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carlosejimenez
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wikipedia-20220301.en-block-size-1024

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500
Arnold Schoenberg and Gustav Mahler. Life Early life Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788, in Danzig (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; present-day Gdańsk, Poland) on Heiligegeistgasse (present day Św. Ducha 47), the son of Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener; 1766–1838) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer (1747–1805), both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch patrician families. Neither of them was very religious; both supported the French Revolution, and were republicans, cosmopolitans and Anglophiles. When Danzig became part of Prussia in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg—a free city with a republican constitution. His firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. Adele, Arthur's only sibling, was born on July 12, 1797. In 1797, Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with the family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his two-year stay there, learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803, he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Holland, Britain, France, Switzerland, Austria and Prussia. Viewed as primarily a pleasure tour, Heinrich used the opportunity to visit some of his business associates abroad. Heinrich offered Arthur a choice: he could stay at home and start preparations for university, or he could travel with them and continue his merchant education. Arthur chose to travel with them. He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending school in Wimbledon, where he was disillusioned by strict and intellectually shallow Anglican religiosity. He continued to sharply criticize Anglican religiosity later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father, who became very critical of his educational results. In 1805, Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide. He was prone to anxiety and depression; each becoming more pronounced later in his life. Heinrich had become so fussy, even his wife started to doubt his mental health. "There was, in the father's life, some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg." Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father. There were other instances of serious mental health history on his father's side of the family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha, in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. While there, he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which deeply concerned his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he may have been expelled. Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father. During this time, he had doubts about being able to start a new life as a scholar. Most of his prior education was as a practical merchant and he had trouble learning Latin; a prerequisite for an academic career. His mother moved away, with her daughter Adele, to Weimar—the then centre of German literature—to enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother did not part on good terms. In one letter, she wrote: "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." His mother, Johanna, was generally described as vivacious and sociable. After they split, they did not meet again. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur's negative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur moved to Hamburg to live with
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"Ġoften", "Ġremained", "Ġun", "ful", "filled", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġleft", "ĠWe", "imar", "Ġto", "Ġbecome", "Ġa", "Ġstudent", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠGö", "t", "ting", "en", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "09", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġno", "Ġwritten", "Ġreasons", "Ġabout", "Ġwhy", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġchose", "Ġthat", "Ġuniversity", "Ġinstead", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġthen", "Ġmore", "Ġfamous", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠJ", "ena", ",", "Ġbut", "ĠGö", "t", "ting", "en", "Ġwas", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġmore", "Ġmodern", "Ġand", "Ġscientifically", "Ġoriented", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġless", "Ġattention", "Ġgiven", "Ġto", "Ġtheology", ".", "ĠLaw", "Ġor", "Ġmedicine", "Ġwere", "Ġusual", "Ġchoices", "Ġfor", "Ġyoung", "Ġmen", "Ġof", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġstatus", "Ġwho", "Ġalso", "Ġneeded", "Ġcareer", "Ġand", "Ġincome", ";", "Ġhe", "Ġchose", "Ġmedicine", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġscientific", "Ġinterests", ".", "ĠAmong", "Ġhis", "Ġnotable", "Ġprofessors", "Ġwere", "ĠBern", "hard", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠThib", "aut", ",", "ĠArnold", "ĠHerman", "n", "ĠLudwig", "ĠHe", "eren", ",", "ĠJohann", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠBl", "umen", "bach", ",", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠSt", "rom", "ey", "er", ",", "ĠHein", "rich", "ĠAdolf", "ĠSchr", "ader", ",", "ĠJohann", "ĠTobias", "ĠMayer", "Ġand", "ĠKon", "rad", "ĠJohann", "ĠMartin", "ĠLang", "en", "beck", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġstudied", "Ġmetaph", "ysics", ",", "Ġpsychology", "Ġand", "Ġlogic", "Ġunder", "ĠGott", "l", "ob", "ĠErnst", "ĠSch", "ul", "ze", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "Ġof", "ĠA", "enes", "idem", "us", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġmade", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġimpression", "Ġand", "Ġadvised", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġconcentrate", "Ġon", "ĠPlato", "Ġand", "ĠIm", "manuel", "ĠKant", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġdecided", "Ġto", "Ġswitch", "Ġfrom", "Ġmedicine", "Ġto", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġaround", "Ġ18", "10", "âĢĵ", "11", "Ġand", "Ġhe", "Ġleft", "ĠGö", "t", "ting", "en", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġprogram", ":", "Ġ", "Ġbesides", "ĠSch", "ul", "ze", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġother", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġprofessor", "Ġwas", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠBou", "ter", "we", "k", ",", "Ġwhom", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġdisliked", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġregret", "Ġhis", "Ġmedicinal", "Ġand", "Ġscientific", "Ġstudies", ";", "Ġ", "Ġhe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġnecessary", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġphilosopher", ",", "Ġand", "Ġeven", "Ġin", "ĠBerlin", "Ġhe", "Ġattended", "Ġmore", "Ġlectures", "Ġin", "Ġsciences", "Ġthan", "Ġin", "Ġphilosophy", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġhis", "Ġdays", "Ġat", "ĠGö", "t", "ting", "en", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġspent", "Ġconsiderable", "Ġtime", "Ġstudying", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġalso", "Ġcontinued", "Ġhis", "Ġfl", "ute", "Ġplaying", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "Ġlife", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġfriends", "Ġincluded", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠGot", "th", "il", "f", "ĠOs", "ann", ",", "ĠKarl", "ĠW", "itte", ",", "ĠChristian", "ĠCharles", "ĠJos", "ias", "Ġvon", "ĠBun", "sen", ",", "Ġand", "ĠWilliam", "ĠBack", "house", "ĠAst", "or", "ĠSr", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġarrived", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġnewly", "Ġfounded", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠBerlin", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġwinter", "Ġsemester", "Ġof", "Ġ18", "11", "âĢĵ", "12", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġhis", "Ġmother", "Ġhad", "Ġjust", "Ġbegun", "Ġher", "Ġliterary", "Ġcareer", ";", "Ġshe", "Ġpublished", "Ġher", "Ġfirst", "Ġbook", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "10", ",", "Ġa", "Ġbiography", "Ġof", "Ġher", "Ġfriend", "ĠKarl", "ĠLudwig", "ĠFern", "ow", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġcritical", "Ġsuccess", ".", "ĠArthur", "Ġattended", "Ġlectures", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġprominent", "Ġpost", "-", "K", "ant", "ian", "Ġphilosopher", "ĠJohann", "ĠGott", "lie", "b", "ĠF", "ich", "te", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġquickly", "Ġfound", "Ġmany", "Ġpoints", "Ġof", "Ġdisagreement", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġ;", "Ġhe", "Ġalso", "Ġfound", "ĠF", "ich", "te", "'s", "Ġlectures", "Ġtedious", "Ġand", "Ġhard", "Ġto", "Ġunderstand", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġlater", "Ġmentioned", "ĠF", "ich", "te", "Ġonly", "Ġin", "Ġcritical", ",", "Ġnegative", "Ġterms", "âĢĶ", "seeing", "Ġhis", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġlower", "-", "quality", "Ġversion", "Ġof", "ĠKant", "'s", "Ġand", "Ġconsidering", "Ġit", "Ġuseful", "Ġonly", "Ġbecause", "ĠF", "ich", "te", "'s", "Ġpoor", "Ġarguments", "Ġunintentionally", "Ġhighlighted", "Ġsome", "Ġfailings", "Ġof", "ĠKant", "ian", "ism", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġalso", "Ġattended", "Ġthe", "Ġlectures", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfamous", "ĠProtestant", "Ġtheolog", "ian", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠSch", "le", "ier", "m", "acher", ",", "Ġwhom", "Ġhe", "Ġalso", "Ġquickly", "Ġcame", "Ġto", "Ġdislike", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġnotes", "Ġand", "Ġcomments", "Ġon", "ĠSch", "le", "ier", "m", "acher", "'s", "Ġlectures", "Ġshow", "Ġthat", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġbecoming", "Ġvery", "Ġcritical", "Ġof", "Ġreligion", "Ġand", "Ġmoving", "Ġtowards", "Ġatheism", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġlearned", "Ġby", "Ġself", "-", "directed", "Ġreading", ";", "Ġbesides", "ĠPlato", ",", "ĠKant", "Ġand", "ĠF", "ich", "te", "Ġhe", "Ġalso", "Ġread", "Ġthe", "Ġworks", "Ġof", "ĠSche", "lling", ",", "ĠF", "ries", ",", "ĠJacob", "i" ]
501
his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. Education He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being Goethe. Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be there—although the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept a distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, Franz Passow. Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann, mistress of Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairs—usually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually did not find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled. He left Weimar to become a student at the University of Göttingen in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous University of Jena, but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose medicine due to his scientific interests. Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Friedrich Stromeyer, Heinrich Adolf Schrader, Johann Tobias Mayer and Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck. He studied metaphysics, psychology and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of Aenesidemus, who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Kant. He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was Friedrich Bouterwek, whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Göttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included Friedrich Gotthilf Osann, Karl Witte, Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen, and William Backhouse Astor Sr. He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow, which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, but quickly found many points of disagreement with his ; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms—seeing his philosophy as a lower-quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very critical of religion and moving towards atheism. He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of Schelling, Fries, Jacobi
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"ly", "Ġreceived", ")", "Ġwork", "Ġon", "Ġcolor", "Ġtheory", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġsoon", "Ġstarted", "Ġwriting", "Ġhis", "Ġown", "Ġtreat", "ise", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsubject", ",", "ĠOn", "ĠVision", "Ġand", "ĠColors", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġpoints", "Ġdiffered", "Ġfrom", "Ġhis", "Ġteacher", "'s", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthey", "Ġremained", "Ġpolite", "Ġtowards", "Ġeach", "Ġother", ",", "Ġtheir", "Ġgrowing", "Ġtheoretical", "Ġdisagreements", "âĢĶ", "and", "Ġespecially", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġextreme", "Ġself", "-", "confidence", "Ġand", "Ġtact", "less", "Ġcriticisms", "âĢĶ", "soon", "Ġmade", "ĠGo", "ethe", "Ġbecome", "Ġdistant", "Ġagain", "Ġand", "Ġafter", "Ġ18", "16", "Ġtheir", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġbecame", "Ġless", "Ġfrequent", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġlater", "Ġadmitted", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġgreatly", "Ġhurt", "Ġby", "Ġthis", "Ġrejection", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhe", "Ġcontinued", "Ġto", "Ġpraise", "ĠGo", "ethe", ",", "Ġand", "Ġconsidered", 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".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġread", "Ġthe" ]
502
, Bacon, Locke, and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by August Böckh and Friedrich August Wolf and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Paul Erman, Johann Elert Bode, Ernst Gottfried Fischer, Johann Horkel, Friedrich Christian Rosenthal and Hinrich Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar). Early work Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the war against France. He returned to Weimar but left after less than a month, disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk (1778–1838), a civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in Rudolstadt, hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian forest and writing his dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and nationalistic. His mother had just published her second book, Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805, a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus (1888–1965) later claimed that his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation." He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in Leipzig for the edification of his new editors. Also contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe, to whom he sent it as a gift. Although it is doubtful that Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions, he was impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education. Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor to a young philosopher, who was finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero. They mostly discussed Goethe's newly published (and somewhat lukewarmly received) work on color theory. Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise on the subject, On Vision and Colors, which in many points differed from his teacher's. Although they remained polite towards each other, their growing theoretical disagreements—and especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticisms—soon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent. Schopenhauer later admitted that he was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own. Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majer—a historian of religion, orientalist and disciple of Herder—who introduced him to Eastern philosophy (see also Indology). Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the Upanishads (he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed that they contained superhuman concepts) and the Buddha, and put them on a par with Plato and Kant. He continued his studies by reading the Bhagavad Gita, an amateurish German journal Asiatisches Magazin and Asiatick Researches by the Asiatic Society. Schopenhauer held a profound respect for Indian philosophy; although he loved Hindu texts, he was more interested in Buddhism, which he came to regard as the best religion. His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to Early Buddhism. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism. Schopenhauer read the
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"ĠPhilosophy", "\",", "Ġexpressed", "Ġhis", "Ġresentment", "Ġtowards", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", "Ġconducted", "Ġin", "Ġacad", "emies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLater", "Ġlife", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAfter", "Ġhis", "Ġtenure", "Ġin", "Ġacademia", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġcontinued", "Ġto", "Ġtravel", "Ġextensively", ",", "Ġvisiting", "ĠLe", "ip", "zig", ",", "ĠN", "ure", "mberg", ",", "ĠSt", "utt", "gart", ",", "ĠSch", "aff", "haus", "en", ",", "ĠVe", "vey", ",", "ĠMilan", "Ġand", "Ġspending", "Ġeight", "Ġmonths", "Ġin", "ĠFlorence", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBefore", "Ġhe", "Ġleft", "Ġfor", "Ġhis", "Ġthree", "-", "year", "Ġtravel", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġhad", "Ġan", "Ġincident", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "ĠBerlin", "Ġneighbor", ",", "Ġ47", "-", "year", "-", "old", "Ġseam", "stress", "ĠCaroline", "ĠLouise", "ĠMar", "quet", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġdetails", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAugust", "Ġ18", "21", "Ġincident", "Ġare", "Ġunknown", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġjust", "Ġpushed", "Ġher", "Ġfrom", "Ġhis", "Ġentrance", "Ġafter", "Ġshe", "Ġhad", "Ġrude", "ly", "Ġrefused", "Ġto", "Ġleave", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġhad" ]
503
Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), and commented,In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death. As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to Dresden. He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt, Friedrich Laun, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. Schopenhauer's main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, The World as Will and Representation, which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in Italy. He visited Venice, Bologna, Florence, Naples and Milan, travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in Rome, where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Caffè Greco, among them Johann Friedrich Böhmer, who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewoman—but, despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzig—in which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of his—was near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets, but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family. He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found Berlin most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan". He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820. Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time, when many progressive professors were fired, while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics. Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university. Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of academia. A late essay, "On University Philosophy", expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. Later life After his tenure in academia, he continued to travel extensively, visiting Leipzig, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Schaffhausen, Vevey, Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he left for his three-year travel, Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had
[ "Ġpurposely", "Ġfallen", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġground", "Ġso", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġcould", "Ġsue", "Ġhim", ".", "Ġ", "ĠShe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġattacked", "Ġher", "Ġso", "Ġviolently", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġhad", "Ġbecome", "Ġparalyzed", "Ġon", "Ġher", "Ġright", "Ġside", "Ġand", "Ġunable", "Ġto", "Ġwork", ".", "Ġ", "ĠShe", "Ġimmediately", "Ġsued", "Ġhim", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġprocess", "Ġlasted", "Ġuntil", "ĠMay", "Ġ18", "27", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġa", "Ġcourt", "Ġfound", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġguilty", "Ġand", "Ġforced", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġpay", "Ġher", "Ġan", "Ġannual", "Ġpension", "Ġuntil", "Ġher", "Ġdeath", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "42", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġenjoyed", "ĠItaly", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġhe", "Ġstudied", "Ġart", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "ized", "Ġwith", "ĠItalian", "Ġand", "ĠEnglish", "Ġnobles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġhis", "Ġlast", "Ġvisit", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġleft", "Ġfor", "ĠMunich", "Ġand", "Ġstayed", "Ġthere", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġyear", ",", "Ġmostly", "Ġrec", "uper", "ating", "Ġfrom", "Ġvarious", "Ġhealth", "Ġissues", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġpossibly", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġven", "ere", "al", "Ġdiseases", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġtreatment", "Ġhis", "Ġdoctor", "Ġused", "Ġsuggests", "Ġsy", "philis", ").", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġcontacted", "Ġpublishers", ",", "Ġoffering", "Ġto", "Ġtranslate", "ĠHume", "Ġinto", "ĠGerman", "Ġand", "ĠKant", "Ġinto", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhis", "Ġproposals", "Ġwere", "Ġdeclined", ".", "Ġ", "ĠReturning", "Ġto", "ĠBerlin", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġbegan", "Ġto", "Ġstudy", "ĠSpanish", "Ġso", "Ġhe", "Ġcould", "Ġread", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġfavorite", "Ġauthors", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġoriginal", "Ġlanguage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġliked", "ĠPedro", "ĠCalder", "ón", "Ġde", "Ġla", "ĠBar", "ca", ",", "ĠL", "ope", "Ġde", "ĠVega", ",", "ĠMiguel", "Ġde", "ĠC", "erv", "antes", ",", "Ġand", "Ġespecially", "ĠBalt", "asar", "ĠGr", "aci", "án", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġalso", "Ġmade", "Ġfailed", "Ġattempts", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "Ġhis", "Ġtranslations", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġworks", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFew", "Ġattempts", "Ġto", "Ġrevive", "Ġhis", "Ġlectures", "âĢĶ", "again", "Ġscheduled", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtime", "Ġas", "ĠHegel", "'s", "âĢĶ", "also", "Ġfailed", ",", "Ġas", "Ġdid", "Ġhis", "Ġinquiries", "Ġabout", "Ġrel", "ocating", "Ġto", "Ġother", "Ġuniversities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġhis", "ĠBerlin", "Ġyears", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġoccasionally", "Ġmentioned", "Ġhis", "Ġdesire", "Ġto", "Ġmarry", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġfamily", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "Ġa", "Ġwhile", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġunsuccessfully", "Ġcour", "ting", "Ġ17", "-", "year", "-", "old", "ĠFlor", "a", "ĠWeiss", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġ22", "Ġyears", "Ġyounger", "Ġthan", "Ġhimself", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHis", "Ġunpublished", "Ġwritings", "Ġfrom", "Ġthat", "Ġtime", "Ġshow", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġalready", "Ġvery", "Ġcritical", "Ġof", "Ġmonog", "amy", "Ġbut", "Ġstill", "Ġnot", "Ġadvocating", "Ġpoly", "gy", "ny", "âĢĶ", "instead", "Ġmus", "ing", "Ġabout", "Ġa", "Ġpoly", "am", "orous", "Ġrelationship", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "t", "etr", "ag", "amy", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġhad", "Ġan", "Ġon", "-", "and", "-", "off", "Ġrelationship", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġyoung", "Ġdancer", ",", "ĠCaroline", "ĠRich", "ter", "Ġ(", "she", "Ġalso", "Ġused", "Ġthe", "Ġsurname", "ĠMed", "on", "Ġafter", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġher", "Ġex", "-", "lo", "vers", ").", "ĠThey", "Ġmet", "Ġwhen", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġ33", "Ġand", "Ġshe", "Ġwas", "Ġ19", "Ġand", "Ġworking", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠBerlin", "ĠOpera", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġhad", "Ġalready", "Ġhad", "Ġnumerous", "Ġlovers", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġson", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġwed", "lock", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlater", "Ġgave", "Ġbirth", "Ġto", "Ġanother", "Ġson", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġtime", "Ġto", "Ġan", "Ġunnamed", "Ġforeign", "Ġdiplomat", "Ġ(", "she", "Ġsoon", "Ġhad", "Ġanother", "Ġpregnancy", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġchild", "Ġwas", "Ġstill", "born", ").", "ĠAs", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġpreparing", "Ġto", "Ġescape", "Ġfrom", "ĠBerlin", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "31", ",", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġch", "ol", "era", "Ġepidemic", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġoffered", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġher", "Ġwith", "Ġhim", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġcondition", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġleft", "Ġher", "Ġyoung", "Ġson", "Ġbehind", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġrefused", "Ġand", "Ġhe", "Ġwent", "Ġalone", ";", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġwill", "Ġhe", "Ġleft", "Ġher", "Ġa", "Ġsignificant", "Ġsum", "Ġof", "Ġmoney", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġinsisted", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġshould", "Ġnot", "Ġbe", "Ġspent", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġway", "Ġon", "Ġher", "Ġsecond", "Ġson", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", ",", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġlast", "Ġyear", "Ġin", "ĠBerlin", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġprophetic", "Ġdream", "Ġthat", "Ġurged", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġescape", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġhe", "Ġarrived", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġnew", "Ġhome", "Ġin", "ĠFrankfurt", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġsupposedly", "Ġhad", "Ġanother", "Ġsupernatural", "Ġexperience", ",", "Ġan", "Ġappar", "ition", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġdead", "Ġfather", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġmother", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġstill", "Ġalive", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġexperience", "Ġled", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġspend", "Ġsome", "Ġtime", "Ġinvestigating", "Ġparanormal", "Ġphenomena", "Ġand", "Ġmagic", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġquite", "Ġcritical", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġavailable", "Ġstudies", "Ġand", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġmostly", "Ġignorant", "Ġor", "Ġfraudulent", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhe", "Ġdid", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġauthentic", "Ġcases", "Ġof", "Ġsuch", "Ġphenomena", "Ġand", "Ġtried", "Ġto", "Ġexplain", "Ġthem", "Ġthrough", "Ġhis", "Ġmetaph", "ysics", "Ġas", "Ġmanifestations", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", ".", "Ġ", "ĠUpon", "Ġhis", "Ġarrival", "Ġin", "ĠFrankfurt", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġexperienced", "Ġa", "Ġperiod", "Ġof", "Ġdepression", "Ġand", "Ġdeclining", "Ġhealth", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġrenewed", "Ġhis", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġmother", ",", "Ġand", "Ġshe", "Ġseemed", "Ġconcerned", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġmight", "Ġcommit", "Ġsuicide", "Ġlike", "Ġhis", "Ġfather", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġnow", "ĠJoh", "anna", "Ġand", "ĠAd", "ele", "Ġwere", "Ġliving", "Ġvery", "Ġmodest", "ly", ".", "ĠJoh", "anna", "'s", "Ġwriting", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġbring", "Ġher", "Ġmuch", "Ġincome", ",", "Ġand", "Ġher", "Ġpopularity", "Ġwas", "Ġwaning", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġremained", "Ġreserved", ",", "Ġand", "ĠArthur", "Ġseemed", "Ġund", "ist", "urbed", "Ġby", "Ġher", "Ġdeath", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "38", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġrelationship", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġsister", "Ġgrew", "Ġcloser", "Ġand", "Ġhe", "Ġcorrespond", "ed", "Ġwith", "Ġher", "Ġuntil", "Ġshe", "Ġdied", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "49", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ18", "32", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġleft", "ĠFrankfurt", "Ġfor", "ĠMann", "heim", "Ġbut", "Ġreturned", "Ġin", "ĠJuly", "Ġ18", "33", "Ġto", "Ġremain", "Ġthere", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġexcept", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġshort", "Ġjourneys", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġlived", "Ġalone", "Ġexcept", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġsuccession", "Ġof", "Ġpet", "Ġp", "ood", "les", "Ġnamed", "ĠAt", "man", "Ġand", "ĠBut", "z", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ18", "36", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġpublished", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "ĠWill", "Ġin", "ĠNature", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ18", "36", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġsent", "Ġhis", "Ġessay", "Ġ\"", "On", "Ġthe", "ĠFreedom", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠWill", "\"", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcontest", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠRoyal", "ĠNorwegian", "ĠSociety", "Ġof", "ĠSciences", "Ġand", "Ġwon", "Ġthe", "Ġprize", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġyear", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġsent", "Ġanother", "Ġessay", ",", "Ġ\"", "On", "Ġthe", "ĠBas", "is", "Ġof", "ĠMor", "ality", "\",", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠRoyal", "ĠDanish", "ĠSociety", "Ġfor", "ĠScientific", "ĠStudies", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġwin", "Ġthe", "Ġprize", "Ġdespite", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġcontestant", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠSociety", "Ġwas", "Ġappalled", "Ġthat", "Ġseveral", "Ġdistinguished", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġphilosophers", "Ġwere", "Ġmentioned", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġvery", "Ġoffensive", "Ġmanner", ",", "Ġand", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġessay", "Ġmissed", "Ġthe", "Ġpoint", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġset", "Ġtopic", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġarguments", "Ġwere", "Ġinadequate", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġvery", "Ġconfident", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġwould", "Ġwin", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġenraged", "Ġby", "Ġthis", "Ġrejection", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġpublished", "Ġboth", "Ġessays", "Ġas", "ĠThe", "ĠTwo", "ĠBasic", "ĠProblems", "Ġof", "ĠEthics", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", ",", "Ġpublished", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "41", ",", "Ġagain", "Ġfailed", "Ġto", "Ġdraw", "Ġattention", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġphilosophy", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "face", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġedition", ",", "Ġin", "Ġ1860", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġstill", "Ġpouring", "Ġinsults", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠRoyal", "ĠDanish", "ĠSociety", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTwo", "Ġyears", "Ġlater", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġsome", "Ġnegotiations", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġmanaged", "Ġto", "Ġconvince", "Ġhis", "Ġpublisher", "," ]
