley" is a reference to "Marleys", a once-common nickname for Marlboro cigarettes. Television programs began using Morleys in an era where Tobacco companies were allowed to sponsor television shows and pay for product placement. If no company agreed on a deal for product placement, producers would use a non-branded product like the fictional Morleys. Morleys are produced by The Earl Hays Press, a Hollywood prop packaging service. Pear. Sitcom shows on the TV channel Nickelodeon often parody tech company Apple and its products by using fake tech products from the fictional “Pear” company - such as the PearPhone (a parody of the iPhone) and the PearPad (a parody of the iPad). These parodies would often appear in the Nickelodeon sitcoms iCarly, Victorious, Sam & Cat and Henry Danger. Wonka. In 1964, Roald Dahl wrote Charlie and the Chocolate Factory set within the fictional Wonka Chocolate Factory. The story included several fictional candy products including the Everlasting Gobstopper and the Wonka Bar. The 1971 musical Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory was an adaptation of Dahl's work funded by Quaker Oats who also produced a variety of Wonka candy through their subsidiary Sunline. These candy products were largely unsuccessful and Quaker sold off Sunline by 1972. Sunline continued to make Wonka branded candy and was later acquired by Nestle. Although initially involved in the musical, Dahl left the project and disowned the 1971 film. After his death, Dahl's family became involved with a second film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). 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46742609	French sociologist Bertrand Méheust (12 July 1947) is a French writer, specializing in parapsychology. He is a retired professor of philosophy and has a doctorate in sociology. He is a member of the steering committee of Institut Métapsychique International. Personal life. Bertrand Méheust was born in 1947. He grew up near Diges, Yonne, in north-central France. As a child, he was influenced Jules Verne's novels and the 1950s UFO sightings in France. He credits a 1971 meeting with French writer Aimé Michel in motivating him to pursue studies in philosophy. Méheust earned a doctorate of sociology from Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University in 1997. Work. In 1978, Bertrand Méheust released the book, "Science Fiction et Soucoupes Volantes" ("Science Fiction and Flying Saucers"). The book raised the question of whether science fiction anticipated the UFO phenomenon. Méheust found that pulp magazines wrote about and illustrated fictional flying saucers decades before the initial 1947 wave of reports. The book is regularly cited by skeptics who see it as evidence for the Psychosocial UFO hypothesis. Méhuest was influenced by psychoanalyst Carl Jung, author of "Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies" (1959). In 1999, his two volume academic thesis "Somnambulisme et médiumnité" ("Sleepwalking and mediumship") was published. The book takes stock of controversies raised by parapsychology and psychology. It covers the history of research, theories, and concepts around hidden human potential going back to the 1700s. Méheust is a leading French expert in metaphysics. From this metaphysical perspective, he wrote the book "Devenez savants: découvrez les sorciers" about the study of psychological and paranormal phenomenon. It is a response to "Debunked!"—"Devenez sorciers, devenez savants" in the original French—a skeptical criticism of pseudosciences by physicist Georges Charpak. Méheust has argued that the widespread modern Western rejection of the types of occult phenomenon recorded in previous centuries and other parts of the world has caused those phenomenon to become socially impossible. According to Méheust, a culture will create social practices that determine what is possible or impossible within that culture. The scientific consensus is that there is not sufficient evidence to support the existence of psi phenomena.	4,558,147	[ 4556702, 4556708, 4556704, 4556703, 4556706, 4556705 ]	62	[ 579276, 311537, 4356235, 417874, 414912, 414905, 414913, 3967514, 2427272, 414916, 1667378, 2202414, 4353578, 240280, 901762, 414924, 1916014, 75809, 3091142, 1916237, 3500639, 3548890, 231452, 2414217, 3115287, 4164175, 1868577, 1259910, 30799, 829961, 443611, 2644541, 1630367, 1600729, 2971589, 1024412, 965440, 982666, 992069, 180093, 1716812, 901778, 2375044, 1156011, 430484, 4199761, 1303301, 1436102, 1887368, 1078374, 4164583, 4289938, 1270274, 1916264, 4439091, 652034, 812874, 4455698, 2320383, 4182115, 3931179, 1690031, 3313528, 4353459, 1086357, 4156646, 2470039, 2735822, 366546, 999591, 2725878, 577160, 3114827, 691940, 4152681, 3223771, 918930, 452577, 240261, 1917322, 365002, 2767022, 818092, 2034114, 4244227, 3025140, 3917919, 428545, 3982085, 1842005, 1845298, 3104649, 3003490, 414897, 2307075, 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46742609	Beauty standard based on digitally altered photographs Instagram face is a beauty standard based on the filters and influencers popular on Instagram. An "Instagram face" has catlike eyes, long lashes, a small nose, high cheekbones, full lips, and a blank expression. Digital filters manipulate photographs and video to create an idealized image that, according to critics, has resulted in an unrealistic and homogeneous beauty standard. According to Jia Tolentino, the face is "distinctly white but ambiguously ethnic". The face has been described as a racial composite of different peoples. While based on digital filters, the look is achieved in person using heavy applications of makeup or cosmetic surgery. Plastic surgery, Botox injections, and injectable filler have significantly increased in popularity since the rise of digital filters. Influencers market makeup products designed to recreate the look. In 2018, Americans underwent 7 million neurotoxin injections and 2.5 million filler injections and spent $16.5 billion on cosmetic surgery. 92% of the latter was performed on women. Botox usage has also been on the rise. In 2019, "The New Yorker" referred to this phenomenon as "Instagram Face," identifying Kim Kardashian as its "patient zero." Similarly, her younger sister Kylie Jenner significantly impacted the trend with her 2015 lip filler confession, which acted as a catalyst, introducing Juvéderm to a new generation. In 2024, cosmetic surgeon Paul Banwell said, "People used to come to see me asking to look like a particular celebrity, but many patients come to me now wanting to look like the filtered version of themselves." The increasing popularity of cosmetic surgeries towards a homogeneous ideal has resulted in the emergence of the "goopcore" sub-genre of body horror. The sub-genre combines graphic violence with body modifications from the beauty industry. Allie Rowbottom's goopcore novel "Aesthetica" centers around an influencer attempting to undo years of plastic surgery with a new experimental procedure. 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24879678	Urdu language newspaper in India Taasir is one of the leading, multi-editions and highly circulated National Urdu daily of India. First edition of this newspaper was launched on 5th January 2013 from Patna, the capital city of Bihar state, India. Taasir is currently being published mostly from the capitals and the districts of mass Urdu readers of twelve states of India with is total fourteen editions which include Delhi, the capital city of India, Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra, Kolkata the capital city of West Bengal and Howrah (District of West Bengal), Chennai (Capital of Tamilnadu), Patna ( Capital of Bihar state), Muzaffarpur and Bhagalpur (Districts of Bihar), Ranchi, the capital city of Jharkhand State, Bengaluru (Capital of Karnataka), Guwahati (Capital of Assam), Lucknow(Capital of Uttar Pradesh), Bhopal (Capital of Madhya Pradesh), Gangtok (Capital of Sikkim) Overview. Taasir Delhi, Ranchi, Patna, Muzaffarpur editions are RNI-certified circulations. Central Bureau of Communication [URL] (Under Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India), erstwhile DAVP, has already empanelled Delhi, Ranchi, Patna, Muzaffarpur, Howrah, Chennai, Bangalore, Guwahati, Mumbai, Bhagalpur, Gangtok, and Bhopal editions of Taasir and has fixed advertisements rates for Central and State Government's advertisements. For corporates and political clients special commercial rates have been mentioned on Taasir website [URL] Some of the Taasir's Corporate/PSU clients which buy space to advertise their brands in Taasir. Reliance, Vishal Megamart, V2 Mart, Kolkata Bazar, GOOGLE, SBI, RBI, Bank of India, Gramin Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, HDFC, UCO Bank, Central Bank of India, LIC India, ZEE Telefilms Ltd, SONY Entertainments, Colours, Godrej, KIIT, CIT, SRM Group of institutions, GOAL Institute, MMHAPU, IGNOU, Maulana Azad National Urdu Central University, R P S group of Institutions, D Y Patil group of Institutions, Jaisawal Guess Papers, Brilliant Guess Papers, Aditya Vision, BSNL, TVS, HONDA, Bhutani Infra Group, AIR INDIA Airport Authority of India, NTPC, Tanishq, Kalyan Jwelers, Malabar Jwelers, Durga Electronics, J P furnitures, PARAS Hospital, Jeevak Heart Hospital, Medanta Hospital etc. Online portals [URL] epaper editions of Taasir is available in Urdu, Hindi, and English languags simultaneously. Besides India, the portal and epapers have mass regular readership in the USA, the UK, Europe, Canada, UAE, Singapore, China, South Africa, Qatar, Australia, Pakistan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh etc. The newspaper especially covers topics related to political, social, economic, sports, cultural, women and children, business, entertainment, health, general awareness, science and technology, fashion, current affairs and history around the globe. The management of the Taasir group of newspapers established a huge newspaper printing plant at the capital city of Patna in the State of Bihar and left most of its competitors far behind using modern printing technology. Title source link [URL] History. "Taasir" [URL] was first launched in Patna. The first issue was published on 5 January 2013 and was distributed only in the city area. The distribution grew and reached twelve Indian states, with 14 editions: Patna, Muzaffarpur, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Gangtok, Ranchi, Guwahati, Howrah, Chennai, Mumbai, Lucknow, Bhopal, Kolkata, and Bhagalpur. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; [URL]	4,558,149	null	80	null
44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was . It was formed on 15 May 1938 in Kyoto as a B-class square division, simultaneously with the 106th Division. The nucleus for the formation was the 16th Division headquarters. The division was originally subordinated to the Central China Expeditionary Army. Action. The division landed in Shanghai on 24 June 1938, and was immediately sent to the Dabie Mountains and Battle of Wuhan through Anqing. From March 1939, a small part of the division participated in the Battle of Nanchang. After the Central China Expeditionary Army was abolished, the division was reassigned to Thirteenth Army. In the aftermath of the Doolittle Raid 18 April 1942, the unit participated in the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign. In December 1942, the 138th Infantry Regiment was transferred to the 31st Division, therefore the "116th division" became a triangular division. In November 1943, the division fought in the Battle of Changde, and from May 1944 - in the Battle of Changsha (1944). In October 1944, it was transferred to Twentieth Army and take a part in the Defense of Hengyang as a part of Operation Ichi-Go. During the intensive 40-day assault of Chinese positions, the division has suffered major losses but was able to capture the city. From March 1945, it also participated in the Battle of West Henan–North Hubei with the help of the newly created 86th Independent Mixed Brigade. By the day of the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945, the division was still in Hengyang. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,150	null	224	null
44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. The division was formed in 1939 and was disbanded in 1945. Its call sign was the . The "35th Division" was activated at Tokyo 7 February 1939, simultaneously with 32nd, 33rd, 34th, 36th and 37th divisions. History. The division was deployed to China in May 1939 to perform rear area security duties in the Second Sino-Japanese War. It initially operated in Shanxi and northern Henan. From some time in 1940 to March 1944 the "35th Division" was stationed in the Kaifeng area of North China. The division was reorganised between 1 May 1943 from standard to garrison division, and this led to the artillery regiment and reconnaissance regiment being removed. The engineer and transport regiments were also downgraded to companies and the sanitation company was replaced by a field hospital. After reorganization, the division was assigned to the 12th army, and participated in the mop-up operations in the Taihang Mountains. In July 1943, it was reinforced by 54th infantry brigade from the 59th division. The "35th Division" was selected for service in western New Guinea in early April 1944. The 219th Regiment was detached to garrison the St. Andrew Strait and sailed from Yokohama on 6 April 1944. The divisional headquarters also sailed with the 219th Regiment, but was to trans-ship at Palau and continue to New Guinea. The remainder of the division left Shanghai on 17 April 1944 in the Take Ichi convoy. The convoy was attacked by United States Navy submarines on 26 April 1944 and 6 May 1944, and was diverted to Halmahera in the Netherlands East Indies to prevent further attacks. Transports carrying elements of the division were sunk during the 6 May 1944 attack, and only four of the division's six infantry battalions which embarked in the convoy and a single artillery battery remained at the end of the voyage. The "35th Division" was moved forward from Halmahera to Sorong in small ships during May 1944. The 219th regiment was also successfully transferred to New Guinea, though a battalion was left behind to garrison the St. Andrew Strait. Majority of 221st regiment was assigned to garrison Manokwari. Elements of the "35th Division" subsequently fought in the Battle of Biak on 27 May 1944 (resulting in annihilation of Japanese garrison) and the Battle of Sansapor on 30 July 1944 on the Bird's Head Peninsula. As a result, the Japanese defenses at Manokwari were isolated as of September 1944. The Japanese forces retreated to a final defensive perimeter around Sorong in May 1945, where they thrived until the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945, thanks to abundant local supplies of Sago-derived foodstuffs. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,151	null	160	null
44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was . It was formed on 12 October 1937 in Utsunomiya, Tochigi as a B-class square division. The nucleus for the formation was the 14th Division headquarters. It was originally subordinated to the Central China Area Army. First formation. In October 1937 the division was subordinated to the Tenth Army and sent to ongoing Battle of Shanghai. It departed from Osaka 30 October and arrived in Hangzhou Bay on 5 November 1937, spending the next five days unloading, due to faulty landing craft. It also participated in Battle of Nanking in December 1937. In February 1938, the division was transferred to the North China Area Army and participated in the Battle of Xuzhou and Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan. Later performing a garrison duties in the North China, the division was demobilized in July 1939. Second formation. Because the 26th and 62nd divisions were sent to Pacific War, the 114th was reformed 10 July 1944 in Linfen, simultaneously with the 115th, 117th and 118th divisions. As a security (class C) division, its backbone consisted of independent infantry battalions, and division lacked an artillery regiment. The nucleus for the formation was the 3rd Independent Infantry Brigade in Yuncheng and 69th division in North China. The unit was originally assigned to the First Army. It then garrisoned the Linfen area of Shanxi along the Tongpu Railroad, taking over all of the 69th Division garrisoned territory. By the start of Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945, the "114th division" was on move in Tianjin. After World War II ended with the surrender of Japan 15 August 1945, a significant fraction of its men have continued to fight under command of the warlord Yan Xishan in the ongoing Chinese Civil War. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,152	null	160	null
44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed 10 July 1944 in Datong as a type-C(hei) security division, simultaneously with the 114th, 115th and 117th divisions. The nucleus for the formation was the 9th independent infantry brigade. The division was initially assigned to the 13th army. Action. In April 1945, the "118th division" was ordered to strengthen the garrisons in Central China and then in Shanghai area. Therefore, by the day of surrender of Japan 15 August 1945, the division was spread through Tianjin and Zhangjiakou. After the cessation of hostilities, the "118th division" has sailed from Tanggu District 14 April 1946, landed in Sasebo 18 April 1956, and has completed dissolution 21 April 1946. Notes and references. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,153	[ 4556718 ]	160	[ 746976, 722228, 750691, 833908, 714483, 711581, 389632, 3225418, 3225416, 838803, 776624, 313231, 2173357, 2160835, 3144162, 778701, 3225417, 3225411, 1133283, 3034175, 4023003, 813371, 852629, 820597, 3225412, 4383138, 815247, 2152650, 711213, 816122, 3225409, 3225414, 1452819, 4240804, 765489, 4384858, 1013448, 1682486, 692564, 784058, 1883373, 730697, 792135, 836836, 832483, 847076, 2169110, 753716, 3225413, 2173535, 752608, 783931, 810451, 825860, 217824, 1508399, 958673, 1745695, 793050, 853630, 769562, 1133323, 4242579, 1133316, 818665, 822981, 818862, 726777, 4241581, 1496122, 797108, 3225415, 805262, 823669, 797862, 681887, 2172709, 822444, 4176767, 826202, 3045301, 761289, 3035209, 831941, 2176696, 716858, 812152, 719485, 770323, 2253631, 686156, 1271368, 1133299, 810002, 716008, 2863305, 710744, 790791, 1508229, 1252563, 812101, 704599, 4473510, 729852, 686079, 2158464, 3475501, 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44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . The "50th Division" was activated in Taipei 3 May 1944, utilizing a building previously used by 48th division, and was one of only two Japanese divisions (together with 66th division) ever raised in Taiwan. The "50th division" had employed the casualties of the 48th division transported back to Taiwan to form the divisional core. The "50th division" was permanently assigned to the Japanese Tenth Area Army (and to the 40th army in the time it was based on Taiwan in early 1945). During the 1945, the "50th division" had fortified in Kaohsiung on the south coast of Taiwan in anticipation of the Allies landing. It met the day of surrender of Japan 15 August 1945 without engaging in actual combat and was demobilized shortly afterwards. 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44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed 10 July 1944 in Xinxiang as a type-C(hei) security division, simultaneously with the 114th, 115th and 118th divisions. The nucleus for the formation was the 14th Independent Infantry Brigade. The division was initially assigned to the Twelfth Army. Action. Although slated for the Battle of West Henan–North Hubei, the "117th division" was reassigned to the 44th army and sent to Taonan in April 1945. During the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, the "117th division" was tasked with the defense of Liaoyuan and has surrendered to Red Army in Gongzhuling. The last soldiers were returned to Japan only in 1963. 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44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . The "49th Division" was formed 6 January 1944 in Seoul, around a nucleus formed from the 64th infantry brigade and the headquarters of the 20th division. The headquarters were located in Nara. About 2% of the soldiers were Korean locals. In May 1944, the "49th division" was subordinated to the Japanese Burma Area Army and ordered to Burma, reaching the ports of Singapore and Saigon in June 1944. During the transfer, two vessels were sunk, resulting in about 1600 deaths. On arrival in Burma, the 3rd Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 153rd Infantry Regiment were sent to south-west Burma to protect local oil fields. The 2nd Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 168th Infantry Regiment were assigned to the 33rd army for a delaying action. During the first week of March 1945, this detachment attempted to defend the vital communications centre of Meiktila against a complete Indian Infantry Division with a brigade of tanks. The detachment was almost wiped out, with only remnants of the 168th Regiment surviving. During the second week of March, they joined the HQ of the division, the HQ and 1st Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 106th Infantry Regiment in attempts to recover Meiktila. Their attacks could not be coordinated with those of the other formations of 33rd Army and were broken off at the end of the month. During the first week in April, the division suffered further losses in attempts to hold a position near Pyawbwe. After the survivors made their way to Southern Burma, they were involved in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Sittang Bend. The division was still occupying fortified positions on the east bank of Sittang River when the surrender of Japan took place on 15 August 1945. Reference and further reading. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,156	null	160	null
44834626	Mobile reserve divisions. 221st division. Military unit 222nd division. Military unit 224th division. Military unit 225th division. Military unit 229th division. Military unit 230th division. Military unit 231st division. Military unit 234th division. Military unit Coastal defense divisions. 303rd division. Military unit 308th division. Military unit 312th division. Military unit 316th division. Military unit 320th division. Military unit The "320th division" has completed organization 25 July 1945 in Daegu, performing a police duties from Daegu to Seoul. After the start of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945, the "320th division" was ordered to move north to Wonsan, but did not complete the move due to the surrender of Japan 15 August 1945. 321st division. Military unit 322nd division. Military unit 344th division. Military unit 351st division. Military unit 354th division. Military unit 355th division. Military unit Notes and references. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,157	null	185	null
44834626	The were a class of eight second-class destroyers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Background. The medium-sized "Wakatake"-class destroyers were a follow-on to the as part of the Imperial Japanese Navy's 8-6 Fleet Program from fiscal 1921 as a lower cost accompaniment to the larger s. The class was originally planned to consist of thirteen vessels, but due to the Washington Naval Treaty, as well as budgetary limitations, the orders for the last four were cancelled in 1922, with the final number being reduced to eight when "No.14" was also cancelled. The "Wakatake" class was the last class to be rated "second class" and all future destroyers were designed larger. It was planned that the "Wakatake"-class ships should have names, but upon completion they were given numbers. This proved to be extremely unpopular with the crews and was a constant source of confusion in communications, so in 1928, names were assigned. Design. The "Wakatake"-class destroyers were essentially slightly modified "Momi"-class ships with 50 tons additional displacement and a deeper draft to improve handling characteristics in heavy seas, particularly against rolling. Weaponry layout (with the exception of added AA armaments), general arrangement and silhouette were all identical with the "Momi" class. As with the "Momi" class, a number of types of steam turbines were used for propulsion. "Asagao" was built with Parsons impulse turbines, "Yūgao" with Escher Wyss & Cie Zoelly turbines, and the remaining vessels with Brown-Curtis turbines. The armament for the "Wakatake"-class was identical to that of the "Momi" class. The main battery consisted of three Type 3 120 mm 45 caliber naval guns in single mounts, with two twin Type 6 torpedo launchers. Anti-aircraft protection was provided by two 7.7mm machine guns. After the start of the Pacific War, one of the Type 3 guns was replaced by two triple-mount Type 96 25-mm cannons, although some vessels had three twin-mounts and two single-mounts instead. The minesweeping gear was replaced by 36 to 48 depth charges with four launchers. Some of the vessels also were fitted with a Type 13 radar. Operational history. The small displacement of the "Wakatake"-class limited their utility as fleet escorts, and as with the "Momi"-class, they were mainly used in Chinese coastal waters, where their shallow draft made them suitable for operations in rivers and coastal waters. On 15 September 1932, capsized due to poor stability and sank north of Keelung near Taiwan. In April 1940 was re-rated as "Patrol Boat No. 46", with considerably reduced armament and the removal of one boiler, which reduced her speed to only 18 knots. Of the remaining six units, three ("Wakatake", "Kuretake", and "Sanae") were assigned to Destroyer Division 13 under the Kure Naval District, and patrolled the Seto Inland Sea and the Bungo Strait on antisubmarine patrols. The other three ("Asagao", "Fuyō" and "Karukaya") were assigned to Destroyer Division 32 under the Chinkai Guard District, which was assigned to patrol the Tsushima Strait screening maritime traffic in the Tsushima Straits. From 10 April 1942, the 1st Surface Escort Division of the Southwest Area Fleet was created, and Desdivs 13 and 32 were assigned to it to provide protection for convoys against Allied submarine activity. The convoy routes were initially those between Moji, Taiwan, and the Philippines. Later, these routes extended to Singapore, French Indochina, the Netherlands East Indies, and Palau. In the course of this service, set a record by successfully completing 54 convoy escorts before her loss. Of the six destroyers, four were lost to American submarines, and one to an air attack. Only survived the war and was finally broken up in 1948. List of Ships. The five cancelled units were initially to be named "Shian" (from Kawasaki, Kobe)(later "No.14"), "Omodaka" (also from Kawasaki, Kobe)(later "No.20"), "Nadeshiko" (from Fujinagata Zosensho, Osaka)(later "No.22"), "Botan" (from Uraga Dock Co, Tokyo)(later "No.24") and "Basho" (from Ishikawajima Zosensho, Tokyo)(later "No.26"). Naming history. The IJN originally planned that the "Wakatake"-class ships should have names, but upon completion they were given numbers due to the projected large number of warships the IJN expected to build through the Eight-eight fleet plan. This proved to be extremely unpopular with the crews and was a constant source of confusion in communications. In August 1928, names were assigned, but not the original names that were planned. References. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Books. "Collection of writings by Sizuo Fukui Vol.5, Stories of Japanese Destroyers", Kōjinsha (Japan) 1993,	4,558,158	[ 4556714, 4556715, 4556713 ]	56	[ 975125, 4367311, 4207215, 1294718, 89790, 1016094, 2476111, 973871, 4467881, 974467, 976752, 970434, 263976, 975050, 3990799, 972663, 969376, 2162981, 974168, 975511, 3539283, 1940783, 973126, 1826484, 972508, 971864, 977619, 973264, 4025785, 1423632, 1133303, 969074, 1388823, 3762115, 972511, 971568, 975284, 1863034, 3831596, 3762064, 865589, 3762299, 3762128, 1551281, 3761996, 975688, 972863, 1360129, 2275327, 970273, 1755597, 1723088, 615614, 2796084, 1050419, 1527429, 974593, 2844608, 2790011, 3762329, 2182495, 3762150, 973865, 971584, 1366026, 4128324, 973056, 3682859, 1420131, 3831636, 3126125, 3762289, 2789643, 1336496, 406908, 973020, 3122578, 1133318, 1224008, 972037, 972472, 970324, 1337244, 974487, 528666, 1286790, 3721187, 504721, 1551332, 4159483, 970288, 978275, 976270, 2865316, 3796650, 4475823, 970001, 976232, 977725, 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44834626	Military unit The was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the , and its military symbol was 13D. The 13th Division was one of four new infantry divisions raised by the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) in the closing stages of the Russo-Japanese War 1 April 1905, after it turned out what the entire IJA was committed to combat in Manchuria, leaving not a single division to guard the Japanese home islands from attack. Action. Russo-Japanese War. The 13th Division was initially raised in Takada city in now Jōetsu, Niigata from men in Niigata Prefecture under the command of Lieutenant General Haraguchi Kensai. It was given the independent assignment of occupying Sakhalin before the conclusion of the Portsmouth Treaty, landing on Sakhalin on 7 July 1905, only three months after being formed, and securing the island by 1 August 1905. As a result of its successful operation, Japan was awarded southern Karafuto during the Portsmouth Treaty, one of Japan's few territorial gains during the war. Interwar period. The division returned on 6 November 1908 to its original divisional headquarters located in Takada, Niigata prefecture. Future Chinese premier Chiang Kai-shek served in the field artillery battalion of the 13th Division while it was based at Takada. Also while at Takada, under the command of Lieutenant General Gaishi Nagaoka, a military advisor from the Empire of Austria-Hungary, Theodor Edler von Lerch, was invited to teach mountain warfare and skiing to the troops of the IJA 58th Infantry Regiment in Takada under the 13th Division in early 1911. On 12 April 1913, the division was ordered to Liaoyang in Manchuria, where it remained until 3 June 1915 on garrison duty under the command of Lieutenant General Akiyama Yoshifuru before returning to Takada. After a brief period on garrison duty in Korea, the 13th Division was one of the divisions selected to participate in the Japanese intervention in Siberia in 1920. The "13th division" of that period specialized in winter warfare, with all infantry on skis. However, on 1 May 1925, it was dissolved by Minister of War Ugaki Kazushige as part of a cost-saving measure during the Kato Takaaki administration, together with the 15th, 17th and 18th divisions. Second Sino-Japanese War. In July 1937, open hostilities broke out against China and the Second Sino-Japanese War commenced. The 13th Division was re-established in Sendai on 10 September 1937 as a triangular division, out of the reserve forces of the IJA 2nd Division, and ordered to China 11 September 1937 together with 9th division and 101st division. Under the command of Lieutenant General Rippei Ogisu, it was assigned to Shanghai Expeditionary Army and saw combat during the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanjing, although as a reserve force it was not present at the subsequent Nanjing Massacre. It came under the control of the Central China Expeditionary Army from February 1938, the 13th Division it was at the Battle of Xuzhou, and as part of the Japanese Second Army from July 1938, it was at the Battle of Wuhan under the command of Lieutenant General Shizuichi Tanaka. From November 1938, the 13th Division was assigned to the Japanese Eleventh Army and remained in China throughout the Pacific War, participating in numerous campaigns and battles, notably the Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang, Battle of West Hubei and Battle of Changde. A particularly heavy Chinese attacks in Yichang were repulsed in October 1941 with the extensive use of chemical weapons by "13th division". In December 1942, the 58th infantry regiment was transferred to the 31st division, and "13th division" has become a triangular division. It was also part of Operation Ichi-Go (the Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi). In the final stages of the campaign 1 November 1944, the "13th division" has captured two airstrips at Guilin airbase. Later it was used to secure the front on the west of Liuzhou, between 3rd division to the south and 58th division to the north-east. 18 April 1945, it was assigned to directly to the China Expeditionary Army together with 3rd division and was retreating toward Nanjing. The capitulation of Japan 15 August 1945 has happened while the "13th division was" in Changsha, Hunan Province. Although there were plans to send the 13th Division to Guam in September 1943 to counter the threat posed by the United States in the Pacific War, only a 300-man detachment was sent. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,159	null	209	null
49058037	Police force in Minnesota, United States The Saint Paul Police Department (SPPD) is the main law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the City of Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. It was established in 1854, making it the oldest police organization in the state. In the beginning the men did not have a stationhouse. Prisoners were taken to the Fort Snelling brig until the city built a jail. The SPPD is the second largest law enforcement agency in Minnesota, after the Minneapolis Police Department. The department consists of 575 sworn officers and 200 non-sworn officials. The current Chief of Police is Axel Henry. He is the 42nd chief in the history of the St. Paul Police Department and was sworn in November 2022. History. In 1920 St. Paul Councilman and Public Safety Commissioner Aloysius Smith, requested that the St. Paul Police start a Police program for the youth. Sergeant Frank Hetznecke was selected to create the program. In its first year, 750 students signed up for the training program and in February 1921 the first student monitored crossing took place with students from Cathedral school on Kellogg Blvd. Sergeant Hetznecke is credited with introducing the Sam Browne belt and badge that became synonymous with school patrol across the country and administering St. Paul's program for 30 years. During the Prohibition era, the department was remarkably corrupt. In 1936, the chief, Thomas Brown was fired after an investigation showed he had protected criminals including the Dillinger and the Barker-Karpis gangs. An arrest outside of a bar on 26 September 2010 is the subject of a lawsuit that claims excessive force. In March 2011, the elite Gang Strike Force was disestablished when a state audit could not account for 13 vehicles and over $18,000 in cash the unit had seized. The auditor's report indicated that Officer Ron Ryan had sold property his detail had retained. Press reports indicated the unit used money taken from gang members to attend a 2009 professional conference held in Hawaii. The SPPD had two prominent incidents of misconduct in relation to their dogs in 2016 and 2017. Command structure. NOTE: By contract, all investigators (detectives) hold the rank of sergeant. Department awards. The department has only issued medals / awards since 1971. The current medals are: Department size. Like most major cities, the city of St. Paul saw a population decline beginning in the late 1960s. However, the department continued to grow. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,160	null	115	null
45105449	King of Kandy from 1798 to 1815 Sri Vikrama Rajasinha (Sinhala:ශ්‍රී වික්‍රම රාජසිංහ, Tamil:ஸ்ரீ விக்கிரம ராஜசிங்கன் Telugu:శ్రీ విక్రమ రాజసింహ; 1780 – 30 January 1832), born Kannasamy, was the last of four kings to rule the Kingdom of Kandy in Sri Lanka. Being crowned king in 1798 with the backing of Pilamathalawe Adikaram, his capture by the British in 1815 effectively concluded the 2,300-year Sinhalese monarchy on the island. The Nayak Kings were of Telugu origin and practiced Shaivite Hinduism and were patrons of Theravada Buddhism. The Nayak rulers played a huge role in reviving Buddhism in the island. They spoke Telugu and Tamil, and used Tamil as the court language in Kandy alongside Sinhala. The King was eventually deposed by the British government under the terms of the Kandyan Convention in 1815, ending over 2,300 years of domination by the Sinhalese crown on the island. The island was incorporated into the British Empire, and Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was succeeded by George III, as monarch of British Ceylon. Early life. Prior to his coronation in 1798, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was known as Prince Kannasamy Naidu. He was a member of the Madurai Nayak Dynasty and the nephew of Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha. He succeeded his uncle as the King of Kandy in 1798 at the age of eighteen. Reign. Early reign. There was a rival claimant to succeed Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, the brother of Queen Upendrama, Muthuswamy, who had a stronger claim. However, Pilimatalauwa, the first Adigar (prime minister), chose Prince Kannasamy, reportedly with deep-seated plans to usurp the throne to set up a dynasty of his own. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was faced with numerous conspiracies to overthrow him and reigned through one of the most turbulent periods in Sri Lanka's history. Internal conflict. During his time, the British who had succeeded the Dutch in the Maritime Provinces had not interfered in the politics of the Kingdom of Kandy. But Pilimatalauwa, the first Adigar of the King, desiring British control over the island, covertly worked with the British administration to provoke the King to acting aggressively towards them in order to give Britain a "casus belli" against the Kandyian Kingdom. The Adigar manipulated the King into starting a military conflict with the British, who had gained a strong position in the coastal provinces. War was declared and on 22 March 1803, the British entered Kandy with no resistance, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha having fled. The "Adigar" massacred the British garrison in Kandy in June and restored the King to the throne. Pilimitalava plotted to overthrow the King and seize the crown for himself, but his plot was discovered, and, having been pardoned on two previous occasions, he was executed. The disgraced "Adigar" was replaced by his nephew, Ehelepola Nilame, who soon came under suspicion of following his uncle in plotting the overthrow of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. A rebellion instigated by Ehalepola was suppressed, after which he then fled to Colombo and joined the British. After failing to surrender (after 3 weeks of notice), the exasperated King dismissed Ehelepola, confiscated his lands, and ordered the imprisonment and execution of his wife and children. A propagandised account of the execution was widely circulated by sympathisers. Ehelepola fled to British-controlled territory, where he persuaded the British that Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's tyranny deserved a military intervention. The pretext was provided by the seizure of a number of British merchants, who were detained on suspicion of spying and were tortured, killing several of them. An invasion was duly mounted and advanced to Kandy without resistance, reaching the city on 10 February 1815. On 2 March, the Kingdom was ceded to the British under a treaty called the Kandyan Convention. Regarding the King's reign, the historian Louis Edmund Blaze states that "He was not as ardent a patriot as his immediate successors; nor did he show those mental and moral qualities which enabled former Kings to hold their own against rebellion and invasion. To say he was cruel does not mean much, for cruel Kings and nobles were not rare in those days; and it is questionable whether all the cruel deeds attributed to Sri Vickrama Rajasinha were of his own devising or done by his authority. It might be more fair to regard him as a weak tool in the hands of designing chiefs than as the monster of cruelty, which it is an idle fashion with some writers to call him. He did a lot to beautify his capital. The lake and the Octagon in Kandy have always been considered the work of the King." Death. On 2 March 1815, the Kingdom was ceded to Britain and Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was deposed and taken as a royal prisoner by the British to Vellore Fort in southern India. He lived on a small allowance given to him with his two queens by the British colonial administration. He died of dropsy on 30 January 1832, aged 52 years. His death anniversary has been commemorated as Guru Pooja by descendants at Muthu Mandabam, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, since 2011. Family. Parents Siblings Consorts Children Grandchildren Great-grandchildren Great-great-grandchildren Legacy. The current Flag of Sri Lanka incorporates Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's Royal Standard. In September 1945 it was proposed in an address to the State Council that the flag be adopted as Sri Lanka's national flag: "This House is of opinion that the Royal Standard of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha depicting a yellow lion passant holding a sword in its right paw on a red background, which was removed to England after the Convention of 1815, should once again be adopted as the official flag of Free Lanka." Kandy Lake, an artificial lake overlooking the palace in Kandy, was commissioned by Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The Paththirippuwa or Octagon of the Sri Dalada Maligawa, is widely regarded as the epitome or the most admired symbol and representation of Kandyan Sinhalese Architecture. It was built in 1802 A.D. by Devendra Mulachari, Master Craftsman and Royal Architect, on the instructions of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. During Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's time as a royal prisoner in Vellore Fort he received a privy purse, which his descendants continued to receive from the Government of Ceylon until 1965. Muthu Mandapam is a memorial built around the tombstone of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last south Indian origin ruler of Kandy. Situated on the bank Palar River, it is just one km north of Vellore town. During Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's reign, Tamil was used as one of the court languages in Kandy – a historical fact with implications for the present-day politics of Sri Lanka. 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45105449	Monarchy of Sri Lanka (543 BCE–1815 CE) The Sinhalese monarchy (Sinhala සිංහල රාජාණ්ඩුව) has its origins in the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. The Landing of Vijay as described in the traditional chronicles of the island, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa, and later chronicles, recount the date of the establishment of the first Sinhala Kingdom in 543 BC when Prince Vijaya (543–505 BC), an Indian Prince, and 700 of his followers are claimed to have landed on the island of Sri Lanka and established the Kingdom of Tambapanni. In Sinhalese mythology, Prince Vijaya and followers are told to be the progenitors of the Sinhalese people. However according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands. The Sinhalese monarch was the head of state of the Sinhala Kingdom (Sri Lanka). Anachronistically referred to as the Kings of Sri Lanka, the monarch held absolute power and succession was hereditary. The monarchy comprised the reigning monarch, his or her family, and the royal household which supports and facilitates the monarch in the exercise of his royal duties and prerogatives. The monarchy existed for over 2300 years. Tambapanni and its successive kingdoms were situated in what is presently Sri Lanka. The monarchy ended with Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy in 1815 after generations of European influences and upheaval in the royal court. Origin. The origins of the early Sinhalese kings are the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan historian Senarath Paranavithana suggests, and according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands. These immigrants would have been of all ages and probably originated from multiple regions, arriving in more than one stream, each with its own leader. We know from early Pali writings that Indian merchants of the time travelled to the island in search of the pearls on its North Western coast and precious stones in the island's interior. In the course of time some of the settlers would have settled down in order to supply valued merchandise to their compatriots who would periodically visit the island. As these settlements grew, the necessity for some form of government would so too. Paranavithana puts forward that the most natural form of government would have been to elect one of them as a magistrate of each settlement. It is probable that some of the immigrants came from areas of India under a republican form of government. The descendants of these leaders of each settlement would have been called "Parumaka", according to early Brahmi inscriptions. These various settlements would have over time felt the need for a common leader, a commander in times of war and chief magistrate in times of peace. This chief would have been known as "Gamani" (leader). However, there was probably more than one such gamani on the island. It is possible this common leader also had the title of "Mahaparumaka". Paranavithana hypothesised that the earliest Sinhalese kings may have actually been these elected common leaders called "Gamani". This theory is supported through statements in the Mahavamsa-Tika. As each were elected, there were nothing to stop from the gamani's son to succeed his father, should he be good enough. Thus the principle of hereditary leadership would gradually be established and the position would soon possess powers equal to that of a king. However, the pomp and paraphernalia of kinship was probably absent. As according to Indian belief, at the time, to be acknowledged as a sovereign it was necessary to have an abhiṣeka ceremony, a consecration rite which the settlers could not do on their own. It has become clear that before Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, the Sinhalese monarchs did not have an abhiṣeka ceremony performed on them, leaving the reasonable conclusion that the monarchs before Devanampiya Tissa were instead popular sanctioned leaders. This is also supported by the fact that the writer of the Mahavamsa lived in a time where the main form of government was a monarchy, and so it was natural to assume that whenever a ruler was mentioned, it was a king with the paraphernalia of royalty attributed to him. Paranavithana argues that Maurayan Emperor Ashoka introduced the institution of kingship to the Sinhalese people. The title Devanampiya ("Beloved of The Gods"), a Maurayan royal title assumed by Tissa, who later became Devanampiya Tissa, and his successors for two hundred years after him. History. Pre Anuradhapura period. According to the Mahavamsa, the great chronicles of the island the Kingdom of Tambapanni was founded by Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers after landing on the island, in a district near modern-day Mannar which is believed to be the district of Chilaw, after leaving Suppāraka. It is recorded that Vijaya made his landing on the day of Buddha's death. Vijaya claimed Tambapanni his capital. Tambapanni was originally inhabited and governed by Yakkhas, having their capital at Sirīsavatthu and their queen Kuveni. According to the Samyutta Commentary, Tambapanni was one hundred leagues in extent. During the end of his reign Vijaya, who was having trouble choosing a successor, sent a letter to the city of his ancestors, Sinhapura, in order to invite his brother Sumitta to take over the throne. However Vijaya had died before the letter had reached its destination so the elected minister of the people Upatissa, the Chief government minister or Prime minister and leading chief among the new settlers became regent and acted for a year. In his regency, Upatissa established the new capital Upatissa Nuwara, named after himself, in which the kingdom was moved from Tambapanni. It was seven or eight miles north of the previous capital. When Vijaya's letter arrived Sumitta had already succeeded his father as king, and so he sent his son Panduvasdeva to rule Upatissa Nuwara. Anuradhapura period. The reign of Tissa marks not only important religious historical developments but also important political history of the island and to the Sinhalese people. It marked the introduction of Buddhism to the island and with it came the formal establishment of kingship and monarchy. Though it saw productive advances in the areas of economics, technology and culture, during the Early Anuradhapura period (137 BC – 684 AD) the political system was at its most brittle. The stresses of dynastic rivalries and succession disputes sparked many political crises. This period was dominated by the rivalry between the House of Lambakanna and the House of Moriya. Both powerful clans whose origins trace back to the time of Tissa. With the end of the House of Vijaya the Lambakannas were established as their successors, the Moriyas however challenged this claim and struggles for the throne ensued. The Moriyan claims to the throne diminished by the end of the seventh century leaving the Lambakannas a monopoly of power. New laws of succession would further consolidate this. Political instability can be seen as the rule rather that the exception during this period. Polonnaruwa period. With the fall of Polonnaruwa the monarchy saw a decline in the 13th century, this is characterised by the succession of capitals that followed. Transitional period. This period saw the arrival of Europeans to the island and their influence. Kandyan period. In 1796 the British first entered the island and gained control of the coastal areas from the Dutch. After the Kandyan Wars and the signing of the Kandyan Convention in 1815 the island recognized the British monarch as Sovereign. This ended 2,357 years of indigenous Sinhalese monarchy. Role. Political role. As absolute monarch the king was head of state, however he would be aided with high level officials and a board of ministers. The monarch was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it. They sought to establish control over the whole island, though in reality this was more of an aspiration. However periods of effective control over the whole island did exist from time to time. During the Anuradhapura period royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the "Purohita", the advisor to the king. The king also had a board of ministers called "Amati paheja". In central administration, "Senapati" (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a position second only to the king, and held by a member of the nobility. This position, and also the positions of "Yuvaraja" (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the monarch. The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Over time these administrative units within the island increased. By the reign of Silakala (518–31) there were already three provinces, two of which he handed over to his sons to administer, while retaining the province of "Rajarata", the area around the capital, directly under his administration. "Ruhuna" (southern part of the country) and the "Malaya Rata" (hill country) were governed by officials called "Apa" and "Mapa". These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called "rata". Officials called "Ratiya" or "Ratika" were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit was the "gama" (village), under a village chief known as "gamika" or "gamladda". Judicial role. As well as holding political powers the Sinhalese monarch also held judicial power and influence. Judicial customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. The laws and legal measures were proclaimed by the king, and were to be followed by justice administration. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. The judiciary consisted of the chief judicial officer known as the "Viniccayamacca" and there were several judicial officers under him, known as "Vinicchayaka". Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. Initially, the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as "dasagam", was responsible for upholding justice in that area. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Siri Sangha Bodhi I (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death. The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions. Religious role. A close link existed between the ruler and the "Sangha" (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutugamunu's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was effected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopa Tissa I (639–650) and Kassapa II (650–659). Succession. The kingdom was under the rule of a king or queen. 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45105449	Mayadunne () was the founder and ruler of Sitawaka from 1521 to 1581. A fierce opponent of the Portuguese, he devoted his life to oust his father and brother Bhuvanekabahu VII, the king of Kotte in order to preserve the independence of the island, being undermined by Portuguese intrigue. He constantly invaded the territory of Bhuvanekabahu of Kotte. Early life. Mayadunne was born in 1501 in Kotte of the Kingdom of Kotte. He was the son of Vijayabahu VII who reigned as king from 1509 to 1521. Mayadunne was the youngest child born to Vijaya Bahu VII and his main Queen. He had two full brothers, Bhuvanekabahu and Raigama Bandara. Bhuvanekabahu who was also king of Kotte from 1521 to 1551. Wijayaba Kollaya. In 1521 together with his two full brothers Bhuvanekabahu and Raigama Bandara, who were born to the main queen of Vijaya Bahu VII, he revolted against his father, suspecting him of planning to pass the throne of Kotte to one of Vijaya Bahu VII's other queen's sons (Devaraja) after his death. Although Mayadunne was the youngest of the three brothers he was the mastermind behind this revolt which ended with the death of their father Vijaya Bahu VII (he was assassinated by a hired foreigner) and the Kotte Kingdom was divided between the three brothers. This incident is known as "Wijayaba Kollaya" and can roughly be translated as the "Spoiling of Vijayabahu". Bhuvanekabahu came to power as Bhuvanekabahu VII of Sri Lanka and he got established in the Kotte Kingdom with a region roughly including present day Colombo, Gampaha, Districts, North Western Province and Southern Province coastline. Raigama Bandara got established in Raigama with his control roughly over present day Kalutara District & Southern Province except the coastline (which was under Kotte Kingdom). Mayadunne got established in the Kingdom of Sitawaka (Present day Avissawella) controlling roughly the modern day Sabaragamuwa Province (Kegalle, Ratnapura Districts). Reign. Since Mayadunne was the main actor during the rebellion against their father, Bhuvanekabahu VII was from the beginning suspicious of him and developed close ties with the Portuguese who had established a fort in Colombo (1517). Before long Mayadunne got popular support from the local chiefs and population who didn't like Bhuvanekabahu VII collaborating with Portuguese. Mayadunne led several invasions against Kotte but Bhuvanekabahu VII was able to drive Sitawakan forces back with the help of Portuguese. During the first phase of these battles Mayadunne was helped by an anti-Portuguese Kingdom in Calicut, India. The Portuguese wanted to kill Mayadunne fearing one day he would become a greater threat to their foothold on the Island but Bhuvanekabahu VII didn't let them to conduct an all out invasion against Sitawaka. Several years later after Raigam Bandara died, in 1538, Mayadunne annexed the Kingdom of Raigama to Sitawaka. The all out rivalry between Sitawaka and Kotte started to unroll here on. By this time the Buddhist monks in Kotte who were responsible of the Dantha Dhathuwa, the Sacred Tooth Relic of Buddha, secretly smuggled it into Sitawaka and placed it under the protection of Mayadunne since they saw Portuguese as hostile towards Buddhism. According to the local tradition if someone has the ownership of the Tooth Relic he can claim the throne of all the Kingdoms within Sri Lanka. Mayadunne's popularity grew rapidly among locals and similarly Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte and later Dharmapala of Kotte had to rely more and more on Portuguese for help. Mayadunne started frequent attacks against the Kotte Kingdom and more and more of the lands of Kotte became part of Sitawaka. Since Kotte lacked local support the Portuguese automatically became the protectors of that Kingdom. Hence the rivalry between Kotte and Sitawaka turned into a rivalry between Sitawaka and Portuguese. During the period of Kingdom of Sitawaka King Mayadunne had stopped at the Nawagamuwa Pattini Devalaya to make a vow before he went to war with the Portuguese in the Colombo Fort. According to the reports of the Portuguese, in 1550, the King of Portuguese sent 600 troops to help King Bhuvanaikabahu VII of Kotte. They fought with King Mayadunne at Nawagamuwa. It is also recorded that in 1576, the Portuguese army destroyed Nawagamuwa Devale and established an army camp there. Sinhalese–Portuguese War. Mayadunne and the Kingdom of Sitawaka was a part of the Sinhalese–Portuguese War, which was an effort to get rid of the occupying Portuguese forces and stop them from colonizing the island. At the time, it was the worst ever defeat by a colonial power on eastern soil. Mayadunne and his son Rajasigha fought the Portuguese in the Battle of Mulleriyawa and won, where the Kingdom of Sitawaka emerged all-powerful, able to challenge the Portuguese, who lost the opportunity to ensure their total control of the island. Death and legacy. Due to the fact that he stood against Portuguese invaders and stopping them from conquering the whole island, Mayadunne is considered one of the greatest kings of Sri Lanka. He died aged 80, in 1581. 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45105449	Province of Sri Lanka The Western Province ( "Basnāhira Paḷāta"; "Mael Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Western Province is the most densely populated province in the country and is home to the legislative capital Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte as well as to Colombo, the nation's administrative and business center. History. Parts of present-day Western Province were part of the pre-colonial Kingdom of Kotte. The province then came under Portuguese, Dutch and British control. In 1815 the British gained control of the entire island of Ceylon. They divided the island into three ethnic based administrative structures: Low Country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese and Tamil. The Western Province was part of the Low Country Sinhalese administration. In 1833, in accordance with the recommendations of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission, the ethnic based administrative structures were unified into a single administration divided into five geographic provinces. The districts of Chilaw, Colombo, Kalutara, Puttalam, Seven Korales (present day Kurunegala District), Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama (present day Kegalle District) formed the new Western Province. Chilaw District, Puttalam District and Seven Korales were transferred to the newly created North Western Province in 1845. Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama were transferred to the newly created Sabaragamuwa Province in 1889. It is planned to create a planned Megacity under the Western Region Megapolis Plan in the Western Province designed by Surbana. Originally initiated in 2004 by Ranil Wickremesinghe it was stopped after his election defeat and was restarted again after his return to power in 2015. The project plans to merge Colombo, Gampaha and Kalutara districts and introduce zoning. Geography and climate. Western Province is located in the southwest of Sri Lanka. It has an area of . The province is surrounded by the Laccadive Sea to the west, North Western Province to the north, Sabaragamuwa Province to the east and the Southern Province to the south. The Western Province is vulnerable to recurrent flooding as a result of an increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events, with knock-on impacts on the infrastructure, utility supply, and the urban economy of the Province. As the most urbanised province in Sri Lanka, these climate events pose a number of problems due to the rapid urban growth the province has undergone. Administrative divisions. Districts. The Western Province is divided into three administrative districts, 40 Divisional Secretary's Divisions (DS Divisions) and 2,505 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GN Divisions). Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Template:Largest_cities/styles.css" / ; Demographics. Population. The Western Province's population was 6,219,000 in 2021. The majority of the population are Sinhalese, with a minority Sri Lankan Moor and Sri Lankan Tamil population. Economy. The Western province provides the highest contribution to the Gross Domestic Product contributing 41.2% of the Provincial Gross Domestic Product(PGDP) and has a nominal PGDP growth rate of 5.8% as of 2015. Agriculture only made up 1.7% of the GDP the lowest among the nine provinces while Industrial sector made up 34.6% the highest in the country and service sector represented 56.5%. The province is undergoing rapid development with several of the largest infrastructure development projects happening in the province such as the Colombo International Financial City(CIFC) which is an International Financial Zone and the Western Region Megapolis Planning Project(WRMPP) Western province is also undergoing a major real estate and construction boom with residential and commercial buildings and skyscrapers changing the skylines of cities such as Colombo and Rajagiriya. Several major residential, office and hotel buildings as well as resorts and malls are either proposed or under construction. The Colombo Harbour is also a major driver of economic growth being the busiest port in South Asia. It has both privately run and state owned terminals and is being expanded. Education. Almost all the premier educational institutions in the island are located in the Western Province. Universities in the province includes the University of Colombo, University of Kelaniya, University of Moratuwa, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Open University, Sri Lanka, Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka, General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, National Institute of Business Management and the Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology. Having the highest population in all the provinces, Western Province has the largest number of schools in the country, which includes national, provincial, private and international schools. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,164	null	66	null
45105449	Catholic college in Sri Lanka Maris Stella College is a Catholic College in Negombo, Sri Lanka, which was founded by the Marist Brothers in 1922. History. In 1918 four Marist Brothers came to Negombo, Sri Lanka, and took over the management of St Mary's College. In 1922, the school moved to its present site and assumed the new name of Maris Stella College. The history of the primary school goes back to 1921 when Bro. Lewis was in charge of the elementary school, standard two Elementary School Leaving Certificate classes. There were three long cadjan sheds which housed eight primary classes. The school's broadcasting services were inaugurated in 1930. Maris Stella installed a wireless set in the library, and the boys followed lessons, such as nature talks to children. Electricity came to the whole of Negombo in 1931. The same year the first Corpus Christi procession took place, which went around the quadrangle. The cadets presented a Royal Guard of Honour. In August 1939, World War II broke out. The following year the school was requisitioned in part by the Royal Artillery for their headquarters. The primary school shifted to Tammita Church grounds into temporary cadjan sheds. Then Royal Artillery moved out in November, but the Royal Air Force occupied the buildings in March the following year. The college was put under protection of Our Lady of Perpetual Help. There were frequent practices of air raid precautions in schools. Trenches were dug for shelter, and every child knew what to do in case of an air raid warning. The school was in Easter holidays when the Japanese air raid took place in 1942 but their invasion fleet was turned back. In the meantime, a three-quarter acre block of land behind Maris Stella was purchased and twelve classrooms, a staff room, and a principal's office were built; the primary school moved back from Tammita. When Nazier went to Europe in 1950, for a year's study leave, Leonard Obris acted as principal of the Primary Department. For many years the Primary Department was in temporary cadjan sheds. So a building project was launched. Funds were raised through carnivals and other means. Bro. Xavier was the architect and the builder of the primary school. In June 1959, Gerard Peiris became the next principal of Maris Stella Primary School. Maris Stella Primary School had been going on for years as a separate third-grade aided school recognised by the Government with separate tutorial staff and annual returns. When all the third-grade schools were taken over by the Government. Maris Stella primary school together with the primary schools of many leading Christian schools came under this category. This position was contested and the Government gave back the primary schools after some time, now to be recognised only as a section of the upper school under a principal and to be continued as a non-fee levying school. It was during the time of Peiris as principal of the primary school where the change took place. After serving the college from 1959 to 1965, he was transferred to Christ King College at Tudella, another Maris Institution. Joseph Fonseka, Ephrem Obris, Joseph Fonseka, Shanthi Liyanage, Dela Soysa, and Remigius Fernando succeeded Gerard Peiris. On 18 June 2022, Maris Stella College celebrated its 100th anniversary with the presence of Malcolm Cardinal Ranjith. 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45105449	Province of Sri Lanka The Uva Province (, ) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. The province has an area of 8,500 km2 and a population of 1,266,463, making it the 2nd least populated province. The provincial capital is Badulla. Uva is bordered by the Eastern, Southern, Sabaragamuwa, and Central provinces. It is home to several tourist attractions, waterfalls and two national parks: Yala National Park and Gal Oya National Park. History. Uva's provincial history records an 1818 uprising (also known as the Third Kandyan War) against the British colonial government which had been controlling the formally independent Udarata (Sinhalese: "Up-Country"), of which Uva was a province. The uprising was led by Keppetipola Disawe, a rebel leader celebrated by the Sinhalese even today, who was sent initially by the British government to stop the uprising. The rebels managed to capture Matale and Kandy before Keppetipola fell ill and was captured and beheaded by the British. His skull was abnormal, as it was wider than usual, and was sent to Britain for analysis. It was returned to Sri Lanka after independence, and now rests in the Kandyan Museum. The rebellion, which soon developed into a guerrilla war of the kind the Kandyans had fought against European powers for centuries, was centred on the Kandyan nobility and their unhappiness with developments under British rule since 1815. However, it was the last uprising of its kind. In the Uva Province, a scorched earth policy was pursued, and all males between 15 and 60 years were driven out, exiled or killed. The British Crown annexed the Kingdom of Kandy to British Ceylon in 1817. Geography. The Uva province has an area of 8,500 km2 and a population of 1,259,880. Uva is home to several major tourist attractions, like the waterfalls of Dunhinda falls, Diyaluma Falls, and Rawana Falls, and the Yala National Park (lying partly in the Southern and Eastern Provinces) and Gal Oya National Park (lying partly in the Eastern Province). The Gal Oya hills and the central mountains are the main uplands, while the Mahaweli (Sinhalese: "great-sandy") and Menik (Sinhalese: "gemstone") rivers and the huge Senanayake Samudraya and Maduru Oya Reservoirs are the major waterways of the province. Mountains. Uva's symbolic mountain is Namunukula, which stands tallest among the mountain range surrounding Badulla. The highest mountain in the Uva Province is Totapolakanda, which lies on the border with the Nuwara Eliya District. There are views of the Welimada basin, Katharagama and Hambantota from Namunukula peak on a clear day. The Haputale-Beragala gap gives a view of the Southern and Sabaragamuwa provinces on a clear day. Administrative divisions. Districts. ;templatestyles src="Stack/styles.css"/ ; Uva is divided into 2 districts: Divisional secretariats. The districts of the Sri Lanka are divided into administrative sub-units known as divisional secretariats. These were originally based on the feudal counties, the "korale"s and "rata"s. They were formerly known as "D.R.O. Divisions" after the Divisional Revenue Officer. Later the D.R.O.s became Assistant Government Agents and the Divisions were known as "A.G.A. Divisions". Currently, the Divisions are administered by a Divisional Secretary and are known as "D.S. Divisions". There are 26 divisional secretariats in the Uva Province. There are 15 in the Badulla District and 11 in the Moneragala District. 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45105449	Province of Sri Lanka The Southern Province ( "Dakuṇu Paḷāta", "Theṉ Mākāṇam") of Sri Lanka is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. It is the 7th largest province by area and is home to 2.5 million people, the 3rd most populated province. The province is bordered by Sabaragamuwa Province and Uva Province to the North, Eastern Province to the Northeast, Western Province to the Northwest and the Indian Ocean to the South, West and East. The Province's capital is Galle. The Southern Province is a geographic area consisting of the districts of Galle, Matara and Hambantota. Subsistence farming and fishing is the main source of income for the vast majority of the people of this region. Government School education is primarily handled by the Southern Provincial Education Department. Administrative divisions. Southern Province is divided into 3 districts and 47 divisional secretariats. Divisional Secretariats. The districts of the Sri Lanka are divided into administrative sub-units known as divisional secretariats. These were originally based on the feudal counties, the s and s. They were formerly known as 'D.R.O. Divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'. Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. Divisions'. Currently, the divisions are administered by a 'Divisional Secretary', and are known as a 'D.S. Divisions'. There are 47 divisional secretariats in the Southern Province, with 19 in Galle District, 12 in Hambantota District and 16 in Matara District. Landmarks. Important landmarks of the Southern Province include the wildlife sanctuaries of the Yala and Udawalawe National Parks. Ussangoda in Ambalantota is a panoramic view of the beach and the sea, and the holy city of Kataragama, and the ancient cities of Tissamaharama, Kirinda and Galle. (Although Galle is an ancient city, almost nothing survives from before the Portuguese invasion.) During the Portuguese period there were two famous Sinhalese poets called Andare who was from Dickwella and Gajaman Nona who was from Denipitiya in Matara District, composing poems on common man. The Southern Province was seriously affected by the tsunami in 2004. The province is going through a rebuilding process. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,167	null	66	null