504
purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for Munich and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, and especially Baltasar Gracián. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. Few attempts to revive his lectures—again scheduled at the same time as Hegel's—also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygyny—instead musing about a polyamorous relationship that he called "tetragamy". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer, Caroline Richter (she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers). They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat (she soon had another pregnancy but the child was stillborn). As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831, due to a cholera epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money, but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son. Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a prophetic dream that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in Frankfurt, he supposedly had another supernatural experience, an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating paranormal phenomena and magic. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. In 1836, he published On the Will in Nature. In 1836, he sent his essay "On the Freedom of the Will" to the contest of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and won the prize for the following year. He sent another essay, "On the Basis of Morality", to the Royal Danish Society for Scientific Studies, but did not win the prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that the arguments were inadequate. Schopenhauer, who had been very confident that he would win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as The Two Basic Problems of Ethics. The first edition, published in 1841, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. In the preface to the second edition, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher,
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505
Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of The World as Will and Representation. That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative. Schopenhauer began to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt, who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish Parerga and Paralipomena, believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848, Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt after General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle. As Young Hegelians were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation. In 1851, Schopenhauer published Parerga and Paralipomena, which, as the title says, contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. He was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors. Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856, the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was won by Rudolf Seydel's very critical essay. Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first of his four portraits of him—which Schopenhauer did not particularly like—which was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's Englischer Hof to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his hearing had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with rheumatism. He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published posthumously under the title Senilia. In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to
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506
recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to Parerga and Paralipomena but was at peace with dying. He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He died at the age of 72 and had a funeral conducted by a Lutheran minister. Philosophy The world as representation Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension of Kant's, and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation (transcendental idealism) as starting point for his own. Kant had argued that the empirical world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our mental representations. Schopenhauer did not deny that the external world existed empirically but followed Kant in claiming that our knowledge and experience of the world is always indirect. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation (Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung)". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subject—a 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers the world from this angle—that is, insofar as it is representation. Theory of perception In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help him on his Theory of Colours. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the a priori nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was Hume's skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in his Critique of Pure Reason and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is a priori. After G. E. Schulze had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter. The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as the objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me? Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in On Vision and Colors, and, in the subsequent editions of Fourfold Root, an extensive exposition is given in § 21. The world as will In Book Two of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to us—that is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered "in-itself" or "noumena", its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things, Schopenhauer argues, is will (Wille). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the "objectivation" of the will), each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings, Schopenhauer argues, serve the ends of willing—an illogical, directionless, ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopen
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"Ġany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "Ġnecessity", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġof", "Ġsufficient", "Ġreason", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", ",", "Ġsalvation", "Ġfrom", "Ġour", "Ġmiserable", "Ġexistence", "Ġcan", "Ġcome", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", "'s", "Ġbeing", "Ġ\"", "tr", "anqu", "ill", "ized", "\"", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġmetaphysical", "Ġinsight", "Ġthat", "Ġreveals", "Ġindividuality", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġmerely", "Ġan", "Ġillusion", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsaint", "Ġor", "Ġ'", "great", "Ġsoul", "'", "Ġintuitive", "ly", "Ġ\"", "recogn", "izes", "Ġthe", "Ġwhole", ",", "Ġcomprehend", "s", "Ġits", "Ġessence", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfinds", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġconstantly", "Ġpassing", "Ġaway", ",", "Ġcaught", "Ġup", "Ġin", "Ġvain", "Ġstri", "v", "ings", ",", "Ġinner", "Ġconflict", ",", "Ġand", "Ġperpetual", "Ġsuffering", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġneg", "ation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", ",", "Ġin", "Ġother", "Ġwords", ",", "Ġstems", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġinsight", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġin", "-", "it", "self", "Ġ(", "free", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "Ġspace", "Ġand", "Ġtime", ")", "Ġis", "Ġone", ".", "ĠAsc", "etic", "Ġpractices", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġremarks", ",", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġaid", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", "'s", "Ġ\"", "self", "-", "abol", "ition", "\",", "Ġwhich", "Ġbrings", "Ġabout", "Ġa", "Ġbliss", "ful", ",", "Ġred", "empt", "ive", "Ġ\"", "will", "-", "less", "\"", "Ġstate", "Ġof", "Ġemptiness", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġfree", "Ġfrom", "Ġstriving", "Ġor", "Ġsuffering", ".", "Ġ", "ĠArt", "Ġand", "Ġaesthetics", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", ",", "Ġhuman", "Ġ\"", "w", "illing", "\"âĢĶ", "des", "iring", ",", "Ġcraving", ",", "Ġetc", ".âĢĶ", "is", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġroot", "Ġof", "Ġsuffering", ".", "ĠA", "Ġtemporary", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġescape", "Ġthis", "Ġpain", "Ġis", "Ġthrough", "Ġaesthetic", "Ġcontemplation", ".", "ĠHere", "Ġone", "Ġmoves", "Ġaway", "Ġfrom", "Ġordinary", "Ġcogn", "iz", "ance", "Ġof", "Ġindividual", "Ġthings", "Ġto", "Ġcogn", "iz", "ance", "Ġof", "Ġeternal", "ĠPlat", "onic", "ĠIdeas", "âĢĶ", "in", "Ġother", "Ġwords", ",", "Ġcogn", "iz", "ance", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġfree", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġservice", "Ġof", "Ġwill", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġaesthetic", "Ġcontemplation", ",", "Ġone", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġperce", "ives", "Ġan", "Ġobject", "Ġof", "Ġperception", "Ġas", "Ġsomething", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "Ġone", "Ġis", "Ġseparated", ";", "Ġrather", "Ġ\"", "it", "Ġis", "Ġas", "Ġif", "Ġthe", "Ġobject", "Ġalone", "Ġexisted", "Ġwithout", "Ġanyone", "Ġperce", "iving", "Ġit", ",", "Ġand", "Ġone", "Ġcan", "Ġthus", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġseparate", "Ġthe", "Ġperce", "iver", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġperception", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġhave", "Ġbecome", "Ġone", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġentirety", "Ġof", "Ġconsciousness", "Ġentirely", "Ġfilled", "Ġand", "Ġoccupied", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġperceptual", "Ġimage", "\".", "ĠSubject", "Ġand", "Ġobject", "Ġare", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġdistinguish", "able", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠIdea", "Ġcomes", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġfore", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFrom", "Ġthis", "Ġaesthetic", "Ġimmersion", ",", "Ġone", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġan", "Ġindividual", "Ġwho", "Ġsuffers", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġresult", "Ġof", "Ġserv", "itude", "Ġto", "Ġone", "'s", "Ġindividual", "Ġwill", "Ġbut", ",", "Ġrather", ",", "Ġbecomes", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "pure", ",", "Ġwill", "-", "less", ",", "Ġpain", "less", ",", "Ġtimeless", ",", "Ġsubject", "Ġof", "Ġcognition", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġpure", ",", "Ġwill", "-", "less", "Ġsubject", "Ġof", "Ġcognition", "Ġis", "Ġcogn", "iz", "ant", "Ġonly", "Ġof", "ĠIdeas", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġindividual", "Ġthings", ":", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġkind", "Ġof", "Ġcognition", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġuncon", "cerned", "Ġwith", "Ġrelations", "Ġbetween", "Ġobjects", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠPrinciple", "Ġof", "ĠS", "ufficient", "ĠReason", "Ġ(", "time", ",", "Ġspace", ",", "Ġcause", "Ġand", "Ġeffect", ")", "Ġand", "Ġinstead", "Ġinvolves", "Ġcomplete", "Ġabsorption", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġobject", ".", "Ġ", "ĠArt", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġpractical", "Ġconsequence", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġbrief", "Ġaesthetic", "Ġcontemplation", ",", "Ġsince", "Ġit", "Ġattempts", "Ġto", "Ġdepict", "Ġthe", "Ġessence", "/", "pure", "ĠIdeas", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ".", "ĠMusic", ",", "Ġfor", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġpure", "st", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġart", "Ġbecause", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġone", "Ġthat", "Ġdepicts", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", "Ġitself", "Ġwithout", "Ġit", "Ġappearing", "Ġas", "Ġsubject", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠPrinciple", "Ġof", "ĠS", "ufficient", "ĠReason", ",", "Ġtherefore", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġindividual", "Ġobject", ".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠDaniel", "ĠAl", "bright", ",", "Ġ\"", "Sch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġthought", "Ġthat", "Ġmusic", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġart", "Ġthat", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġmerely", "Ġcopy", "Ġideas", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġactually", "Ġembodied", "Ġthe", "Ġwill", "Ġitself", "\".", "ĠHe", "Ġdeemed", "Ġmusic", "Ġa", "Ġtimeless", ",", "Ġuniversal", "Ġlanguage", "Ġcomprehend", "ed", "Ġeverywhere", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġimb", "ue", "Ġglobal", "Ġenthusiasm", ",", "Ġif", "Ġin", "Ġpossession", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġsignificant", "Ġmelody", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMathematics", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġreal", "ist", "Ġviews", "Ġon", "Ġmathematics", "Ġare", "Ġevident", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġcriticism", "Ġof", "Ġcontempor", "aneous", "Ġattempts", "Ġto", "Ġprove", "Ġthe", "Ġparallel", "Ġpost", "ulate", "Ġin", "ĠEucl", "ide", "an", "Ġgeometry", ".", "ĠWriting", "Ġshortly", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġdiscovery", "Ġof", "Ġhyper", "b", "olic", "Ġgeometry", "Ġdemonstrated", "Ġthe", "Ġlogical", "Ġindependence", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġax", "iom", "âĢĶ", "and", "Ġlong", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġrelativity", "Ġrevealed", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġnecessarily", "Ġexpress", "Ġa", "Ġproperty", "Ġof", "Ġphysical", "Ġspace", "âĢĶ", "Sch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġcriticized", "Ġmathematic", "ians", "Ġfor", "Ġtrying", 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"Ġbe", "Ġdone", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġto", "Ġinvestigate", "Ġmoral", "Ġactions", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġsuch", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġstates", "Ġthat" ]
507
hauer's philosophy of the will as the essential reality behind the world as representation is often called metaphysical voluntarism. For Schopenhauer, understanding the world as will leads to ethical concerns (see the ethics section below for further detail), which he explores in the Fourth Book of The World as Will and Representation and again in his two prize essays on ethics, On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality. No individual human actions are free, Schopenhauer argues, because they are events in the world of appearance and thus are subject to the principle of sufficient reason: a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and the given character of the individual human. Necessity extends to the actions of human beings just as it does to every other appearance, and thus we cannot speak of freedom of individual willing. Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that "a man can do as he will, but not will as he will." Yet the will as thing in-itself is free, as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason. According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being "tranquillized" by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively "recognizes the whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. Ascetic practices, Schopenhauer remarks, are used to aid the will's "self-abolition", which brings about a blissful, redemptive "will-less" state of emptiness that is free from striving or suffering. Art and aesthetics For Schopenhauer, human "willing"—desiring, craving, etc.—is at the root of suffering. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic Ideas—in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one is separated; rather "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the Idea comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in the object. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation, since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, "Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself". He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody. Mathematics Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly before the discovery of hyperbolic geometry demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect concepts to prove what he held was directly evident from intuitive perception. Throughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms. This follows Kant's reasoning. Ethics Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that
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"Ġnot", "Ġuncertain", ",", "Ġwa", "ver", "ing", ",", "Ġand", "Ġer", "ring", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġinfall", "ible", ",", "Ġfixed", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsure", "\".", "ĠEternal", "Ġjustice", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġret", "ribut", "ive", ",", "Ġbecause", "Ġretribution", "Ġrequires", "Ġtime", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġno", "Ġdelays", "Ġor", "Ġrep", "rie", "ves", ".", "ĠInstead", ",", "Ġpunishment", "Ġis", "Ġtied", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġoffence", ",", "Ġ\"", "to", "Ġthe", "Ġpoint", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġbecome", "Ġone", ".", "Ġ...", "ĠTorment", "er", "Ġand", "Ġtor", "mented", "Ġare", "Ġone", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ[", "Tor", "ment", "er", "]", "Ġer", "rs", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġbelieves", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "Ġpart", "aker", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsuffering", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġ[", "tor", "mented", "],", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġbelieves", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "Ġpart", "aker", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġguilt", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠSuff", "ering", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmoral", "Ġoutcome", "Ġof", "Ġour", "Ġattachment", "Ġto", "Ġpleasure", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġdeemed", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġtruth", "Ġwas", "Ġexpressed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠChristian", "Ġdogma", "Ġof", "Ġoriginal", "Ġsin", "Ġand", ",", "Ġin", "ĠEastern", "Ġreligions", ",", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġdogma", "Ġof", "Ġrebirth", ".", "Ġ", "ĠQuiet", "ism", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġwho", "Ġsees", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġprincip", "ium", "Ġind", "ivid", "uation", "is", "Ġand", "Ġcomprehend", "s", "Ġsuffering", "Ġin", "Ġgeneral", "Ġas", "Ġhis", "Ġown", "Ġwill", "Ġsee", "Ġsuffering", "Ġeverywhere", "Ġand", ",", "Ġinstead", "Ġof", "Ġfighting", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġhappiness", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġindividual", "Ġmanifestation", ",", "Ġwill", "Ġabhor", "Ġlife", "Ġitself", "Ġsince", "Ġhe", "Ġknows", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġinsepar", "ably", "Ġconnected", "Ġwith", "Ġsuffering", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġhim", ",", "Ġa", "Ġhappy", "Ġindividual", "Ġlife", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġworld", "Ġof", "Ġsuffering", "Ġis", "Ġlike", "Ġa", "Ġbegg", "ar", "Ġwho", "Ġdreams", "Ġone", "Ġnight", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", 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"Ġif", "Ġthese", "Ġasc", "etics", "Ġadhere", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġdog", "m", "ata", "Ġof", "ĠChristianity", "Ġor", "Ġto", "ĠDh", "arm", "ic", "Ġreligions", ",", "Ġsince", "Ġtheir", "Ġway", "Ġof", "Ġliving", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġresult", "Ġof", "Ġintuitive", "Ġknowledge", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPsychology", "Ġ", "ĠPhilos", "ophers", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġtraditionally", "Ġbeen", "Ġimpressed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġnecessity", "Ġof", "Ġsex", ",", "Ġbut", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġaddressed", "Ġsex", "Ġand", "Ġrelated", "Ġconcepts", "Ġforth", "right", "ly", ":", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġnamed", "Ġa", "Ġforce", "Ġwithin", "Ġman", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġfelt", "Ġtook", "Ġinvari", "able", "Ġprecedence", "Ġover", "Ġreason", ":", "Ġthe", "ĠWill", "Ġto", "ĠLive", "Ġor", "ĠWill", "Ġto", "ĠLife", "Ġ(", "W", "ille", "Ġz", "um", "ĠLe", "ben", "),", "Ġdefined", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġinherent", "Ġdrive", "Ġwithin", "Ġhuman", "Ġbeings", ",", "Ġand", "Ġall", "Ġcreatures", ",", "Ġto", "Ġstay", "Ġalive", ";", "Ġa", "Ġforce", "Ġthat", "Ġin", "ve", "ig", "les", "Ġus", "Ġinto", "Ġreprodu", "cing", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġrefused", "Ġto", "Ġconceive", "Ġof", "Ġlove", "Ġas", "Ġeither", "Ġtr", "ifling", "Ġor", "Ġaccidental", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġrather", "Ġunderstood", "Ġit", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġimmensely", "Ġpowerful", "Ġforce", "Ġthat", "Ġlay", "Ġunseen", "Ġwithin", "Ġman", "'s", "Ġpsyche", ",", "Ġguaranteeing", "Ġthe", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġrace", ":", "Ġ", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġoften", "Ġbeen", "Ġargued", "Ġthat", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġthoughts", "Ġon", "Ġsexuality", "Ġfore", "shadow", "ed", "Ġthe", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġevolution", ",", "Ġa", "Ġclaim", "Ġmet", "Ġwith", "Ġsatisfaction", "Ġby", "ĠDarwin", "Ġas", "Ġhe", "Ġincluded", "Ġa", "Ġquotation", "Ġfrom", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "ĠDes", "cent", "Ġof", "ĠMan", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġbeen", "Ġnoted", "Ġabout", "ĠFreud", "'s", "Ġconcepts", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlib", "ido", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġunconscious", "Ġmind", ",", "Ġand", "Ġevolutionary", "Ġpsychology", "Ġin", "Ġgeneral", "." ]
508
philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given. According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality in itself is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the possibility of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct. Appearances are entirely subordinated to the principle of sufficient reason. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support their needs instead of his own pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes less distinction between himself and others than is usually made. Regarding how things appear to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality. Eternal justice Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the principium individuationis. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented. Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing", eternal justice "rules not the state but the world, is not dependent upon human institutions, is not subject to chance and deception, is not uncertain, wavering, and erring, but infallible, fixed, and sure". Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt." Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by the Christian dogma of original sin and, in Eastern religions, by the dogma of rebirth. Quietism He who sees through the principium individuationis and comprehends suffering in general as his own will see suffering everywhere and, instead of fighting for the happiness of his individual manifestation, will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering. For him, a happy individual life in a world of suffering is like a beggar who dreams one night that he is a king. Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death. Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live. Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction and, instead of continuing their struggle, ascetics break it. It does not matter if these ascetics adhere to the dogmata of Christianity or to Dharmic religions, since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge. Psychology Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the necessity of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed sex and related concepts forthrightly: He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's psyche, guaranteeing the quality of the human race: It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the theory of evolution, a claim met with satisfaction by Darwin as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his Descent of Man. This has also been noted about Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general.