45105449	Province of Sri Lanka The Sabaragamuwa Province (, ) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. Ratnapura is the capital of the province. History. The provinces of Sri Lanka were created by the British in the 19th century, but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The province is named after its former indigenous inhabitants, namely the Sabara, an Indic term for hunter-gatherer tribes, a term seldom used in ancient Sri Lanka. The Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka is located in the town of Belihuloya, and was founded in 1991. Geography. The province has an area of 4,968 km2 and a population of 1,918,880. Major towns include Ratnapura and Kegalle. Demographics. Ethnic groups. Ethnic groups in Sabaragamuwa province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sinhalese (86.4%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Indian Tamils (5.49%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Moors (4.27%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sri Lankan Tamils (3.75%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Burghers (0.03%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Malays (0.02%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Others (0.04%) The Sinhalese are the majority ethnic group of the Sabaragamuwa province. Additionally, there are sizeable minority populations of Indian Tamils, Moors and Sri Lankan Tamils. Religion. Religion in Sabaragamuwa province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Buddhism (85.73%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Hinduism (8.1%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Islam (4.44%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Christianity (1.72%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Other religions/No religion (0.01%) Administrative divisions. Sabaragamuwa is divided into two districts and 28 divisional secretariats. Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,168	null	66	null
45105449	Province of Sri Lanka North Central Province ( "Uturumæda Paḷāta", "Vada Mattiya Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. The province has an area of 10,472 km2, making it the largest province by area, and a population of 1,266,663, making it the 3rd least populated province. The city of Anuradhapura is the capital of the province. History. The North Central province is home to the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, both of which were historical capitals of Sri Lanka during ancient times. The two cities were the capitals of the Anuradhapura kingdom (437 BCE–1017 CE) and the Polonnaruwa kingdom (1070–1232) respectively. The provinces of Sri Lanka were established by the British in 1833. In independent Sri Lanka, provinces did not have any legal status or power until 1987, when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The centralised system of Sri Lanka, which is a unitary state, failed to satisfy the aspirations of the people. There was growing insistence on decentralisation of administrative processes to achieve rapid economic and social development of the country. The North Central Provincial Council is the main administrative and control body in the North Central Province. Geography. The province has an area of 10,472 km2 and a population of 1,266,663. It is the largest province by area, covering 16% of the total land area of Sri Lanka. The province consists two districts, Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura; the Anuradhapura district is the largest district in Sri Lanka by area. The province has a semi-arid climate and most forests situated in the province are Sri Lankan dry-zone dry evergreen forests. The province is also referred to as "Wew Bendi Rajje" due to the sheer amount of medium and large scale tanks situated in the province, with more than 3000. More than 65% of the province’s population depend on basic agriculture and agricultural based industries. The North Central province has innumerable potential for investors to start their businesses, specially agriculture, agricultural based industries and livestock sectors. Demographics. Ethnicity. Ethnic groups in North Central province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sinhalese (90.87%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Moors (7.96%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Tamils (1.0%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Others (0.17%) Religion. Religion in North Central province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Buddhism (89.97%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Islam (8.05%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Christianity (1.17%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Hinduism (0.80%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Other religions/No religion (0.01%) Administrative divisions. The North Central Province is divided into two districts and 29 divisional secretariats. Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,169	null	66	null
45105449	The Kandyan Monarchy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka, ruled by a succession of monarchs from the Kingdom of Kandy. This monarchy spanned over 230 years from 1590 to 1815 and played a significant role in shaping the country's history and culture. The Kandyan kings enjoyed absolute power, and their rule was marked by complex administrative systems, religious traditions, and cultural practices. This list of Kandyan monarchs provides an overview of the rulers who led the Kingdom of Kandy throughout its existence, from its early formation to its final downfall under British colonial rule. History of Kandyan Monarchs. The kingdom of Kandy was originally a principality of the kingdom of Kotte, until Senasammata Vikramabahu declared Kandy an independent state in 1469, establishing himself as its first king. However, the kingdom was later conquered by Rajasinghe I of Sitawaka in 1581, marking the end of the first phase of the kingdom under the Siri Sangha Bo dynasty. In 1592, Vimaladharmasuriya I reestablished the kingdom with his dynasty, earning him the title of the Kandyan Kingdom's second founder. During his reign, Kandy became a major political power and the sole successor of Sri Lanka's ancient Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Kotte kingdoms. The Dinaraja dynasty handed over the kingdom to the Nayakkar Dynasty in 1739 due to a lack of successors, ending the second phase of the kingdom. The Nayakkar Dynasty, which began with Sri Vijaya Rajasinha, was seen as a great religious revival by the people, but the last king of this dynasty, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe's reign witnessed the gradual decline of the kingdom, leading to the abolition of the king's position in the kingdom in 1815. This resulted in the absorption of the kingdom into the British Empire and marked the end of the Sinhalese Monarchy that had started back in 437 BC. Authority and Governance of the Kandyan Monarch. The King of Kandy was the supreme ruler of the Kingdom of Kandy. His power was absolute and supreme, and while his ministers could offer advice, they could not control his will. The King held the authority to make peace and war, enact laws and regulations, and enforce the death penalty. The king exercises both civil and criminal judicial authority, either in original jurisdiction or in appeal. The actions of the government are believed to be guided by the customs and traditions of the kingdom. Consultation with the main chiefs and frequently the leading priests is customary before significant changes are implemented or during public affairs discussions. Many state officials are responsible for the king's authority, including the three Adikarams, known as Adikars, who are the main officers involved in the administration of public affairs. The Desaves, or provincial governors, were primarily located below the mountains of the kingdom of Kandy, while the Rate Mahatmeyo or governors of smaller districts were above the mountains. The Kandyan chiefs and all other subjects show respect to the king by making obeisance with three prostrations and communicate with him on their knees. See also. Uduwara Nilame subsequently assumed the mantle of Uduwara Hettias, adopting the Portuguese surname (Pereira) while asserting authority as traders. It is widely held that they were the rightful sovereigns, following the Nayakkars, as Uduwara Nilame safeguarded the last king and maintained the lineage of the Ranabahu royal bloodline References. Citations. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. ;templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" / ;	4,558,170	[ 4556725 ]	14	[ 443712, 18016, 4030673, 4398085, 2203799, 3805736, 3638631, 2238747, 2749451, 3068907, 570685, 569375, 2750227, 569656, 569832, 2473845, 4173716, 2544078, 1693799, 4381995, 2548886, 1689316, 2748656, 4047132, 2221737, 403498, 4397665, 2750106, 431434, 1866699, 1127367, 4274962, 2521599, 4293591, 2600601, 4229309, 2748232, 4398624, 2738355, 1695594, 3973947, 546129, 3115561, 1107838, 3918161, 4397996, 4274726, 2795719, 2437007, 3095502, 4455375, 4386987, 3638619, 4215023, 2748696, 2206372, 4215051, 2635085, 2748822, 4389638, 776602, 2749720, 1569181, 434768, 1204798, 3541015, 2750113, 428546, 2749679, 354908, 2702605, 3646257, 886268, 1100974, 4156021, 880418, 2551331, 938961, 3702393, 2576760, 1828657, 1066117, 3207149, 3974333, 2645287, 4152968, 888206, 570517, 1746363, 3646510, 4029908, 225901, 3608885, 2556482, 1101275, 4259488, 417923, 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2675190, 2589861, 173663, 1326170, 639089, 2748388 ]
45105449	Province in Sri Lanka The Eastern Province ( "Næ̆gĕnahira Paḷāta" , "Kiḻakku Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Between 1988 and 2006 the province was temporarily merged with the Northern Province to form the North Eastern Province. The capital of the province is Trincomalee. Kalmunai is the largest and most populous city of Eastern Province. History. In 1815 the British gained control of the entire island of Ceylon. They divided the island into three ethnic based administrative structures: Low Country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese and Tamil. The Eastern Province was part of the Tamil administration. In 1833, in accordance with the recommendations of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission, the ethnic based administrative structures were unified into a single administration divided into five geographic provinces. The districts of Batticaloa, Bintenna (part of present-day Badulla District), Tamankaduva (present day Polonnaruwa District) and Trincomalee formed the new Eastern Province. Tamankaduva was transferred to the newly created North Central Province in 1873 and Bintenna was transferred to the newly created Uva Province in 1886. The Indo-Lanka Accord signed on 29 July 1987 required the Sri Lankan government to devolve powers to the provinces and, in the interim, to merge the Northern and Eastern provinces into one administrative unit. The accord required a referendum to be held by 31 December 1988 in the Eastern Province to decide whether the merger should be permanent. Crucially, the accord allowed the Sri Lankan president to postpone the referendum at his discretion. On 14 November 1987 the Sri Lankan Parliament passed the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka and the Provincial Councils Act No 42 of 1987, establishing provincial councils. On September 2 and 8 1988 President Jayewardene issued proclamations enabling the Northern and Eastern provinces to be one administrative unit administered by one elected Council. The North-East Province was born. The proclamations were only meant to be a temporary measure until a referendum was held in the Eastern Province on a permanent merger between the two provinces. However, the referendum was never held and successive Sri Lankan presidents issued proclamations annually extending the life of the "temporary" entity. The merger was bitterly opposed by Sri Lankan nationalists. The combined North-East Province occupied one fourth of Sri Lanka. The thought of the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam controlling this province, directly or indirectly, alarmed them greatly. On 14 July 2006, after a long campaign against the merger, the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna political party filed three separate petitions with the Supreme Court requesting a separate provincial council for the East. On 16 October 2006 the Supreme Court ruled that the proclamations issued by President Jayewardene were null and void and had no legal effect. The North-East Province was formally de-merged into the Northern and Eastern provinces on 1 January 2007. Much of the Eastern Province was under the control of rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam for many years during the civil war. The entire province was recaptured by the Sri Lankan military in 2007. Many community members blamed Pro-Government Tamil groups such as the Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal (TMVP). In 2008 due to the indiscriminate firearm use by various Tamil factions government planned to disarm Tamil Paramilitary groups. However the TMVP kept arms due to threat of LTTE and denied they were active in Civilian areas. TMVP was finally disarmed in 2009 after the LTTE was defeated. The Eastern Province has received at least $500 million from international donors since coming under the control of the government of Sri Lanka in 2007, according to the International Crisis Group. Since the end of the war the Eastern Province has seen considerable development under the "Nagenahira Navodaya" (Eastern Revival) program which include various agricultural, infrastructural and Social development projects. These include the construction and repairing of roads, schools, hospitals, resettlement of IDPs and construction of Nanasala ICT centers. There are currently 88 Nanasala ICT education centers in the Eastern Province. Other Projects include reconstructing the Walai Iravu bridge which was destroyed by the LTTE, developing the Weber stadium in the Batticaloa town, increasing agricultural production, construction of Manmunai, Vavunativu and New Oddamavadi bridges, carpeting roads, constructing 48,000 houses in the Eastern province for the people who live below the poverty line, developing the Trincomalee Harbour, construction of the Sampur Power Station, Development of Maritime park and a Maritime Museum in Trincomalee, creation of the Sampur industrial zone, development of bus stands, canals and the Oluvil Harbour in Ampara district. Geography. Eastern province has an area of . The province is surrounded by the Northern Province to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Southern Province to the south, and the Uva, Central and North Central provinces to the west. The province's coast is dominated by lagoons, the largest being Batticaloa Lagoon, Kokkilai lagoon, Upaar Lagoon and Ullackalie Lagoon. Administrative units, cities and towns. Administrative units. The Eastern Province is divided into 3 administrative districts, 45 Divisional Secretary's Divisions (DS Divisions) and 1,085 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GN Divisions). Demographics. Population. The Eastern province's population was 1,551,381 in 2012. The province is the most diverse in Sri Lanka, both ethnically and religiously. The population of the province, like that of the Northern Province, was heavily affected by the civil war. The war killed an estimated 100,000 people. Several hundred thousand Sri Lankan Tamils, possibly as much as one million, emigrated to the West during the war. Many Sri Lankan Tamils also moved to the relative safety of the capital Colombo. The conflict has also caused some of the Tamils, Moors and Sinhalese who lived in the province to flee to other parts of Sri Lanka, though most of them have returned to the province since the end of the civil war. Religion. Islam is the plurality religion in Eastern Province. Economy. The Eastern Province has a primarily agriculture-based economy and is commonly known as the "Granary of Sri Lanka". It contributes 25% of national paddy production, 17% of national milk production, and 21% of national fish production. Maize cultivation is expanding, large scale maize cultivation with hybrid seeds and contractual marketing has increased production significantly and it is targeted to produce 25 per cent of the country's maize requirement. The industrial sector contributed 34% of the Province's GDP and export processing zones like the Trincomalee EPZ and Sampur Heavy Industrial Zone have been developed to boost the industrial sector alongside the Trincomalee Harbour, which is being developed for Break bulk, Bulk cargo and industrial activities including heavy industries. The province benefits from a large tourism industry with many seaside resorts and hotels situated mainly in lagoons as well as beaches such as Pasikudah, Nilaveli, Uppuveli and Kalkudah. Historic sites and other natural attractions such as Pigeon Island, coral reefs contribute to the industry. Government and politics. Provincial council. The 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The first elections for provincial councils took place on 28 April 1988 in North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, and Uva provinces. Elections in the newly merged North-East Province were scheduled for 19 November 1988. However, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), which at that time occupied the North-East Province, rigged the elections in the north so that the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) and Eelam National Democratic Liberation Front (ENDLF), two Indian backed paramilitary groups, won all of the 36 seats in the north uncontested. However, elections did take place for the 35 seats in the east. The Sri Lanka Muslim Congress won 17 seats, EPRLF 12 seats, ENDLF 5 seats and the United National Party 1 seat. On 10 December 1988 Annamalai Varatharajah Perumal of the EPRLF became the first Chief Minister of the North-East Provincial Council. On 1 March 1990, just as the IPKF were preparing to withdraw from Sri Lanka, Permual moved a motion in the North-East Provincial Council declaring an independent Eelam. President Premadasa reacted to Permual's UDI by dissolving the provincial council and imposing direct rule on the province. The north-east was ruled directly from Colombo until May 2008 when elections were held in the demerged Eastern Province (the Northern Province continued to be governed from Colombo). References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,171	null	66	null
42651935	Gmina Dobrodzień, German Gemeinde Guttentag is an urban-rural gmina (administrative district) in Olesno County, Opole Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. Its seat is the town of Dobrodzień, which lies approximately south of Olesno and east of the regional capital Opole. The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2019 its total population is 9,877. Since 2009 the commune has been officially bilingual in German and Polish due to the large German minority in the area, many ethnic Germans have remained despite the area being transferred to Poland after World War II. Villages. The commune contains the villages and settlements of: ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; Neighbouring gminas. Gmina Dobrodzień is bordered by the gminas of Ciasna, Kolonowskie, Olesno, Ozimek, Pawonków, Zawadzkie and Zębowice. Twin towns – sister cities. Gmina Dobrodzień is twinned with: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,172	null	135	null
48349340	Bangladeshi businessman Sheikh Bashir Uddin () is a Bangladeshi businessman and the managing director of Akij-Bashir Group, an industrial conglomerate in Bangladesh. He is currently serving as an adviser to the 2024 interim government of Bangladesh. Early life. Bashir Uddin was born in 1947 in the village of Navaron in Jessore District. He belonged to a Bengali Muslim family originally from the village of Madhyadanga in Phultala, Khulna District. His father, Sheikh Akij Uddin, was the founding chairman of Akij Group. Career. He took oath as an advisor on 10 November 2024. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,173	null	200	null
48349340	Position in Bangladeshi government The attorney general for Bangladesh () is the Bangladeshi government's chief legal adviser and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. The attorney general is usually a highly respected Senior Advocate and is appointed by the ruling government. Md Asaduzzaman is the current and 17th attorney general for Bangladesh. The attorney general is the ex-officio chairman of the Bangladesh Bar Council and accordingly he performs the duties assigned to that post and empowered to participate in any reference to the Supreme Court of Bangladesh made by the President under article 106 of the Constitution and can express his own opinion. Unlike the attorney general of the United States, the attorney general of Bangladesh does not have any executive authority, and is not a political appointee; those functions are performed by the Minister of Justice. The attorney general is assisted by the several additional attorneys-general, deputy attorneys-general, and assistant attorneys-general. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;	4,558,174	null	200	null
48836395	Crime organization in South Africa The Numbers Gang is a South African crime organization that originated as an African nationalist organisation. It is believed that they are present in most South African prisons. The gang was founded in KwaZulu-Natal. The gang is divided into groups — the 26s, 27s and 28s. It is one of the oldest crime organizations in the world. It also has complex rules and a defined internal hierarchy, as well as expansive folklore. The gang is largely secretive about such topics as well as its history, leading to a shortage of verifiable information. The Numbers Gang traditionally does not operate outside of prisons. History. The Numbers Gang was started in the late 1800s, possibly for the protection of black mineworkers. The origins of the gang remain uncertain at best. In the early 20th century Mzuzephi Mathebula made headlines in the city of Durban by recruiting men to join the 28s whom by that time were also Amalayitha. Tale of creation. The likely apocryphal story of Nongoloza and Ngeleketyane is seen as the gang's origin by members. The story says that a man named Paul Mambazo became alarmed by the exploitation of miners in late 1800 South Africa. He then befriended a young Zulu boy called Nongoloza who said he was on his way to the mines to look for work, and Ngeleketyane who was a Xhosa. Paul eventually recruited 15 young men. He taught them a secret language and highway robbery. The men robbed travelers and colonial outposts. They moved from cave to cave and split themselves into two groups. Ngeleketyani with seven men who robbed by day, and Nongoloza with six men who robbed by night. Paul ordered the two men to carve their daily outlaw activities on a nearby rock which would serve as a diary. Paul then ordered the two men to visit a farm, owned by a Mr. Rabie, and to buy one of his bulls called Rooiland (Red Earth). Mr. Rabie was suspicious, and refused to sell the two men the bull. The two youths refused to leave without carrying out their order, and proceeded to stab the farmer with bayonets and then steal the bull, and slaughter it for a feast. Paul ordered the men to take the hide of the bull and press it onto the diary rock until the words from the rock were imprinted on the hide. There were now two copies of the gang's ways, and Paul explained that the bandits must follow the rules as they had been set out from the beginning. The two items were divided between the two men: Nongoloza received the hide and Ngeleketyani received the rock. The two were instructed to carry them wherever they went. The rock, however, proved too awkward to carry and one day it was accidentally dropped down a hill. It split into two pieces, one of which fell into a river. This left Ngeleketyane's gang with only half of the gang's laws. The first conflict between the two gangs took place because of this incident. The two gangs decided to embark on a joint expedition, but Nongoloza said he was sick and stayed behind. He asked one of Ngeleketyane's soldiers, Magubane, to stay behind with him. Upon returning, Ngeleketyane found Nongoloza engaged in homosexual acts with Magubane. Enraged, Ngeleketyani challenged Nongoloza to a fight. Nongoloza replied that according to the hide, sex between bandits was allowed in order to avoid contact with women. Ngeleketyani retaliated by saying that he didn't trust Nongoloza, believing he had added this law to the hide after half of the rock was lost. The two men fought until they were both drenched in blood, and Paul arrived to intervene. Paul listened to both men's sides of the story. He then told Ngeleketyane to travel to the mines to see if men were engaging in sex with one another. Ngeleketyane found that this did indeed take place, but opinions remained divided as to whether this justified Nongoloza's act. This would become the pivotal disagreement between the two gangs that persists to this day. Paul had informed the men that at the entrance of his cave was an old assegai, and if the men found the tip of the assegai rusted, it would mean that Paul had died. Due to the death of Paul, a final decision on whether sexual intercourse between men was allowed never came to pass. After Paul's death the two gangs decided to go their separate ways: Nongoloza's gang with its now eight men (including Magubane, whom he decided to take with him), and Ngeleketyani's gang with its seven. It is said that this is where the numbers "27" and "28" originated, with the number "2" symbolizing the two leaders. The gangs agree that the day and night would still be divided between them as it had always been. The gangs continued to roam the countryside until they both ended up in Point Prison in Durban. At Point Prison they encountered a group of six men, led by a Zulu man named Grey, who were "franse" (non-gangsters). The six men would sit in a circle and flip a single silver coin between them. Nongoloza demanded that the men hand over their possessions to him; they refused. Later Ngeleketyane told him that these men were skilled smugglers and gamblers who had helped him in his early days in prison. A fight broke out between Nongoloza and Ngeleketyane about the future of the gamblers. Ngeleketyane defended the gamblers against the 28s' sexual appetites, which was what Nongoloza wanted them for. After many disagreements Nongoloza finally decided that the new group would be called the "26s" also known as Izisebenzi. This name was chosen because they had six men but also because Nongoloza wanted to indicate their inferior status. Nongoloza informed Ngeleketyane that he and his men would have to answer for the actions of the 26s. Finally the three camps were formed. The 26s were responsible for gambling, smuggling and accruing wealth in general. The 28s were the warriors and responsible for fighting on behalf of all three groups, and the 27s were the guardians of gang law and the peace keepers between all the gangs. New rules and a strict code of conduct were drawn up. It was decided that when a gangster broke a rule, the blood of a warder or franse (non-gangster) must be spilled to set things right. Number. 26s. The 26s' duty is to accumulate wealth for all the numbers. The 26s have no private line and a wyfie may not join the gang. Although a member of the 26s may take a wyfie for himself, it is strictly against the laws as set out in the book of 26s. The 26s run all prisons in the province of KwaZulu-Natal and are mostly active in Durban and uMgungundlovu district of Pietermaritzburg. In the number 2 and the number 1, there is a number 1's and number 2's twelve point ring, for number 4's and 5's, but not 6's or 7's, who have an 11 point ring, unless they're number 8's, which make gang decisions according to their jurisdictions. Each rank has its own assigned office and duties which include training lower rank members in the duties and codes of the gang. 28s. The 28s are the blood line of the gang and are responsible for fighting on behalf of the three gangs (26, 27 and 28). They are divided into two lines – the gold line and the silver line. Founded by Junaid Davids. Haysom's study (1981) on prison gangs is based on Supreme Court trial records and supplemented with some interviews with ex-offenders. Schurink's paper (1989) summarises the findings of a study on prison gangs commissioned by the Department of Correctional Services. For this study, in-depth interviews were conducted with sixty prisoners, mainly Coloured men serving in St Albans and Brandvlei prisons. Prisoners were also encouraged to write about their prison experiences, providing a number of personal manuscripts. The gold line are the warriors, the descendants of Nongoloza. They fight the gang's battles. The silver line are the female, and are the descendants of Magubane. They are considered to be the sex slaves of the gold line. In the 28s it is important to prove your manhood and move up in the rankings. A member moves up the ranks through the stabbing or killing of rival gangs, prison guards, or disobedient members. Should a member stay in the lower ranks, he will be considered a woman and will be sexually abused until he proves his manhood. Recruitment into the 28s. When a new prisoner is assigned a cell he will be introduced to the person in charge of that cell, known as the "cell cleaner". The cell cleaner will welcome the new prisoner to the cell, and will either leave him alone for the evening, or will demand intercourse. The new prisoners will be observed by a senior member of the gang known as "die glas" (the binoculars). The glas' job is to conduct gang business in "die bos" (the bush), the parts of the prison where the 28s are not active. The glas will confront a potential new recruit and give him a riddle. How the new prisoner answers the riddle will determine which department of the gang he will fall under. After the glas is satisfied with the answer of the new inmate, he is given a task to become a member. This task could either be the fatal or non-fatal stabbing of another inmate or warden. The new recruit will be given a knife whose length is determined by another senior member of the gang known as the nyangi (the doctor). If the gang wants the stabbing to be fatal, the nyangi will give the new recruit a longer blade; if the gang wants a non-lethal stabbing, he will be given a shorter blade. Once the stabbing has taken place all the gang members watching will shout, "Nangempela! Die nommer is vol!" (The number is complete.) On a Sunday, the "day of rites", his ceremony is performed. He is once again ordered to stand in the middle of the room; however, this time he is surrounded by several people. The first person to approach him is the nyangi. The nyangi then takes a gold pipe and slaps it on the new recruit's right wrist, then takes a silver pipe and slaps it on the new recruit's left wrist. He then checks the recruit's pulse and declares either ""Die man se pols klop twee keer per jaar" (This man's pulse beats twice a year) or "Die man se pols klop drie keer per jaar"'" (This man's pulse beats three times a year). If he says that his pulse beats twice, it means the new recruit is being recruited into the silver line; if three times, it means he is being recruited into the gold line. The (senior member) then places a handkerchief on the floor and slips a knife under it. He stands and says to the recruit: "From today you are no longer a franse. You are a 28. You will never swear at your brother. You will never hurt your brother. You will never do anything that reflects badly on the camp. If you leave the camp, you leave by your own blood." The (magistrate) will then come forward and take out his colored stamps and give the new member his approval. The carries four stamps – white, green, red and black, which signify the four hooves on the Rooiland. The stamps signify promotion. When a member of the silver line is promoted, the landdros takes out his green and white stamp; if the member is from the gold line, he takes out the green and the red stamps. The black stamp is reserved for the death sentence. The end of the ceremony is signalled by the new recruit being marched out of the circle. The 28s then take the new recruit to the 26s and 27s. The new recruit will sleep alongside different members of the 28 gang and be told what his duties are. He will also begin to learn the history of Nongoloza and Kilikijan. It will only be a brief fragment of the story, for he is still too junior to hear the whole story. The 40s are senior but inactive due to being too old or too injured for active duty. Another reason a person could be a is because	4,558,175	null	201	null

44704152

International Kissing Day or World Kiss Day is an official holiday celebrated each year on July 6. The practice originated in the United Kingdom, and was adopted worldwide in the early 2000s. Another date, February 14, has also been identified as the International Kiss Day, as it is the romantic holiday Valentine's Day. July 6 is also the observance of the feast of Saint Valentine in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The concept is that International Kissing Day came about because many people may have forgotten the simple pleasures associated with kissing for kissing's sake, as opposed to kissing as mere social formality or prelude to other activities. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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239

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]

44704152

Creator of Shavian alphabet and Quikscript Ronald Kingsley Read (19 February 1887 – February 1975) was one of four contestants chosen in 1959 to share the prize money for the design of the Shavian alphabet, a completely new alphabet intended for the writing of English. In 1960, he was appointed sole responsible designer of the alphabet. In the early 1960s, Read produced the quarterly journal "Shaw-script", which was printed using the Shavian alphabet. In 1966, after extensive testing of Shavian with English speakers from around the world, Read introduced Quikscript, a revised form of his Shavian alphabet. Quikscript, also known as the "Read alphabet", has more ligatures than Shavian, which makes it easier to write by hand. Its appearance is more cursive than Shavian. A few days before his death, he completed a new alphabet called "Soundspell" (now "Readspel"), based, probably for increased chances of popular acceptance, on the Latin script. He was an architect. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

4,558,141

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46742609

Ívar Bárðarson (also known as Ivar Bardarson) was a Norwegian clergyman who was the Catholic Church's official representative in Greenland from 1341 to 1366. Little is known about his background or personal life. He is best known for his detailed first-hand account of the Eastern Settlement in Medieval Greenland. Bishop Hakon appointed Bárðarson an official representative of the Catholic Diocese of Bergen on 8 August 1341. His initial purpose in Greenland is unclear from historical records. Some historians believe that his goal was to register the Greenlandic churches for reorganization based on the detailed accounts that he wrote. At the time, the church owned about a third of the developed land in the colony. Bishop Árni served on the island at Garðar, Greenland, from 1315 until he died in 1347 or 1349. Until a new bishop was ordained, Bárðarson filled the vacancy at Garðar Cathedral as an official representative of the Catholic Church. Bárðarson returned to Bergen, Norway, by 1364 with information on Scandinavian Greenland. Over time, the colonists had grown increasingly isolated, and communications with the colony had greatly diminished. The Eastern Settlement had lost contact with the Western Settlement, which was being abandoned, and new sea ice was making the trip between Greenland and Iceland more perilous. He wrote that Gunnbjörn's skerries, a group of rocky islands along the eastern coast of Greenland, had once been the halfway point on voyages to the colonies, "but now ice has come down from the northeast out of the gulf of the sea so near to the aforesaid skerries, that no one without extreme peril can sail the old course, and be heard of again..." His original written report has not survived. It was translated into Danish with annotations in the early sixteenth century as "Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse", most likely by Danish Bishop Erik Valkendorf, who intended to reestablish the church in Greenland. Several manuscript copies of this Danish translation still exist. The best-preserved is the 17th-century manuscript "AM 777 a 4to" in the collection "Safn Árna Magnússonar" at the Arnamagnæan Institute. An early English translation was done by Samuel Purchas in 1625. There are several limitations to the Danish translation as a historical document. It may have been compiled from separate manuscripts by Ívar Bárðarson. It likely includes some interpolations, especially near the end, where exotic fruits are mentioned growing in Greenland. Nevertheless, it remains a significant primary source for historians, especially for the collapse of the Greenlandic Western Settlement. It is also one of only a handful of primary source documents covering interactions between the Precolumbian Norse explorers and Native Americans. The report has four sections: sailing from Norway to Greenland, an overview of fjords and church property, a description of a trip to the Western Settlement, and the overall living conditions in Greenland. According to Bárðarson, the Western Settlement had disappeared as a colony by the 14th century. The Eastern Settlement had not heard from the more remote colony, and when Bárðarson sought out colonists in the north, he found only abandoned farms. He wrote of the place, "There are no people, neither Christian nor Heathen." Feral sheep, goats, and cows descended from the Greenland livestock wandered the area. Native Americans, called "skrælingjar" by the Greenlanders, were the only people living nearby. His observations were corroborated by later archaeological excavations at "Gård Under Sandet" (Farm Beneath the Sand) where one of the feral domesticated goats, found preserved in permafrost, had lived and defecated inside an abandoned Norse home until it collapsed. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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[ 4556706, 4556708, 4556703, 4556707, 4556704, 4556705 ]

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46742609

Type of two-dimensional visual art A cartoon is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation. Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a "cartoonist", and in the second sense they are usually called an "animator". The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, beginning in "Punch" magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer – ironically at first – to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers. Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips. When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons. Fine art. In fine art, a cartoon (from and —words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard and cognates for carton) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or "modello" for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days ("giornate"). In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work. Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or "pounced" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster ("pouncing"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, Francisco Goya's tapestry cartoons, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design. As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver. Mass media. In print media, a cartoon is a drawing or series of drawings, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843, when "Punch" magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London. Sir John Tenniel—illustrator of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland—"joined "Punch" in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons. Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips. Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others. Many consider "New Yorker" cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day. Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in "The Washington Post" before creating his "Cul de Sac" comic strip. The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester "Chet" Brown's "All in Sport". "Editorial cartoons" are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe. "Comic strips", also known as "cartoon strips" in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the United States, they are not commonly called "cartoons" themselves, but rather "comics" or "funnies". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are usually referred to as "cartoonists". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Some noteworthy cartoonists of humorous comic strips are Scott Adams, Charles Schulz, E. C. Segar, Mort Walker and Bill Watterson. Political. Political cartoons are like illustrated editorials that serve visual commentaries on political events. They offer subtle criticism which are cleverly quoted with humour and satire to the extent that the criticized does not get embittered. The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is regarded as a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th century England. George Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s. The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon. George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s. His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day. Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning. His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down. Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast's cartoons. In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London. In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe. Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect. The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back. Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of "Black Friday", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation. To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination. Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law. Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation. Scientific. Cartoons such as "xkcd" have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology. For example, the cartoon "Wonderlab" looked at daily life in the chemistry lab. In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris. Many of Gary Larson's cartoons have a scientific flavor. Comic books. The first comic-strip cartoons were of a humorous tone. Notable early humor comics include the Swiss comic-strip book "Mr. Vieux Bois" (1837), the British strip "Ally Sloper" (first appearing in 1867) and the American strip "Yellow Kid" (first appearing in 1895). In the United States in the 1930s, books with cartoons were magazine-format "American comic books" with original material, or occasionally reprints of newspaper comic strips. In Britain in the 1930s, adventure comic magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. DC Thomson issued the first "The Dandy Comic" in December 1937. It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children's comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful. Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product "The Beano" in 1938. On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication. Animation. Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, "cartoon" came to refer to animation, and the word "cartoon" is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons. While "animation" designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word "cartoon" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. ;templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" / ;