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"Ġit", "Ġundone", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġin", "escap", "able", "Ġpunishment", ".", "ĠAccordingly", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcriminal", "Ġcode", "Ġis", "Ġas", "Ġcomplete", "Ġa", "Ġregister", "Ġas", "Ġpossible", "Ġof", "Ġcounter", "-", "mot", "ives", "Ġto", "Ġall", "Ġcriminal", "Ġactions", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġpossibly", "Ġbe", "Ġimagined", "Âł", "...\"", "ĠHe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġdoctrine", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġoriginal", "Ġto", "Ġhim", "Ġbut", "Ġhad", "Ġappeared", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwritings", "Ġof", "ĠPlato", ",", "ĠSen", "eca", ",", "ĠHob", "bes", ",", "ĠP", "uf", "endor", "f", ",", "Ġand", "ĠAn", "sel", "m", "ĠFe", "uer", "bach", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRaces", "Ġand", "Ġreligions", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġattributed", "Ġcivil", "izational", "Ġprim", "acy", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "Ġ\"", "white", "Ġraces", "\"", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġsensitivity", "Ġand", "Ġcreativity", "Ġ(", "except", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "ĠEgyptians", "Ġand", "ĠHindus", ",", "Ġwhom", "Ġhe", "Ġsaw", 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"Ġpowers", "Ġand", "Ġinvent", "Ġand", "Ġperfect", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġarts", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġstruggle", "Ġwith", "Ġneed", ",", "Ġwant", "Ġand", "Ġmisery", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġmany", "Ġforms", "Ġwere", "Ġbrought", "Ġabout", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġclimate", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġthey", "Ġhad", "Ġto", "Ġdo", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġup", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġpars", "imony", "Ġof", "Ġnature", "Ġand", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġit", "Ġall", "Ġcame", "Ġtheir", "Ġhigh", "Ġcivilization", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġferv", "ently", "Ġopposed", "Ġto", "Ġslavery", ".", "ĠSpeaking", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtreatment", "Ġof", "Ġslaves", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġslave", "-", "holding", "Ġstates", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġcondemned", "Ġ\"", "those", "Ġdevils", "Ġin", "Ġhuman", "Ġform", ",", "Ġthose", "Ġbig", "oted", ",", "Ġchurch", "-", "going", ",", "Ġstrict", "Ġs", "abb", "ath", "-", "ob", "serving", "Ġsc", "ound", "rel", "s", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġthe", "ĠAnglic", "an", "Ġpars", "ons", "Ġamong", "Ġthem", "\"", "Ġfor", "Ġhow", "Ġthey", "Ġ\"", "t", "reat", "Ġtheir", "Ġinnocent", "Ġblack", "Ġbrothers", "Ġwho", "Ġthrough", "Ġviolence", "Ġand", "Ġinjustice", "Ġhave", "Ġfallen", "Ġinto", "Ġtheir", "Ġdevil", "'s", "Ġclaws", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġslave", "-", "holding", "Ġstates", "Ġof", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwrites", ",", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "dis", "gr", "ace", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġwhole", "Ġof", "Ġhumanity", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġhis", "ĠMet", "aph", "ysics", "Ġof", "ĠSexual", "ĠLove", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwrote", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠFurther", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġconsideration", "Ġas", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcomplexion", "Ġis", "Ġvery", "Ġdecided", ".", "ĠBl", "ond", "es", "Ġprefer", "Ġdark", "Ġpersons", ",", "Ġor", "Ġbrun", "ettes", ";", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġlatter", "Ġseldom", "Ġprefer", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġreason", "Ġis", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġfair", "Ġhair", "Ġand", "Ġblue", "Ġeyes", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġthemselves", "Ġa", "Ġvariation", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġtype", ",", "Ġalmost", "Ġan", "Ġabnorm", "ity", ",", "Ġanalogous", "Ġto", "Ġwhite", "Ġmice", ",", "Ġor", "Ġat", "Ġleast", "Ġto", "Ġgrey", "Ġhorses", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġno", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġeven", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġvicinity", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpole", ",", "Ġare", "Ġthey", "Ġindigenous", ",", "Ġexcept", "Ġin", "ĠEurope", ",", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġclearly", "Ġof", "ĠScandinavian", "Ġorigin", ".", "ĠI", "Ġmay", "Ġhere", "Ġexpress", "Ġmy", "Ġopinion", "Ġin", "Ġpassing", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġwhite", "Ġcolour", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġskin", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġnatural", "Ġto", "Ġman", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthat", "Ġby", "Ġnature", "Ġhe", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġblack", "Ġor", "Ġbrown", "Ġskin", ",", "Ġlike", "Ġour", "Ġfore", "father", "s", "Ġthe", "ĠHindus", ";", "Ġthat", "Ġconsequently", "Ġa", "Ġwhite" ]
509
Political and social thought Politics Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (the two essays On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality). In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals". Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage." On the other hand, Schopenhauer disparaged republicanism as being "as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences". By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect." Punishment The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..." He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of Plato, Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach. Races and religions Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization. Schopenhauer was fervently opposed to slavery. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the slave-holding states of the United States, he condemned "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for how they "treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a "disgrace to the whole of humanity". In his Metaphysics of Sexual Love, Schopenhauer wrote: Further, the consideration as to the complexion is very decided. Blondes prefer dark persons, or brunettes; but the latter seldom prefer the former. The reason is, that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves a variation from the type, almost an abnormity, analogous to white mice, or at least to grey horses. In no part of the world, not even in the vicinity of the pole, are they indigenous, except in Europe, and are clearly of Scandinavian origin. I may here express my opinion in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man, but that by nature he has a black or brown skin, like our forefathers the Hindus; that consequently a white
[ "Ġman", "Ġhas", "Ġnever", "Ġoriginally", "Ġsprung", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġwomb", "Ġof", "Ġnature", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġthus", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġsuch", "Ġthing", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġwhite", "Ġrace", ",", "Ġmuch", "Ġas", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġtalked", "Ġof", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġevery", "Ġwhite", "Ġman", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġfaded", "Ġor", "Ġble", "ached", "Ġone", ".", "ĠForced", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġstrange", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġhe", "Ġonly", "Ġexists", "Ġlike", "Ġan", "Ġexotic", "Ġplant", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlike", "Ġthis", "Ġrequires", "Ġin", "Ġwinter", "Ġthe", "Ġh", "oth", "ouse", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcourse", "Ġof", "Ġthousands", "Ġof", "Ġyears", "Ġman", "Ġbecame", "Ġwhite", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġg", "ips", "ies", ",", "Ġan", "ĠIndian", "Ġrace", "Ġwhich", "Ġimm", "igrated", "Ġonly", "Ġabout", "Ġfour", "Ġcenturies", "Ġago", ",", "Ġshow", "Ġthe", "Ġtransition", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġcomplexion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠHindu", "Ġto", "Ġour", "Ġown", ".", "ĠTherefore", "Ġin", "Ġsexual", "Ġlove", "Ġnature", 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",", "Ġexhibiting", "Ġan", "ĠIndian", "-", "inf", "lu", "enced", "Ġethics", "Ġreflecting", "Ġthe", "ĠA", "ryan", "-", "V", "ed", "ic", "Ġtheme", "Ġof", "Ġspiritual", "Ġself", "-", "con", "quest", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġsaw", "Ġthis", "Ġas", "Ġopposed", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġignorant", "Ġdrive", "Ġtoward", "Ġearthly", "Ġutopian", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġsuperficial", "ity", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġworldly", "Ġ\"", "Jewish", "\"", "Ġspirit", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ[", "J", "uda", "ism", "]", "Ġis", ",", "Ġtherefore", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcr", "ud", "est", "Ġand", "Ġpoorest", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġreligions", "Ġand", "Ġconsists", "Ġmerely", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġabsurd", "Ġand", "Ġrevol", "ting", "Ġthe", "ism", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġamounts", "Ġto", "Ġthis", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠÎ", "º", "Ï", "į", "Ïģ", "ι", "ο", "ÏĤ", "Ġ['", "Lord", "'", "],", "Ġwho", "Ġhas", "Ġcreated", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġdesires", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġworshipped", "Ġand", "Ġad", "ored", ";", "Ġand", "Ġso", "Ġabove", "Ġall", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġjealous", ",", "Ġis", "Ġen", "vious", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġcolleagues", ",", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġgods", ";", "Ġif", "Ġsacrifices", "Ġare", "Ġmade", "Ġto", "Ġthem", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġfurious", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "ĠJews", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġbad", "Ġtime", "Ġ...", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġmost", "Ġdepl", "orable", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġreligion", "Ġhas", "Ġbecome", "Ġthe", "Ġbasis", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprevailing", "Ġreligion", "Ġof", "ĠEurope", ";", "Ġfor", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġreligion", "Ġwithout", "Ġany", "Ġmetaphysical", "Ġtendency", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġall", "Ġother", "Ġreligions", "Ġendeavor", "Ġto", "Ġexplain", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpeople", "Ġby", "Ġsymbols", "Ġthe", "Ġmetaphysical", "Ġsignificance", "Ġof", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġreligion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠJews", "Ġis", "Ġentirely", "Ġim", "manent", "Ġand", "Ġfurn", "ishes", "Ġnothing", "Ġbut", "Ġa", "Ġmere", "Ġwar", "-", "cry", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstruggle", "Ġwith", "Ġother", "Ġnations", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWomen", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġhis", "Ġ18", "51", "Ġessay", "Ġ\"", "On", "ĠWomen", "\",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġexpressed", "Ġopposition", "Ġto", "Ġwhat", "Ġhe", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "Te", "uton", "ico", "-", "Christian", "Ġstupidity", "\"", "Ġof", "Ġ\"", "ref", "lex", "ive", ",", "Ġunex", "am", "ined", "Ġreverence", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfemale", "Ġ(", "ab", "ges", "ch", "m", "ack", "ten", "ĠWe", "iber", "ven", "er", "ation", ")", "\".", "ĠHe", "Ġwrote", ":", "Ġ\"", "Women", "Ġare", "Ġdirectly", "Ġfitted", "Ġfor", "Ġacting", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġnurses", "Ġand", "Ġteachers", "Ġof", "Ġour", "Ġearly", "Ġchildhood", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġfact", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġthemselves", "Ġchildish", ",", "Ġfrivolous", "Ġand", "Ġshort", "-", "sighted", ".\"", "ĠHe", "Ġop", "ined", "Ġthat", "Ġwomen", "Ġare", "Ġdeficient", "Ġin", "Ġartistic", "Ġfaculties", "Ġand", "Ġsense", "Ġof", "Ġjustice", ",", "Ġand", "Ġexpressed", "Ġhis", "Ġopposition", "Ġto", "Ġmonog", "amy", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "woman", "Ġis", "Ġby", "Ġnature", "Ġmeant", "Ġto", "Ġobey", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġessay", 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"Ġsculpt", "or", "ĠEl", "is", "abet", "ĠNey", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "59", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġmuch", "Ġimpressed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġyoung", "Ġwoman", "'s", "Ġwit", "Ġand", "Ġindependence", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġby", "Ġher", "Ġskill", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġvisual", "Ġartist", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġhis", "Ġtime", "Ġwith", "ĠNey", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġtold", "ĠRichard", "ĠWagner", "'s", "Ġfriend", "ĠMal", "w", "ida", "Ġvon", "ĠMe", "ys", "en", "bug", ":", "Ġ\"", "I", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġyet", "Ġspoken", "Ġmy", "Ġlast", "Ġword", "Ġabout", "Ġwomen", ".", "ĠI", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "Ġif", "Ġa", "Ġwoman", "Ġsucceeds", "Ġin", "Ġwithdrawing", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġmass", ",", "Ġor", "Ġrather", "Ġraising", "Ġherself", "Ġabove", "Ġthe", "Ġmass", ",", "Ġshe", "Ġgrows", "Ġce", "as", "eless", "ly", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġman", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠP", "eder", "asty", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġthird", ",", "Ġexpanded", "Ġedition", "Ġof", "ĠThe", "ĠWorld", "Ġas", "ĠWill", "Ġand", "ĠRepresent", "ation", "Ġ(", "18", "59", "),", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġadded", "Ġan", "Ġappendix", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġchapter", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMet", "aph", "ysics", "Ġof", "ĠSexual", "ĠLove", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwrote", "Ġthat", "Ġp", "eder", "asty", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġbenefit", "Ġof", "Ġpreventing", "Ġill", "-", "be", "gotten", "Ġchildren", ".", "ĠCon", "cerning", "Ġthis", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġstated", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġvice", "Ġwe", "Ġare", "Ġconsidering", "Ġappears", "Ġto", "Ġwork", "Ġdirectly", "Ġagainst", "Ġthe", "Ġaims", "Ġand", "Ġends", "Ġof", "Ġnature", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġmatter", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġall", "Ġimportant", "Ġand", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgreatest", "Ġconcern", "Ġto", "Ġher", "Ġit", "Ġmust", "Ġin", "Ġfact", "Ġserve", "Ġthese", "Ġvery", "Ġaims", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġonly", "Ġindirectly", ",", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmeans", "Ġfor", "Ġpreventing", "Ġgreater", "Ġevils", "\".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġends", "Ġthe", "Ġappendix", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġstatement", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "by", "Ġexp", "ounding", "Ġthese", "Ġparadox", "ical", "Ġideas", ",", "ĠI", "Ġwanted", "Ġto", "Ġgrant", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġprofessors", "Ġof", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġfavour", ".", "ĠI", "Ġhave", "Ġdone", "Ġso", "Ġby", "Ġgiving", "Ġthem", "Ġthe", "Ġopportunity", "Ġof", "Ġsl", "andering", "Ġme", "Ġby", "Ġsaying", "Ġthat", "ĠI", "Ġdefend", "Ġand", "Ġcommend", "Ġp", "eder", "asty", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "red", "ity", "Ġand", "Ġe", "ugen", "ics", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġviewed", "Ġpersonality", "Ġand", "Ġintellect", "Ġas", "Ġinherited", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġquotes", "ĠHor", "ace", "'s", "Ġsaying", ",", "Ġ\"", "From", "Ġthe", "Ġbrave", "Ġand", "Ġgood", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġbrave", "Ġdescended", "\"", "Ġ(", "O", "des", ",", "Ġiv", ",", "Ġ4", ",", "Ġ29", ")", "Ġand", "ĠShakespeare", "'s", "Ġline", "Ġfrom", "ĠCy", "mb", "eline", ",", "Ġ\"", "Cow", "ards" ]
510
man has never originally sprung from the womb of nature, and that thus there is no such thing as a white race, much as this is talked of, but every white man is a faded or bleached one. Forced into the strange world, where he only exists like an exotic plant, and like this requires in winter the hothouse, in the course of thousands of years man became white. The gipsies, an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago, show the transition from the complexion of the Hindu to our own. Therefore in sexual love nature strives to return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type; but the white colour of the skin has become a second nature, though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us. Finally, each one also seeks in the particular parts of the body the corrective of his own defects and aberrations, and does so the more decidedly the more important the part is. Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit: [Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting theism. It amounts to this that the κύριος ['Lord'], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations. Women In his 1851 essay "On Women", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (abgeschmackten Weiberveneration)". He wrote: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to monogamy. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments: "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists. His biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists. When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by the Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist. After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man." Pederasty In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and Representation (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the Metaphysics of Sexual Love. He wrote that pederasty has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils". Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty." Heredity and eugenics Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect as inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (Odes, iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from Cymbeline, "Cowards
[ "Ġfather", "Ġcow", "ards", ",", "Ġand", "Ġbase", "Ġthings", "Ġs", "ire", "Ġbase", "\"", "Ġ(", "IV", ",", "Ġ2", ")", "Ġto", "Ġreinforce", "Ġhis", "Ġhe", "redit", "arian", "Ġargument", ".", "ĠMechan", "istically", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġbelieved", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġperson", "Ġinher", "its", "Ġhis", "Ġintellect", "Ġthrough", "Ġhis", "Ġmother", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpersonal", "Ġcharacter", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġfather", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġbelief", "Ġin", "Ġher", "itability", "Ġof", "Ġtraits", "Ġinformed", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġview", "Ġof", "Ġlove", "âĢĶ", "pl", "acing", "Ġit", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġlevel", "Ġof", "Ġimportance", ".", "ĠFor", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "final", "Ġaim", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġlove", "Ġintrig", "ues", ",", "Ġbe", "Ġthey", "Ġcomic", "Ġor", "Ġtragic", ",", "Ġis", "Ġreally", "Ġof", "Ġmore", "Ġimportance", "Ġthan", "Ġall", "Ġother", "Ġends", "Ġin", "Ġhuman", "Ġlife", ".", "ĠWhat", "Ġit", "Ġall", "Ġturns", "Ġupon", "Ġis", "Ġnothing", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġcomposition", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnext", "Ġgeneration", ".", "Ġ...", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġthe", "Ġwe", "al", "Ġor", "Ġw", "oe", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġone", "Ġindividual", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġrace", "Ġto", "Ġcome", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġhere", "Ġat", "Ġstake", ".\"", "ĠThis", "Ġview", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġimportance", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġspecies", "Ġof", "Ġwhom", "Ġwe", "Ġchoose", "Ġto", "Ġlove", "Ġwas", "Ġreflected", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġviews", "Ġon", "Ġe", "ugen", "ics", "Ġor", "Ġgood", "Ġbreeding", ".", "ĠHere", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwrote", ":", "Ġ", "ĠWith", "Ġour", "Ġknowledge", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcomplete", "Ġun", "alter", "ability", "Ġboth", "Ġof", "Ġcharacter", "Ġand", "Ġof", "Ġmental", "Ġfaculties", ",", "Ġwe", "Ġare", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġview", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġreal", "Ġand", "Ġthorough", "Ġimprovement", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġrace", "Ġmight", "Ġbe", "Ġreached", "Ġnot", "Ġso", "Ġmuch", "Ġfrom", "Ġoutside", "Ġas", "Ġfrom", "Ġwithin", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġso", "Ġmuch", "Ġby", "Ġtheory", "Ġand", "Ġinstruction", "Ġas", "Ġrather", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġpath", "Ġof", "Ġgeneration", ".", "ĠPlato", "Ġhad", "Ġsomething", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġkind", "Ġin", "Ġmind", "Ġwhen", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfifth", "Ġbook", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "ĠRepublic", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġexplained", "Ġhis", "Ġplan", "Ġfor", "Ġincreasing", "Ġand", "Ġimproving", "Ġhis", "Ġwarrior", "Ġcaste", ".", "ĠIf", "Ġwe", "Ġcould", "Ġcast", "rate", "Ġall", "Ġsc", "ound", "rel", "s", "Ġand", "Ġstick", "Ġall", "Ġstupid", "Ġge", "ese", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġconvent", ",", "Ġand", "Ġgive", "Ġmen", "Ġof", "Ġnoble", "Ġcharacter", "Ġa", "Ġwhole", "Ġha", "rem", ",", "Ġand", "Ġprocure", "Ġmen", ",", "Ġand", "Ġindeed", "Ġthorough", "Ġmen", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġall", "Ġgirls", "Ġof", "Ġintellect", "Ġand", "Ġunderstanding", ",", "Ġthen", "Ġa", "Ġgeneration", "Ġwould", "Ġsoon", "Ġarise", "Ġwhich", "Ġwould", "Ġproduce", "Ġa", "Ġbetter", "Ġage", "Ġthan", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "ĠPer", "icles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġanother", "Ġcontext", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġreiterated", "Ġhis", "Ġe", "ug", "enic", "Ġthesis", ":", "Ġ\"", "If", "Ġyou", "Ġwant", "ĠU", "top", "ian", "Ġplans", ",", "ĠI", "Ġwould", "Ġsay", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġsolution", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġproblem", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġdesp", "ot", "ism", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwise", "Ġand", "Ġnoble", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġgenuine", "Ġaristocracy", ",", "Ġa", "Ġgenuine", "Ġnobility", ",", "Ġachieved", "Ġby", "Ġmating", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġmagn", "animous", "Ġmen", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġcle", "ve", "rest", "Ġand", "Ġmost", "Ġgifted", "Ġwomen", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġproposal", "Ġconstitutes", "Ġmy", "ĠU", "topia", "Ġand", "Ġmy", "ĠPlat", "onic", "ĠRepublic", ".\"", "ĠAnaly", "sts", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "ĠKeith", "ĠAn", "sell", "-", "Pear", "son", ")", "Ġhave", "Ġsuggested", "Ġthat", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġanti", "-", "egal", "itarian", "ist", "Ġsentiment", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġsupport", "Ġfor", "Ġe", "ugen", "ics", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġthe", "Ġneo", "-", "arist", "ocratic", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġof", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠNietzsche", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġinitially", "Ġconsidered", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġhis", "Ġmentor", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnimal", "Ġwelfare", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġconsequence", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġmon", "istic", "Ġphilosophy", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġvery", "Ġconcerned", "Ġabout", "Ġanimal", "Ġwelfare", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġhim", ",", "Ġall", "Ġindividual", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġhumans", ",", "Ġare", "Ġessentially", "Ġphenomenal", "Ġmanifestations", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġone", "Ġunderlying", "ĠWill", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "Ġhim", "Ġthe", "Ġword", "Ġ\"", "will", "\"", "Ġdesign", "ates", "Ġforce", ",", "Ġpower", ",", "Ġimpulse", ",", "Ġenergy", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdesire", ";", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġclosest", "Ġword", "Ġwe", "Ġhave", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġsignify", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġessence", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġexternal", "Ġthings", "Ġand", "Ġour", "Ġown", "Ġdirect", ",", "Ġinner", "Ġexperience", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġevery", "Ġliving", "Ġthing", "Ġpossesses", "Ġwill", ",", "Ġhumans", "Ġand", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġfundamentally", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġand", "Ġcan", "Ġrecognize", "Ġthemselves", "Ġin", "Ġeach", "Ġother", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġthis", "Ġreason", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġgood", "Ġperson", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġsympathy", "Ġfor", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġour", "Ġfellow", "Ġsuff", "erers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ18", "41", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġpraised", "Ġthe", "Ġestablishment", "Ġin", "ĠLondon", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSociety", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠPrevention", "Ġof", "ĠCruel", "ty", "Ġto", "ĠAnimals", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "ĠPhiladelphia", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAnimals", "'", "ĠFriends", "ĠSociety", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwent", "Ġso", "Ġfar", "Ġas", "Ġto", "Ġprotest", "Ġusing", "Ġthe", "Ġpronoun", "Ġ\"", "it", "\"", "Ġin", "Ġreference", "Ġto", "Ġanimals", "Ġbecause", "Ġthat", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġtreatment", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġas", "Ġthough", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġin", "animate", "Ġthings", ".", "ĠTo", "Ġreinforce", "Ġhis", "Ġpoints", ",", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġreferred", "Ġto", "Ġanecdotal", "Ġreports", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlook", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġeyes", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġmonkey", "Ġwho", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġshot", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġthe", "Ġgrief", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġbaby", "Ġelephant", "Ġwhose", "Ġmother", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġkilled", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġhunter", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġvery", "Ġattached", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġsuccession", "Ġof", "Ġpet", "Ġp", "ood", "les", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġcriticized", "ĠSp", "ino", "za", "'s", "Ġbelief", "Ġthat", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġmere", "Ġmeans", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġsatisfaction", "Ġof", "Ġhumans", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIntellectual", "Ġinterests", "Ġand", "Ġaff", "in", "ities", "Ġ", "ĠInd", "ology", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġread", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġtranslation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "ĠHindu", "Ġtexts", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠUp", "anish", "ads", ",", "Ġtranslated", "Ġby", "ĠFrench", "Ġwriter", "ĠAn", "quet", "il", "Ġdu", "ĠPer", "ron", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠPersian", "Ġtranslation", "Ġof", "ĠPrince", "ĠD", "ara", "ĠSh", "uk", "oh", "Ġentitled", "ĠSir", "re", "-", "Ak", "bar", "Ġ(\"", "The", "ĠGreat", "ĠSecret", "\").", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġso", "Ġimpressed", "Ġby", "Ġits", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġcalled", "Ġit", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġproduction", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġhuman", "Ġwisdom", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġbelieved", "Ġit", "Ġcontained", "Ġsuperhuman", "Ġconcepts", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġconsidered", "ĠIndia", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġland", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġancient", "Ġand", "Ġmost", "Ġpristine", "Ġwisdom", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġplace", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "ĠEuropeans", "Ġcould", "Ġtrace", "Ġtheir", "Ġdescent", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġtradition", "Ġby", "Ġwhich", "Ġthey", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġin", "Ġso", "Ġmany", "Ġdecisive", "Ġways", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġregarded", "Ġthe", "ĠUp", "anish", "ads", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġmost", "Ġprofitable", "Ġand", "Ġelev", "ating", "Ġreading", "Ġwhich", "Ġ[...]", "Ġis", "Ġpossible", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġthe", "Ġsol", "ace", "Ġof", "Ġmy", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwill", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġsol", "ace", "Ġof", "Ġmy", "Ġdeath", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "Ġwas", "Ġfirst", "Ġintroduced", "Ġto", "ĠAn", "quet", "il", "Ġdu", "ĠPer", "ron", "'s", "Ġtranslation", "Ġby", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠMaj", "er", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "14", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġmet", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġwinter", "Ġof", "Ġ18", "13", "âĢĵ", "18", "14", "Ġin", "ĠWe", "imar", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġhome", "Ġof", "ĠSch", "open", "h", "auer", "'s", "Ġmother", ",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġbi", "ographer", "ĠSaf", "rans", "ki", ".", "ĠMaj", "er", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġfollower", "Ġof", "ĠHer", "der", ",", "Ġand", "Ġan", "Ġearly", "ĠInd", "ologist", ".", "ĠSch", "open", "h" ]
511
father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love—placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles. In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-egalitarianist sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor. Animal welfare As a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word "will" designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter. Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized Spinoza's belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans. Intellectual interests and affinities Indology Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts, the Upanishads, translated by French writer Anquetil du Perron from the Persian translation of Prince Dara Shukoh entitled Sirre-Akbar ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by its philosophy that he called it "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed it contained superhuman concepts. Schopenhauer considered India as "the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom, the place from which Europeans could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways", and regarded the Upanishads as "the most profitable and elevating reading which [...] is possible in the world. It has been the solace of my life, and will be the solace of my death." Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Herder, and an early Indologist. Schopenh
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512
auer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that, between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This was through his neighbor of two years, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered Sanskrit, unlike Schopenhauer, and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought. The book Oupnekhat (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West. Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer's work, was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose Mahāvākya, Tat Tvam Asi, is mentioned throughout The World as Will and Representation. Buddhism Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. For Schopenhauer, will had ontological primacy over the intellect; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of puruṣārtha or goals of life in Vedānta Hinduism. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by: personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the person as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions: If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism. Buddhist philosopher Keiji Nishitani sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental: Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions. Also note: This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration. The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence since he did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of The World as Will and Representation in 1818. Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence appears in Schopenhauer's 1815–16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence. Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism. Magic and occultism Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised animal magnetism as evidence for the reality of magic in his On the Will in Nature, and went so far as to accept the division of magic into left
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513
-hand and right-hand magic, although he doubted the existence of demons. Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of magick and its emphasis on human will. Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to "suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers." Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics." Neoplatonism, including the traditions of Plotinus and to a lesser extent Marsilio Ficino, has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer. Interests Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library. Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Mozart, Rossini and Bellini. Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life. As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Goethe, Petrarch, Calderón and Shakespeare. If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity. In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, Plato and the Upanishads. Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in The World as Will and Representation: If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there. Thoughts on other philosophers Giordano Bruno and Spinoza Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still one being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself." Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition. Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics, and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work Ethics. In fact, it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation, if one completely ignores morality and self-denial. It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas as the key to Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione. Immanuel Kant The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, cannot be overstated. Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the Transcendental Aesthetic section of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and Plato, as Copern