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Software license allowing source code to be used, modified, and shared Open-source licenses are software licenses that allow content to be used, modified, and shared. They facilitate free and open-source software (FOSS) development. Intellectual property (IP) laws restrict the modification and sharing of creative works. Free and open-source licenses use these existing legal structures for an inverse purpose. They grant the recipient the rights to use the software, examine the source code, modify it, and distribute the modifications. These criteria are outlined in the Open Source Definition. After 1980, the United States began to treat software as a literary work covered by copyright law. Richard Stallman founded the free software movement in response to the rise of proprietary software. The term "open source" was used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI), founded by free software developers Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond. "Open source" emphasizes the strengths of the open development model rather than software freedoms. While the goals behind the terms are different, open-source licenses and free software licenses describe the same type of licenses. The two main categories of open-source licenses are permissive and copyleft. Both grant permission to change and distribute software. Typically, they require attribution and disclaim liability. Permissive licenses come from academia. Copyleft licenses come from the free software movement. Copyleft licenses require derivative works to be distributed with the source code and under a similar license. Since the mid-2000s, courts in multiple countries have upheld the terms of both types of license. Software developers have filed cases as copyright infringement and as breaches of contract. Background. Intellectual property (IP) is a legal category that treats creative output as property, comparable to private property. Legal systems grant the owner of an IP the right to restrict access in many ways. Owners can sell, lease, gift, or license their properties. Multiple types of IP law cover software including trademarks, patents, and copyrights. Most countries, including the United States (US), have created copyright laws in line with the Berne Convention with slight variations. These laws assign a copyright whenever a work is released in any fixed format. Under US copyright law, the initial release is considered an original work. The creator, or their employer, holds the copyright to this original work and therefore has the exclusive right to make copies, release modified versions, distribute copies, perform publicly, or display the work publicly. Modified versions of the original work are derivative works. When a creator modifies an existing work, they hold the copyright to their modifications. Unless the original work was in the public domain, a derivative work can only be distributed with the permission of every copyright holder. In 1980, the US government amended the law to treat software as a literary work. Software released after this point was restricted by IP laws. At that time, American activist and programmer Richard Stallman was working as a graduate student at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Stallman witnessed fragmentation among software developers. He blamed the spread of proprietary software and closed models of development. To push back against these trends, Stallman founded the free software movement. Throughout the 1980s, he started the GNU Project to create a free operating system, wrote essays on freedom, founded the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and wrote several free software licenses. The FSF used existing intellectual property laws for the opposite of their intended goal of restriction. Instead of imposing restrictions, free software explicitly provided freedoms to the recipient. In the 90s, the term "open source" was coined as an alternative label for free software, and specific criteria were laid out to determine which licenses covered free and open-source software. Two active members of the free software community, Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond, founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI). At Debian, Perens had proposed the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG). The DFSG were drafted to provide a more specific and objective standard for the FOSS that Debian would host in their repositories. The OSI adopted the DSFG and used them as the basis for their Open Source Definition. The Free Software Foundation maintains a rival set of criteria, the Free Software Definition. Historically, these three organizations and their sets of criteria have been the notable authorities in determining whether a license covers free and open-source software. There is significant diversity among individual licenses but little difference between the rival definitions. The three definitions each require that people receiving covered software must be able to use, modify, and redistribute the covered work. Eric S. Raymond was a proponent of the term "open source" over "free software". He viewed open source as more appealing to businesses and more reflective of the tangible advantages of FOSS development. One of Raymond's goals was to expand the existing hacker community to include large commercial developers. In "The Cathedral and the Bazaar", Raymond compared open-source development to the bazaar, an open-air public market. He argued that aside from ethics, the open model provided advantages that proprietary software could not replicate. Raymond focused heavily on feedback, testing, and bug reports. He contrasted the proprietary model where small pools of secretive workers carried out this work with the development of Linux where the pool of testers included potentially the entire world. He summarized this strength as "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow." The OSI succeeded in bringing open-source development to corporate developers including Sun Microsystems, IBM, Netscape, Mozilla, Apache, Apple Inc., Microsoft, and Nokia. These companies released code under existing licenses and drafted their own to be approved by the OSI. Types. Open-source licenses are categorized as copyleft or permissive. Copyleft licenses require derivative works to include source code under a similar license. Permissive licenses do not, and therefore the code can be used within proprietary software. Copyleft can be further divided into strong and weak depending on whether they define derivative works broadly or narrowly. Licenses focus on copyright law, but code is also covered by other forms of IP. Major open-source licenses written since the late 1990s contain patent grants. These open-source patent grants cover the patents held by the developers. Software patents cover ideas and, rather than a specific implementation, cover "any" implementation of a claim. Patent claims give the holder the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing products based on the idea. Because patents grant the right to exclude rather than the right to create, it is possible to have a patent on an idea but still be unable to legally implement it if the invention relies on another patented idea. Thus, open-source patent grants can offer permission only from covered patents. They cannot guarantee that a third party has not patented any concepts embodied in the code. The older permissive licenses do not discuss patents directly and offer only implicit patent grants in their offers to use or sell covered material. Newer copyleft licenses and the 2004 Apache License offer explicit patent grants and limited protection from patent litigation. These patent retaliation clauses protect developers by terminating grants for any party who initiates a patent lawsuit regarding covered software. Trademarks are the only form of IP not shared by free and open-source software. Trademarks on FOSS function the same as any other trademark. A trademark is a design that identifies the distinct source of a product. Because they distinguish products, the same designs can be used in different fields where there is no risk of confusing similar sources. To give up control of a trademark would result in the loss of that trademark. Therefore, no open-source license freely offers the use of a trademark. Trademark restrictions can overlap copyrights and affect material otherwise freely available. The US Supreme Court described using trademark law to restrict public domain content as "mutant copyright". In "Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp.", the court "caution[ed] against misuse or over-extension of trademark" law without providing a firm decision on those mutant copyrights. Trademark overlap can leave open-source and free content projects vulnerable to a "hostile takeover" if outside parties file for trademarks on derivative works. Notably, Andrey Duskin applied for trademarks on the SCP Foundation, a collaborative writing project, when creating derivative works based on SCP stories. Permissive. Permissive licenses, also known as academic licenses, allow recipients to use, modify, and distribute software with no obligation to provide source code. Institutions created these licenses to distribute their creations to the public. Permissive licenses are usually short, often less than a page of text. They impose few conditions. Most include disclaimers of warranty and obligations to credit authors. A few include explicit provisions for patents, trademarks, and other forms of intellectual property. The University of California, Berkeley created the first open-source license when they began distributing their Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating system. The BSD license and its later variations permit modification and distribution of the covered software. The BSD licenses brought the concept of academic freedom of ideas to computing. Early academic software authors had shared code based on implied promises. Berkeley made these concepts explicit with clear disclaimers for liability and warranty along with conditions, or clauses, for redistribution. The original had four clauses, but subsequent versions have further reduced the restrictions. As a result, it's common to specify if the covered software uses a 2-clause or 3-clause version. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created an academic license based on the BSD original. The MIT license clarified the conditions by making them more explicit. For example, the MIT license describes the right to sublicense. One of the strengths of open-source development is the continual process where developers can build on the derivative works of each other and combine their projects into collective works. Explicitly making covered code sublicensable provides a legal advantage when tracking the chain of authorship. The BSD and MIT are template licenses that can be adapted to any project. They are widely adapted and used by many FOSS projects. The Apache License is more comprehensive and explicit. The Apache Software Foundation wrote it for their Apache HTTP Server. Version 2, published in 2004, offers legal advantages over simple licenses and provides similar grants. While the BSD and MIT licenses offer an implicit patent grant, the Apache License includes a section on patents with an explicit grant from contributors. Additionally, it is one of the few permissive licenses with a patent retaliation clause. Patent retaliation, or patent suspension, clauses take effect if a licensee initiates patent infringement litigation on covered code. In that situation, the patent grants are revoked. These clauses protect against patent trolling. Copyleft. Copyleft licenses require source code to be distributed with software and require the source code to be made available under a similar license. Like the permissive licenses, most copyleft licenses require attribution. Most, including the GPL, disclaim implied warranties. Copyleft uses the restrictions of IP law—contrary to their usual purpose—to mandate that the code remain open. The term and it's related slogan, "All rights reversed", had been previously used in a playful manner by the "Principia Discordia" and Tiny BASIC; the modern usage begins with Richard Stallman's efforts to create a free operating system. In 1984, programmer Don Hopkins mailed a manual to Stallman with a "Copyleft Ⓛ" sticker. Stallman, who was working on the GNU operating system, adopted the term. An early version of copyleft licensing was used for the 1985 release of GNU Emacs. The term became associated with the FSF's later reciprocal licenses, notably the GNU General Public License (GPL). Traditional, proprietary software licenses are written with the goal of increasing profit, but Stallman wrote the GPL to increase the body of available free software. His reciprocal licenses offer the rights to use, modify, and distribute the work on the condition that people must release derivative works under a license offering these same freedoms. Software built on a copyleft base must come with the source code, and the source code must be available under the same or a similar license. This offers protection against proprietary software consuming code without giving back. Richard Stallman stated that "the central idea of copyleft is to use copyright law, but flip it over to serve the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of a means of privatizing software, [copyright] becomes a means of keeping software free." Free software licenses are also open-source software licenses. The separate terms free software and open-source software reflect different values rather than a legal difference. Both movements

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46742609

American author (1925–1998) Ladee Hubbard (born 1970) is an American author and English professor at Tulane University. Her debut novel, "The Talented Ribkins" won multiple awards. She released its prequel, "The Rib King", in 2021. Hubbard has received a Berlin Prize and a Radcliffe Institute Fellowship. Early life. Hubbard was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her mother found work as a lawyer on Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands, so she spent some of her childhood in the Virgin Islands, and spent summers in Florida with her grandparents. Hubbard has lived in New Orleans since 2003. She earned her bachelor's degree from Princeton University, and studied at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where she received her Master of Fine Arts in creative writing. She has a PhD in Folklore and Mythology from the University of California, Los Angeles. Work. Hubbard began work on her first novel, "The Talented Ribkins", while studying at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The book won the Ernest J. Gaines Award for Literary Excellence and the Hurston-Wright Legacy Award for Debut Novel, and Hubbard herself won the Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award. The central characters of the story each possess odd superpowers. Protagonist Johnny Ripkins is capable of drawing a map of any place regardless of whether he has any firsthand knowledge. Ripkins begins the novel on the run, and Hubbard has said that "debt and paying back what you owe" as motivating factors inspired her. The odd powers were influenced by W. E. B. Du Bois's idea of the talented tenth and common misinterpretations of the concept. "The Rib King", her second novel, is a revenge story set in the early 20th century in a fictional city based on Chicago, Illinois. It is a prequel to her debut novel. The first half follows the story of Mr. Sitwell, the Black groundskeeper for the White Barclay family. The Barclays sell bottled barbecue sauce with a cartoonish version of Sitwell—the "Rib King"—on the label. The book focuses on racism, inequality, the Black middle class, and unpunished violence. Released in 2022, "The Last Suspicious Holdout", is a collection of short stories, all set in the 1990s to early 2000s in a mostly Black suburb. The stories were written over a period several years beginning when Barack Obama was elected as the United States' first Black president. Hubbard says the stories reflect her experience growing up in "the post-civil rights era" and "the resiliency and artistry" in the Black community. Critic Mike Peed noted how the stories chart personal and political traumas that are intertwined. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

4,558,145

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Fictional product, created for movies or TV A fictional brand is a nonexistent brand depicted in movies, television shows, books, comics, or music. The fictional brand may be designed to imitate, satirize, or differentiate itself from a real corporate brand. Using branded products in fictional media requires permission from the trademark owner. Fictional brands can overcome situations where the creators do not want pay for permission, where a trademark owner is unwilling to license their brand, or where the product is shown in a negative light. More recently, fictional brands have been used for commercial purposes through the process of reverse product placement. Consumer attachment to those brands in the fictional world may be leveraged through “defictionalisation” or “productisation” in the real world. It has been suggested that the fictional brands represent brand potential rather than brand reality; they are in effect, “protobrands” that can be leveraged and transformed into registered trademarks which can derive revenue for their owners through reverse product placement or, more accurately, reverse brand placement. Examples include Harry Potter’s Bertie Botts’ Every Flavour Beans, now available as real candy manufactured by the Jelly Belly Company; Duff Beer, a beer brand now available for consumption in Europe which initially appeared in "The Simpsons"; and Staples' Dunder Mifflin paper, from TV show, "The Office". Purposes. For fictional media to use a trademarked product, it needs an agreement with the trademark's owner. Many movies and television shows opt to use prominent but nonexistent brands. Some are tied to specific fictional universes, like the Big Kahuna Burger fast food restaurants in Quentin Tarantino's films, but many appear in unrelated properties. For example, the fictional cigarette Morleys were created to avoid paying royalties to Marlboro when actors are filmed smoking. They first appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho", and have since been used in many films and shows including "The Twilight Zone", "Naked City", "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "Friends", "Perry Mason", "Curb Your Enthusiasm" "The X-Files", and "Mission: Impossible". Fictional brands offer more realism than unbranded objects because they have packaging, logos, and aesthetic designs similar to real-world products. The most well-known fictional brands, like Wonka Bars, have brand recognition comparable to actual products. The demand for Duff Beer was so high that multiple breweries sold "Duff" beers until legally blocked by Fox Broadcasting Company. Fox partnered with Breweries to sell Duff beer in markets that did not have strong protection for fictional products, starting in Chile and later expanding into other parts of South America and Europe. Trademarks have been granted to prominent fictional brands. Trademark protection has its origin in establishing signifiers that link products to their manufacturers. The mark allows a consumer to distinguish high-quality products from reputable manufacturers. In the United States, court rulings in the 1980s extended trademark protection of fiction to cover characters, settings, and objects from the fictional universe. This allowed a trademark to cover products and services that are not available to real customers. For example, a restaurateur filed for a trademark on and attempted to open "THE KRUSTY KRAB" seafood restaurants in California in 2014. Viacom sued, and in 2017, the Southern District of Texas ruled that the restaurant would violate Viacom's trademarks for "SpongeBob SquarePants", even though Viacom only ever planned to depict a fictional Krusty Krab and had no plans to open a physical restaurant. Some films and shows incorporate brands as "characters" in the story. The quirky brands of Tanrantino's films are juxtaposed with scenes of extreme violence. Set decorator Sandy Reynolds-Wasco says that an object like Tarantino's Red Apple Cigarettes, with its prominent grinning worm emerging from an apple, can "soften the characters, even among the incredibly bloody scenes". In the HBO series "Succession", the fictional family business "Waystar" is used to characterize the Roy family who run it. The science fiction series "Severance" introduces the fictional "Lumon" brand and intentionally presents it in a negative light, as cold and dystopian. Well-known fictional brands. Acme. The Acme Corporation is a fictional manufacturer of a vast range of products. The Acme products first appeared in silent films, but are most associated with cartoons, especially those of Warner Bros. There are many backronyms to explain the word, but Acme is Greek for "zenith" or "peak". During the Second Industrial Revolution, "Acme" was used as a brand name for many mass-produced consumer goods, in part for the benefit of appearing at the front of alphabetical listings like a telephone directorys or mail order catalogs. Acme products are known to fail in outlandish ways that result in cartoon violence. Duff. | align = right | caption_align = center | total_width = 220 | image1 = Duff beverage GmbH beer.jpg | alt1 = Can reading The Legendary Duff Beer Bier Cerveza | caption1 = German | image2 = Australian Duff beer can.jpg | alt2 = Can reading Duff Beer brewed in Australia | caption2 = Australian | footer = Unofficial cans of "Duff" beer Duff Beer began as a fictional brand in "The Simpsons". Beers using the Duff branding have been brewed in a number of countries, resulting in legal battles with varying results. An official version is sold in three variations near the Simpsons Ride at Universal Studios. In 2015, 20th Century Fox, the producer of "The Simpsons", began selling licensed Duff beer in Chile, with a view to driving out brandjacking. In 2016, "Time" included Duff Beer in a list of the most influential fictional companies of all time. Finder-Spyder. Finder-Spyder is a fictional Web search engine that appears in numerous television shows, used in the same manner as the fictitious 555 telephone number in TV and film. It has been called "an unofficial, open source stand-in for Google and its competitors" (used as a legality-free alternative to a brand-name product), and "the most popular search engine in the TV universe." Finder-Spyder appears as a top 10 pick in "best fictional brand" lists by various online media, along with Oceanic Airlines, Morley cigarettes, Acme Corporation, and others. Morley. Morley is a fictional brand of cigarettes with packaging that resembles Marlboro cigarettes. The name "Morley" is a reference to "Marleys", a once-common nickname for Marlboro cigarettes. Television programs began using Morleys in an era where Tobacco companies were allowed to sponsor television shows and pay for product placement. If no company agreed on a deal for product placement, producers would use a non-branded product like the fictional Morleys. Morleys are produced by The Earl Hays Press, a Hollywood prop packaging service. Pear. Sitcom shows on the TV channel Nickelodeon often parody tech company Apple and its products by using fake tech products from the fictional “Pear” company - such as the PearPhone (a parody of the iPhone) and the PearPad (a parody of the iPad). These parodies would often appear in the Nickelodeon sitcoms iCarly, Victorious, Sam & Cat and Henry Danger. Wonka. In 1964, Roald Dahl wrote Charlie and the Chocolate Factory set within the fictional Wonka Chocolate Factory. The story included several fictional candy products including the Everlasting Gobstopper and the Wonka Bar. The 1971 musical Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory was an adaptation of Dahl's work funded by Quaker Oats who also produced a variety of Wonka candy through their subsidiary Sunline. These candy products were largely unsuccessful and Quaker sold off Sunline by 1972. Sunline continued to make Wonka branded candy and was later acquired by Nestle. Although initially involved in the musical, Dahl left the project and disowned the 1971 film. After his death, Dahl's family became involved with a second film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). This again featured Wonka branded products.

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French sociologist Bertrand Méheust (12 July 1947) is a French writer, specializing in parapsychology. He is a retired professor of philosophy and has a doctorate in sociology. He is a member of the steering committee of Institut Métapsychique International. Personal life. Bertrand Méheust was born in 1947. He grew up near Diges, Yonne, in north-central France. As a child, he was influenced Jules Verne's novels and the 1950s UFO sightings in France. He credits a 1971 meeting with French writer Aimé Michel in motivating him to pursue studies in philosophy. Méheust earned a doctorate of sociology from Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University in 1997. Work. In 1978, Bertrand Méheust released the book, "Science Fiction et Soucoupes Volantes" ("Science Fiction and Flying Saucers"). The book raised the question of whether science fiction anticipated the UFO phenomenon. Méheust found that pulp magazines wrote about and illustrated fictional flying saucers decades before the initial 1947 wave of reports. The book is regularly cited by skeptics who see it as evidence for the Psychosocial UFO hypothesis. Méhuest was influenced by psychoanalyst Carl Jung, author of "Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies" (1959). In 1999, his two volume academic thesis "Somnambulisme et médiumnité" ("Sleepwalking and mediumship") was published. The book takes stock of controversies raised by parapsychology and psychology. It covers the history of research, theories, and concepts around hidden human potential going back to the 1700s. Méheust is a leading French expert in metaphysics. From this metaphysical perspective, he wrote the book "Devenez savants: découvrez les sorciers" about the study of psychological and paranormal phenomenon. It is a response to "Debunked!"—"Devenez sorciers, devenez savants" in the original French—a skeptical criticism of pseudosciences by physicist Georges Charpak. Méheust has argued that the widespread modern Western rejection of the types of occult phenomenon recorded in previous centuries and other parts of the world has caused those phenomenon to become socially impossible. According to Méheust, a culture will create social practices that determine what is possible or impossible within that culture. The scientific consensus is that there is not sufficient evidence to support the existence of psi phenomena.

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62

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46742609

Beauty standard based on digitally altered photographs Instagram face is a beauty standard based on the filters and influencers popular on Instagram. An "Instagram face" has catlike eyes, long lashes, a small nose, high cheekbones, full lips, and a blank expression. Digital filters manipulate photographs and video to create an idealized image that, according to critics, has resulted in an unrealistic and homogeneous beauty standard. According to Jia Tolentino, the face is "distinctly white but ambiguously ethnic". The face has been described as a racial composite of different peoples. While based on digital filters, the look is achieved in person using heavy applications of makeup or cosmetic surgery. Plastic surgery, Botox injections, and injectable filler have significantly increased in popularity since the rise of digital filters. Influencers market makeup products designed to recreate the look. In 2018, Americans underwent 7 million neurotoxin injections and 2.5 million filler injections and spent $16.5 billion on cosmetic surgery. 92% of the latter was performed on women. Botox usage has also been on the rise. In 2019, "The New Yorker" referred to this phenomenon as "Instagram Face," identifying Kim Kardashian as its "patient zero." Similarly, her younger sister Kylie Jenner significantly impacted the trend with her 2015 lip filler confession, which acted as a catalyst, introducing Juvéderm to a new generation. In 2024, cosmetic surgeon Paul Banwell said, "People used to come to see me asking to look like a particular celebrity, but many patients come to me now wanting to look like the filtered version of themselves." The increasing popularity of cosmetic surgeries towards a homogeneous ideal has resulted in the emergence of the "goopcore" sub-genre of body horror. The sub-genre combines graphic violence with body modifications from the beauty industry. Allie Rowbottom's goopcore novel "Aesthetica" centers around an influencer attempting to undo years of plastic surgery with a new experimental procedure. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Urdu language newspaper in India Taasir is one of the leading, multi-editions and highly circulated National Urdu daily of India. First edition of this newspaper was launched on 5th January 2013 from Patna, the capital city of Bihar state, India. Taasir is currently being published mostly from the capitals and the districts of mass Urdu readers of twelve states of India with is total fourteen editions which include Delhi, the capital city of India, Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra, Kolkata the capital city of West Bengal and Howrah (District of West Bengal), Chennai (Capital of Tamilnadu), Patna ( Capital of Bihar state), Muzaffarpur and Bhagalpur (Districts of Bihar), Ranchi, the capital city of Jharkhand State, Bengaluru (Capital of Karnataka), Guwahati (Capital of Assam), Lucknow(Capital of Uttar Pradesh), Bhopal (Capital of Madhya Pradesh), Gangtok (Capital of Sikkim) Overview. Taasir Delhi, Ranchi, Patna, Muzaffarpur editions are RNI-certified circulations. Central Bureau of Communication [URL] (Under Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India), erstwhile DAVP, has already empanelled Delhi, Ranchi, Patna, Muzaffarpur, Howrah, Chennai, Bangalore, Guwahati, Mumbai, Bhagalpur, Gangtok, and Bhopal editions of Taasir and has fixed advertisements rates for Central and State Government's advertisements. For corporates and political clients special commercial rates have been mentioned on Taasir website [URL] Some of the Taasir's Corporate/PSU clients which buy space to advertise their brands in Taasir. Reliance, Vishal Megamart, V2 Mart, Kolkata Bazar, GOOGLE, SBI, RBI, Bank of India, Gramin Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, HDFC, UCO Bank, Central Bank of India, LIC India, ZEE Telefilms Ltd, SONY Entertainments, Colours, Godrej, KIIT, CIT, SRM Group of institutions, GOAL Institute, MMHAPU, IGNOU, Maulana Azad National Urdu Central University, R P S group of Institutions, D Y Patil group of Institutions, Jaisawal Guess Papers, Brilliant Guess Papers, Aditya Vision, BSNL, TVS, HONDA, Bhutani Infra Group, AIR INDIA Airport Authority of India, NTPC, Tanishq, Kalyan Jwelers, Malabar Jwelers, Durga Electronics, J P furnitures, PARAS Hospital, Jeevak Heart Hospital, Medanta Hospital etc. Online portals [URL] epaper editions of Taasir is available in Urdu, Hindi, and English languags simultaneously. Besides India, the portal and epapers have mass regular readership in the USA, the UK, Europe, Canada, UAE, Singapore, China, South Africa, Qatar, Australia, Pakistan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh etc. The newspaper especially covers topics related to political, social, economic, sports, cultural, women and children, business, entertainment, health, general awareness, science and technology, fashion, current affairs and history around the globe. The management of the Taasir group of newspapers established a huge newspaper printing plant at the capital city of Patna in the State of Bihar and left most of its competitors far behind using modern printing technology. Title source link [URL] History. "Taasir" [URL] was first launched in Patna. The first issue was published on 5 January 2013 and was distributed only in the city area. The distribution grew and reached twelve Indian states, with 14 editions: Patna, Muzaffarpur, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Gangtok, Ranchi, Guwahati, Howrah, Chennai, Mumbai, Lucknow, Bhopal, Kolkata, and Bhagalpur. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; [URL]

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Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was . It was formed on 15 May 1938 in Kyoto as a B-class square division, simultaneously with the 106th Division. The nucleus for the formation was the 16th Division headquarters. The division was originally subordinated to the Central China Expeditionary Army. Action. The division landed in Shanghai on 24 June 1938, and was immediately sent to the Dabie Mountains and Battle of Wuhan through Anqing. From March 1939, a small part of the division participated in the Battle of Nanchang. After the Central China Expeditionary Army was abolished, the division was reassigned to Thirteenth Army. In the aftermath of the Doolittle Raid 18 April 1942, the unit participated in the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign. In December 1942, the 138th Infantry Regiment was transferred to the 31st Division, therefore the "116th division" became a triangular division. In November 1943, the division fought in the Battle of Changde, and from May 1944 - in the Battle of Changsha (1944). In October 1944, it was transferred to Twentieth Army and take a part in the Defense of Hengyang as a part of Operation Ichi-Go. During the intensive 40-day assault of Chinese positions, the division has suffered major losses but was able to capture the city. From March 1945, it also participated in the Battle of West Henan–North Hubei with the help of the newly created 86th Independent Mixed Brigade. By the day of the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945, the division was still in Hengyang. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. The division was formed in 1939 and was disbanded in 1945. Its call sign was the . The "35th Division" was activated at Tokyo 7 February 1939, simultaneously with 32nd, 33rd, 34th, 36th and 37th divisions. History. The division was deployed to China in May 1939 to perform rear area security duties in the Second Sino-Japanese War. It initially operated in Shanxi and northern Henan. From some time in 1940 to March 1944 the "35th Division" was stationed in the Kaifeng area of North China. The division was reorganised between 1 May 1943 from standard to garrison division, and this led to the artillery regiment and reconnaissance regiment being removed. The engineer and transport regiments were also downgraded to companies and the sanitation company was replaced by a field hospital. After reorganization, the division was assigned to the 12th army, and participated in the mop-up operations in the Taihang Mountains. In July 1943, it was reinforced by 54th infantry brigade from the 59th division. The "35th Division" was selected for service in western New Guinea in early April 1944. The 219th Regiment was detached to garrison the St. Andrew Strait and sailed from Yokohama on 6 April 1944. The divisional headquarters also sailed with the 219th Regiment, but was to trans-ship at Palau and continue to New Guinea. The remainder of the division left Shanghai on 17 April 1944 in the Take Ichi convoy. The convoy was attacked by United States Navy submarines on 26 April 1944 and 6 May 1944, and was diverted to Halmahera in the Netherlands East Indies to prevent further attacks. Transports carrying elements of the division were sunk during the 6 May 1944 attack, and only four of the division's six infantry battalions which embarked in the convoy and a single artillery battery remained at the end of the voyage. The "35th Division" was moved forward from Halmahera to Sorong in small ships during May 1944. The 219th regiment was also successfully transferred to New Guinea, though a battalion was left behind to garrison the St. Andrew Strait. Majority of 221st regiment was assigned to garrison Manokwari. Elements of the "35th Division" subsequently fought in the Battle of Biak on 27 May 1944 (resulting in annihilation of Japanese garrison) and the Battle of Sansapor on 30 July 1944 on the Bird's Head Peninsula. As a result, the Japanese defenses at Manokwari were isolated as of September 1944. The Japanese forces retreated to a final defensive perimeter around Sorong in May 1945, where they thrived until the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945, thanks to abundant local supplies of Sago-derived foodstuffs. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was . It was formed on 12 October 1937 in Utsunomiya, Tochigi as a B-class square division. The nucleus for the formation was the 14th Division headquarters. It was originally subordinated to the Central China Area Army. First formation. In October 1937 the division was subordinated to the Tenth Army and sent to ongoing Battle of Shanghai. It departed from Osaka 30 October and arrived in Hangzhou Bay on 5 November 1937, spending the next five days unloading, due to faulty landing craft. It also participated in Battle of Nanking in December 1937. In February 1938, the division was transferred to the North China Area Army and participated in the Battle of Xuzhou and Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan. Later performing a garrison duties in the North China, the division was demobilized in July 1939. Second formation. Because the 26th and 62nd divisions were sent to Pacific War, the 114th was reformed 10 July 1944 in Linfen, simultaneously with the 115th, 117th and 118th divisions. As a security (class C) division, its backbone consisted of independent infantry battalions, and division lacked an artillery regiment. The nucleus for the formation was the 3rd Independent Infantry Brigade in Yuncheng and 69th division in North China. The unit was originally assigned to the First Army. It then garrisoned the Linfen area of Shanxi along the Tongpu Railroad, taking over all of the 69th Division garrisoned territory. By the start of Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945, the "114th division" was on move in Tianjin. After World War II ended with the surrender of Japan 15 August 1945, a significant fraction of its men have continued to fight under command of the warlord Yan Xishan in the ongoing Chinese Civil War. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed 10 July 1944 in Datong as a type-C(hei) security division, simultaneously with the 114th, 115th and 117th divisions. The nucleus for the formation was the 9th independent infantry brigade. The division was initially assigned to the 13th army. Action. In April 1945, the "118th division" was ordered to strengthen the garrisons in Central China and then in Shanghai area. Therefore, by the day of surrender of Japan 15 August 1945, the division was spread through Tianjin and Zhangjiakou. After the cessation of hostilities, the "118th division" has sailed from Tanggu District 14 April 1946, landed in Sasebo 18 April 1956, and has completed dissolution 21 April 1946. Notes and references. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . The "50th Division" was activated in Taipei 3 May 1944, utilizing a building previously used by 48th division, and was one of only two Japanese divisions (together with 66th division) ever raised in Taiwan. The "50th division" had employed the casualties of the 48th division transported back to Taiwan to form the divisional core. The "50th division" was permanently assigned to the Japanese Tenth Area Army (and to the 40th army in the time it was based on Taiwan in early 1945). During the 1945, the "50th division" had fortified in Kaohsiung on the south coast of Taiwan in anticipation of the Allies landing. It met the day of surrender of Japan 15 August 1945 without engaging in actual combat and was demobilized shortly afterwards. Reference and further reading. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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44834626

Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed 10 July 1944 in Xinxiang as a type-C(hei) security division, simultaneously with the 114th, 115th and 118th divisions. The nucleus for the formation was the 14th Independent Infantry Brigade. The division was initially assigned to the Twelfth Army. Action. Although slated for the Battle of West Henan–North Hubei, the "117th division" was reassigned to the 44th army and sent to Taonan in April 1945. During the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, the "117th division" was tasked with the defense of Liaoyuan and has surrendered to Red Army in Gongzhuling. The last soldiers were returned to Japan only in 1963. Notes and references. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

4,558,155

[ 4556718 ]

160

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44834626

Military unit The was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . The "49th Division" was formed 6 January 1944 in Seoul, around a nucleus formed from the 64th infantry brigade and the headquarters of the 20th division. The headquarters were located in Nara. About 2% of the soldiers were Korean locals. In May 1944, the "49th division" was subordinated to the Japanese Burma Area Army and ordered to Burma, reaching the ports of Singapore and Saigon in June 1944. During the transfer, two vessels were sunk, resulting in about 1600 deaths. On arrival in Burma, the 3rd Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 153rd Infantry Regiment were sent to south-west Burma to protect local oil fields. The 2nd Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 168th Infantry Regiment were assigned to the 33rd army for a delaying action. During the first week of March 1945, this detachment attempted to defend the vital communications centre of Meiktila against a complete Indian Infantry Division with a brigade of tanks. The detachment was almost wiped out, with only remnants of the 168th Regiment surviving. During the second week of March, they joined the HQ of the division, the HQ and 1st Battalion of the 49th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 106th Infantry Regiment in attempts to recover Meiktila. Their attacks could not be coordinated with those of the other formations of 33rd Army and were broken off at the end of the month. During the first week in April, the division suffered further losses in attempts to hold a position near Pyawbwe. After the survivors made their way to Southern Burma, they were involved in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Sittang Bend. The division was still occupying fortified positions on the east bank of Sittang River when the surrender of Japan took place on 15 August 1945. Reference and further reading. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Mobile reserve divisions. 221st division. Military unit 222nd division. Military unit 224th division. Military unit 225th division. Military unit 229th division. Military unit 230th division. Military unit 231st division. Military unit 234th division. Military unit Coastal defense divisions. 303rd division. Military unit 308th division. Military unit 312th division. Military unit 316th division. Military unit 320th division. Military unit The "320th division" has completed organization 25 July 1945 in Daegu, performing a police duties from Daegu to Seoul. After the start of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945, the "320th division" was ordered to move north to Wonsan, but did not complete the move due to the surrender of Japan 15 August 1945. 321st division. Military unit 322nd division. Military unit 344th division. Military unit 351st division. Military unit 354th division. Military unit 355th division. Military unit Notes and references. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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The were a class of eight second-class destroyers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Background. The medium-sized "Wakatake"-class destroyers were a follow-on to the as part of the Imperial Japanese Navy's 8-6 Fleet Program from fiscal 1921 as a lower cost accompaniment to the larger s. The class was originally planned to consist of thirteen vessels, but due to the Washington Naval Treaty, as well as budgetary limitations, the orders for the last four were cancelled in 1922, with the final number being reduced to eight when "No.14" was also cancelled. The "Wakatake" class was the last class to be rated "second class" and all future destroyers were designed larger. It was planned that the "Wakatake"-class ships should have names, but upon completion they were given numbers. This proved to be extremely unpopular with the crews and was a constant source of confusion in communications, so in 1928, names were assigned. Design. The "Wakatake"-class destroyers were essentially slightly modified "Momi"-class ships with 50 tons additional displacement and a deeper draft to improve handling characteristics in heavy seas, particularly against rolling. Weaponry layout (with the exception of added AA armaments), general arrangement and silhouette were all identical with the "Momi" class. As with the "Momi" class, a number of types of steam turbines were used for propulsion. "Asagao" was built with Parsons impulse turbines, "Yūgao" with Escher Wyss & Cie Zoelly turbines, and the remaining vessels with Brown-Curtis turbines. The armament for the "Wakatake"-class was identical to that of the "Momi" class. The main battery consisted of three Type 3 120 mm 45 caliber naval guns in single mounts, with two twin Type 6 torpedo launchers. Anti-aircraft protection was provided by two 7.7mm machine guns. After the start of the Pacific War, one of the Type 3 guns was replaced by two triple-mount Type 96 25-mm cannons, although some vessels had three twin-mounts and two single-mounts instead. The minesweeping gear was replaced by 36 to 48 depth charges with four launchers. Some of the vessels also were fitted with a Type 13 radar. Operational history. The small displacement of the "Wakatake"-class limited their utility as fleet escorts, and as with the "Momi"-class, they were mainly used in Chinese coastal waters, where their shallow draft made them suitable for operations in rivers and coastal waters. On 15 September 1932, capsized due to poor stability and sank north of Keelung near Taiwan. In April 1940 was re-rated as "Patrol Boat No. 46", with considerably reduced armament and the removal of one boiler, which reduced her speed to only 18 knots. Of the remaining six units, three ("Wakatake", "Kuretake", and "Sanae") were assigned to Destroyer Division 13 under the Kure Naval District, and patrolled the Seto Inland Sea and the Bungo Strait on antisubmarine patrols. The other three ("Asagao", "Fuyō" and "Karukaya") were assigned to Destroyer Division 32 under the Chinkai Guard District, which was assigned to patrol the Tsushima Strait screening maritime traffic in the Tsushima Straits. From 10 April 1942, the 1st Surface Escort Division of the Southwest Area Fleet was created, and Desdivs 13 and 32 were assigned to it to provide protection for convoys against Allied submarine activity. The convoy routes were initially those between Moji, Taiwan, and the Philippines. Later, these routes extended to Singapore, French Indochina, the Netherlands East Indies, and Palau. In the course of this service, set a record by successfully completing 54 convoy escorts before her loss. Of the six destroyers, four were lost to American submarines, and one to an air attack. Only survived the war and was finally broken up in 1948. List of Ships. The five cancelled units were initially to be named "Shian" (from Kawasaki, Kobe)(later "No.14"), "Omodaka" (also from Kawasaki, Kobe)(later "No.20"), "Nadeshiko" (from Fujinagata Zosensho, Osaka)(later "No.22"), "Botan" (from Uraga Dock Co, Tokyo)(later "No.24") and "Basho" (from Ishikawajima Zosensho, Tokyo)(later "No.26"). Naming history. The IJN originally planned that the "Wakatake"-class ships should have names, but upon completion they were given numbers due to the projected large number of warships the IJN expected to build through the Eight-eight fleet plan. This proved to be extremely unpopular with the crews and was a constant source of confusion in communications. In August 1928, names were assigned, but not the original names that were planned. References. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Books. "Collection of writings by Sizuo Fukui Vol.5, Stories of Japanese Destroyers", Kōjinsha (Japan) 1993,

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Military unit The was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the , and its military symbol was 13D. The 13th Division was one of four new infantry divisions raised by the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) in the closing stages of the Russo-Japanese War 1 April 1905, after it turned out what the entire IJA was committed to combat in Manchuria, leaving not a single division to guard the Japanese home islands from attack. Action. Russo-Japanese War. The 13th Division was initially raised in Takada city in now Jōetsu, Niigata from men in Niigata Prefecture under the command of Lieutenant General Haraguchi Kensai. It was given the independent assignment of occupying Sakhalin before the conclusion of the Portsmouth Treaty, landing on Sakhalin on 7 July 1905, only three months after being formed, and securing the island by 1 August 1905. As a result of its successful operation, Japan was awarded southern Karafuto during the Portsmouth Treaty, one of Japan's few territorial gains during the war. Interwar period. The division returned on 6 November 1908 to its original divisional headquarters located in Takada, Niigata prefecture. Future Chinese premier Chiang Kai-shek served in the field artillery battalion of the 13th Division while it was based at Takada. Also while at Takada, under the command of Lieutenant General Gaishi Nagaoka, a military advisor from the Empire of Austria-Hungary, Theodor Edler von Lerch, was invited to teach mountain warfare and skiing to the troops of the IJA 58th Infantry Regiment in Takada under the 13th Division in early 1911. On 12 April 1913, the division was ordered to Liaoyang in Manchuria, where it remained until 3 June 1915 on garrison duty under the command of Lieutenant General Akiyama Yoshifuru before returning to Takada. After a brief period on garrison duty in Korea, the 13th Division was one of the divisions selected to participate in the Japanese intervention in Siberia in 1920. The "13th division" of that period specialized in winter warfare, with all infantry on skis. However, on 1 May 1925, it was dissolved by Minister of War Ugaki Kazushige as part of a cost-saving measure during the Kato Takaaki administration, together with the 15th, 17th and 18th divisions. Second Sino-Japanese War. In July 1937, open hostilities broke out against China and the Second Sino-Japanese War commenced. The 13th Division was re-established in Sendai on 10 September 1937 as a triangular division, out of the reserve forces of the IJA 2nd Division, and ordered to China 11 September 1937 together with 9th division and 101st division. Under the command of Lieutenant General Rippei Ogisu, it was assigned to Shanghai Expeditionary Army and saw combat during the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanjing, although as a reserve force it was not present at the subsequent Nanjing Massacre. It came under the control of the Central China Expeditionary Army from February 1938, the 13th Division it was at the Battle of Xuzhou, and as part of the Japanese Second Army from July 1938, it was at the Battle of Wuhan under the command of Lieutenant General Shizuichi Tanaka. From November 1938, the 13th Division was assigned to the Japanese Eleventh Army and remained in China throughout the Pacific War, participating in numerous campaigns and battles, notably the Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang, Battle of West Hubei and Battle of Changde. A particularly heavy Chinese attacks in Yichang were repulsed in October 1941 with the extensive use of chemical weapons by "13th division". In December 1942, the 58th infantry regiment was transferred to the 31st division, and "13th division" has become a triangular division. It was also part of Operation Ichi-Go (the Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi). In the final stages of the campaign 1 November 1944, the "13th division" has captured two airstrips at Guilin airbase. Later it was used to secure the front on the west of Liuzhou, between 3rd division to the south and 58th division to the north-east. 18 April 1945, it was assigned to directly to the China Expeditionary Army together with 3rd division and was retreating toward Nanjing. The capitulation of Japan 15 August 1945 has happened while the "13th division was" in Changsha, Hunan Province. Although there were plans to send the 13th Division to Guam in September 1943 to counter the threat posed by the United States in the Pacific War, only a 300-man detachment was sent. Notes. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Police force in Minnesota, United States The Saint Paul Police Department (SPPD) is the main law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the City of Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. It was established in 1854, making it the oldest police organization in the state. In the beginning the men did not have a stationhouse. Prisoners were taken to the Fort Snelling brig until the city built a jail. The SPPD is the second largest law enforcement agency in Minnesota, after the Minneapolis Police Department. The department consists of 575 sworn officers and 200 non-sworn officials. The current Chief of Police is Axel Henry. He is the 42nd chief in the history of the St. Paul Police Department and was sworn in November 2022. History. In 1920 St. Paul Councilman and Public Safety Commissioner Aloysius Smith, requested that the St. Paul Police start a Police program for the youth. Sergeant Frank Hetznecke was selected to create the program. In its first year, 750 students signed up for the training program and in February 1921 the first student monitored crossing took place with students from Cathedral school on Kellogg Blvd. Sergeant Hetznecke is credited with introducing the Sam Browne belt and badge that became synonymous with school patrol across the country and administering St. Paul's program for 30 years. During the Prohibition era, the department was remarkably corrupt. In 1936, the chief, Thomas Brown was fired after an investigation showed he had protected criminals including the Dillinger and the Barker-Karpis gangs. An arrest outside of a bar on 26 September 2010 is the subject of a lawsuit that claims excessive force. In March 2011, the elite Gang Strike Force was disestablished when a state audit could not account for 13 vehicles and over $18,000 in cash the unit had seized. The auditor's report indicated that Officer Ron Ryan had sold property his detail had retained. Press reports indicated the unit used money taken from gang members to attend a 2009 professional conference held in Hawaii. The SPPD had two prominent incidents of misconduct in relation to their dogs in 2016 and 2017. Command structure. NOTE: By contract, all investigators (detectives) hold the rank of sergeant. Department awards. The department has only issued medals / awards since 1971. The current medals are: Department size. Like most major cities, the city of St. Paul saw a population decline beginning in the late 1960s. However, the department continued to grow. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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King of Kandy from 1798 to 1815 Sri Vikrama Rajasinha (Sinhala:ශ්‍රී වික්‍රම රාජසිංහ, Tamil:ஸ்ரீ விக்கிரம ராஜசிங்கன் Telugu:శ్రీ విక్రమ రాజసింహ; 1780 – 30 January 1832), born Kannasamy, was the last of four kings to rule the Kingdom of Kandy in Sri Lanka. Being crowned king in 1798 with the backing of Pilamathalawe Adikaram, his capture by the British in 1815 effectively concluded the 2,300-year Sinhalese monarchy on the island. The Nayak Kings were of Telugu origin and practiced Shaivite Hinduism and were patrons of Theravada Buddhism. The Nayak rulers played a huge role in reviving Buddhism in the island. They spoke Telugu and Tamil, and used Tamil as the court language in Kandy alongside Sinhala. The King was eventually deposed by the British government under the terms of the Kandyan Convention in 1815, ending over 2,300 years of domination by the Sinhalese crown on the island. The island was incorporated into the British Empire, and Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was succeeded by George III, as monarch of British Ceylon. Early life. Prior to his coronation in 1798, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was known as Prince Kannasamy Naidu. He was a member of the Madurai Nayak Dynasty and the nephew of Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha. He succeeded his uncle as the King of Kandy in 1798 at the age of eighteen. Reign. Early reign. There was a rival claimant to succeed Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, the brother of Queen Upendrama, Muthuswamy, who had a stronger claim. However, Pilimatalauwa, the first Adigar (prime minister), chose Prince Kannasamy, reportedly with deep-seated plans to usurp the throne to set up a dynasty of his own. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was faced with numerous conspiracies to overthrow him and reigned through one of the most turbulent periods in Sri Lanka's history. Internal conflict. During his time, the British who had succeeded the Dutch in the Maritime Provinces had not interfered in the politics of the Kingdom of Kandy. But Pilimatalauwa, the first Adigar of the King, desiring British control over the island, covertly worked with the British administration to provoke the King to acting aggressively towards them in order to give Britain a "casus belli" against the Kandyian Kingdom. The Adigar manipulated the King into starting a military conflict with the British, who had gained a strong position in the coastal provinces. War was declared and on 22 March 1803, the British entered Kandy with no resistance, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha having fled. The "Adigar" massacred the British garrison in Kandy in June and restored the King to the throne. Pilimitalava plotted to overthrow the King and seize the crown for himself, but his plot was discovered, and, having been pardoned on two previous occasions, he was executed. The disgraced "Adigar" was replaced by his nephew, Ehelepola Nilame, who soon came under suspicion of following his uncle in plotting the overthrow of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. A rebellion instigated by Ehalepola was suppressed, after which he then fled to Colombo and joined the British. After failing to surrender (after 3 weeks of notice), the exasperated King dismissed Ehelepola, confiscated his lands, and ordered the imprisonment and execution of his wife and children. A propagandised account of the execution was widely circulated by sympathisers. Ehelepola fled to British-controlled territory, where he persuaded the British that Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's tyranny deserved a military intervention. The pretext was provided by the seizure of a number of British merchants, who were detained on suspicion of spying and were tortured, killing several of them. An invasion was duly mounted and advanced to Kandy without resistance, reaching the city on 10 February 1815. On 2 March, the Kingdom was ceded to the British under a treaty called the Kandyan Convention. Regarding the King's reign, the historian Louis Edmund Blaze states that "He was not as ardent a patriot as his immediate successors; nor did he show those mental and moral qualities which enabled former Kings to hold their own against rebellion and invasion. To say he was cruel does not mean much, for cruel Kings and nobles were not rare in those days; and it is questionable whether all the cruel deeds attributed to Sri Vickrama Rajasinha were of his own devising or done by his authority. It might be more fair to regard him as a weak tool in the hands of designing chiefs than as the monster of cruelty, which it is an idle fashion with some writers to call him. He did a lot to beautify his capital. The lake and the Octagon in Kandy have always been considered the work of the King." Death. On 2 March 1815, the Kingdom was ceded to Britain and Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was deposed and taken as a royal prisoner by the British to Vellore Fort in southern India. He lived on a small allowance given to him with his two queens by the British colonial administration. He died of dropsy on 30 January 1832, aged 52 years. His death anniversary has been commemorated as Guru Pooja by descendants at Muthu Mandabam, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, since 2011. Family. Parents Siblings Consorts Children Grandchildren Great-grandchildren Great-great-grandchildren Legacy. The current Flag of Sri Lanka incorporates Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's Royal Standard. In September 1945 it was proposed in an address to the State Council that the flag be adopted as Sri Lanka's national flag: "This House is of opinion that the Royal Standard of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha depicting a yellow lion passant holding a sword in its right paw on a red background, which was removed to England after the Convention of 1815, should once again be adopted as the official flag of Free Lanka." Kandy Lake, an artificial lake overlooking the palace in Kandy, was commissioned by Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The Paththirippuwa or Octagon of the Sri Dalada Maligawa, is widely regarded as the epitome or the most admired symbol and representation of Kandyan Sinhalese Architecture. It was built in 1802 A.D. by Devendra Mulachari, Master Craftsman and Royal Architect, on the instructions of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. During Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's time as a royal prisoner in Vellore Fort he received a privy purse, which his descendants continued to receive from the Government of Ceylon until 1965. Muthu Mandapam is a memorial built around the tombstone of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last south Indian origin ruler of Kandy. Situated on the bank Palar River, it is just one km north of Vellore town. During Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's reign, Tamil was used as one of the court languages in Kandy – a historical fact with implications for the present-day politics of Sri Lanka. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Monarchy of Sri Lanka (543 BCE–1815 CE) The Sinhalese monarchy (Sinhala සිංහල රාජාණ්ඩුව) has its origins in the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. The Landing of Vijay as described in the traditional chronicles of the island, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa, and later chronicles, recount the date of the establishment of the first Sinhala Kingdom in 543 BC when Prince Vijaya (543–505 BC), an Indian Prince, and 700 of his followers are claimed to have landed on the island of Sri Lanka and established the Kingdom of Tambapanni. In Sinhalese mythology, Prince Vijaya and followers are told to be the progenitors of the Sinhalese people. However according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands. The Sinhalese monarch was the head of state of the Sinhala Kingdom (Sri Lanka). Anachronistically referred to as the Kings of Sri Lanka, the monarch held absolute power and succession was hereditary. The monarchy comprised the reigning monarch, his or her family, and the royal household which supports and facilitates the monarch in the exercise of his royal duties and prerogatives. The monarchy existed for over 2300 years. Tambapanni and its successive kingdoms were situated in what is presently Sri Lanka. The monarchy ended with Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy in 1815 after generations of European influences and upheaval in the royal court. Origin. The origins of the early Sinhalese kings are the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan historian Senarath Paranavithana suggests, and according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands. These immigrants would have been of all ages and probably originated from multiple regions, arriving in more than one stream, each with its own leader. We know from early Pali writings that Indian merchants of the time travelled to the island in search of the pearls on its North Western coast and precious stones in the island's interior. In the course of time some of the settlers would have settled down in order to supply valued merchandise to their compatriots who would periodically visit the island. As these settlements grew, the necessity for some form of government would so too. Paranavithana puts forward that the most natural form of government would have been to elect one of them as a magistrate of each settlement. It is probable that some of the immigrants came from areas of India under a republican form of government. The descendants of these leaders of each settlement would have been called "Parumaka", according to early Brahmi inscriptions. These various settlements would have over time felt the need for a common leader, a commander in times of war and chief magistrate in times of peace. This chief would have been known as "Gamani" (leader). However, there was probably more than one such gamani on the island. It is possible this common leader also had the title of "Mahaparumaka". Paranavithana hypothesised that the earliest Sinhalese kings may have actually been these elected common leaders called "Gamani". This theory is supported through statements in the Mahavamsa-Tika. As each were elected, there were nothing to stop from the gamani's son to succeed his father, should he be good enough. Thus the principle of hereditary leadership would gradually be established and the position would soon possess powers equal to that of a king. However, the pomp and paraphernalia of kinship was probably absent. As according to Indian belief, at the time, to be acknowledged as a sovereign it was necessary to have an abhiṣeka ceremony, a consecration rite which the settlers could not do on their own. It has become clear that before Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, the Sinhalese monarchs did not have an abhiṣeka ceremony performed on them, leaving the reasonable conclusion that the monarchs before Devanampiya Tissa were instead popular sanctioned leaders. This is also supported by the fact that the writer of the Mahavamsa lived in a time where the main form of government was a monarchy, and so it was natural to assume that whenever a ruler was mentioned, it was a king with the paraphernalia of royalty attributed to him. Paranavithana argues that Maurayan Emperor Ashoka introduced the institution of kingship to the Sinhalese people. The title Devanampiya ("Beloved of The Gods"), a Maurayan royal title assumed by Tissa, who later became Devanampiya Tissa, and his successors for two hundred years after him. History. Pre Anuradhapura period. According to the Mahavamsa, the great chronicles of the island the Kingdom of Tambapanni was founded by Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers after landing on the island, in a district near modern-day Mannar which is believed to be the district of Chilaw, after leaving Suppāraka. It is recorded that Vijaya made his landing on the day of Buddha's death. Vijaya claimed Tambapanni his capital. Tambapanni was originally inhabited and governed by Yakkhas, having their capital at Sirīsavatthu and their queen Kuveni. According to the Samyutta Commentary, Tambapanni was one hundred leagues in extent. During the end of his reign Vijaya, who was having trouble choosing a successor, sent a letter to the city of his ancestors, Sinhapura, in order to invite his brother Sumitta to take over the throne. However Vijaya had died before the letter had reached its destination so the elected minister of the people Upatissa, the Chief government minister or Prime minister and leading chief among the new settlers became regent and acted for a year. In his regency, Upatissa established the new capital Upatissa Nuwara, named after himself, in which the kingdom was moved from Tambapanni. It was seven or eight miles north of the previous capital. When Vijaya's letter arrived Sumitta had already succeeded his father as king, and so he sent his son Panduvasdeva to rule Upatissa Nuwara. Anuradhapura period. The reign of Tissa marks not only important religious historical developments but also important political history of the island and to the Sinhalese people. It marked the introduction of Buddhism to the island and with it came the formal establishment of kingship and monarchy. Though it saw productive advances in the areas of economics, technology and culture, during the Early Anuradhapura period (137 BC – 684 AD) the political system was at its most brittle. The stresses of dynastic rivalries and succession disputes sparked many political crises. This period was dominated by the rivalry between the House of Lambakanna and the House of Moriya. Both powerful clans whose origins trace back to the time of Tissa. With the end of the House of Vijaya the Lambakannas were established as their successors, the Moriyas however challenged this claim and struggles for the throne ensued. The Moriyan claims to the throne diminished by the end of the seventh century leaving the Lambakannas a monopoly of power. New laws of succession would further consolidate this. Political instability can be seen as the rule rather that the exception during this period. Polonnaruwa period. With the fall of Polonnaruwa the monarchy saw a decline in the 13th century, this is characterised by the succession of capitals that followed. Transitional period. This period saw the arrival of Europeans to the island and their influence. Kandyan period. In 1796 the British first entered the island and gained control of the coastal areas from the Dutch. After the Kandyan Wars and the signing of the Kandyan Convention in 1815 the island recognized the British monarch as Sovereign. This ended 2,357 years of indigenous Sinhalese monarchy. Role. Political role. As absolute monarch the king was head of state, however he would be aided with high level officials and a board of ministers. The monarch was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it. They sought to establish control over the whole island, though in reality this was more of an aspiration. However periods of effective control over the whole island did exist from time to time. During the Anuradhapura period royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the "Purohita", the advisor to the king. The king also had a board of ministers called "Amati paheja". In central administration, "Senapati" (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a position second only to the king, and held by a member of the nobility. This position, and also the positions of "Yuvaraja" (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the monarch. The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Over time these administrative units within the island increased. By the reign of Silakala (518–31) there were already three provinces, two of which he handed over to his sons to administer, while retaining the province of "Rajarata", the area around the capital, directly under his administration. "Ruhuna" (southern part of the country) and the "Malaya Rata" (hill country) were governed by officials called "Apa" and "Mapa". These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called "rata". Officials called "Ratiya" or "Ratika" were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit was the "gama" (village), under a village chief known as "gamika" or "gamladda". Judicial role. As well as holding political powers the Sinhalese monarch also held judicial power and influence. Judicial customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. The laws and legal measures were proclaimed by the king, and were to be followed by justice administration. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. The judiciary consisted of the chief judicial officer known as the "Viniccayamacca" and there were several judicial officers under him, known as "Vinicchayaka". Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. Initially, the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as "dasagam", was responsible for upholding justice in that area. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Siri Sangha Bodhi I (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death. The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions. Religious role. A close link existed between the ruler and the "Sangha" (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutugamunu's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was effected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopa Tissa I (639–650) and Kassapa II (650–659). Succession. The kingdom was under the rule of a king or queen. The succession of the throne was patrilineal, or if that cannot be the