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514
icus to Hicetas, Philolaus, and Aristarchus: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted. Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of The World as Will and Representation: In his study room, one bust was of Buddha, the other was of Kant. The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant (included in volume 2 of the Parerga): Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, The World as Will and Representation, to a detailed criticism of the Kantian philosophy. Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing-in-itself, whereas the general consensus in German idealism was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises. Post-Kantian school The leading figures of post-Kantian philosophy—Johann Gottlieb Fichte, F. W. J. Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked "the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry." Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests (such as professional advancement within the university system). Diatribes against the vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example: Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner. Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (Windbeutel), Hegel was a "commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan." The philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge agreed with this distinction. Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, not only "performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity." Influence and legacy Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen, Paul Deussen, Lazar von Hellenbach, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Ernst Otto Lindner, Philipp Mainländer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Olga Plümacher and Agnes Taubert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, neo-Kantianism and positivism, to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. The French writer Maupassant commented that "to-day even those who execrate him seem to carry in their own souls particles of his thought". Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include Hans Vaihinger, Volkelt, Solovyov and Weininger. Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli, and Majorana. Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius. In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: Faraday, Maxwell, Schopenhauer. Konrad Wachsmann recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work." When Erwin Schrödinger discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. Wolfgang Pauli accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the
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thing-in-itself is will. But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy. The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!" So he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher". See also Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde. Under the influence of Schopenhauer, Leo Tolstoy became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read Schopenhauer's philosophy, Tolstoy exclaimed "at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. ... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection." He said that what he has written in War and Peace is also said by Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Representation. Jorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him. Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann, Thomas Hardy, Afanasy Fet, J.-K. Huysmans and George Santayana. In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote Billy Budd, he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville "marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius." Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years. Sergei Prokofiev, although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life in Parerga and Paralipomena. "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness." Friedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading The World as Will and Representation and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay "Schopenhauer als Erzieher" one of his Untimely Meditations. Early in his career, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism, and some traits of Schopenhauer's influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker. His friend Bertrand Russell had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his History of Western Philosophy for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it. Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism, where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel, The Schopenhauer Cure, by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry Irvin Yalom. Schopenhauer's philosophy, and the discussions on philosophical pessimism it has engendered, has been the focus of contemporary thinkers such as David Benatar, Thomas Ligotti, and Eugene Thacker. Their work also served as an inspiration for the popular HBO TV series True Detective. Selected bibliography On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde), 1813 On Vision and Colors (Ueber das Sehn und die Farben), 1816 Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum), 1830. The World as Will and Representation (alternatively translated in English as The World as Will and Idea; original German is Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung): vol. 1818–1819, vol. 2, 1844 Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (
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290 pp.) The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten), 1831 On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur), 1836 On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1839 On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral), 1840 The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral), 1841. Parerga and Paralipomena (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne) Printings: 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN Vols. 1 and 2, , Vol. 1, ISBN Vol. 2, , 1974–1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, , 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, Essays and Aphorisms, being excerpts from Volume 2 of Parerga und Paralipomena, selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt), 1851 Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains, Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., Online The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten). (bilingual) [The Art of Being Right] Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox The World as Will and Idea at Internet Archive: Volume I Volume II Volume III On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason and On the will in nature. Two essays: Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts in SchopenhauerSource Essays of Schopenhauer See also Antinatalism Existential nihilism Eye of a needle God in Buddhism Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni) Misotheism Mortal coil Nihilism Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism References Sources Albright, Daniel (2004) Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. Beiser, Frederick C., Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). Hannan, Barbara, The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). Magee, Bryan, Confessions of a Philosopher, Random House, 1998, . Chapters 20, 21. Safranski, Rüdiger (1990) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, ; orig. German Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie, Carl Hanser Verlag (1987) Thomas Mann editor, The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer, Longmans Green & Co., 1939 Further reading Biographies Cartwright, David. Schopenhauer: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, 2010. Frederick Copleston, Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946) O. F. Damm, Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie (Reclam, 1912) Kuno Fischer, Arthur Schopenhauer (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898). Eduard Grisebach, Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876). D. W. Hamlyn, Schopenhauer, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985) Heinrich Hasse, Schopenhauer. (Reinhardt, 1926) Arthur Hübscher, Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Le
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bensbild (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938). Thomas Mann, Schopenhauer (Bermann-Fischer, 1938) Matthews, Jack, Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament, Nine Point Publishing, 2015. . A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist Jack Matthews. Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie, hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, , pocket edition Fischer: . Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy, trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) Walther Schneider, Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). William Wallace, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) Helen Zimmern, Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876) Other books App, Urs. Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy. Atwell, John. Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will. --------, Schopenhauer, The Human Character. Edwards, Anthony. An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics. 123 Books, 2011. Copleston, Frederick, Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism, 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975). Gardiner, Patrick, 1963. Schopenhauer. Penguin Books. --------, Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction. Janaway, Christopher, 2003. Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Magee, Bryan, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). Mannion, Gerard, "Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp. Trottier, Danick. L’influence de la philosophie schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard Wagner; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en esthétique musicale, Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000. Zimmern, Helen, Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy, London, Longman, and Co., 1876. Articles Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin," Avinus Magazin (in German). Luchte, James, 2009, "The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer," Heythrop Journal, Volume 50, Number 2, pp. 228–242. Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas." On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors. Moges, Awet, 2006, "Schopenhauer's Philosophy." Galileian Library. Sangharakshita, 2004, "Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation." Oxenford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388) Thacker, Eugene, 2020. "A Philosophy in Ruins, An Unquiet Void." Introduction to Arthur Schopenhauer, On the Suffering of the World. Repeater Books. External links Arthur Schopenhauer an article by Mary Troxell in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2011 Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopenhauer's manuscripts Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer Timeline of German Philosophers A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)." Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of
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academia. More Than 100 Years Later: A Schopenhauerian Revision of Breuer's Anna O 1788 births 1860 deaths 19th-century atheists 19th-century essayists 19th-century German male writers 19th-century German non-fiction writers 19th-century German philosophers 19th-century German writers 19th-century philosophers Aesthetics Animal rights scholars Anti-natalists Aphorists Atheist philosophers Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery Continental philosophers Critical theorists Critics of Christianity Critics of Judaism Critics of religions Cultural critics Epistemologists Flautists German atheist writers German Buddhists German scholars of Buddhism German ethicists German eugenicists German flautists German logicians German male essayists German male non-fiction writers German monarchists German people of Dutch descent German philologists Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Idealists Kantian philosophers Logicians Metaphilosophers Metaphysicians Monism Moral philosophers Ontologists Phenomenologists Philosophers of art Philosophers of culture Philosophers of education Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of history Philosophers of language Philosophers of literature Philosophers of logic Philosophers of love Philosophers of mind Philosophers of pessimism Philosophers of psychology Philosophers of religion Philosophers of science Philosophy writers Political philosophers Simple living advocates German social commentators Social critics Social philosophers Theorists on Western civilization University of Göttingen alumni Writers from Gdańsk <|endoftext|>This article is about the demographic features of the population of Angola, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014. Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a Bantu language: the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of the population, the Ambundu with 25%, and the Bakongo 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda, the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the Ovambo, the Herero, the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. As a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Currently, over 300,000 Angolans are white, 1 million Angolans are mixed race (black and white) and 50,000 Angolans are from China, which accounts for 1.35 million people. In 1974, white Angolans made up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers, Africa Today, 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 – 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in O País Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75, over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors). The largest religious denomination is Catholicism, to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of Protestantism (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and African Initiated Churches. In 2006, one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain African traditional religions following different ethnic faiths. Population According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The
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"female", "ĠTotal", "Ġpopulation", ":", "Ġ1", ".", "02", "Ġmale", "(", "s", ")/", "female", "Ġ(", "2011", "Ġest", ".)", "Ġ", "ĠHealth", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠCIA", "ĠWorld", "ĠFact", "book", ",", "Ġ2", "%", "Ġof", "Ġadults", "Ġ(", "aged", "Ġ15", "âĢĵ", "49", ")", "Ġare", "Ġliving", "Ġwith", "ĠHIV", "/", "AIDS", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġof", "Ġ2009", ").", "ĠThe", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġcontracting", "Ġdisease", "Ġis", "Ġvery", "Ġhigh", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġfood", "Ġand", "Ġwater", "borne", "Ġdiseases", ",", "Ġbacterial", "Ġand", "Ġprot", "ozo", "al", "Ġdiarrhea", ",", "Ġhepatitis", "ĠA", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtyph", "oid", "Ġfever", ";", "Ġvector", "borne", "Ġdiseases", ",", "Ġmalaria", ",", "ĠAfrican", "Ġtry", "pan", "os", "om", "iasis", "Ġ(", "sle", "eping", "Ġsickness", ");", "Ġrespiratory", "Ġdisease", ":", "Ġmen", "ing", "ococ", "cal", "Ġmen", "ing", "itis", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsch", "ist", "os", "om", "iasis", ",", "Ġa", "Ġwater", "Ġcontact", "Ġdisease", ",", "Ġas", "Ġof", "Ġ2005", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEthnic", "Ġgroups", "Ġ", "ĠRough", "ly", "Ġ37", "%", "Ġof", "ĠAng", "ol", "ans", "Ġare", "ĠOv", "imb", "und", "u", ",", "Ġ25", "%", "Ġare", "ĠAmb", "und", "u", ",", "Ġ13", "%", "Ġare", "ĠBak", "ongo", ",", "Ġ2", "%", "Ġare", "Ġm", "est", "i", "ç", "o", ",", "Ġ1", "-", "2", "%", "Ġare", "Ġwhite", "ĠAfricans", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpeople", "Ġfrom", "Ġother", "ĠAfrican", "Ġethnic", "ities", "Ġmake", "Ġup", "Ġ22", "%", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "'s", "Ġpopulation", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRel", "ig", "ions", "Ġ", "ĠAngola", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġmajority", "ĠChristian", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠOfficial", "Ġstatistics", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġexist", ",", "Ġhowever", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġestimated", "Ġthat", "Ġover", "Ġ80", "%", "Ġbelong", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠChristian", "Ġchurch", "Ġor", "Ġcommunity", ".", "ĠMore", "Ġthan", "Ġhalf", "Ġare", "ĠCatholic", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġremaining", "Ġones", "Ġcomprising", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġtraditional", "ĠProtestant", "Ġchurches", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġof", "ĠPent" ]
519
proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or older . Structure of the population (DHS 2011) (Males 19 707, Females 20 356 = 40 063) : Vital statistics Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations and the CIA World Factbook prepared the following estimates. Fertility and Births Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Life expectancy Other demographics statistics Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019. One birth every 25 seconds One death every 2 minutes One net migrant every Infinity minutes Net gain of one person every 31 seconds The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 30,355,880 (July 2018 est.) 29,310,273 (July 2017 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 48.07% (male 7,257,155 /female 7,336,084) 15-24 years: 18.33% (male 2,701,123 /female 2,863,950) 25-54 years: 27.95% (male 4,044,944 /female 4,441,028) 55-64 years: 3.32% (male 466,085 /female 540,452) 65 years and over: 2.32% (male 296,411 /female 408,648) (2018 est.) Median age total: 15.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 224th male: 15.4 years female: 16.3 years (2018 est.) Population growth 3.49% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd The population is growing by 3.52% annually. There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children born per woman as of 2017. The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 60.2 years; 58.2 years for males and 62.3 years for females. Total fertility rate 6.09 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd Birth rate 43.7 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 1st Death rate 9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 60th Net migration rate 0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.) Country comparison to the world: 67th Mother's mean age at first birth 19.4 years (2015/16 est.) note: median age at first birth among women 25-29 Life expectancy at birth total population: 60.6 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 207th male: 58.5 years (2018 est.) female: 62.7 years (2018 est.) Contraceptive prevalence rate 57.1% (2012/13) School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) total: 10 years (2011) male: 13 years (2011) female: 8 years (2011) Sex ratio At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.) Health According to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009). The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005. Ethnic groups Roughly 37% of Angolans are Ovimbundu, 25% are Ambundu, 13% are Bakongo, 2% are mestiço, 1-2% are white Africans, and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population. Religions Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics do not exist, however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are Catholic, the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pent
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520
ecostal communities. Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies. Education Literacy is quite low, with 71.1% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82% of males and 60.7% of women are literate as of 2015. Languages Portuguese is the official language of Angola, but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, Kikongo, Kimbundu, Umbundu, Tuchokwe, Nganguela, and Ukanyama have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language. References 2003 External links Population cartogram of Angola Angolan society <|endoftext|>The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency with the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola. History Since the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, the politics of Angola takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Angola is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the President, the government and parliament. Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), in place since independence in 1975, to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections, President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. A runoff election would have been necessary, but never took place. The renewal of civil war immediately after the elections, which were considered as fraudulent by UNITA, and the collapse of the Lusaka Protocol, created a split situation. To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked, notably the National Assembly, with the active participation of UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA (now the official armed forces of the Angolan state) and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in action in 2002. From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the constitution of 1992 functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever-increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary. The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 6 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. Executive branch The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years, and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint (and dismiss) all of the following: The members of the government (state ministers, ministers, state secretaries and vice-ministers); The members of the Constitutional Court; The members of the Supreme Court; The members of the Court of Auditors; The members of the Military Supreme Court; The Governor and Vice-Governors of the Nacional Angolan Bank; The General-
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"ĠI", ".", "Ġ(", "2011", ")", "ĠAngola", "ĠParty", "ĠPolitics", ":", "ĠInto", "Ġthe", "ĠAfrican", "ĠTrend", ".", "ĠAngola", "ĠBrief", "Ġvol", ".", "Ġ1", "Ġno", ".", "Ġ9", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "ĠThe", "ĠChr", ".", "ĠMichel", "sen", "ĠInstitute", "ĠThe", "Ġlargest", "Ġcentre", "Ġfor", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġresearch", "Ġin", "ĠScandinav", "ia", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġparticular", ",", "Ġsee", "Ġtheir", "Ġcollaborative", "ĠAngola", "ĠProgramme", ".", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "The", "Ġeconomy", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "Ġremains", "Ġheavily", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġeffects", "Ġof", "Ġfour", "Ġdecades", "Ġof", "Ġconflict", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġwar", "Ġfor", "Ġindependence", "Ġfrom", "ĠPortugal", "Ġ(", "19", "61", "âĢĵ", "75", ")", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġsubsequent", "Ġcivil", "Ġwar", "Ġ(", "1975", "âĢĵ", "2002", ").", "ĠDespite", "Ġextensive", "Ġoil", "Ġand", "Ġgas", "Ġresources", ",", "Ġdiamonds", ",", "Ġhydro", "electric", "Ġpotential", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrich", "Ġagricultural", "Ġland", ",", "ĠAngola", "Ġremains", "Ġpoor", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġthird", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpopulation", "Ġrelies", "Ġon", "Ġsubsistence", "Ġagriculture", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġ2002", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġthe", "Ġ27", "-", "year", "Ġcivil", "Ġwar", "Ġended", ",", "Ġgovernment", "Ġpolicy", "Ġpriorit", "ized", "Ġthe", "Ġrepair", "Ġand", "Ġimprovement", "Ġof", "Ġinfrastructure", "Ġand", "Ġstrengthening", "Ġof", "Ġpolitical", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "Ġinstitutions", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġdecade", "Ġof", "Ġthe" ]
521
Attorney, the Vice-General-Attorneys and their deputies (as well as the military homologous); The Governors of the provinces; The members of the Republic Council; The members of the National Security Council; The members of the Superior Magistrates Councils; The General Chief of the Armed Forces and his deputy; All other command posts in the military; The Police General Commander, and the 2nd in command; All other command posts in the police; The chiefs and directors of the intelligence and security organs. The President is also provided a variety of powers, like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts), the President is the leader of the winning party. The only "relevant" post that is not directly appointed by the President is the Vice-President, which is the second in the winning party. José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional) has 223 members, elected for a four-year term, 130 members by proportional representation, 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% (191 seats in the National Assembly) and the main opposition party won only 10% (16 seats). The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair. A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Supreme Court (or "Tribunal da Relacao") judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court, with the power of judicial review, contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President, four by the National Assembly, two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary, and one elected by the public. Administrative divisions Angola has eighteen provinces: Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire Political pressure groups and leaders Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC (Henrique N'zita Tiago; António Bento Bembe) note: FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province International organization participation African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, AfDB, CEEAC, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, FAO, Group of 77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, International Criminal Court (signatory), ICFTU, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, International Organization for Migration, ISO (correspondent), ITU, Non-Aligned Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO See also References Further reading ANGOLA LIVRO BRANCO SOBRE AS ELEIÇÕES DE 2008. http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ Amundsen, I. (2011) Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend. Angola Brief vol. 1 no. 9 External links The Chr. Michelsen Institute The largest centre for development research in Scandinavia. In particular, see their collaborative Angola Programme. <|endoftext|>The economy of Angola remains heavily influenced by the effects of four decades of conflict in the last part of the 20th century, the war for independence from Portugal (1961–75) and the subsequent civil war (1975–2002). Despite extensive oil and gas resources, diamonds, hydroelectric potential, and rich agricultural land, Angola remains poor, and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002, when the 27-year civil war ended, government policy prioritized the repair and improvement of infrastructure and strengthening of political and social institutions. During the first decade of the
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"Ġdozens", "Ġof", "Ġbridges", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġdestroyed", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtrading", "Ġnetwork", "Ġwas", "Ġdisrupted", ",", "Ġadministrative", "Ġservices", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġexist", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfiles", "Ġand", "Ġstudies", "Ġwere", "Ġmissing", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAngola", "'s", "Ġeconomic", "Ġ", "ills", "Ġcan", "Ġalso", "Ġbe", "Ġtraced", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlegacy", "Ġof", "ĠPortuguese", "Ġcolonial", "Ġdevelopment", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwhite", "Ġsettlers", "Ġhad" ]
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21st century, Angola's economy was one of the fastest-growing in the world, with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010. High international oil prices and rising oil production contributed to strong economic growth, although with high inequality, at that time. Corruption is rife throughout the economy and the country remains heavily dependent on the oil sector, which in 2017 accounted for over 90 percent of exports by value and 64 percent of government revenue. With the end of the oil boom, from 2015 Angola entered into a period of economic contraction. History The Angolan economy has been dominated by the production of raw materials and the use of cheap labor since European rule began in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese used Angola principally as a source for the thriving slave trade across the Atlantic; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Africa. After the Portuguese Empire abolished the slave trade in Angola in 1858, it began using concessional agreements, granting exclusive rights to a private company to exploit land, people, and all other resources within a given territory. In Mozambique, this policy spawned a number of companies notorious for their exploitation of local labor. But in Angola, only Diamang showed even moderate success. At the same time, Portuguese began emigrating to Angola to establish farms and plantations (fazendas) to grow cash crops for export. Although these farms were only partially successful before World War II, they formed the basis for the later economic growth. The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were rubber, beeswax, and ivory. Prior to the First World War, exportation of coffee, palm kernels and oil, cattle, leather and hides, and salt fish joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and cotton also being produced. Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption. The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal. Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor "indentured" from the interior. Before World War II, the Portuguese government was concerned primarily with keeping its colonies self-sufficient and therefore invested little capital in Angola's local economy. It built no roads until the mid-1920s, and the first railroad, the Benguela Railway, was not completed until 1929. Between 1900 and 1940, only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola, and most worked in commerce in the cities, facilitating trade with Portugal. In the rural areas, Portuguese settlers often found it difficult to make a living because of fluctuating world prices for sugarcane and sisal and the difficulties in obtaining cheap labor to farm their crops. As a result, they often suspended their operations until the market prices rose and instead marketed the produce of Angolan farmers. But in the wake of World War II, the rapid growth of industrialization worldwide and the parallel requirements for raw materials led Portugal to develop closer ties with its colonies and to begin actively developing the Angolan economy. In the 1930s, Portugal started to develop closer trade ties with its colonies, and by 1940 it absorbed 63 percent of Angolan exports and accounted for 47 percent of Angolan imports, up from 39 percent and 37 percent, respectively, a decade earlier. When the price of Angola's principal crops—coffee and sisal—jumped after the war, the Portuguese government began to reinvest some profits inside the country, initiating a series of projects to develop infrastructure. During the 1950s, Portugal built dams, hydroelectric power stations, and transportation systems. In addition, Portuguese citizens were encouraged to emigrate to Angola, where planned settlements (colonatos) were established for them in the rural areas. Finally, the Portuguese initiated mining operations for iron ore, manganese, and copper to complement industrial activities at home, and in 1955 the first successful oil wells were drilled in Angola. By 1960 the Angolan economy had been completely transformed, boasting a successful commercial agricultural sector, a promising mineral and petroleum production enterprise, and an incipient manufacturing industry. Yet by 1976, these encouraging developments had been reversed. The economy was in complete disarray in the aftermath of the war of independence and the subsequent internal fighting of the liberation movements. According to the ruling MPLA-PT, in August 1976 more than 80 percent of the agricultural plantations had been abandoned by their Portuguese owners; only 284 out of 692 factories continued to operate; more than 30,000 medium-level and high-level managers, technicians, and skilled workers had left the country; and 2,500 enterprises had been closed (75 percent of which had been abandoned by their owners). Furthermore, only 8,000 vehicles remained out of 153,000 registered, dozens of bridges had been destroyed, the trading network was disrupted, administrative services did not exist, and files and studies were missing. Angola's economic ills can also be traced to the legacy of Portuguese colonial development. Many of the white settlers had
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523
come to Angola after 1950 and were understandably quick to repatriate during the war of independence. During their stay, however, these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands, disrupting local peasant production of cash and subsistence crops. Moreover, Angola's industries depended on trade with Portugal—the colony's overwhelmingly dominant trade partner—for both markets and machinery. Only the petroleum and diamond industries boasted a wider clientele for investment and markets. Most important, the Portuguese had not trained Angolans to operate the larger industrial or agricultural enterprises, nor had they actively educated the population. Upon independence Angola thus found itself without markets or expertise to maintain even minimal economic growth. As a result, the government intervened, nationalizing most businesses and farms abandoned by the Portuguese. It established state farms to continue producing coffee, sugar, and sisal, and it took over the operations of all factories to maintain production. These attempts usually failed, primarily because of the lack of experienced managers and the continuing disruptions in rural areas caused by the UNITA insurgency. Only the petroleum sector continued to operate successfully, and by 1980 this sector had helped the gross domestic product reach US$3.6 billion, its highest level up to 1988. In the face of serious economic problems and the continuing war throughout the countryside, in 1987 the government announced plans to liberalize economic policies and promote private investment and involvement in the economy. 1990s United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the Lusaka Protocol, a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited UNITA from buying foreign arms, a provision the United Nations largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in Albania and Bulgaria, and from Zaire, South Africa, Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Togo, and Burkina Faso. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave US$250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991, UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, and South Africa. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required. Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. 2000s An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the United Nations Human Development Index in 2000. In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists. The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. Angola produced over of diamonds in 2003, and production was expected to grow to per year by 2007. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure. The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. By 2020, Angola had a national debt of $76 billion, of which $20 billion is to China. The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy, with various housing projects stimulated by the government initiatives for example the Angola Investe program and the Casa Feliz or Meña projects. Not all public construction projects are functional. A case in point: Kilamba Kiaxi, where a whole new satellite town of Luanda, consisting of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people, was completely uninhabited for over four years because of skyrocketing prices, but completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time thus made it affordable for middle-class people. ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 in January 2000, but production decreased to in 2007 due to poor-quality oil. Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