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Mayadunne () was the founder and ruler of Sitawaka from 1521 to 1581. A fierce opponent of the Portuguese, he devoted his life to oust his father and brother Bhuvanekabahu VII, the king of Kotte in order to preserve the independence of the island, being undermined by Portuguese intrigue. He constantly invaded the territory of Bhuvanekabahu of Kotte. Early life. Mayadunne was born in 1501 in Kotte of the Kingdom of Kotte. He was the son of Vijayabahu VII who reigned as king from 1509 to 1521. Mayadunne was the youngest child born to Vijaya Bahu VII and his main Queen. He had two full brothers, Bhuvanekabahu and Raigama Bandara. Bhuvanekabahu who was also king of Kotte from 1521 to 1551. Wijayaba Kollaya. In 1521 together with his two full brothers Bhuvanekabahu and Raigama Bandara, who were born to the main queen of Vijaya Bahu VII, he revolted against his father, suspecting him of planning to pass the throne of Kotte to one of Vijaya Bahu VII's other queen's sons (Devaraja) after his death. Although Mayadunne was the youngest of the three brothers he was the mastermind behind this revolt which ended with the death of their father Vijaya Bahu VII (he was assassinated by a hired foreigner) and the Kotte Kingdom was divided between the three brothers. This incident is known as "Wijayaba Kollaya" and can roughly be translated as the "Spoiling of Vijayabahu". Bhuvanekabahu came to power as Bhuvanekabahu VII of Sri Lanka and he got established in the Kotte Kingdom with a region roughly including present day Colombo, Gampaha, Districts, North Western Province and Southern Province coastline. Raigama Bandara got established in Raigama with his control roughly over present day Kalutara District & Southern Province except the coastline (which was under Kotte Kingdom). Mayadunne got established in the Kingdom of Sitawaka (Present day Avissawella) controlling roughly the modern day Sabaragamuwa Province (Kegalle, Ratnapura Districts). Reign. Since Mayadunne was the main actor during the rebellion against their father, Bhuvanekabahu VII was from the beginning suspicious of him and developed close ties with the Portuguese who had established a fort in Colombo (1517). Before long Mayadunne got popular support from the local chiefs and population who didn't like Bhuvanekabahu VII collaborating with Portuguese. Mayadunne led several invasions against Kotte but Bhuvanekabahu VII was able to drive Sitawakan forces back with the help of Portuguese. During the first phase of these battles Mayadunne was helped by an anti-Portuguese Kingdom in Calicut, India. The Portuguese wanted to kill Mayadunne fearing one day he would become a greater threat to their foothold on the Island but Bhuvanekabahu VII didn't let them to conduct an all out invasion against Sitawaka. Several years later after Raigam Bandara died, in 1538, Mayadunne annexed the Kingdom of Raigama to Sitawaka. The all out rivalry between Sitawaka and Kotte started to unroll here on. By this time the Buddhist monks in Kotte who were responsible of the Dantha Dhathuwa, the Sacred Tooth Relic of Buddha, secretly smuggled it into Sitawaka and placed it under the protection of Mayadunne since they saw Portuguese as hostile towards Buddhism. According to the local tradition if someone has the ownership of the Tooth Relic he can claim the throne of all the Kingdoms within Sri Lanka. Mayadunne's popularity grew rapidly among locals and similarly Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte and later Dharmapala of Kotte had to rely more and more on Portuguese for help. Mayadunne started frequent attacks against the Kotte Kingdom and more and more of the lands of Kotte became part of Sitawaka. Since Kotte lacked local support the Portuguese automatically became the protectors of that Kingdom. Hence the rivalry between Kotte and Sitawaka turned into a rivalry between Sitawaka and Portuguese. During the period of Kingdom of Sitawaka King Mayadunne had stopped at the Nawagamuwa Pattini Devalaya to make a vow before he went to war with the Portuguese in the Colombo Fort. According to the reports of the Portuguese, in 1550, the King of Portuguese sent 600 troops to help King Bhuvanaikabahu VII of Kotte. They fought with King Mayadunne at Nawagamuwa. It is also recorded that in 1576, the Portuguese army destroyed Nawagamuwa Devale and established an army camp there. Sinhalese–Portuguese War. Mayadunne and the Kingdom of Sitawaka was a part of the Sinhalese–Portuguese War, which was an effort to get rid of the occupying Portuguese forces and stop them from colonizing the island. At the time, it was the worst ever defeat by a colonial power on eastern soil. Mayadunne and his son Rajasigha fought the Portuguese in the Battle of Mulleriyawa and won, where the Kingdom of Sitawaka emerged all-powerful, able to challenge the Portuguese, who lost the opportunity to ensure their total control of the island. Death and legacy. Due to the fact that he stood against Portuguese invaders and stopping them from conquering the whole island, Mayadunne is considered one of the greatest kings of Sri Lanka. He died aged 80, in 1581. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; External links. ! colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #65BCFF" | Royal titles

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Province of Sri Lanka The Western Province ( "Basnāhira Paḷāta"; "Mael Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Western Province is the most densely populated province in the country and is home to the legislative capital Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte as well as to Colombo, the nation's administrative and business center. History. Parts of present-day Western Province were part of the pre-colonial Kingdom of Kotte. The province then came under Portuguese, Dutch and British control. In 1815 the British gained control of the entire island of Ceylon. They divided the island into three ethnic based administrative structures: Low Country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese and Tamil. The Western Province was part of the Low Country Sinhalese administration. In 1833, in accordance with the recommendations of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission, the ethnic based administrative structures were unified into a single administration divided into five geographic provinces. The districts of Chilaw, Colombo, Kalutara, Puttalam, Seven Korales (present day Kurunegala District), Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama (present day Kegalle District) formed the new Western Province. Chilaw District, Puttalam District and Seven Korales were transferred to the newly created North Western Province in 1845. Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama were transferred to the newly created Sabaragamuwa Province in 1889. It is planned to create a planned Megacity under the Western Region Megapolis Plan in the Western Province designed by Surbana. Originally initiated in 2004 by Ranil Wickremesinghe it was stopped after his election defeat and was restarted again after his return to power in 2015. The project plans to merge Colombo, Gampaha and Kalutara districts and introduce zoning. Geography and climate. Western Province is located in the southwest of Sri Lanka. It has an area of . The province is surrounded by the Laccadive Sea to the west, North Western Province to the north, Sabaragamuwa Province to the east and the Southern Province to the south. The Western Province is vulnerable to recurrent flooding as a result of an increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events, with knock-on impacts on the infrastructure, utility supply, and the urban economy of the Province. As the most urbanised province in Sri Lanka, these climate events pose a number of problems due to the rapid urban growth the province has undergone. Administrative divisions. Districts. The Western Province is divided into three administrative districts, 40 Divisional Secretary's Divisions (DS Divisions) and 2,505 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GN Divisions). Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Template:Largest_cities/styles.css" / ; Demographics. Population. The Western Province's population was 6,219,000 in 2021. The majority of the population are Sinhalese, with a minority Sri Lankan Moor and Sri Lankan Tamil population. Economy. The Western province provides the highest contribution to the Gross Domestic Product contributing 41.2% of the Provincial Gross Domestic Product(PGDP) and has a nominal PGDP growth rate of 5.8% as of 2015. Agriculture only made up 1.7% of the GDP the lowest among the nine provinces while Industrial sector made up 34.6% the highest in the country and service sector represented 56.5%. The province is undergoing rapid development with several of the largest infrastructure development projects happening in the province such as the Colombo International Financial City(CIFC) which is an International Financial Zone and the Western Region Megapolis Planning Project(WRMPP) Western province is also undergoing a major real estate and construction boom with residential and commercial buildings and skyscrapers changing the skylines of cities such as Colombo and Rajagiriya. Several major residential, office and hotel buildings as well as resorts and malls are either proposed or under construction. The Colombo Harbour is also a major driver of economic growth being the busiest port in South Asia. It has both privately run and state owned terminals and is being expanded. Education. Almost all the premier educational institutions in the island are located in the Western Province. Universities in the province includes the University of Colombo, University of Kelaniya, University of Moratuwa, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Open University, Sri Lanka, Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka, General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, National Institute of Business Management and the Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology. Having the highest population in all the provinces, Western Province has the largest number of schools in the country, which includes national, provincial, private and international schools. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Catholic college in Sri Lanka Maris Stella College is a Catholic College in Negombo, Sri Lanka, which was founded by the Marist Brothers in 1922. History. In 1918 four Marist Brothers came to Negombo, Sri Lanka, and took over the management of St Mary's College. In 1922, the school moved to its present site and assumed the new name of Maris Stella College. The history of the primary school goes back to 1921 when Bro. Lewis was in charge of the elementary school, standard two Elementary School Leaving Certificate classes. There were three long cadjan sheds which housed eight primary classes. The school's broadcasting services were inaugurated in 1930. Maris Stella installed a wireless set in the library, and the boys followed lessons, such as nature talks to children. Electricity came to the whole of Negombo in 1931. The same year the first Corpus Christi procession took place, which went around the quadrangle. The cadets presented a Royal Guard of Honour. In August 1939, World War II broke out. The following year the school was requisitioned in part by the Royal Artillery for their headquarters. The primary school shifted to Tammita Church grounds into temporary cadjan sheds. Then Royal Artillery moved out in November, but the Royal Air Force occupied the buildings in March the following year. The college was put under protection of Our Lady of Perpetual Help. There were frequent practices of air raid precautions in schools. Trenches were dug for shelter, and every child knew what to do in case of an air raid warning. The school was in Easter holidays when the Japanese air raid took place in 1942 but their invasion fleet was turned back. In the meantime, a three-quarter acre block of land behind Maris Stella was purchased and twelve classrooms, a staff room, and a principal's office were built; the primary school moved back from Tammita. When Nazier went to Europe in 1950, for a year's study leave, Leonard Obris acted as principal of the Primary Department. For many years the Primary Department was in temporary cadjan sheds. So a building project was launched. Funds were raised through carnivals and other means. Bro. Xavier was the architect and the builder of the primary school. In June 1959, Gerard Peiris became the next principal of Maris Stella Primary School. Maris Stella Primary School had been going on for years as a separate third-grade aided school recognised by the Government with separate tutorial staff and annual returns. When all the third-grade schools were taken over by the Government. Maris Stella primary school together with the primary schools of many leading Christian schools came under this category. This position was contested and the Government gave back the primary schools after some time, now to be recognised only as a section of the upper school under a principal and to be continued as a non-fee levying school. It was during the time of Peiris as principal of the primary school where the change took place. After serving the college from 1959 to 1965, he was transferred to Christ King College at Tudella, another Maris Institution. Joseph Fonseka, Ephrem Obris, Joseph Fonseka, Shanthi Liyanage, Dela Soysa, and Remigius Fernando succeeded Gerard Peiris. On 18 June 2022, Maris Stella College celebrated its 100th anniversary with the presence of Malcolm Cardinal Ranjith. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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2194251, 2570981, 4496632, 3241764 ]

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Province of Sri Lanka The Uva Province (, ) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. The province has an area of 8,500 km2 and a population of 1,266,463, making it the 2nd least populated province. The provincial capital is Badulla. Uva is bordered by the Eastern, Southern, Sabaragamuwa, and Central provinces. It is home to several tourist attractions, waterfalls and two national parks: Yala National Park and Gal Oya National Park. History. Uva's provincial history records an 1818 uprising (also known as the Third Kandyan War) against the British colonial government which had been controlling the formally independent Udarata (Sinhalese: "Up-Country"), of which Uva was a province. The uprising was led by Keppetipola Disawe, a rebel leader celebrated by the Sinhalese even today, who was sent initially by the British government to stop the uprising. The rebels managed to capture Matale and Kandy before Keppetipola fell ill and was captured and beheaded by the British. His skull was abnormal, as it was wider than usual, and was sent to Britain for analysis. It was returned to Sri Lanka after independence, and now rests in the Kandyan Museum. The rebellion, which soon developed into a guerrilla war of the kind the Kandyans had fought against European powers for centuries, was centred on the Kandyan nobility and their unhappiness with developments under British rule since 1815. However, it was the last uprising of its kind. In the Uva Province, a scorched earth policy was pursued, and all males between 15 and 60 years were driven out, exiled or killed. The British Crown annexed the Kingdom of Kandy to British Ceylon in 1817. Geography. The Uva province has an area of 8,500 km2 and a population of 1,259,880. Uva is home to several major tourist attractions, like the waterfalls of Dunhinda falls, Diyaluma Falls, and Rawana Falls, and the Yala National Park (lying partly in the Southern and Eastern Provinces) and Gal Oya National Park (lying partly in the Eastern Province). The Gal Oya hills and the central mountains are the main uplands, while the Mahaweli (Sinhalese: "great-sandy") and Menik (Sinhalese: "gemstone") rivers and the huge Senanayake Samudraya and Maduru Oya Reservoirs are the major waterways of the province. Mountains. Uva's symbolic mountain is Namunukula, which stands tallest among the mountain range surrounding Badulla. The highest mountain in the Uva Province is Totapolakanda, which lies on the border with the Nuwara Eliya District. There are views of the Welimada basin, Katharagama and Hambantota from Namunukula peak on a clear day. The Haputale-Beragala gap gives a view of the Southern and Sabaragamuwa provinces on a clear day. Administrative divisions. Districts. ;templatestyles src="Stack/styles.css"/ ; Uva is divided into 2 districts: Divisional secretariats. The districts of the Sri Lanka are divided into administrative sub-units known as divisional secretariats. These were originally based on the feudal counties, the "korale"s and "rata"s. They were formerly known as "D.R.O. Divisions" after the Divisional Revenue Officer. Later the D.R.O.s became Assistant Government Agents and the Divisions were known as "A.G.A. Divisions". Currently, the Divisions are administered by a Divisional Secretary and are known as "D.S. Divisions". There are 26 divisional secretariats in the Uva Province. There are 15 in the Badulla District and 11 in the Moneragala District. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