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524
Countries on January 1, 2007. Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1, an oil reservoir in Block 14, on August 9, 2007. Overview Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs to build roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation. In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Expanding oil production is now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at . Diamonds provided much of the revenue for Jonas Savimbi's UNITA rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits. This is a chart of trend of nominal gross domestic product of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data; figures are in millions of units. The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation below 5% is in green. Agriculture Angola produced, in 2018: 8.6 million tons of cassava (8th largest producer in the world); 3.5 million tons of banana (7th largest producer in the world, or the 10th largest, if we consider together with plantain); 2.2 million tons of maize; 1.2 million tons of sweet potato (10th largest producer in the world); 806 thousand tons of potato; 597 thousand tons of pineapple (13th largest producer in the world); 572 thousand tons of sugarcane; 355 thousand tons of cabbage; 314 thousand tons of beans; 280 thousand tons of palm oil; 154 thousand tons of peanut; In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like coffee (16 thousand tons). Foreign trade Exports in 2004 reached US$10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year. Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to China, in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China. The rest of its petroleum exports go to Europe and Latin America. U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services, primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food, to Angola, while principally importing petroleum. Trade between Angola and South Africa exceeded US$300 million in 2007. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up businesses. Resources Petroleum Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassing Nigeria in the 2000s. In January 2007 Angola became a member of OPEC. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated US$1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of GDP. Chevron Corporation produces and receives , 27% of Angolan oil. Total S.A., ExxonMobil, Eni, Petrobras and BP also operate in the country. Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production with produced annually. The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula (Area A), Numbi (Area A), and Kokongo (Area B). Chevron operates in Block Zero with a 39.2% share. SONANGOL, the state oil company, Total, and Eni own the rest of the block. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with . The United Nations has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, summary executions, arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output. Angola is the third
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-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from Kuwait just prior to the Gulf War in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested US$4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector. Oil makes up over 90% of Angola's exports. Diamonds Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling. Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama, the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bié, Malanje and Uíge. The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003, the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 Angola's Deadly Diamonds report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "conflict diamonds". In December 2014, the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor that classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that "there is little publicly available information on [Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law". Diamonds accounted for 1.48% of Angolan exports in 2014. Iron Under Portuguese rule, Angola began mining iron in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s, 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to Western Europe and Japan. After independence in 1975, the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) destroyed most of the territory's mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s. See also Banco Espírito Santo Angola United Nations Economic Commission for Africa References Further reading McCormick, Shawn H. The Angolan Economy: Prospects for Growth in a Postwar Environment, 1994. OECD, International Energy Agency. Angola: Towards an Energy Strategy, 2006. External links MBendi overview of Angola Angola latest trade data on ITC Trade Map Exports to Angola Datasheet Angola Blood diamonds Angola Angola <|endoftext|>Transport in Angola comprises: Roads Railways There are three separate railway lines in Angola: Luanda Railway (CFL) (northern) Benguela Railway (CFB) (central) Moçâmedes Railway (CFM) (southern) Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and they are now all operational. The Benguela Railway connects to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Waterways 1,300 km navigable (2008) country comparison to the world: 36 Pipelines gas, 2 km; crude oil 87 km (2008) In April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from Lobito to Lusaka, Zambia, to deliver various refined products to Zambia. Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years. Ports and harbors The government plans to build a deep-water port at Barra do Dande, north of Luanda, in Bengo province near Caxito. Merchant marine total: 6 country comparison to the world: 128 by type: cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 2, roll on/roll off 1 foreign owned: 1 (Spain) registered in other countries: 6 (Bahamas) (2008) Airports 211 (2008) Airports – with paved runways total: 30 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 1 (2008) Airports – with unpaved runways total: 181 (2008) over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 32 914 to 1,523 m: 100 under 914 m: 42 (2008) Angolan Airlines T
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AAG Angola Airlines Sonair Fly Angola International and domestic services are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines, Aeroflot, British Airways, Brussels Airlines, Lufthansa, Air France, Cubana, Ethiopian Airlines, Emirates, Delta Air Lines, Royal Air Maroc, Iberia, Hainan Airlines, Kenya Airways, South African Airways, TAP Air Portugal and several regional carriers. There are airstrips at Benguela, Cabinda, Huambo, Moçâmedes, and Catumbela. References This article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2003. <|endoftext|>The Angolan Armed Forces () or FAA is the military of Angola. The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components: the Army (Exército), the Navy (Marinha de Guerra) and the National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional). Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000. The FAA is headed by the Chief of the General Staff António Egídio de Sousa Santos since 2018, who reports to the Minister of National Defense, currently João Ernesto dos Santos. History Roots The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) following the abortive Bicesse Accord with the Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola (FALA), armed wing of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). As part of the peace agreement, troops from both armies were to be demilitarized and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back to war in 1992. Later, consequences for FALA personnel in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of vigilantism. Founding The Angolan Armed Forces were created on 9 October 1991. The institutionalization of the FAA was made in the Bicesse Accords, signed in 1991, between the Angolan Government and UNITA. The principles that would govern the FAA were defined in a joint proposal presented on September 24, 1991 and approved on 9 October. On 14 November 1991, Generals João Baptista de Matos and Abílio Kamalata Numa were appointed to the Superior Command of the Armed Forces. The ceremony took place at the Hotel Presidente Luanda, and was presided over by the then-minister França Vandúnem. Branches Army The Army (Exército) is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions (Cabinda, Luanda, North, Center, East and South), with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions, there are 25 motorized infantry brigades, one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment, the Military Artillery School, the Army Military Academy, an anti-aircraft defense group, a composite land artillery group, a military police regiment, a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade (including Commandos and Special Operations units), but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA. Air Force The National Air Force of Angola (FANA, Força Aérea Nacional de Angola) is the air component of the FAA. It is organized in six aviation regiments, each including several squadrons. To each of the regiments correspond an air base. Besides the aviation regiments, there is also a Pilot Training School. The Air Force's personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft. In 2002, one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces. In 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters. Navy The Angola Navy (MGA, Marinha de Guerra de Angola) is the naval component of the FAA. It is organized in two naval zones (North and South), with naval bases in Luanda, Lobito and Moçâmedes. It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School, based in Ambriz. The Navy numbers about 1,000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges. The Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000, resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. In order to protect Angola's 1 600 km long coastline, the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but is still
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"ĠPl", "atoon", "Ġof", "ĠAuto", "Ġand", "ĠArmored", "ĠTechnique", "Ġ", "ĠNavy", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNaval", "ĠWar", "ĠInstitute", "Ġ(", "INS", "G", ")", "Ġ", "ĠNaval", "ĠAcademy", "Ġ", "ĠNaval", "ĠSpecialist", "ĠSchool", "Ġ", "ĠAir", "ĠForce", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAng", "olan", "ĠMilitary", "ĠAviation", "ĠSchool", "Ġ", "ĠPilot", "ĠBasic", "ĠTraining", "ĠSchool", "Ġ(", "L", "ob", "ito", ")", "Ġ", "ĠInstit", "utions", "/", "other", "Ġunits", "Ġ", "ĠMuseum", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠArmed", "ĠForces", "Ġ", "ĠMilitary", "ĠHosp", "itals", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠMilitary", "Ġhospital", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠFAA", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠMain", "ĠMilitary", "ĠHospital", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġlineage", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ1961", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠEv", "ac", "uation", "ĠInf", "irm", "ary", "Ġ", "Ġ1962", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠMilitary", "ĠHospital", "Ġof", "ĠLu", "anda", "Ġ", "Ġ1975", "Ġ-", "ĠMilitary", "ĠHospital", "Ġ", "Ġ1976", "Ġ-", "ĠCentral", "ĠMilitary", "ĠHospital", "Ġ" ]
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lacking in many ways. Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation (CTM) programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate, three corvettes, three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats. Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several Fast Attack Craft for border protection in 2011. In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven Macaé-class patrol vessels from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering the production of the vessels as part of Angola's Naval Power Development Programme (Pronaval). The military of Angola aims to modernize its naval capability, presumably due to a rise in maritime piracy within the Gulf of Guinea which may have an adverse effect on the country's economy. The navy's current known inventory includes the following: Fast attack craft 4 Mandume class craft (Bazan Cormoran type, refurbished in 2009) Patrol Boats 3 18.3m long Patrulheiro patrol boats (refurbished in 2002) 5 ARESA PVC-170 2 Namacurra-class harbour patrol boats Fisheries Patrol Boats Ngola Kiluange and Nzinga Mbandi (delivered in September and October 2012 from Damen Shipyards)(Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) 28 metre FRV 2810 (Pensador) (Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) Landing craft LDM-400 - 1 or 3 (reportedly has serviceability issues) Coastal defense equipment (CRTOC) SS-C1 Sepal radar system The navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrol: Specialized units Special forces The FAA include several types of special forces, namely the Commandos, the Special Operations and the Marines. The Angolan special forces follow the general model of the analogous Portuguese special forces, receiving a similar training. The Commandos and the Special forces are part of the Special Forces Brigade (BRIFE, Brigada de Forças Especiais), based at Cabo Ledo, in the Bengo Province. The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos, a battalion of special operations and sub-units of combat support and service support. The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE, Grupo de Ações Especiais), which is presently inactive and that was dedicated to long range reconnaissance, covert and sabotage operations. In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School (EFFE, Escola de Formação de Forças Especiais). Both the BRIFE and the EFFE are directly under the Directorate of Special Forces of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. The marines (fuzileiros navais) constitute the Marines Brigade of the Angolan Navy. The Marines Brigade is not permanently dependent of the Directorate of Special Forces, but can detach their units and elements to be put under the command of that body for the conduction of exercises or real operations. Since the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in 2004, the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit. However, elements of the commandos, special operations and marines are parachute qualified. Territorial troops The Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops of the Defence Ministry or ODP was established in late 1975. It had 600,000 members, having personnel in virtually every village by 1979. It had both armed and unarmed units dispersed in villages throughout the country. The People's Vigilance Brigades () also serve a similar purpose. Training establishments Armed Forces Academy The Military Academy () is a military university public higher education establishment whos mission is to train officers of the Permanent Staff of the Army. It has been in operation since 21 August 2009 by presidential decree. Its headquarters are in Lobito. It trains in the following specialties: Infantry Tanks Land Artillery Anti-Air Defense Military Engineering Logistics Telecommunications Hidden Direction of Troops Military Administration Armament and Technique Chemical Defense Operational Military Intelligence Technical Repair and Maintenance Platoon of Auto and Armored Technique Navy Naval War Institute (INSG) Naval Academy Naval Specialist School Air Force Angolan Military Aviation School Pilot Basic Training School (Lobito) Institutions/other units Museum of the Armed Forces Military Hospitals The Military hospital of the FAA is the Main Military Hospital. It has the following lineage: 1961 – Evacuation Infirmary 1962 – Military Hospital of Luanda 1975 - Military Hospital 1976 - Central Military Hospital
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"Ġspecial", "Ġunits", "Ġfor", "Ġthis", "Ġpurpose", ".", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠFurther", "Ġreading", "Ġ", "ĠHuman", "ĠRights", "ĠWatch", ",", "ĠAngola", "ĠUn", "ravel", "s", ":", "ĠThe", "ĠRise", "Ġand", "ĠFall", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠL", "us", "aka", "ĠPeace", "ĠProcess", ",", "ĠOctober", "Ġ1999", "ĠUt", "z", "ĠE", "bert", "z", "Ġand", "ĠMarie", "ĠMü", "ller", ",", "ĠLegacy", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġresource", "-", "fuel", "ed", "Ġwar", ":", "ĠThe", "Ġrole", "Ġof", "Ġgenerals", "Ġin", "ĠAngola", "'s", "Ġmining", "Ġsector", ",", "ĠB", "IC", "C", "ĠFocus", ",", "ĠJune", "Ġ2013", "ĠArea", "ĠHandbook", "Ġfor", "ĠAngola", ",", "ĠAugust", "Ġ1967", ",", "ĠAngola", ",", "ĠA", "ĠCountry", "ĠStudy", "Ġ(", "1979", "Ġand", "Ġ1991", ")", "ĠRocky", "ĠWilliams", ",", "Ġ\"", "National", "Ġdefence", "Ġreform", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠAfrican", "ĠUnion", ".\"", "ĠS", "IP", "RI", "ĠYear", "book", "Ġ2004", ":", "Ġ231", "âĢĵ", "249", ".", "ĠWe", "ig", "ert", ",", "ĠStephen", "ĠL", ".", "ĠAngola", ":", "Ġa", "Ġmodern", 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"ĠCase", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "\",", "ĠAfrican", "ĠStudies", "ĠReview", "Ġ", "ĠMilitary", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "ĠMilitary", "Ġhistory", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "ĠAng", "olan", "ĠCivil", "ĠWar", "Ġ1991", "Ġestablishments", "Ġin", "ĠAngola", "ĠMilitary", "Ġunits", "Ġand", "Ġformations", "Ġestablished", "Ġin", "Ġ1991", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "The", "Ġforeign", "Ġrelations", "Ġof", "ĠAngola", "Ġare", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "ĠAngola", "'s", "Ġstrong", "Ġsupport", "Ġof", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġforeign", "Ġpolicy", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠAng", "olan", "Ġeconomy", "Ġis", "Ġdependent", "Ġon", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġforeign", "Ġaid", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFrom", "Ġ1975", "Ġto", "Ġ1989", ",", "ĠAngola", "Ġwas", "Ġaligned", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠEastern", "Ġbloc", ",", "Ġin", "Ġparticular", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ",", "ĠLibya", ",", "Ġand", "ĠCuba", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġthen", ",", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġfocused", "Ġon", "Ġimproving", "Ġrelationships", "Ġwith", "ĠWestern", "Ġcountries", ",", "Ġcultivating", "Ġlinks", "Ġwith", "Ġother", "ĠPortuguese", "-", "speaking", "Ġcountries", ",", "Ġand", "Ġasserting", "Ġits", "Ġown", "Ġnational", "Ġinterests", "Ġin", "ĠCentral", "ĠAfrica", "Ġthrough", "Ġmilitary", "Ġand", "Ġdiplomatic", "Ġintervention", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1993", ",", "Ġit", "Ġestablished", "Ġformal", "Ġdiplomatic", "Ġrelations", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġentered", "Ġthe", "ĠSouthern", "ĠAfrican", "ĠDevelopment", "ĠCommunity", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġvehicle", "Ġfor", "Ġimproving", "Ġties", "Ġwith", "Ġits", "Ġlargely", "ĠAng", "l", "ophone", "Ġneighbors", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", ".", "ĠZimbabwe", "Ġand", "ĠNam", "ibia", "Ġjoined", "ĠAngola", "Ġin", "Ġits", "Ġmilitary", "Ġintervention", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠDemocratic", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCongo", ",", "Ġwhere", "ĠAng", "olan", "Ġtroops", "Ġremain", "Ġin", "Ġsupport", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠJoseph", "ĠKab", "ila", "Ġgovernment", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġalso", "Ġhas", "Ġintervened", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCongo", "Ġ(", "Bra", "zz", "av", "ille", ")", "Ġto", "Ġsupport", "Ġthe", "Ġexisting", "Ġgovernment", "Ġin", "Ġthat" ]
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1989 - Main Military Hospital It provides specialized medical assistance in accordance with the military health system; It also promotes post-graduate education and scientific research. Currently, the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties. It is a headed by a Director General whose main supporting body is the Board of Directors. Supreme Military Court The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of military courts. The Presiding Judge, the Deputy Presiding Judge and the other Counselor Judges of the Supreme Military Court are appointed by the President of the Republic. The composition, organization, powers and functioning of the Supreme Military Court are established by law. Military Bands The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches and in individual units. The primary band is the 100-member Music Band of the Presidential Security Household. The music band of the Army Command was created on 16 June 1994 and four years later, on 15 August 1998, the National Air Force created a music band within an artistic brigade. The navy has its own marching band, as well as a small musical group known as Banda 10 de Julho (10th July Band), based at the Luanda Naval Base. Foreign deployments The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast, and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared South African Border War. The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to São Tomé and Príncipe in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years, Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985. The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow Lusophone states Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to "reform" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville). A presence during the unrest in Ivory Coast, 2010–2011, were not officially confirmed. However, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, citing Jeune Afrique, said that among President Gbagbo's guards were 92 personnel of President Dos Santos's Presidential Guard Unit. Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the African Union and has formed special units for this purpose. References Further reading Human Rights Watch, Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process, October 1999 Utz Ebertz and Marie Müller, Legacy of a resource-fueled war: The role of generals in Angola's mining sector, BICC Focus, June 2013 Area Handbook for Angola, August 1967, Angola, A Country Study (1979 and 1991) Rocky Williams, "National defence reform and the African Union." SIPRI Yearbook 2004: 231–249. Weigert, Stephen L. Angola: a modern military history, 1961–2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Martin Rupiya et al., 'Angola', in Evolutions and Revolutions The Twenty-Seventh of May: An Historical Note on the Abortive 1977 "coup" in Angola David Birmingham, African Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 309 (Oct. 1978), pp. 554–564 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society External links Official site of the Angolan Ministry of National Defence World Navies Brinkman, Inge "Language, Names, and War: The Case of Angola", African Studies Review Military of Angola Military history of Angola Angolan Civil War 1991 establishments in Angola Military units and formations established in 1991 <|endoftext|>The foreign relations of Angola are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid. From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc, in particular the Soviet Union, Libya, and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops remain in support of the Joseph Kabila government. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that
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529
country. Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the United Nations Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions on UNITA. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal (its former ruler) and Brazil (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. Angola is a member of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa (PMAESA). Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania See also List of diplomatic missions in Angola List of diplomatic missions of Angola Visa requirements for Angolan citizens References External links <|endoftext|>Albert Sidney Johnston (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) served as a general in three different armies: the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in the Black Hawk War, the Texas War of Independence, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War, and the American Civil War. Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of Robert E. Lee, he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. Johnston was the highest-ranking Confederate officer killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston "was the turning point of our fate." Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston. Early life and education Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis. Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826, Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry. Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri and served in the brief Black Hawk War in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt. Brig. Gen. Henry Atkinson. Marriage and family In 1829, he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston. They had one son, William Preston Johnston, who became a colonel in the Confederate States Army. The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis. After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840, Johnston resigned and returned to Kentucky. In 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wife's first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a large plantation in Brazoria County. Johnston named the property "China Grove". Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. A sixth child was born later when the family lived in Los Angeles, where they had permanently settled. Texian Army In 1836, Johnston moved to Texas. He enlisted as a private in the Texian Army during the Texas War of Independence from the Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. On February 5, 1837, he fought in a duel with Texas Brig. Gen. Felix Huston, who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion. Johnston was shot through the hip and severely wounded, requiring him to relinquish his post during his recovery. On December 22, 1838, Mirabeau B. Lamar, the second president of the Republic of Texas, appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against Indians in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. United States Army Johnston returned to Texas during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), under General Zachary Taylor as a colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The Polk administration's preference for officers associated with the Democratic Party prevented the promotion of those, such as Johnston, who were perceived as Whigs: The enlistments of Johnston's volunteers ran out just before the Battle of Monterrey. Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay and fight as he served as the inspector general of
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volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista. Future Union general, Joseph Hooker, was with Johnston at Monterrey. Hooker wrote: "It was through [Johnston's] agency, mainly, that our division was saved from a cruel slaughter... The coolness and magnificent presence [that he] displayed on this field... left an impression on my mind that I have never forgotten." He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president Zachary Taylor to the U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at Fort Mason and elsewhere in the West. In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern 5th U.S.), a new regiment, which he organized, his lieutenant colonel being Robert E. Lee, and his majors William J. Hardee and George H. Thomas. Other subordinates in this unit included Earl Van Dorn, Edmund Kirby Smith, Nathan G. Evans, Innis N. Palmer, George Stoneman, R.W. Johnson, John B. Hood, and Charles W. Field, all future Civil War generals. Utah War As a key figure in the Utah War, Johnston took command of the U.S forces in November 1857. This army was sent to install Alfred Cummings as governor of the Utah territory, in place of Brigham Young. After the army wintered at Fort Bridger, Wyoming, a peaceful resolution was reached and in late June 1858 Johnston led the army through Salt Lake city without incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles distant. He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general in 1857 for his service in Utah. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. Slavery Johnston was a proponent of slavery and a slaveholder. In 1846, he owned a family of four slaves in Texas. In 1855, having discovered that a slave was stealing from the army payroll, Johnston refused to have him physically punished and instead sold him for $1,000 to recoup the losses. Johnston explained that "whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit the [culprit], whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest." In 1856, he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping" in a letter to his son, fearing that the abolitionists would incite a servile insurrection in the South. Upon moving to California, Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another, Randolph or "Ran," who desired to accompany the family, on the condition of a $12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the Civil War, up until the latter's death. Johnston's wife, Eliza, celebrated the lack of black people in California, writing "where the darky is in any numbers it should be as slaves." Civil War At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific in California. Like many regular army officers from the South, he was opposed to secession. But he resigned his commission soon after he heard of the secession of the Southern states. It was accepted by the War Department on May 6, 1861, effective May 3. On April 28 he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother John Griffin. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home at Los Angeles, where his eldest son, Capt. Albert S. Johnston, Jr. was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty, in 1863. Soon, Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch May 27. He participated in their trek across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona on July 4, 1861. His escort was commanded by Alonzo Ridley, Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed. Early in the Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much of its territory as possible, and therefore distributed military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains. The most sensitive, and in many ways the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed under the command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pill
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531
ow. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general. Their impolitic occupation of Columbus, Kentucky, on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Richmond, Virginia, after his cross-country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality. The majority of Kentuckians allied with the Union camp. Polk and Pillow's action gave Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of Paducah, Kentucky, without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-Union majority in the State legislature. Confederate command in Western Theater On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas. He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the Western Department or Western Military Department. Johnston's appointment as a full general by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis already had been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second highest ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead of him. After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He was permitted to call on governors of Arkansas, Tennessee and Mississippi for new troops, although this authority was largely stifled by politics, especially with respect to Mississippi. On September 13, 1861, Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer with 4,000 men to occupy Cumberland Gap in Kentucky in order to block Union troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with the Union after the occupation of Columbus by Polk. By September 18, Johnston had Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner with another 4,000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at Bowling Green, Kentucky. Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price. Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from the governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had. As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months. Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused Union Brig. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he became paranoid and mentally unstable. Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces, and had to be relieved by Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on November 9, 1861. However, in his Memoirs Sherman strongly refutes this account. Battle of Mill Springs East Tennessee (a heavily pro-Union region of the South during the Civil War) was held for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: Felix Zollicoffer, a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer, and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden, a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now Nancy, Kentucky), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of scarcity of transport and proximity of Union troops. When Union Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the Union forces could unite. At the Battle of Mill Springs on January 19, 1862, the ill-prepared Confederates, after a night march in the rain, attacked the Union force with some initial success. As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed, Crittenden was unable to lead the Confederate force (he may have been intoxicated), and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a Union bayonet charge, suffering 533 casualties from their force of 4,000. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct. After the Confederate defeat at the Mill Springs, Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war, and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, considered incompetent. He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before
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532
Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated Union commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater. Union officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces. Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee in order to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had a vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats. Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command, Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer, Lt. Joseph K. Dixon, to inspect the forts. After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command the forts but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman as commander. To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group, Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson. Pillow took up a position at nearby Clarksville, Tennessee and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862. Alerted by a Union reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which in any event were too late to be adequately carried out. Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force which had not been sent to Fort Donelson before U.S. Grant's force could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862. Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision in view of his thought that the Union gunboats alone might be able to take the fort. He did order the commanders of the fort to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held. The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner. Union casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, 224 missing. Johnston, who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson on the basis of seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison, took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of Union advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to Union forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out in order to avoid having them captured
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"Ġwounded", "Ġhorse" ]
533
as well. Concentration at Corinth Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout his territory and retreating to the south to avoid being cut off. Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command, the Army of Central Kentucky, from the vicinity of Nashville. With Beauregard's help, Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of Corinth, Mississippi, which he reached by a circuitous route. Johnston kept the Union forces, now under the overall command of the ponderous Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck, confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected. This delay allowed Jefferson Davis finally to send reinforcements from the garrisons of coastal cities and another highly rated but prickly general, Braxton Bragg, to help organize the western forces. Bragg at least calmed the nerves of Beauregard and Polk, who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces, before Johnston's arrival on March 24, 1862. Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which it had been organized by Beauregard on March 5. Johnston now planned to defeat the Union forces piecemeal before the various Union units in Kentucky and Tennessee under Grant with 40,000 men at nearby Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, and the now Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on his way from Nashville with 35,000 men, could unite against him. Johnston started his army in motion on April 3, 1862, intent on surprising Grant's force as soon as the next day, but they moved slowly due to their inexperience, bad roads, and lack of adequate staff planning. Due to the delays, as well as several contacts with the enemy, Johnston's second in command, P. G. T. Beauregard, felt the element of surprise had been lost and recommended calling off the attack. Johnston decided to proceed as planned, stating "I would fight them if they were a million." His army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, and undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862. Battle of Shiloh and death Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his most famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the Union camps, and was outraged to see a young lieutenant among them. "None of that, sir," Johnston roared at the officer, "we are not here for plunder." Then, realizing he had embarrassed the man, he picked up a tin cup off a table and announced, "Let this be my share of the spoils today," before directing his army onward. At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a Union camp near the "Peach Orchard," he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery and his boot filled up with blood. There were no medical personnel on scene at the time, since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and Union prisoners earlier in the battle. Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was Isham G. Harris, the Governor of Tennessee, who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: "General, are you wounded?" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and replied in a weak voice his last words: "Yes... and I fear seriously." Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse and carried him to a small ravine near the "Hornets Nest" and desperately tried to aid the general, who had lost consciousness by this point. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not apply a tourniquet to Johnson's wounded leg. A few minutes later, before a doctor could be found, Johnston died from blood loss. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. Ironically, it was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died. Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket so as not to damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse
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, Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent for the remainder of the battle. P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army and resumed leading the Confederate assault, which continued advancing and pushed the Union force back to a final defensive line near the Tennessee river. With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone, Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours, figuring he could finish off the Union army the following morning. However, Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio during the night, and led a successful counter-attack the following day, driving the Confederates from the field and winning the battle. As the Confederate army retreated back to Corinth, Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours. It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round, as many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. Alonzo Ridley of Los Angeles commanded the bodyguard “the Guides” of Gen. A. S. Johnston, and was by his side when he fell. Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side, and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him the best general in the country. Legacy and honors Johnston was survived by his wife Eliza and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. John Strother Griffin. Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, after taking home leave in Los Angeles, Albert Jr. was on his way out of San Pedro harbor on a ferry. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident. Upon his passing General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government: accounts were published, on December 20, 1862, and thereafter, in the Los Angeles Star of his family's hometown. Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in northeast Los Angeles, are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood. Johnston was initially buried in New Orleans. In 1866, a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed Elisabet Ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at the grave site, installed in 1905. The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's plantation. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the Daughters of The Republic of Texas and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederate States of America. In 1916, the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans (including Johnston) with statues on its South Mall. On August 21, 2017, as part of the wave of confederate monument removals in America, Johnston's statue was taken down. Plans were announced to add it to the Briscoe Center for American History on the east side of the university campus. Johnston was inducted to the Texas Military Hall of Honor in 1980. In the fall of 2018, A.S. Johnston Elementary School in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Cedar Crest Elementary. Johnston Middle School in Houston, Texas was also renamed to Meyerland Middle School. Three additional elementary schools named for Confederate veterans were renamed at the same time. See also List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) List of Confederate monuments and memorials Notes References Beauregard, G. T. The Campaign of Shiloh. p. 579. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. I, edited by Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence C. Buel. New York: Century Co., 1884–1888. . Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. . Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. . Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day:
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535
An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. . Further reading External links Eliza Johnston, Wife Of Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston Albert Sidney Johnston at Handbook of Texas Online 1803 births 1862 deaths Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War Deaths from bleeding Burials at Texas State Cemetery Confederate States Army full generals People from Washington, Kentucky People from Texas People of California in the American Civil War People of Texas in the American Civil War American people of the Black Hawk War Transylvania University alumni United States Army generals United States Military Academy alumni People of the Texas Revolution People of the Utah War United States politicians killed during the Civil War Preston family of Virginia <|endoftext|>An android is a humanoid robot or other artificial being often made from a flesh-like material. Historically, androids were completely within the domain of science fiction and frequently seen in film and television, but recent advances in robot technology now allow the design of functional and realistic humanoid robots. While the term "android" is used in reference to human-looking robots in general (not necessarily male-looking humanoid robots), a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a gynoid. Besides one can refer to robots without alluding to their sexual appearance by calling them anthrobots (merging the radical anthrōpos and the word robot; see anthrobotics) or anthropoids (short for anthropoid robots; the term humanoids is not appropriate because it is already commonly used to refer to human-like organic species in the context of scientific fiction, futurism and speculative astrobiology). Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary traces the earliest use (as "Androides") to Ephraim Chambers' 1728 Cyclopaedia, in reference to an automaton that St. Albertus Magnus allegedly created. By the late 1700s, "androides", elaborate mechanical devices resembling humans performing human activities, were displayed in exhibit halls. The term "android" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term android was used in a more modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in his work Tomorrow's Eve (1886). This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, "In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls." The term made an impact into English pulp science fiction starting from Jack Williamson's The Cometeers (1936) and the distinction between mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by Edmond Hamilton's Captain Future stories (1940–1944). Although Karel Čapek's robots in R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) (1921)—the play that introduced the word robot to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word "robot" has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term "android" can mean either one of these, while a cyborg ("cybernetic organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts. The term "droid", popularized by George Lucas in the original Star Wars film and now used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of "android", but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form machines like R2-D2. The word "android" was used in Star Trek: The Original Series episode "What Are Little Girls Made Of?" The abbreviation "andy", coined as a pejorative by writer Philip K. Dick in his novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, has seen some further usage, such as within the TV series Total Recall 2070. Authors have used the term android in more diverse ways than robot or cyborg. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only superficial, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. In other stories, authors have used the word "android" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between. Eric G. Wilson, who defines an android as a "synthetic human being", distinguishes between three types of android, based on their body's composition: the mummy type – made of "dead things" or "stiff, inanimate, natural material", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and statues the golem type – made from flexible, possibly organic material, including golems and homunculi the automaton type – made from a mix of dead and living parts, including automatons and robots Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the
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fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: simulacra (devices that exhibit likeness) and automata (devices that have independence). Projects Several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway. Japan Japanese robotics have been leading the field since the 1970s. Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the first android, a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth. In 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans. The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University, and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture, Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro developed a new DER 2 android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165 cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The "air servosystem" which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice. The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called Saya, which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is working at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide. The Waseda University (Japan) and NTT Docomo's manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot WD-2. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three degrees of freedom. This one has 17 facial points, for a total of 56 degrees of freedom. As for the materials they used, the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material called Septom, with bits of steel wool mixed in for added strength. Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the mask at the desired facial point, driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and a slide screw. Apparently, the researchers can also modify the shape of the mask based on actual human faces. To "copy" a face, they need only a 3D scanner to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points. After that, they are then driven into position using a laptop and 56 motor control boards. In addition, the researchers also mention that the shifting robot can even display an individual's hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask. Singapore Prof Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's Siri or Microsoft's Cortana. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future, or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly. Assoc Prof Gerald Se
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537
et from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics, creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user's face and expressions displayed on the robot's face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements. South Korea KITECH researched and developed EveR-1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs , matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve, plus the letter r for robot. EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis, at the same time processing lip synchronization and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-CCD cameras with face recognition technology. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression, body coordination, and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face, neck, and lower body; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea, the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020. Several robot cities have been planned for the country: the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won (US$440 million), of which 50 billion is direct government investment. The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers, as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future, setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers, as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa. United States Walt Disney and a staff of Imagineers created Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln that debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Dr. William Barry, an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning at the United States Military Academy, created an AI android character named "Maria Bot". This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria in the 1927 film Metropolis, as a well-behaved distant relative. Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the university level. Maria Bot has appeared as a keynote speaker as a duo with Barry for a TEDx talk in Everett, Washington in February 2020. Resembling a human from the shoulders up, Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and engages in conversation about a variety of subjects. She uses AI to process and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk and engage. She collects data through conversations, direct data inputs such as books or articles, and through internet sources. Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty. Maria Bot is designed to create new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence. Barry also uses Maria Bot to demonstrate that programming a robot with life-affirming, ethical framework makes them more likely to help humans to do the same. Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology. Hanson Robotics, Inc., of Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein, using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called "Albert Hubo", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history. Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author Philip K. Dick (creator of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, the basis for the film Blade Runner), with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works. In 2005, the PKD android won a first-place artificial intelligence award from AAAI. Use in fiction Androids are a staple of science fiction. Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series I, Robot. One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots—such as the creation of strong artificial intelligence—are assumed to have been solved. Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them. The tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance—or even human ambitions—of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of their fictional depictions. Some android heroes seek, like Pinocchio, to become human, as in the film Bicent
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ennial Man, or Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation. Others, as in the film Westworld, rebel against abuse by careless humans. Android hunter Deckard in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and its film adaptation Blade Runner discovers that his targets appear to be, in some ways, more "human" than he is. Android stories, therefore, are not essentially stories "about" androids; they are stories about the human condition and what it means to be human. One aspect of writing about the meaning of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring racism in society, as in Blade Runner. Perhaps the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel Into the Slave Nebula, where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human. More recently, the androids Bishop and Annalee Call in the films Aliens and Alien Resurrection are used as vehicles for exploring how humans deal with the presence of an "Other". The 2018 video game Detroit: Become Human also explores how androids are treated as second class citizens in a near future society. Female androids, or "gynoids", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical "perfect woman". Examples include the Greek myth of Pygmalion and the female robot Maria in Fritz Lang's Metropolis. Some gynoids, like Pris in Blade Runner, are designed as sex-objects, with the intent of "pleasing men's violent sexual desires", or as submissive, servile companions, such as in The Stepford Wives. Fiction about gynoids has therefore been described as reinforcing "essentialist ideas of femininity", although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and misogyny in society. The 2015 Japanese film Sayonara, starring Geminoid F, was promoted as "the first movie to feature an android performing opposite a human actor". See also References Further reading Kerman, Judith B. (1991). Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. . Perkowitz, Sidney (2004). Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids. Joseph Henry Press. . Shelde, Per (1993). Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films. New York: New York University Press. . Ishiguro, Hiroshi. "Android science." Cognitive Science Society. 2005. Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "The Artificial Human" TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing" An-droid, "Similar to the Android name" Carpenter, J. (2009). Why send the Terminator to do R2D2s job?: Designing androids as rhetorical phenomena. Proceedings of HCI 2009: Beyond Gray Droids: Domestic Robot Design for the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK. 1 September. Telotte, J.P. Replications: A Robotic History of the Science Fiction Film. University of Illinois Press, 1995. External links Japanese inventions South Korean inventions Osaka University research Science fiction themes Human–machine interaction Robots <|endoftext|>Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories (NWT) to the north, and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. It is one of the only two landlocked provinces in Canada. The eastern part of the province is occupied by the Great Plains, while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains. The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences quick temperature changes due to air aridity. Seasonal temperature swings are less pronounced in western Alberta due to occasional chinook winds. Alberta is the 4th largest province by area at , and the 4th most populous, being home to 4,262,635 people. Alberta's capital is Edmonton, while Calgary is its largest city. The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas (CMAs) and both exceed one million people. More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary, which contributes to continuing the rivalry between the two cities. English is the official language of the province. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone. The oil and gas industry is also a part of the province's identity. Alberta's economy is based on
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"Ġthe", "ĠMack", "enzie", "ĠRiver", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "Ġcapital", "Ġcity", ",", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġis", "Ġlocated", "Ġat", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "Ġgeographic", "Ġcentre", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġnort", "her", "ly", "Ġmajor", "Ġcity", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", "Ġand", "Ġserves", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġgateway", "Ġand", "Ġhub", "Ġfor", "Ġresource", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġin", "Ġnorthern", "ĠCanada", ".", "ĠWith", "Ġits", "Ġproximity", "Ġto", "ĠCanada", "'s", "Ġlargest", "Ġoil", "Ġfields", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġregion", "Ġhas", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġwestern", "ĠCanada", "'s", "Ġoil", "Ġrefinery", "Ġcapacity", ".", "ĠCalgary", "Ġis", "Ġabout", "Ġ", "Ġsouth", "Ġof", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġnorth", "Ġof", "ĠMontana", ",", "Ġsurrounded", "Ġby", "Ġextensive", "Ġranch", "ing", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠAlmost", "Ġ75", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "'s", "Ġpopulation", "Ġlives", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCalgary", "âĢĵ", "Ed", "monton", "ĠCorridor", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġland", "Ġgrant", 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539
hydrocarbons, petrochemical industries, livestock, agriculture and frontier technologies. The oil industry has been a pillar of Alberta's economy since 1947, when substantial oil deposits were discovered at Leduc No. 1 well. Since Alberta is the province most rich in hydrocarbons, it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas exploited on Canadian soil. In 2018, Alberta's output was CDN$338.2 billion, 15.27% of Canada's GDP. In the past, Alberta's political landscape hosted parties like the left-wing Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta. Today, Alberta is generally perceived as a conservative province. The right-wing Social Credit Party held office continually from 1935 to 1971 before the centre-right Progressive Conservatives held office continually from 1971 to 2015, the latter being the longest unbroken run in government at the provincial or federal level in Canadian history. Before becoming part of Canada, Alberta was home to several First Nations and was a territory used by fur traders of the Hudson's Bay Company. Canada acquired the lands that would become Alberta as part of the NWT on July 15, 1870. On September 1, 1905, Alberta was separated from the NWT as a result of the Alberta Act and designated the 8th province of Canada. From the late 1800s to early 1900s, many immigrants arrived, the biggest wave of which was pushed by Wilfrid Laurier, to prevent the prairies from being annexed by the United States. Massive oil resources were discovered in Alberta in 1947. Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty, richness in fossils and for housing important nature reserves. Alberta is home to six UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites: The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Dinosaur Provincial Park, the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo National Park and Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park. Other popular sites include Banff National Park, Elk Island National Park, Jasper National Park, Waterton Lakes National Park, and Drumheller. Etymology Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta (1848–1939), the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Governor General of Canada (1878–83). Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. The name "Alberta" itself is a feminine Latinized form of Albert, the name of Princess Louise's father, the Prince Consort ( , masculine) and its Germanic cognates, ultimately derived from the Proto-Germanic language *Aþalaberhtaz (compound of "noble" + "bright/famous"). Geography Alberta, with an area of , is the fourth-largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north, which separates it from the U.S. state of Montana. The 60th parallel north divides Alberta from the Northwest Territories. The 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan; while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains, and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N. The province extends north to south and east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border while its lowest point is on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast. With the exception of the semi-arid climate of the steppe in the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes in Alberta used for swimming, fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes, Lake Claire () in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake (), and Lake Athabasca (), which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River, which travels from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca. The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of . The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, a tributary of the Mackenzie River. Alberta's capital city, Edmonton, is located at about the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. With its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields, the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. Calgary is about south of Edmonton and north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the railways served as a means
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"ook", "Ġwinds", "Ġblowing", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġmountains", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġcan", "Ġpropel", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġupward", "Ġfrom", "Ġfrig", "id", "Ġconditions", "Ġto", "Ġwell", "Ġabove", "Ġthe", "Ġfreezing", "Ġpoint", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġvery", "Ġshort", "Ġperiod", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġone", "Ġchin", "ook", "Ġrecorded", "Ġat", "ĠP", "inc", "her", "ĠCreek", ",", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġsoared", "Ġfrom", "Ġ", "Ġin", "Ġjust", "Ġone", "Ġhour", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġregion", "Ġaround", "ĠLeth", "bridge", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġchin", "ooks", ",", "Ġaveraging", "Ġ30", "Ġto", "Ġ35", "Ġchin", "ook", "Ġdays", "Ġper", "Ġyear", ".", "ĠCalgary", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġ56", "%", "Ġchance", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġwhite", "ĠChristmas", ",", "Ġwhile", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġhas", "Ġan", "Ġ86", "%", "Ġchance", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAfter", "ĠSaskatchewan", ",", "ĠAlberta", "Ġexperiences", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġtorn", "adoes", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġaverage", "Ġof", "Ġ15", "Ġverified", "Ġper", "Ġyear", ".", "ĠThunder", "storms", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġsevere", ",", "Ġare", "Ġfrequent", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsummer", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġin", "Ġcentral", "Ġand", "Ġsouthern", "ĠAlberta", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġregion", "Ġsurrounding", "Ġthe", "ĠCalgary", "âĢĵ", "Ed", "monton", "ĠCorridor", "Ġis", "Ġnotable", "Ġfor", "Ġhaving", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġfrequency", "Ġof", "Ġhail", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġo", "rog", "raphic", "Ġlifting" ]
540
to populate the province in its early years. Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest, while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely temperate coniferous forests of the Alberta Mountain forests and Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests. The southern quarter of the province is prairie, ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to Lloydminster, contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming, with mixed farming more common in the north and centre, while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south. The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta, where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. Dinosaur Provincial Park, near Brooks, showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape. Climate Alberta extends for over from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from in the southwest to in the far north. The presence of the Rocky Mountains also influences the climate to the southwest, which disrupts the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from in the southeast to in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach annually. Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has a subarctic climate. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants. The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the Palliser Triangle, experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result, suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter chinook winds. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold Arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce cold winter conditions. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta, although temperatures at these extremes are rare. In the summer, continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from in the mountains to over in southeastern Alberta. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1,900 up to just under 2,600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. The average daytime temperatures range from around in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north, up to around in the dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years, although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation, sometimes resulting in flooding. In the winter, the Alberta clipper, a type of intense, fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and, pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream, descends over the rest of southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States. In southwestern Alberta, the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one chinook recorded at Pincher Creek, temperatures soared from in just one hour. The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks, averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year. Calgary has a 56% chance of a white Christmas, while Edmonton has an 86% chance. After Saskatchewan, Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year. Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada, which is caused by orographic lifting
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"Ġprovince", "Ġgrow", "Ġin", "Ġcl", "umps", "Ġand", "Ġbelts", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġhills", "ides", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġare", "Ġlargely", "Ġdec", "id", "uous", ",", "Ġtypically", "Ġas", "pen", ",", "Ġpop", "lar", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwill", "ow", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġspecies", "Ġof", "Ġwill", "ow", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġshr", "ubs", "Ġgrow", "Ġin", "Ġvirtually", "Ġany", "Ġterrain", ".", "ĠNorth", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠSaskatchewan", "ĠRiver", ",", "Ġever", "green", "Ġforests", "Ġprevail", "Ġfor", "Ġthousands", "Ġof", "Ġsquare", "Ġkilometres", ".", "ĠAs", "pen", "Ġpop", "lar", ",", "Ġb", "als", "am", "Ġpop", "lar", "Ġ(", "Pop", "ulus", "Ġb", "als", "am", "ifer", "a", ")", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġparts", "Ġcotton", "wood", "Ġ(", "Pop", "ulus", "Ġdel", "to", "ides", "),", "Ġand", "Ġpaper", "Ġbir", "ch", "Ġ(", "Bet", "ula", "Ġpap", "yr", "ifer", "a", ")", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġprimary", "Ġlarge", "Ġdec", "id", "uous", "Ġspecies", ".", "ĠCon", "if", "ers", "Ġinclude", "Ġjack", "Ġpine", "Ġ(", "Pin", "us", 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"Ġ2006", ",", "ĠAlberta", "ĠAgriculture", "Ġreported", "Ġzero", "Ġfindings", "Ġof", "Ġwild", "Ġrats", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġrat", "Ġinterceptions", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġdomest", "icated", "Ġrats", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġseized", "Ġfrom", "Ġtheir", "Ġowners", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġillegal", "Ġfor", "Ġindividual", "ĠAlbert", "ans", "Ġto", "Ġown", "Ġor", "Ġkeep", "ĠNorwegian", "Ġrats", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġdescription", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġcan", "Ġonly", "Ġbe", "Ġkept", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "Ġby", "Ġz", "oos", ",", "Ġuniversities", "Ġand", "Ġcolleges", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrecognized", "Ġresearch", "Ġinstitutions" ]
541
from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail. Ecology Flora In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus (Pulsatilla nuttalliana) anemone; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March, though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean (Thermopsis rhombifolia) and wild rose (Rosa acicularis). Members of the sunflower (Helianthus) family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower (Ratibida), fleabane, and sage (Artemisia). Both yellow and white sweet clover (Melilotus) can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely deciduous, typically aspen, poplar, and willow. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. North of the North Saskatchewan River, evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. Aspen poplar, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) (or in some parts cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) are the primary large deciduous species. Conifers include jack pine (Pinus banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), both white and black spruce, and the deciduous conifer tamarack (Larix laricina). Fauna The four climatic regions (alpine, boreal forest, parkland, and prairie) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison, also known as buffalo, with its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then, buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. Herbivores are found throughout the province. Moose, mule deer, elk, and white-tailed deer are found in the wooded regions, and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, porcupines, skunks, squirrels, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one venomous snake species, the prairie rattlesnake. Alberta is home to many large carnivores such as wolves, grizzly bears, black bears, and mountain lions, which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes, red foxes, Canada lynx, and bobcats. Wolverines can also be found in the northwestern areas of the province. Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north are the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. Eagles, hawks, owls, and crows are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other temperate regions, is home to mosquitoes, flies, wasps, and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with pike, walleye, whitefish, rainbow, speckled, brown trout, and sturgeon. Native to the province, the bull trout, is the provincial fish and an official symbol of Alberta. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of Norwegian rats. Since the early 1950s, the Government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions
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"Ġlike", "Ġthe", "ĠMilk", "ĠRiver", "Ġand", "ĠFore", "most", "ĠForm", "ations", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlatter", "Ġtwo", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġlower", "Ġdiversity", "Ġof", "Ġdocumented", "Ġdinosaurs", ",", "Ġprimarily", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġlower", "Ġtotal", "Ġfossil", "Ġquantity", "Ġand", "Ġneglect", "Ġfrom", "Ġcollectors", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġhindered", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġisolation", "Ġand", "Ġscarcity", "Ġof", "Ġexposed", "Ġout", "cro", "ps", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġdinosaur", "Ġfossils", "Ġare", "Ġprimarily", "Ġteeth", "Ġrecovered", "Ġfrom", "Ġmicro", "ver", "te", "brate", "Ġfossil", "Ġsites", ".", "ĠAdditional", "Ġge", "ologic", "Ġformations", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġproduced", "Ġonly", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġfossils", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "ĠB", "elly", "ĠRiver", "ĠGroup", "Ġand", "ĠSt", ".", "ĠMary", "ĠRiver", "ĠForm", "ations", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsouthwest", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthwestern", "ĠW", "ap", "iti", "ĠFormation", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġcontains", "Ġtwo", "ĠP", "ach", "yr", "h", "inosaur", "us", "Ġbone", "Ġbeds", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠBear", "p", "aw", "ĠFormation", "Ġrepresents", "Ġstr", "ata", "Ġdeposited", "Ġduring", "Ġa", "Ġmarine", "Ġtrans", "gression", ".", "ĠDin", "osaurs", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġfrom", "Ġthis", "Ġformation", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġrepresent", "Ġspecimens", "Ġwashed", "Ġout", "Ġto", "Ġsea", "Ġor", "Ġre", "worked", "Ġfrom", "Ġolder", "Ġsed", "iments", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠPaleo", "-", "Ind", "ians", "Ġarrived", "Ġin", "ĠAlberta", "Ġat", "Ġleast", "Ġ10", ",", "000", "Ġyears", "Ġago", ",", "Ġtoward", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġice", "Ġage", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġmigrated", "Ġfrom", "ĠSiberia", "Ġto", "ĠAlaska", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġland", "Ġbridge", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "ĠB", "ering", "ĠStrait", "Ġand", "Ġthen", "Ġpossibly", "Ġmoved", "Ġdown", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", "Ġside", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠRocky", "ĠMountains", "Ġthrough", "ĠAlberta", "Ġto", "Ġsettle", "Ġthe", "ĠAmericas", ".", "ĠOthers", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġmigrated", "Ġdown", "Ġthe", "Ġcoast", "Ġof", "ĠBritish", "ĠColumbia", "Ġand", "Ġthen", "Ġmoved", "Ġinland", ".", "ĠOver", "Ġtime", "Ġthey", "Ġdifferentiated", "Ġinto", "Ġvarious", "ĠFirst", "ĠNations", "Ġpeoples", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "ĠPlains", "ĠIndians", "Ġof", "Ġsouthern", "ĠAlberta", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠBlack", "foot", "ĠConfederacy", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠPlains", "ĠCree", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġgenerally", "Ġlived", "Ġby", "Ġhunting", "Ġbuffalo", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġmore", "Ġnort", "her", "ly", "Ġtribes", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠWood", "land", "ĠCree", "Ġand", "ĠChip", "ew", "yan", "Ġwho", "Ġhunted", ",", "Ġtrapped", ",", "Ġand", "Ġf", "ished", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġliving", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAfter", "Ġthe", "ĠBritish", "Ġarrival", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", ",", "Ġapproximately", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", ",", "Ġsouth", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "ĠRiver", "Ġdrainage", ",", "Ġbecame", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠRupert", "'s", "ĠLand", "Ġwhich", "Ġconsisted", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġland", "Ġdrained", "Ġby", "Ġrivers", "Ġflowing", "Ġinto", "ĠHudson", "ĠBay", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġarea", "Ġwas", "Ġgranted", "Ġby", "ĠCharles", "ĠII", "Ġof", "ĠEngland", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠHudson", "'s", "ĠBay", "ĠCompany", "Ġ(", "H", "BC", ")", "Ġin", "Ġ16", "70", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrival", "Ġfur", "Ġtrading", "Ġcompanies", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġallowed", "Ġto", "Ġtrade", "Ġin", "Ġit", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "ĠRiver", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġrivers", "Ġnorth", "Ġof", "Ġit", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġin", "ĠH", "BC", "Ġterritory", "Ġbecause", "Ġthey", "Ġdrained", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠArctic", "ĠOcean", "Ġinstead", "Ġof", "ĠHudson", "ĠBay", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġprime", "Ġhabitats", "Ġfor", "Ġfur", "-", "bearing", "Ġanimals", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfirst", "ĠEuropean", "Ġexplorer", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "Ġregion", "Ġwas", "ĠPeter", "ĠPond", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġlearned", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMeth", "ye", "ĠPort", "age", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġallowed", "Ġtravel", "Ġfrom", "Ġsouthern", "Ġrivers", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġrivers", "Ġnorth", "Ġof", "ĠRupert", "'s", "ĠLand", ".", "ĠOther", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerican", "Ġfur", "Ġtraders", "Ġformed", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠWest", "ĠCompany", "Ġ(", "N", "WC", ")", "Ġof", "ĠMontreal", "Ġto", "Ġcompete", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠH", "BC", "Ġin", "Ġ17", "79", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠNW", "C", "Ġoccupied", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "Ġterritory", ".", "ĠPeter", "ĠPond", "Ġbuilt", "ĠFort", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "Ġon", "ĠLac", "Ġla", "ĠB", "iche", "Ġin", "Ġ17", "78", ".", "ĠRod", "erick", "ĠMack", "enzie", "Ġbuilt", "ĠFort", "ĠChip", "ew", "yan", "Ġon", "ĠLake", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "Ġten", "Ġyears", "Ġlater", "Ġin", "Ġ17", "88", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġcousin", ",", "ĠSir", "ĠAlexander", "ĠMack", "enzie", ",", "Ġfollowed", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠSaskatchewan", "ĠRiver", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġnorthern", "most", "Ġpoint", "Ġnear", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġthen", "Ġsetting", "Ġnorth", "ward", "Ġon", "Ġfoot", ",", "Ġtrek", "ked", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "ĠRiver", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġfollowed", "Ġto", "ĠLake", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġthere", "Ġhe", "Ġdiscovered", "Ġthe", "Ġmighty", "Ġout", "flow", "Ġriver", "Ġwhich", "Ġbears", "Ġhis", "Ġname", "âĢĶ", "the", "ĠMack", "enzie", "ĠRiver", "âĢĶ", "which", "Ġhe", "Ġfollowed", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġoutlet", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠArctic", "ĠOcean", ".", "ĠReturning", "Ġto", "ĠLake", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġfollowed", "Ġthe", "ĠPeace", "ĠRiver", "Ġupstream", ",", "Ġeventually", "Ġreaching", "Ġthe", "ĠPacific", "ĠOcean", ",", "Ġand", "Ġso", "Ġhe", "Ġbecame", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠEuropean", "Ġto", "Ġcross", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerican", "Ġcontinent", "Ġnorth", "Ġof", "ĠMexico", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġextreme", "Ġsouthern", "most", "Ġportion", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "Ġwas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġ(", "and", "ĠSpanish", ")", "Ġterritory", "Ġof", "ĠLouisiana", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġsold", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "03", ".", "ĠIn", 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"ĠTerritories", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFirst", "ĠNations", "Ġnegotiated", "Ġthe", "ĠN", "umbered", "ĠTreat", "ies", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠCrown", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "ĠCrown", "Ġgained", "Ġtitle", "Ġto" ]
542
. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta, putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats was subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014. Paleontology Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils worldwide. Taxa are represented by complete fossil skeletons, isolated material, microvertebrate remains, and even mass graves. At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in the province. The Foremost Formation, Oldman Formation and Dinosaur Park Formations collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta. Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta. The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation. In Alberta's central and southern regions are intermittent Scollard Formation outcrops. In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies. Other formations have been recorded as well, like the Milk River and Foremost Formations. The latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops. Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites. Additional geologic formations that have produced only a few fossils are the Belly River Group and St. Mary River Formations of the southwest and the northwestern Wapiti Formation, which contains two Pachyrhinosaurus bone beds. The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during a marine transgression. Dinosaurs are known from this formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older sediments. History Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the last ice age. They are thought to have migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to settle the Americas. Others may have migrated down the coast of British Columbia and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various First Nations peoples, including the Plains Indians of southern Alberta such as those of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Plains Cree, who generally lived by hunting buffalo, and the more northerly tribes such as the Woodland Cree and Chipewyan who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living. After the British arrival in Canada, approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the Athabasca River drainage, became part of Rupert's Land which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. This area was granted by Charles II of England to the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it. The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay, and they were prime habitats for fur-bearing animals. The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond, who learned of the Methye Portage, which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Other North American fur traders formed the North West Company (NWC) of Montreal to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, followed the North Saskatchewan River to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the Mackenzie River—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the Peace River upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico. The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of Louisiana and was sold to the United States in 1803. In the Treaty of 1818, the portion of Louisiana north of the Forty-Ninth Parallel was ceded to Great Britain. Fur trade expanded in the north, but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC, and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870 when the newly formed Canadian Government purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the North-Western Territory until 1870, when it and Rupert's land became Canada's North-West Territories. First Nations negotiated the Numbered Treaties with the Crown in which the Crown gained title to
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"Ġtongue", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ2", ",", "99", "1", ",", "485", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "ĠTag", "alog", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ99", ",", "035", "Ġspeakers", ",", "ĠGerman", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ80", ",", "050", "Ġspeakers", ",", "ĠFrench", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ72", ",", "150", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", ",", "Ġand", "ĠHindi", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ68", ",", "695", "Ġspeakers", ".", "Ġ253", ",", "460", "Ġresidents", "Ġidentify", "Ġas", "ĠAboriginal", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġ136", ",", "585", "Ġas", "ĠFirst", "ĠNations", ",", "Ġ114", ",", "370", "Ġas", "ĠM", "ét", "is", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ2", ",", "500", "Ġas", "ĠIn", "uit", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġ9", "33", ",", "165", "Ġresidents", "Ġwho", "Ġidentify", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġvisible", "Ġminority", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġ230", ",", "930", "ĠSouth", "ĠAsian", "Ġpeople", ",", "Ġ166", ",", "195", "ĠFilip", "inos", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ158", ",", "200", "ĠChinese", "Ġrespondents", ".", "Ġ1", ",", "7", "69", ",", "500", "Ġresidents", "Ġhold", "Ġa", "Ġpost", "secondary", "Ġcertificate", ",", "Ġdiploma", "Ġor", "Ġdegree", ",", "Ġ8", "95", ",", "885", "Ġresidents", "Ġhave", "Ġobtained", "Ġa", "Ġsecondary", "Ġ(", "high", ")", "Ġschool", "Ġdiploma", "Ġor", "Ġequival", "ency", "Ġcertificate", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ540", ",", "665", "Ġresidents", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġany", "Ġcertificate", ",", "Ġdiploma", "Ġor", "Ġdegree", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġ2006", "Ġcensus", "Ġfound", "Ġthat", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ2", ",", "576", ",", "670", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġmother", "Ġtongue", "Ġof", "ĠAlbert", "ans", ",", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġ79", ".", "99", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpopulation", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġnext", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġmother", "Ġtongues", "Ġwere", "ĠChinese", "Ġwith", "Ġ97", ",", "275", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", "Ġ(", "3", ".", "02", "%),", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "ĠGerman", "Ġwith", "Ġ84", ",", "505", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", "Ġ(", "2", ".", "62", "%)", "Ġand", "ĠFrench", "Ġwith", "Ġ61", ",", "225", "Ġ(", "1", ".", "90", "%).", "ĠOther", "Ġmother", "Ġtongues", "Ġinclude", ":", "ĠPun", "j", "abi", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ36", ",", "320", "Ġnative", "Ġspeakers", "Ġ(", "1", ".", "13", "%);", "ĠTag", "alog", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ29", ",", "740", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "92", "%);", "ĠUkrainian", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ29", ",", "455", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "91", "%);", "ĠSpanish", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ29", ",", "125", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "90", "%);", "ĠPolish", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ21", ",", "990", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "68", "%);", "ĠArabic", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ20", ",", "495", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "64", "%);", "ĠDutch", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ19", ",", "980", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "62", "%);", "Ġand", "ĠVietnamese", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ19" ]
543
the land that would later become Alberta, and the Crown committed to the ongoing support of the First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are Treaty 6 (1876), Treaty 7 (1877) and Treaty 8 (1899). The District of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905, the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier. Less than a decade later, the First World War presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas. On June 21, 2013, during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow, Elbow, Highwood and Oldman rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. In 2016, the Fort McMurray wildfire resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history, as more than 80,000 people were ordered to evacuate. Since 2020, Alberta has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Demographics The 2021 Canadian census reported Alberta had a population of 4,262,635 living in 1,633,220 of its 1,772,670 total dwellings, an 4.8% change from its 2016 population of 4,067,175. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Statistics Canada estimated the province to have a population of 4,464,170 in Q4 of 2021. Since 2000, Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces. In 2016, Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years, compared with the national median of 41.2 years. Also in 2016, Alberta had the smallest proportion of seniors (12.3%) among the provinces and one of the highest population shares of children (19.2%), further contributing to Alberta's young and growing population. About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census. Census information According to the 2016 census Alberta has 779,155 residents (19.2%) between the ages of 0-14, 2,787,805 residents (68.5%) between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents (12.3%) aged 65 and over. English is the most common mother tongue, with 2,991,485 native speakers. This is followed by Tagalog, with 99,035 speakers, German, with 80,050 speakers, French, with 72,150 native speakers, and Hindi, with 68,695 speakers. 253,460 residents identify as Aboriginal, including 136,585 as First Nations, 114,370 as Métis, and 2,500 as Inuit. There are also 933,165 residents who identify as a visible minority, including 230,930 South Asian people, 166,195 Filipinos, and 158,200 Chinese respondents. 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree. The 2006 census found that English, with 2,576,670 native speakers, was the most common mother tongue of Albertans, representing 79.99% of the population. The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers (3.02%), followed by German with 84,505 native speakers (2.62%) and French with 61,225 (1.90%). Other mother tongues include: Punjabi, with 36,320 native speakers (1.13%); Tagalog, with 29,740 (0.92%); Ukrainian, with 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish, with 29,125 (0.90%); Polish, with 21,990 (0.68%); Arabic, with 20,495 (0.64%); Dutch, with 19,980 (0.62%); and Vietnamese, with 19
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544
,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); Urdu with 11,275 (0.35%); and Korean with 10,845 (0.33%); then Hindi 8,985 (0.28%); Farsi 7,700 (0.24%); Portuguese 7,205 (0.22%); and Hungarian 6,770 (0.21%). Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many are descended from immigrants of Western European nations, notably England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and France, but large numbers later came from other regions of Europe, notably Germany, Ukraine and Scandinavia. According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion (2%) of Francophones in western Canada (after Manitoba). Despite this, relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province, after migration from other areas of Canada or descending from Métis. As reported in the 2001 census, the Chinese represented nearly 4% of Alberta's population, and South Asians represented more than 2%. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns, and Calgary has Canada's third-largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. Indigenous Albertans makeup approximately 3% of the population. In the 2006 Canadian census, the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were: 885,825 English (27.2%); 679,705 German (20.9%); 667,405 Canadian (20.5%); 661,265 Scottish (20.3%); 539,160 Irish (16.6%); 388,210 French (11.9%); 332,180 Ukrainian (10.2%); 172,910 Dutch (5.3%); 170,935 Polish (5.2%); 169,355 North American Indian (5.2%); 144,585 Norwegian (4.4%); and 137,600 Chinese (4.2%). (Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable.) Amongst those of British heritage, the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names, with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary, Airdrie, Canmore, and Banff having Scottish origins. Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of visible minorities after British Columbia and Ontario with 13.9% of the population consisting of visible minorities in 2006. Over one-third of the populations of Calgary and Edmonton belong to a visible minority group. Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of the population in 2006, about half of whom consist of First Nations and the other half are Métis. There are also a small number of Inuit people in Alberta. The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta. As of the 2011 National Household Survey, the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents among the provinces (after British Columbia) at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder, 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the United Church of Canada, while 3.9% were Anglican. Lutherans made up 3.3% of the population while Baptists comprised 1.9%. The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations, none of which constituted more than 2% of the population. Members of LDS Church are mostly concentrated in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites, and has a significant population of Seventh-day Adventists. Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada's Western Diocese which is based in Edmonton. Muslims made up 3.2% of the population, Sikhs 1.5%, Buddhists 1.2%, and Hindus 1.0%. Many of these are immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. Canada's oldest mosque, the Al-Rashid Mosque, is located in Edmonton, whereas Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque, the Baitun Nur Mosque. Alberta is also home to a growing Jewish population of about 15,400 people who constituted 0.3% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's Jews live in the metropolitan areas of Calgary (8,200) and Edmonton (5,500). Municipalities Largest metro areas and municipalities by population as of 2016 Economy Alberta's economy was one of the strongest in the world, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture
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"Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġfall", "ow", "Ġseason", ")", "Ġis", "Ġgradually", "Ġbecoming", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġcommon", "Ġmode", "Ġof", "Ġproduction", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġincreased", "Ġprofits", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġreduction", "Ġof", "Ġsoil", "Ġerosion", ".", "ĠAcross", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġonce", "Ġcommon", "Ġgrain", "Ġelevator", "Ġis", "Ġslowly", "Ġbeing", "Ġlost", "Ġas", "Ġrail", "Ġlines", "Ġare", "Ġdecreasing", ";", "Ġfarmers", "Ġtypically", "Ġtruck", "Ġthe", "Ġgrain", "Ġto", "Ġcentral", "Ġpoints", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġleading", "Ġbee", "keeping", "Ġprovince", "Ġof", "ĠCanada", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġsome", "Ġbee", "keepers", "Ġwinter", "ing", "Ġh", "ives", "Ġindoors", "Ġin", "Ġspecially", "Ġdesigned", "Ġbarn", "s", "Ġin", "Ġsouthern", "ĠAlberta", ",", "Ġthen", "Ġmigrating", "Ġnorth", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġsummer", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠPeace", "ĠRiver", "Ġvalley", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġseason", "Ġis", "Ġshort", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġworking", "Ġdays", "Ġare", "Ġlong", "Ġfor", "Ġhoney", "bees", "Ġto", "Ġproduce", "Ġhoney", "Ġfrom", "Ġcl", "over", "Ġand", "Ġfire", "weed", ".", "ĠHybrid", "Ġcan", "ola", "Ġalso", "Ġrequires", "Ġbee", "Ġpoll", "ination", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġbee", "keepers", "Ġservice", "Ġthis", "Ġneed", ".", "Ġ", "ĠForestry", "Ġplays", "Ġa", "Ġvital", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "Ġeconomy", ",", "Ġproviding", "Ġover", "Ġ15", ",", "000", "Ġjobs", "Ġand", "Ġcontributing", "Ġbillions", "Ġof", "Ġdollars", "Ġannually", ".", "ĠUses", "Ġfor", "Ġharvested", "Ġtimber", "Ġinclude", "Ġpulp", "wood", ",", "Ġhard", "wood", ",", "Ġengineered", "Ġwood", "Ġand", "Ġbi", "op", "rodu", "ct", "s", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġchemicals", "Ġand", "Ġbio", "fu", "els", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIndustry", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġproducer", "Ġof", "Ġconventional", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", ",", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", ",", "Ġnatural", "Ġgas", "Ġand", "Ġgas", "Ġproducts", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", ".", "ĠAlberta", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġsecond", "-", "largest", "Ġexp", "orter", "Ġof", "Ġnatural", "Ġgas", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġfourth", "-", "largest", "Ġproducer", ".", "ĠTwo", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġproducers", "Ġof", "Ġpet", "ro", "chem", "icals", "Ġin", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", "Ġare", "Ġlocated", "Ġin", "Ġcentral", "Ġand", "Ġnorth", "-", "central", "ĠAlberta", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġboth", "ĠRed", "ĠDeer", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġpoly", "ethyl", "ene", "Ġand", "Ġvinyl", "Ġmanufacturers", "Ġproduce", "Ġproducts", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġshipped", "Ġall", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ".", "ĠEdmonton", "'s", "Ġoil", "Ġref", "ineries", "Ġprovide", "Ġthe", "Ġraw", "Ġmaterials", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġpet", "ro", "chemical", "Ġindustry", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", "Ġof", "ĠEdmonton", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "Ġoil", "Ġsands", "Ġsurrounding", "ĠFort", "ĠMcM", "ur", "ray", "Ġhave", "Ġestimated", "Ġunconventional", "Ġoil", "Ġreserves", "Ġapproximately", "Ġequal", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġconventional", "Ġoil", "Ġreserves", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġrest" ]
545
and technology. In 2013, Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland, and was the highest of any province in Canada at This was 56% higher than the national average of and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. According to the 2006 census, the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). In 2014, Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario, with a GDP exceeding . The GDP of the province calculated at basic prices rose by 4.6% in 2017 to $327.4 billion, which was the largest increase recorded in Canada, and it ended two consecutive years of decreases. Alberta's debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to peak at 12.1% in fiscal year 2021–2022, falling to 11.3% the following year. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a United States level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average United States metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time. The Fraser Institute states that Alberta also has very high levels of economic freedom and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada, and second-freest economy amongst U.S. states and Canadian provinces. In 2014, merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports were $2.7 billion. Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion, and Alberta's information and communications technology (ICT) industries generated over $13 billion in revenue. In total, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars, or $414.3 billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015, Alberta's GDP grew unstably despite low oil prices, with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Agriculture and forestry Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the top producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other grains are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy, providing over 15,000 jobs and contributing billions of dollars annually. Uses for harvested timber include pulpwood, hardwood, engineered wood and bioproducts such as chemicals and biofuels. Industry Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth-largest producer. Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. The Athabasca oil sands surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest
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"Ġa", "Ġmember", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLegislative", "ĠAssembly", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdraws", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCabinet", "Ġfrom", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLegislative", "ĠAssembly", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠCity", "Ġof", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġseat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprovincial", "Ġgovernment", "âĢĶ", "the", "Ġcapital", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpremier", "Ġis", "ĠJason", "ĠKen", "ney", ",", "Ġsworn", "Ġin", "Ġon", "ĠApril", "Âł", "30", ",", "Ġ2019", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "Ġelections", "Ġhave", "Ġtended", "Ġto", "Ġyield", "Ġmuch", "Ġmore", "Ġconservative", "Ġoutcomes", "Ġthan", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "Ġother", "ĠCanadian", "Ġprovinces", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġthe", "Ġ1960", "s", ",", "ĠAlberta", "Ġhas", "Ġhad", "Ġthree", "Ġmain", "Ġpolitical", "Ġparties", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠProgressive", "ĠConservatives", "Ġ(\"", "Cons", "ervatives", "\"", "Ġor", "Ġ\"", "T", "ories", "\"),", "Ġthe", "ĠLiberals", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġsocial", "Ġdemocratic", "ĠNew", "ĠDemocrats", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠWild", "rose", "ĠParty", ",", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġconservative", "Ġparty", "Ġformed", "Ġin", "Ġearly", "Ġ2008", ",", "Ġgained", "Ġmuch", "Ġsupport", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ2012", "Ġelection", "Ġand", "Ġbecame", "Ġthe", "Ġofficial", "Ġopposition", ",", "Ġa", "Ġrole", "Ġit", "Ġheld", "Ġuntil", "Ġ2017", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġdissolved", "Ġand" ]
546
of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km3). Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. As of late 2006, there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 have made it profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014, rising costs and stabilizing oil prices threatened the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn north project in the Athabasca region in May 2014. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive liquid-crystal display systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. Tourism Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the 20th century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking, and camping, shopping locales such as West Edmonton Mall, Calgary Stampede, outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. Banff, Jasper and the Rocky Mountains are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta tourism relies heavily on Southern Ontario tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries. There are also natural attractions like Elk Island National Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, and the Columbia Icefield. Alberta's Rockies include well-known tourist destinations Banff National Park and Jasper National Park. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic Icefields Parkway. Banff is located west of Calgary on Highway 1, and Jasper is located west of Edmonton on the Yellowhead Highway. Five of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located within the province: Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, Dinosaur Provincial Park and Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. A number of these areas hold ski resorts, most notably Banff Sunshine, Lake Louise, Marmot Basin, Norquay and Nakiska. About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede, a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's K-Days (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX). Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the Yukon gold fields, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous Chilkoot Pass. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. Drumheller, "Dinosaur Capital of The World", offers the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Another attraction in east-central Alberta is Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions, a popular tourist attraction operated out of Stettler, that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year. Government and politics The Government of Alberta is organized as a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its unicameral legislature—the Legislative Assembly—consists of 87 members elected first past the post (FPTP) from single-member constituencies. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. As Queen of Canada, Elizabeth II is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani. The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and constitutional convention. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the Queen. The government is headed by the premier. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The premier is Jason Kenney, sworn in on April 30, 2019. Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. Since the 1960s, Alberta has had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the Liberals, and the social democratic New Democrats. The Wildrose Party, a more conservative party formed in early 2008, gained much support in the 2012 election and became the official opposition, a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and