4,558,166

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Province of Sri Lanka The Southern Province ( "Dakuṇu Paḷāta", "Theṉ Mākāṇam") of Sri Lanka is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. It is the 7th largest province by area and is home to 2.5 million people, the 3rd most populated province. The province is bordered by Sabaragamuwa Province and Uva Province to the North, Eastern Province to the Northeast, Western Province to the Northwest and the Indian Ocean to the South, West and East. The Province's capital is Galle. The Southern Province is a geographic area consisting of the districts of Galle, Matara and Hambantota. Subsistence farming and fishing is the main source of income for the vast majority of the people of this region. Government School education is primarily handled by the Southern Provincial Education Department. Administrative divisions. Southern Province is divided into 3 districts and 47 divisional secretariats. Divisional Secretariats. The districts of the Sri Lanka are divided into administrative sub-units known as divisional secretariats. These were originally based on the feudal counties, the s and s. They were formerly known as 'D.R.O. Divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'. Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. Divisions'. Currently, the divisions are administered by a 'Divisional Secretary', and are known as a 'D.S. Divisions'. There are 47 divisional secretariats in the Southern Province, with 19 in Galle District, 12 in Hambantota District and 16 in Matara District. Landmarks. Important landmarks of the Southern Province include the wildlife sanctuaries of the Yala and Udawalawe National Parks. Ussangoda in Ambalantota is a panoramic view of the beach and the sea, and the holy city of Kataragama, and the ancient cities of Tissamaharama, Kirinda and Galle. (Although Galle is an ancient city, almost nothing survives from before the Portuguese invasion.) During the Portuguese period there were two famous Sinhalese poets called Andare who was from Dickwella and Gajaman Nona who was from Denipitiya in Matara District, composing poems on common man. The Southern Province was seriously affected by the tsunami in 2004. The province is going through a rebuilding process. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Province of Sri Lanka The Sabaragamuwa Province (, ) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. Ratnapura is the capital of the province. History. The provinces of Sri Lanka were created by the British in the 19th century, but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The province is named after its former indigenous inhabitants, namely the Sabara, an Indic term for hunter-gatherer tribes, a term seldom used in ancient Sri Lanka. The Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka is located in the town of Belihuloya, and was founded in 1991. Geography. The province has an area of 4,968 km2 and a population of 1,918,880. Major towns include Ratnapura and Kegalle. Demographics. Ethnic groups. Ethnic groups in Sabaragamuwa province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sinhalese (86.4%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Indian Tamils (5.49%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Moors (4.27%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sri Lankan Tamils (3.75%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Burghers (0.03%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Malays (0.02%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Others (0.04%) The Sinhalese are the majority ethnic group of the Sabaragamuwa province. Additionally, there are sizeable minority populations of Indian Tamils, Moors and Sri Lankan Tamils. Religion. Religion in Sabaragamuwa province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Buddhism (85.73%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Hinduism (8.1%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Islam (4.44%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Christianity (1.72%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Other religions/No religion (0.01%) Administrative divisions. Sabaragamuwa is divided into two districts and 28 divisional secretariats. Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Province of Sri Lanka North Central Province ( "Uturumæda Paḷāta", "Vada Mattiya Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka. The province has an area of 10,472 km2, making it the largest province by area, and a population of 1,266,663, making it the 3rd least populated province. The city of Anuradhapura is the capital of the province. History. The North Central province is home to the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, both of which were historical capitals of Sri Lanka during ancient times. The two cities were the capitals of the Anuradhapura kingdom (437 BCE–1017 CE) and the Polonnaruwa kingdom (1070–1232) respectively. The provinces of Sri Lanka were established by the British in 1833. In independent Sri Lanka, provinces did not have any legal status or power until 1987, when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The centralised system of Sri Lanka, which is a unitary state, failed to satisfy the aspirations of the people. There was growing insistence on decentralisation of administrative processes to achieve rapid economic and social development of the country. The North Central Provincial Council is the main administrative and control body in the North Central Province. Geography. The province has an area of 10,472 km2 and a population of 1,266,663. It is the largest province by area, covering 16% of the total land area of Sri Lanka. The province consists two districts, Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura; the Anuradhapura district is the largest district in Sri Lanka by area. The province has a semi-arid climate and most forests situated in the province are Sri Lankan dry-zone dry evergreen forests. The province is also referred to as "Wew Bendi Rajje" due to the sheer amount of medium and large scale tanks situated in the province, with more than 3000. More than 65% of the province’s population depend on basic agriculture and agricultural based industries. The North Central province has innumerable potential for investors to start their businesses, specially agriculture, agricultural based industries and livestock sectors. Demographics. Ethnicity. Ethnic groups in North Central province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Sinhalese (90.87%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Moors (7.96%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Tamils (1.0%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Others (0.17%) Religion. Religion in North Central province (2012 census) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Buddhism (89.97%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Islam (8.05%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Christianity (1.17%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Hinduism (0.80%) ;templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" / ; Other religions/No religion (0.01%) Administrative divisions. The North Central Province is divided into two districts and 29 divisional secretariats. Major population centres. ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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The Kandyan Monarchy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka, ruled by a succession of monarchs from the Kingdom of Kandy. This monarchy spanned over 230 years from 1590 to 1815 and played a significant role in shaping the country's history and culture. The Kandyan kings enjoyed absolute power, and their rule was marked by complex administrative systems, religious traditions, and cultural practices. This list of Kandyan monarchs provides an overview of the rulers who led the Kingdom of Kandy throughout its existence, from its early formation to its final downfall under British colonial rule. History of Kandyan Monarchs. The kingdom of Kandy was originally a principality of the kingdom of Kotte, until Senasammata Vikramabahu declared Kandy an independent state in 1469, establishing himself as its first king. However, the kingdom was later conquered by Rajasinghe I of Sitawaka in 1581, marking the end of the first phase of the kingdom under the Siri Sangha Bo dynasty. In 1592, Vimaladharmasuriya I reestablished the kingdom with his dynasty, earning him the title of the Kandyan Kingdom's second founder. During his reign, Kandy became a major political power and the sole successor of Sri Lanka's ancient Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Kotte kingdoms. The Dinaraja dynasty handed over the kingdom to the Nayakkar Dynasty in 1739 due to a lack of successors, ending the second phase of the kingdom. The Nayakkar Dynasty, which began with Sri Vijaya Rajasinha, was seen as a great religious revival by the people, but the last king of this dynasty, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe's reign witnessed the gradual decline of the kingdom, leading to the abolition of the king's position in the kingdom in 1815. This resulted in the absorption of the kingdom into the British Empire and marked the end of the Sinhalese Monarchy that had started back in 437 BC. Authority and Governance of the Kandyan Monarch. The King of Kandy was the supreme ruler of the Kingdom of Kandy. His power was absolute and supreme, and while his ministers could offer advice, they could not control his will. The King held the authority to make peace and war, enact laws and regulations, and enforce the death penalty. The king exercises both civil and criminal judicial authority, either in original jurisdiction or in appeal. The actions of the government are believed to be guided by the customs and traditions of the kingdom. Consultation with the main chiefs and frequently the leading priests is customary before significant changes are implemented or during public affairs discussions. Many state officials are responsible for the king's authority, including the three Adikarams, known as Adikars, who are the main officers involved in the administration of public affairs. The Desaves, or provincial governors, were primarily located below the mountains of the kingdom of Kandy, while the Rate Mahatmeyo or governors of smaller districts were above the mountains. The Kandyan chiefs and all other subjects show respect to the king by making obeisance with three prostrations and communicate with him on their knees. See also. Uduwara Nilame subsequently assumed the mantle of Uduwara Hettias, adopting the Portuguese surname (Pereira) while asserting authority as traders. It is widely held that they were the rightful sovereigns, following the Nayakkars, as Uduwara Nilame safeguarded the last king and maintained the lineage of the Ranabahu royal bloodline References. Citations. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ; Bibliography. ;templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" / ;

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Province in Sri Lanka The Eastern Province ( "Næ̆gĕnahira Paḷāta" , "Kiḻakku Mākāṇam") is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Between 1988 and 2006 the province was temporarily merged with the Northern Province to form the North Eastern Province. The capital of the province is Trincomalee. Kalmunai is the largest and most populous city of Eastern Province. History. In 1815 the British gained control of the entire island of Ceylon. They divided the island into three ethnic based administrative structures: Low Country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese and Tamil. The Eastern Province was part of the Tamil administration. In 1833, in accordance with the recommendations of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission, the ethnic based administrative structures were unified into a single administration divided into five geographic provinces. The districts of Batticaloa, Bintenna (part of present-day Badulla District), Tamankaduva (present day Polonnaruwa District) and Trincomalee formed the new Eastern Province. Tamankaduva was transferred to the newly created North Central Province in 1873 and Bintenna was transferred to the newly created Uva Province in 1886. The Indo-Lanka Accord signed on 29 July 1987 required the Sri Lankan government to devolve powers to the provinces and, in the interim, to merge the Northern and Eastern provinces into one administrative unit. The accord required a referendum to be held by 31 December 1988 in the Eastern Province to decide whether the merger should be permanent. Crucially, the accord allowed the Sri Lankan president to postpone the referendum at his discretion. On 14 November 1987 the Sri Lankan Parliament passed the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka and the Provincial Councils Act No 42 of 1987, establishing provincial councils. On September 2 and 8 1988 President Jayewardene issued proclamations enabling the Northern and Eastern provinces to be one administrative unit administered by one elected Council. The North-East Province was born. The proclamations were only meant to be a temporary measure until a referendum was held in the Eastern Province on a permanent merger between the two provinces. However, the referendum was never held and successive Sri Lankan presidents issued proclamations annually extending the life of the "temporary" entity. The merger was bitterly opposed by Sri Lankan nationalists. The combined North-East Province occupied one fourth of Sri Lanka. The thought of the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam controlling this province, directly or indirectly, alarmed them greatly. On 14 July 2006, after a long campaign against the merger, the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna political party filed three separate petitions with the Supreme Court requesting a separate provincial council for the East. On 16 October 2006 the Supreme Court ruled that the proclamations issued by President Jayewardene were null and void and had no legal effect. The North-East Province was formally de-merged into the Northern and Eastern provinces on 1 January 2007. Much of the Eastern Province was under the control of rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam for many years during the civil war. The entire province was recaptured by the Sri Lankan military in 2007. Many community members blamed Pro-Government Tamil groups such as the Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal (TMVP). In 2008 due to the indiscriminate firearm use by various Tamil factions government planned to disarm Tamil Paramilitary groups. However the TMVP kept arms due to threat of LTTE and denied they were active in Civilian areas. TMVP was finally disarmed in 2009 after the LTTE was defeated. The Eastern Province has received at least $500 million from international donors since coming under the control of the government of Sri Lanka in 2007, according to the International Crisis Group. Since the end of the war the Eastern Province has seen considerable development under the "Nagenahira Navodaya" (Eastern Revival) program which include various agricultural, infrastructural and Social development projects. These include the construction and repairing of roads, schools, hospitals, resettlement of IDPs and construction of Nanasala ICT centers. There are currently 88 Nanasala ICT education centers in the Eastern Province. Other Projects include reconstructing the Walai Iravu bridge which was destroyed by the LTTE, developing the Weber stadium in the Batticaloa town, increasing agricultural production, construction of Manmunai, Vavunativu and New Oddamavadi bridges, carpeting roads, constructing 48,000 houses in the Eastern province for the people who live below the poverty line, developing the Trincomalee Harbour, construction of the Sampur Power Station, Development of Maritime park and a Maritime Museum in Trincomalee, creation of the Sampur industrial zone, development of bus stands, canals and the Oluvil Harbour in Ampara district. Geography. Eastern province has an area of . The province is surrounded by the Northern Province to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Southern Province to the south, and the Uva, Central and North Central provinces to the west. The province's coast is dominated by lagoons, the largest being Batticaloa Lagoon, Kokkilai lagoon, Upaar Lagoon and Ullackalie Lagoon. Administrative units, cities and towns. Administrative units. The Eastern Province is divided into 3 administrative districts, 45 Divisional Secretary's Divisions (DS Divisions) and 1,085 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GN Divisions). Demographics. Population. The Eastern province's population was 1,551,381 in 2012. The province is the most diverse in Sri Lanka, both ethnically and religiously. The population of the province, like that of the Northern Province, was heavily affected by the civil war. The war killed an estimated 100,000 people. Several hundred thousand Sri Lankan Tamils, possibly as much as one million, emigrated to the West during the war. Many Sri Lankan Tamils also moved to the relative safety of the capital Colombo. The conflict has also caused some of the Tamils, Moors and Sinhalese who lived in the province to flee to other parts of Sri Lanka, though most of them have returned to the province since the end of the civil war. Religion. Islam is the plurality religion in Eastern Province. Economy. The Eastern Province has a primarily agriculture-based economy and is commonly known as the "Granary of Sri Lanka". It contributes 25% of national paddy production, 17% of national milk production, and 21% of national fish production. Maize cultivation is expanding, large scale maize cultivation with hybrid seeds and contractual marketing has increased production significantly and it is targeted to produce 25 per cent of the country's maize requirement. The industrial sector contributed 34% of the Province's GDP and export processing zones like the Trincomalee EPZ and Sampur Heavy Industrial Zone have been developed to boost the industrial sector alongside the Trincomalee Harbour, which is being developed for Break bulk, Bulk cargo and industrial activities including heavy industries. The province benefits from a large tourism industry with many seaside resorts and hotels situated mainly in lagoons as well as beaches such as Pasikudah, Nilaveli, Uppuveli and Kalkudah. Historic sites and other natural attractions such as Pigeon Island, coral reefs contribute to the industry. Government and politics. Provincial council. The 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The first elections for provincial councils took place on 28 April 1988 in North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, and Uva provinces. Elections in the newly merged North-East Province were scheduled for 19 November 1988. However, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), which at that time occupied the North-East Province, rigged the elections in the north so that the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) and Eelam National Democratic Liberation Front (ENDLF), two Indian backed paramilitary groups, won all of the 36 seats in the north uncontested. However, elections did take place for the 35 seats in the east. The Sri Lanka Muslim Congress won 17 seats, EPRLF 12 seats, ENDLF 5 seats and the United National Party 1 seat. On 10 December 1988 Annamalai Varatharajah Perumal of the EPRLF became the first Chief Minister of the North-East Provincial Council. On 1 March 1990, just as the IPKF were preparing to withdraw from Sri Lanka, Permual moved a motion in the North-East Provincial Council declaring an independent Eelam. President Premadasa reacted to Permual's UDI by dissolving the provincial council and imposing direct rule on the province. The north-east was ruled directly from Colombo until May 2008 when elections were held in the demerged Eastern Province (the Northern Province continued to be governed from Colombo). References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Gmina Dobrodzień, German Gemeinde Guttentag is an urban-rural gmina (administrative district) in Olesno County, Opole Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. Its seat is the town of Dobrodzień, which lies approximately south of Olesno and east of the regional capital Opole. The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2019 its total population is 9,877. Since 2009 the commune has been officially bilingual in German and Polish due to the large German minority in the area, many ethnic Germans have remained despite the area being transferred to Poland after World War II. Villages. The commune contains the villages and settlements of: ;templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/ ; Neighbouring gminas. Gmina Dobrodzień is bordered by the gminas of Ciasna, Kolonowskie, Olesno, Ozimek, Pawonków, Zawadzkie and Zębowice. Twin towns – sister cities. Gmina Dobrodzień is twinned with: References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Bangladeshi businessman Sheikh Bashir Uddin () is a Bangladeshi businessman and the managing director of Akij-Bashir Group, an industrial conglomerate in Bangladesh. He is currently serving as an adviser to the 2024 interim government of Bangladesh. Early life. Bashir Uddin was born in 1947 in the village of Navaron in Jessore District. He belonged to a Bengali Muslim family originally from the village of Madhyadanga in Phultala, Khulna District. His father, Sheikh Akij Uddin, was the founding chairman of Akij Group. Career. He took oath as an advisor on 10 November 2024. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Position in Bangladeshi government The attorney general for Bangladesh () is the Bangladeshi government's chief legal adviser and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. The attorney general is usually a highly respected Senior Advocate and is appointed by the ruling government. Md Asaduzzaman is the current and 17th attorney general for Bangladesh. The attorney general is the ex-officio chairman of the Bangladesh Bar Council and accordingly he performs the duties assigned to that post and empowered to participate in any reference to the Supreme Court of Bangladesh made by the President under article 106 of the Constitution and can express his own opinion. Unlike the attorney general of the United States, the attorney general of Bangladesh does not have any executive authority, and is not a political appointee; those functions are performed by the Minister of Justice. The attorney general is assisted by the several additional attorneys-general, deputy attorneys-general, and assistant attorneys-general. References. ;templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" / ;

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Crime organization in South Africa The Numbers Gang is a South African crime organization that originated as an African nationalist organisation. It is believed that they are present in most South African prisons. The gang was founded in KwaZulu-Natal. The gang is divided into groups — the 26s, 27s and 28s. It is one of the oldest crime organizations in the world. It also has complex rules and a defined internal hierarchy, as well as expansive folklore. The gang is largely secretive about such topics as well as its history, leading to a shortage of verifiable information. The Numbers Gang traditionally does not operate outside of prisons. History. The Numbers Gang was started in the late 1800s, possibly for the protection of black mineworkers. The origins of the gang remain uncertain at best. In the early 20th century Mzuzephi Mathebula made headlines in the city of Durban by recruiting men to join the 28s whom by that time were also Amalayitha. Tale of creation. The likely apocryphal story of Nongoloza and Ngeleketyane is seen as the gang's origin by members. The story says that a man named Paul Mambazo became alarmed by the exploitation of miners in late 1800 South Africa. He then befriended a young Zulu boy called Nongoloza who said he was on his way to the mines to look for work, and Ngeleketyane who was a Xhosa. Paul eventually recruited 15 young men. He taught them a secret language and highway robbery. The men robbed travelers and colonial outposts. They moved from cave to cave and split themselves into two groups. Ngeleketyani with seven men who robbed by day, and Nongoloza with six men who robbed by night. Paul ordered the two men to carve their daily outlaw activities on a nearby rock which would serve as a diary. Paul then ordered the two men to visit a farm, owned by a Mr. Rabie, and to buy one of his bulls called Rooiland (Red Earth). Mr. Rabie was suspicious, and refused to sell the two men the bull. The two youths refused to leave without carrying out their order, and proceeded to stab the farmer with bayonets and then steal the bull, and slaughter it for a feast. Paul ordered the men to take the hide of the bull and press it onto the diary rock until the words from the rock were imprinted on the hide. There were now two copies of the gang's ways, and Paul explained that the bandits must follow the rules as they had been set out from the beginning. The two items were divided between the two men: Nongoloza received the hide and Ngeleketyani received the rock. The two were instructed to carry them wherever they went. The rock, however, proved too awkward to carry and one day it was accidentally dropped down a hill. It split into two pieces, one of which fell into a river. This left Ngeleketyane's gang with only half of the gang's laws. The first conflict between the two gangs took place because of this incident. The two gangs decided to embark on a joint expedition, but Nongoloza said he was sick and stayed behind. He asked one of Ngeleketyane's soldiers, Magubane, to stay behind with him. Upon returning, Ngeleketyane found Nongoloza engaged in homosexual acts with Magubane. Enraged, Ngeleketyani challenged Nongoloza to a fight. Nongoloza replied that according to the hide, sex between bandits was allowed in order to avoid contact with women. Ngeleketyani retaliated by saying that he didn't trust Nongoloza, believing he had added this law to the hide after half of the rock was lost. The two men fought until they were both drenched in blood, and Paul arrived to intervene. Paul listened to both men's sides of the story. He then told Ngeleketyane to travel to the mines to see if men were engaging in sex with one another. Ngeleketyane found that this did indeed take place, but opinions remained divided as to whether this justified Nongoloza's act. This would become the pivotal disagreement between the two gangs that persists to this day. Paul had informed the men that at the entrance of his cave was an old assegai, and if the men found the tip of the assegai rusted, it would mean that Paul had died. Due to the death of Paul, a final decision on whether sexual intercourse between men was allowed never came to pass. After Paul's death the two gangs decided to go their separate ways: Nongoloza's gang with its now eight men (including Magubane, whom he decided to take with him), and Ngeleketyani's gang with its seven. It is said that this is where the numbers "27" and "28" originated, with the number "2" symbolizing the two leaders. The gangs agree that the day and night would still be divided between them as it had always been. The gangs continued to roam the countryside until they both ended up in Point Prison in Durban. At Point Prison they encountered a group of six men, led by a Zulu man named Grey, who were "franse" (non-gangsters). The six men would sit in a circle and flip a single silver coin between them. Nongoloza demanded that the men hand over their possessions to him; they refused. Later Ngeleketyane told him that these men were skilled smugglers and gamblers who had helped him in his early days in prison. A fight broke out between Nongoloza and Ngeleketyane about the future of the gamblers. Ngeleketyane defended the gamblers against the 28s' sexual appetites, which was what Nongoloza wanted them for. After many disagreements Nongoloza finally decided that the new group would be called the "26s" also known as Izisebenzi. This name was chosen because they had six men but also because Nongoloza wanted to indicate their inferior status. Nongoloza informed Ngeleketyane that he and his men would have to answer for the actions of the 26s. Finally the three camps were formed. The 26s were responsible for gambling, smuggling and accruing wealth in general. The 28s were the warriors and responsible for fighting on behalf of all three groups, and the 27s were the guardians of gang law and the peace keepers between all the gangs. New rules and a strict code of conduct were drawn up. It was decided that when a gangster broke a rule, the blood of a warder or franse (non-gangster) must be spilled to set things right. Number. 26s. The 26s' duty is to accumulate wealth for all the numbers. The 26s have no private line and a wyfie may not join the gang. Although a member of the 26s may take a wyfie for himself, it is strictly against the laws as set out in the book of 26s. The 26s run all prisons in the province of KwaZulu-Natal and are mostly active in Durban and uMgungundlovu district of Pietermaritzburg. In the number 2 and the number 1, there is a number 1's and number 2's twelve point ring, for number 4's and 5's, but not 6's or 7's, who have an 11 point ring, unless they're number 8's, which make gang decisions according to their jurisdictions. Each rank has its own assigned office and duties which include training lower rank members in the duties and codes of the gang. 28s. The 28s are the blood line of the gang and are responsible for fighting on behalf of the three gangs (26, 27 and 28). They are divided into two lines – the gold line and the silver line. Founded by Junaid Davids. Haysom's study (1981) on prison gangs is based on Supreme Court trial records and supplemented with some interviews with ex-offenders. Schurink's paper (1989) summarises the findings of a study on prison gangs commissioned by the Department of Correctional Services. For this study, in-depth interviews were conducted with sixty prisoners, mainly Coloured men serving in St Albans and Brandvlei prisons. Prisoners were also encouraged to write about their prison experiences, providing a number of personal manuscripts. The gold line are the warriors, the descendants of Nongoloza. They fight the gang's battles. The silver line are the female, and are the descendants of Magubane. They are considered to be the sex slaves of the gold line. In the 28s it is important to prove your manhood and move up in the rankings. A member moves up the ranks through the stabbing or killing of rival gangs, prison guards, or disobedient members. Should a member stay in the lower ranks, he will be considered a woman and will be sexually abused until he proves his manhood. Recruitment into the 28s. When a new prisoner is assigned a cell he will be introduced to the person in charge of that cell, known as the "cell cleaner". The cell cleaner will welcome the new prisoner to the cell, and will either leave him alone for the evening, or will demand intercourse. The new prisoners will be observed by a senior member of the gang known as "die glas" (the binoculars). The glas' job is to conduct gang business in "die bos" (the bush), the parts of the prison where the 28s are not active. The glas will confront a potential new recruit and give him a riddle. How the new prisoner answers the riddle will determine which department of the gang he will fall under. After the glas is satisfied with the answer of the new inmate, he is given a task to become a member. This task could either be the fatal or non-fatal stabbing of another inmate or warden. The new recruit will be given a knife whose length is determined by another senior member of the gang known as the nyangi (the doctor). If the gang wants the stabbing to be fatal, the nyangi will give the new recruit a longer blade; if the gang wants a non-lethal stabbing, he will be given a shorter blade. Once the stabbing has taken place all the gang members watching will shout, "Nangempela! Die nommer is vol!" (The number is complete.) On a Sunday, the "day of rites", his ceremony is performed. He is once again ordered to stand in the middle of the room; however, this time he is surrounded by several people. The first person to approach him is the nyangi. The nyangi then takes a gold pipe and slaps it on the new recruit's right wrist, then takes a silver pipe and slaps it on the new recruit's left wrist. He then checks the recruit's pulse and declares either ""Die man se pols klop twee keer per jaar" (This man's pulse beats twice a year) or "Die man se pols klop drie keer per jaar"'" (This man's pulse beats three times a year). If he says that his pulse beats twice, it means the new recruit is being recruited into the silver line; if three times, it means he is being recruited into the gold line. The (senior member) then places a handkerchief on the floor and slips a knife under it. He stands and says to the recruit: "From today you are no longer a franse. You are a 28. You will never swear at your brother. You will never hurt your brother. You will never do anything that reflects badly on the camp. If you leave the camp, you leave by your own blood." The (magistrate) will then come forward and take out his colored stamps and give the new member his approval. The carries four stamps – white, green, red and black, which signify the four hooves on the Rooiland. The stamps signify promotion. When a member of the silver line is promoted, the landdros takes out his green and white stamp; if the member is from the gold line, he takes out the green and the red stamps. The black stamp is reserved for the death sentence. The end of the ceremony is signalled by the new recruit being marched out of the circle. The 28s then take the new recruit to the 26s and 27s. The new recruit will sleep alongside different members of the 28 gang and be told what his duties are. He will also begin to learn the history of Nongoloza and Kilikijan. It will only be a brief fragment of the story, for he is still too junior to hear the whole story. The 40s are senior but inactive due to being too old or too injured for active duty. Another reason a person could be a is because

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