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"Ġnatural", "Ġresources", "Ġ(", "30", ".", "4", "%),", "Ġpersonal", "Ġincome", "Ġtaxes", "Ġ(", "22", ".", "3", "%),", "Ġcorporate", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġtaxes", "Ġ(", "19", ".", "6", "%),", "Ġand", "Ġgrants", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġfederal", "Ġgovernment", "Ġprimarily", "Ġfor", "Ġinfrastructure", "Ġprojects", "Ġ(", "9", ".", "8", "%).", "ĠIn", "Ġ2014", ",", "ĠAlberta", "Ġreceived", "Ġ$", "6", ".", "1", "Âł", "billion", "Ġin", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġroyalties", ".", "ĠWith", "Ġthe", "Ġdrop", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprice", "Ġof", "Ġoil", "Ġin", "Ġ2015", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġdown", "Ġto", "Ġ$", "1", ".", "4", "Âł", "billion", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ2016", ",", "ĠAlberta", "Ġreceived", "Ġ\"", "about", "Ġ$", "8", "37", "Âł", "million", "Ġin", "Ġroyalty", "Ġpayments", "Ġfrom", "Ġoil", "Ġsands", "ĠRoyal", "ty", "ĠProjects", "\".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġ2018", "âĢĵ", "20", "21", "Ġfiscal", "Ġplan", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġtop", "Ġsources", "Ġof", "Ġrevenue", "Ġin", "Ġ2016", "Ġwere", "Ġpersonal", "Ġincome", "Ġtax", 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547
succeeded by the new United Conservative Party created by the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives. The strongly conservative Social Credit Party was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the 2015 election to the NDP (which formed their own government for the first time in provincial history, breaking almost 80 consecutive years of right-wing rule), suggesting at the time a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities. Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only five changes of government—only six parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the United Farmers of Alberta, from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971; the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015; from 2015 to 2019, the Alberta New Democratic Party; and from 2019, the United Conservative Party, with the most recent transfer of power being the first time in provincial history that an incumbent government was not returned to a second term. Administrative divisions The province is divided into ten types of local governments – urban municipalities (including cities, towns, villages and summer villages), specialized municipalities, rural municipalities (including municipal districts (often named as counties), improvement districts, and special areas), Métis settlements, and Indian reserves. All types of municipalities are governed by local residents and were incorporated under various provincial acts, with the exception of improvement districts (governed by either the provincial or federal government), and Indian reserves (governed by local band governments under federal jurisdiction). Law enforcement Policing in the province of Alberta upon its creation was the responsibility of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police. In 1917, due to pressures of the First World War, the Alberta Provincial Police was created. This organization policed the province until it was disbanded as a Great Depression-era cost-cutting measure in 1932. It was at that time the, now renamed, Royal Canadian Mounted Police resumed policing of the province, specifically RCMP "K" Division. With the advent of the Alberta Sheriffs Branch, the distribution of duties of law enforcement in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects, such as traffic enforcement, mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have been transferred to the Sheriffs. In 2006, Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT) to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany it. ALERT is made up of members of the RCMP, Sheriffs Branch, and various major municipal police forces in Alberta. Military Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake, CFB Edmonton, CFB Suffield and CFB Wainwright. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the Cold Lake Air Weapons Range. CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division. CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada. Taxation According to Alberta's 2009 budget, government revenue in that year came mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%). In 2014, Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties. With the drop in the price of oil in 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion. In 2016, Alberta received "about $837 million in royalty payments from oil sands Royalty Projects". According to the 2018–2021 fiscal plan, the two top sources of revenue in 2016 were personal income tax at $10,763 million and federal transfers of $7,976 million with total resource revenue at $3,097 million. Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial sales tax. Alberta residents are subject to the federal sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax of 5%. From 2001 to 2016, Alberta was the only Canadian province to have a flat tax of 10% of taxable income, which was introduced by Premier, Ralph Klein, as part of the Alberta Tax Advantage, which also included a zero-percent tax on income below a "generous personal exemption". In 2016, under Premier Rachel Notley, while most Albertans continued to pay the 10% income tax rate, new tax brackets 12%, 14%, and 15% for those with higher incomes ($128,145 annually or more) were introduced. Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a progressive character by continuing to grant residents personal tax exemptions of $18,451, in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged. Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. By 2018, most Albertans continued to pay the 10% income tax rate. According to a March 2015 Statistics Canada report, the
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median household income in Alberta in 2014 was about $100,000, which is 23% higher than the Canadian national average. Based on Statistic Canada reports, low-income Albertans, who earn less than $25,000 and those in the high-income bracket earning $150,000 or more, are the lowest-taxed people in Canada. Those in the middle income brackets representing those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more in provincial taxes than residents in British Columbia and Ontario. In terms of income tax, Alberta is the "best province" for those with a low income because there is no provincial income tax for those who earn $18,915 or less. Even with the 2016 progressive tax brackets up to 15%, Albertans who have the highest incomes, those with a $150,000 annual income or more—about 178,000 people in 2015, pay the least in taxes in Canada. — About 1.9 million Albertans earned between $25,000 and $150,000 in 2015. Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution. By 2010, privatization had increased outlets from 304 stores to 1,726; 1,300 jobs to 4,000 jobs; and 3,325 products to 16,495 products. Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million. In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities. Alberta municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes. The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011. Most real property is assessed according to its market value. The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland, railways, machinery and equipment and linear property, all of which is assessed by regulated rates. Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board. Culture Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The Edmonton Fringe Festival is the world's second-largest after the Edinburgh Festival. Both Calgary and Edmonton host many annual festivals and events, including folk music festivals. The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups. Edmonton's Churchill Square is home to a large number of the festivals, including the large Taste of Edmonton and The Works Art & Design Festival throughout the summer months. The City of Calgary is also famous for its Stampede, dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth". The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as calf roping and bull riding. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. The Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity hosts a range of festivals and other events including the international Mountain Film Festival. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the Winspear Centre. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to Canadian Football League and National Hockey League teams (the Stampeders/Flames and Edmonton Elks/Oilers respectively). Soccer, rugby union and lacrosse are also played professionally in Alberta. In 2019, the then Minister of Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in conjunction with the province's first Month of the Artist to celebrate the arts and the value they bring to the province, both socially and economically, The Artist is selected each year via a public and competitive process is expected to do community outreach and attend events to promote the arts throughout the province. The award comes with $60,000 funding which includes travel and materials costs. On January 31, 2019, Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist in Residence. Alberta is the first province to launch an Artist in Residence program in Canada. Education As with any Canadian province, the Alberta Legislature has (almost) exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905, the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905, as well as to create and regulate universities, colleges, technical institutions, and other educational forms and institutions (public charter schools, private schools, homeschooling). Elementary and secondary There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate, and one (St. Albert) has a Protestant electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Albertan/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law. For many years the
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"utes", ",", "ĠNorthern", "ĠAlberta", "ĠInstitute", "Ġof", "ĠTechnology", "Ġand", "ĠSouthern", "ĠAlberta", "ĠInstitute", "Ġof", "ĠTechnology", ".", "ĠTwo", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcolleges", ",", "ĠRed", "ĠDeer", "ĠCollege", "Ġand", "ĠGrande", "ĠPrairie", "ĠRegional", "ĠCollege", ",", "Ġwere", "Ġapproved", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAlberta", "Ġgovernment", "Ġto", "Ġbecome", "Ġdegree", "-", "gr", "anting", "Ġuniversities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġmany", "Ġprivate", "Ġpost", "-", "secondary", "Ġinstitutions", ",", "Ġmostly", "ĠChristian", "ĠUniversities", ",", "Ġbringing", "Ġthe", "Ġtotal", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġuniversities", "Ġto", "Ġ12", ".", "ĠStudents", "Ġmay", "Ġalso", "Ġreceive", "Ġgovernment", "Ġloans", "Ġand", "Ġgrants", "Ġwhile", "Ġattending", "Ġselected", "Ġprivate", "Ġinstitutions", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġwas", "Ġsome", "Ġcontroversy", "Ġin", "Ġ2005", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġrising", "Ġcost", "Ġof", "Ġpost", "-", "secondary", "Ġeducation", "Ġfor", "Ġstudents", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġopposed", "Ġto", "Ġtaxpayers", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġ2005", ",", "ĠPremier", "ĠRalph", "ĠKlein", "Ġmade", "Ġa", "Ġpromise", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġwould", "Ġfreeze", "Ġtuition", "Ġand", "Ġlook", "Ġinto", "Ġways", "Ġof", "Ġreducing", "Ġschooling", "Ġcosts", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHealth", "Ġcare", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġprovides", "Ġa", "Ġpublicly", "Ġfunded", ",", "Ġfully", "Ġintegrated", "Ġhealth", "Ġsystem", ",", "Ġthrough", "ĠAlberta", "ĠHealth", "ĠServices", "Ġ(", "A", "HS", ")âĢĶ", "a", "Ġquasi", "-", "independent", "Ġagency", "Ġthat", "Ġdelivers", "Ġhealth", "Ġcare", "Ġon", "Ġbehalf", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGovernment", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "ĠMinistry", "Ġof", "ĠHealth", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAlberta", "Ġgovernment", "Ġprovides", "Ġhealth", "Ġservices", "Ġfor", "Ġall", "Ġits", "Ġresidents", "Ġas", "Ġset", "Ġout", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġprovisions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCanada", "ĠHealth", "ĠAct", "Ġof", "Ġ1984", ".", "ĠAlberta", "Ġbecame", "ĠCanada", "'s", "Ġsecond", "Ġprovince", "Ġ(", "after", "ĠSaskatchewan", ")", "Ġto", "Ġadopt", "Ġa", "ĠTommy", "ĠDouglas", "-", "style", "Ġprogram", "Ġin", "Ġ1950", ",", "Ġa", "Ġprecursor", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "Ġmedic", "are", "Ġsystem", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "Ġhealth", "Ġcare", "Ġbudget", "Ġwas", "Ġ$", "22", ".", "5", "Âł", "billion", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġ2018", "âĢĵ", "2019", "Ġfiscal", "Ġyear", "Ġ(", "approximately", "Ġ45", "%", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġgovernment", "Ġspending", "),", "Ġmaking", "Ġit", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "-", "funded", "Ġhealth", "-", "care", "Ġsystem", "Ġper", "-", "cap", "ita", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", ".", "ĠEvery", "Ġhour", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "Ġspends", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ$", "2", ".", "5", "Âł", "million", ",", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġ$", "60", "Âł", "million", "Ġper", "Ġday", "),", "Ġto", "Ġmaintain", "Ġand", "Ġimprove", "Ġhealth", "Ġcare", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNot", "able", "Ġhealth", ",", "Ġeducation", ",", "Ġresearch", ",", "Ġand", "Ġresources", "Ġfacilities", "Ġin", "ĠAlberta", ",", "Ġall", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġlocated", "Ġwithin", "ĠCalgary", "Ġor", "ĠEdmonton", ".", "ĠHealth", "Ġcentres", "Ġin", "ĠCalgary", "Ġinclude", ":", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "ĠChildren", "'s", "ĠHospital", "ĠF", "ooth", "ills", "ĠMedical", "ĠCentre", "ĠGrace", "ĠWomen", "'s", "ĠHealth", "ĠCentre", "ĠLib", "in", "ĠCard", "iovascular", "ĠInstitute", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "ĠPeter", "ĠLou", "g", "heed", "ĠCentre", "ĠRocky", "view", "ĠGeneral", "ĠHospital", "ĠSouth", "ĠHealth", "ĠCampus", "ĠTom", "ĠBaker", "ĠCancer", "ĠCentre", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠCalgary", "ĠMedical", "ĠCentre", "Ġ(", "UC", "MC", ")", "Ġ", "ĠHealth", "Ġcentres", "Ġin", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġinclude", ":", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "ĠDiabetes", "ĠInstitute", "ĠCross", "ĠCancer", "ĠInstitute", "ĠEdmonton", "ĠClinic", "ĠGrey", "ĠN", "uns", "ĠCommunity", "ĠHospital", "ĠLois", "ĠHole", "ĠHospital", "Ġfor", "ĠWomen", "ĠMaz", "ank", "owski", "ĠAlberta", "ĠHeart", "ĠInstitute", "ĠM", "iser", "ic", "ord", "ia", "ĠCommunity", "ĠHospital", "ĠRex", "all", "ĠCentre", "Ġfor", "ĠPharm", "acy", "Ġand", "ĠHealth", "ĠResearch", "ĠRoyal", "ĠAlexandra", "ĠHospital", "ĠSt", "oll", "ery", "ĠChildren", "'s", "ĠHospital", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "ĠHospital", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠEdmonton", "ĠClinic", "Ġcomplex", ",", "Ġcompleted", "Ġin", "Ġ2012", ",", "Ġprovides", "Ġa", "Ġsimilar", "Ġresearch", ",", "Ġeducation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcare", "Ġenvironment", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠMayo", "ĠClinic", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAll", "Ġpublic", "Ġhealth", "Ġcare", "Ġservices", "Ġfunded", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠGovernment", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "Ġare", "Ġdelivered", "Ġoperation", "ally", "Ġby", "ĠAlberta", "ĠHealth", "ĠServices", ".", "ĠA", "HS", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "'s", "Ġsingle", "Ġhealth", "Ġauthority", ",", "Ġestablished", "Ġon", "ĠJuly", "Ġ1", ",", "Ġ2008", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġreplaced", "Ġnine", "Ġregional", "Ġhealth", "Ġauthorities", ".", "ĠA", "HS", "Ġalso", "Ġfunds", "Ġall", "Ġground", "Ġambulance", "Ġservices", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "-", "wide", "ĠShock", "ĠTra", "uma", "ĠAir", "ĠRescue", "ĠService", "Ġ(", "ST", "ARS", ")", "Ġair", "Ġambulance", "Ġservice", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTransportation", "Ġ", "ĠAir", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġis", "Ġwell", "-", "connected", "Ġby", "Ġair", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġinternational", "Ġairports", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "ĠCalgary", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", ".", "ĠCalgary", "ĠInternational", "ĠAirport", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", "ĠInternational", "ĠAirport", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġfourth", "-", "Ġand", "Ġfifth", "-", "bus", "iest", "Ġin", "ĠCanada", ",", "Ġrespectively", ".", "ĠCalgary", "'s", "Ġairport", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġhub", "Ġfor", "ĠWest", "Jet", "ĠAirlines", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġregional", "Ġhub", "Ġfor" ]
549
provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as supplementary support for local education. In 1994, the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards, but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education; the difference is that the provincial government now sets the mill rate, the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to support K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them, according to a formula, to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities. Public and separate school boards, charter schools, and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education (Alberta Education). Homeschool tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools, charter schools, and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education, they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education, and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education. Post-secondary The University of Alberta, located in Edmonton and established in 1908, is Alberta's oldest and largest university. The University of Calgary, once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second-largest university in Alberta. Athabasca University, which focuses on distance learning, and the University of Lethbridge are located in Athabasca and Lethbridge respectively. In early September 2009, Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university, and in late September 2009, a similar move made MacEwan University Edmonton's second public university. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, Northern Alberta Institute of Technology and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology. Two of the colleges, Red Deer College and Grande Prairie Regional College, were approved by the Alberta government to become degree-granting universities. There are also many private post-secondary institutions, mostly Christian Universities, bringing the total number of universities to 12. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There was some controversy in 2005 over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier Ralph Klein made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs. Health care Alberta provides a publicly funded, fully integrated health system, through Alberta Health Services (AHS)—a quasi-independent agency that delivers health care on behalf of the Government of Alberta's Ministry of Health. The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents as set out by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984. Alberta became Canada's second province (after Saskatchewan) to adopt a Tommy Douglas-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern medicare system. Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year (approximately 45% of all government spending), making it the best-funded health-care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour the province spends more than $2.5 million, (or $60 million per day), to maintain and improve health care in the province. Notable health, education, research, and resources facilities in Alberta, all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton. Health centres in Calgary include: Alberta Children's Hospital Foothills Medical Centre Grace Women's Health Centre Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta Peter Lougheed Centre Rockyview General Hospital South Health Campus Tom Baker Cancer Centre University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC) Health centres in Edmonton include: Alberta Diabetes Institute Cross Cancer Institute Edmonton Clinic Grey Nuns Community Hospital Lois Hole Hospital for Women Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute Misericordia Community Hospital Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research Royal Alexandra Hospital Stollery Children's Hospital University of Alberta Hospital The Edmonton Clinic complex, completed in 2012, provides a similar research, education, and care environment as the Mayo Clinic in the United States. All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services. AHS is the province's single health authority, established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine regional health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide Shock Trauma Air Rescue Service (STARS) air ambulance service. Transportation Air Alberta is well-connected by air, with international airports in both Calgary and Edmonton. Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport are the fourth- and fifth-busiest in Canada, respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines and a regional hub for
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"Ġtravels", "Ġnorth", "Ġthrough", "ĠFort", "ĠMac", "le", "od", ",", "ĠCalgary", ",", "ĠRed", "ĠDeer", ",", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNorth", "Ġof", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhighway", "Ġcontinues", "Ġto", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", ",", "Ġthen", "Ġnorth", "w", "ester", "ly", "Ġalong", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", "Ġshore", "Ġof", "ĠLess", "er", "ĠSlave", "ĠLake", "Ġinto", "ĠHigh", "ĠPrairie", ",", "Ġnorth", "Ġto", "ĠPeace", "ĠRiver", ",", "Ġwest", "Ġto", "ĠFair", "view", "Ġand", "Ġfinally", "Ġsouth", "Ġto", "ĠGrande", "ĠPrairie", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġit", "Ġends", "Ġat", "Ġan", "Ġinterchange", "Ġwith", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "43", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsection", "Ġof", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", "Ġbetween", "ĠCalgary", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġnamed", "Ġthe", "ĠQueen", "ĠElizabeth", "Âł", "II", "ĠHighway", "Ġto", "Ġcommemorate", "Ġthe", "Ġvisit", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmonarch", "Ġin", "Ġ2005", ".", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", "Ġis", "Ġsupplemented", "Ġby", "Ġtwo", "Ġmore", "Ġhighways", "Ġthat", "Ġrun", "Ġparallel", "Ġto", "Ġit", ":", "ĠHighway", "Ġ22", ",", "Ġwest", "Ġof", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", ",", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "ĠCowboy", "ĠTrail", ",", "Ġand", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "21", ",", "Ġeast", "Ġof", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", ".", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "43", "Ġtravels", "Ġnorthwest", "Ġinto", "ĠGrande", "ĠPrairie", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠPeace", "ĠRiver", "ĠCountry", ".", "ĠTrave", "lling", "Ġnortheast", "Ġfrom", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠHighway", "Ġ63", "Ġconnects", "Ġto", "ĠFort", "ĠMcM", "ur", "ray", "and", "Ġthe", "ĠAth", "ab", "asca", "Ġoil", "Ġsands", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġhas", "Ġtwo", "Ġmain", "Ġeast", "-", "west", "Ġcorridors", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsouthern", "Ġcorridor", ",", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠTrans", "-", "Canada", "ĠHighway", "Ġsystem", ",", "Ġenters", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", "Ġnear", "ĠMedicine", "ĠHat", ",", "Ġruns", "Ġwest", "ward", "Ġthrough", "ĠCalgary", ",", "Ġand", "Ġleaves", "ĠAlberta", "Ġthrough", "ĠBan", "ff", "ĠNational", "ĠPark", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġnorthern", "Ġcorridor", ",", "Ġalso", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠTrans", "-", "Canada", "Ġnetwork", "Ġand", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠYellow", "head", "ĠHighway", "Ġ(", "High", "way", "Âł", "16", "),", "Ġruns", "Ġwest", "Ġfrom", "ĠLloyd", "minster", "Ġin", "Ġeastern", "ĠAlberta", ",", "Ġthrough", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġand", "ĠJasper", "ĠNational", "ĠPark", "Ġinto", "ĠBritish", "ĠColumbia", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġscenic", "Ġdrives", "Ġis", "Ġalong", "Ġthe", "ĠIce", "fields", "ĠParkway", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġruns", "Ġfor", "Ġ", "Ġbetween", "ĠJasper", "Ġand", "ĠLake", "ĠLouise", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġmountain", "Ġranges", "Ġand", "Ġglaciers", "Ġon", "Ġeither", "Ġside", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġentire", "Ġlength", ".", "ĠA", "Ġthird", "Ġcorridor", "Ġstretches", "Ġacross", "Ġsouthern", "ĠAlberta", ";", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "3", "Ġruns", "Ġbetween", "ĠC", "rows", "n", "est", "ĠPass", "Ġand", "ĠMedicine", "ĠHat", "Ġthrough", "ĠLeth", "bridge", "Ġand", "Ġforms", "Ġthe", "Ġeastern", "Ġportion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠC", "rows", "n", "est", "ĠHighway", ".", "ĠAnother", "Ġmajor", "Ġcorridor", "Ġthrough", "Ġcentral", "ĠAlberta", "Ġis", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "11", "Ġ(", "also", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠDavid", "ĠThompson", "ĠHighway", "),", "Ġwhich", "Ġruns", "Ġeast", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠSaskatchewan", "ĠRiver", "ĠCrossing", "Ġin", "ĠBan", "ff", "ĠNational", "ĠPark", "Ġthrough", "ĠRocky", "ĠMountain", "ĠHouse", "Ġand", "ĠRed", "ĠDeer", ",", "Ġconnecting", "Ġwith", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "12", ",", "Ġ", "Ġwest", "Ġof", "ĠSt", "ett", "ler", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġhighway", "Ġconnects", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsmaller", "Ġtowns", "Ġin", "Ġcentral", "ĠAlberta", "Ġwith", "ĠCalgary", "Ġand", "ĠEdmonton", ",", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġcrosses", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", "Ġjust", "Ġwest", "Ġof", "ĠRed", "ĠDeer", ".", "Ġ", "ĠUrban", "Ġstretches", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "'s", "Ġmajor", "Ġhighways", "Ġand", "Ġfre", "eways", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġcalled", "Ġtrails", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "ĠHighway", "Âł", "2", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmain", "Ġnorth", "-", "south", "Ġhighway", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprovince", ",", "Ġis", "Ġcalled", "ĠDeer", "foot", "ĠTrail", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġpasses", "Ġthrough", "ĠCalgary", "Ġbut", "Ġbecomes", "ĠCalgary", "ĠTrail", "Ġ(", "south", "bound", ")", "Ġand", "ĠGateway", "ĠBoulevard", "Ġ(", "north", "bound", ")", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġenters", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġand", "Ġthen", "Ġturns", "Ġinto", "ĠSt", ".", "ĠAlbert", "ĠTrail", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġleaves", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠCity", "Ġof", "ĠSt", ".", "ĠAlbert", ".", "ĠCalgary", ",", "Ġin", "Ġparticular", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġtradition", "Ġof", "Ġcalling", "Ġits", "Ġlargest", "Ġurban", "Ġexpress", "ways", "Ġtrails", "Ġand", "Ġnaming", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġafter", "Ġprominent", "ĠFirst", "ĠNations", "Ġindividuals", "Ġand", "Ġtribes", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠCrow", "child", "ĠTrail", ",", "ĠDeer", "foot", "ĠTrail", ",", "Ġand", "ĠSt", "oney", "ĠTrail", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFriendship", "Ġpartners", "Ġ", "ĠAlberta", "Ġhas", "Ġrelationships", "Ġwith", "Ġmany", "Ġprovinces", ",", "Ġstates", ",", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġentities", "Ġworldwide", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠGang", "won", "-", "do", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", "Ġ(", "1974", ")", "Ġ", "ĠHok", "k", "aido", "," ]
550
Air Canada, primarily serving the prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, fifteen major United States centres, nine European airports, one Asian airport and four destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean. Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as airports in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean . Public transit Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems. Edmonton LRT, which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the CBD, was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary C Train has one of the highest numbers of daily riders of any LRT system in North America. Rail There are more than of operating mainline railway in Alberta. The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies, which operate Rail freight transport across the province. Additional railfreight service in the province is provided by two shortline railways: the Battle River Railway and Forty Mile Rail. Passenger trains include Via Rail's Canadian (Toronto–Vancouver) or Jasper–Prince Rupert trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The Rocky Mountaineer operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff and Calgary over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper. Road Alberta has over of highways and roads, of which nearly are paved. The main north–south corridor is Highway 2, which begins south of Cardston at the Carway border crossing and is part of the CANAMEX Corridor. Beginning at the Coutts border crossing and ending at Lethbridge, Highway 4, effectively extends Interstate 15 into Alberta and is the busiest United States gateway to the province. Highway 3 joins Lethbridge to Fort Macleod and links Highway 2 to Highway 4. Highway 2 travels north through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton. North of Edmonton, the highway continues to Athabasca, then northwesterly along the south shore of Lesser Slave Lake into High Prairie, north to Peace River, west to Fairview and finally south to Grande Prairie, where it ends at an interchange with Highway 43. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: Highway 22, west of Highway 2, known as Cowboy Trail, and Highway 21, east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the Peace River Country. Travelling northeast from Edmonton, the Highway 63 connects to Fort McMurrayand the Athabasca oil sands. Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the Trans-Canada Highway system, enters the province near Medicine Hat, runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network and known as the Yellowhead Highway (Highway 16), runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and Jasper National Park into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the Icefields Parkway, which runs for between Jasper and Lake Louise, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. A third corridor stretches across southern Alberta; Highway 3 runs between Crowsnest Pass and Medicine Hat through Lethbridge and forms the eastern portion of the Crowsnest Highway. Another major corridor through central Alberta is Highway 11 (also known as the David Thompson Highway), which runs east from the Saskatchewan River Crossing in Banff National Park through Rocky Mountain House and Red Deer, connecting with Highway 12, west of Stettler. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton, as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer. Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called trails. For example, Highway 2, the main north-south highway in the province, is called Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary but becomes Calgary Trail (southbound) and Gateway Boulevard (northbound) as it enters Edmonton and then turns into St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the City of St. Albert. Calgary, in particular, has a tradition of calling its largest urban expressways trails and naming many of them after prominent First Nations individuals and tribes, such as Crowchild Trail, Deerfoot Trail, and Stoney Trail. Friendship partners Alberta has relationships with many provinces, states, and other entities worldwide. Gangwon-do, South Korea (1974) Hokkaido,
[ "ĠJapan", "Ġ(", "1980", ")", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "il", "ong", "jiang", ",", "ĠChina", "Ġ(", "1981", ")", "Ġ", "ĠMontana", ",", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġ(", "1985", ")", "Ġ", "ĠTy", "umen", ",", "ĠRussia", "Ġ(", "1992", ")", "Ġ", "ĠKh", "anty", "âĢĵ", "M", "ans", "i", ",", "ĠRussia", "Ġ(", "1995", ")", "Ġ", "ĠYam", "alo", "-", "N", "en", "ets", ",", "ĠRussia", "Ġ(", "1997", ")", "Ġ", "ĠJal", "isco", ",", "ĠMexico", "Ġ(", "1999", ")", "Ġ", "ĠAlaska", ",", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġ(", "2002", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSax", "ony", ",", "ĠGermany", "Ġ(", "2002", ")", "Ġ", "ĠIv", "ano", "-", "Frank", "iv", "sk", ",", "ĠUkraine", "Ġ(", "2004", ")", "Ġ", "ĠLv", "iv", ",", "ĠUkraine", "Ġ(", "2005", ")", "Ġ", "ĠCalifornia", ",", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġ(", "1997", ")", "Ġ", "ĠGuang", "d", "ong", ",", "ĠChina", "Ġ(", "2017", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIndex", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "-", "related", "Ġarticles", "Ġ", "ĠOut", "line", "Ġof", "ĠAlberta", "Ġ", "ĠNotes", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠFurther", 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"ĠCo", "on", "ĠFrank", "ĠHamilton", "ĠC", "ushing", "Ġ", "ĠD", "Ġ", "ĠReg", "na", "ĠD", "arn", "ell", "ĠRaymond", "ĠDart", "ĠEmma", "ĠLou", "ĠDavis", "ĠWade", "ĠDavis", "ĠErnest", "o", "Ġde", "ĠMart", "ino", "ĠEll", "a", "ĠCar", "a", "ĠDel", "oria", "ĠRaymond", "ĠJ", ".", "ĠDe", "M", "all", "ie", "ĠPhilippe", "ĠDes", "col", "a", "ĠStanley", "ĠDiamond", "ĠMary", "ĠDouglas", "ĠCor", "a", "ĠDu", "ĠBo", "is", "ĠEugene", "ĠDub", "ois", "ĠAnn", "ĠDunham", "ĠKatherine", "ĠDunham", "Ġ", "ĠElizabeth", "ĠCullen", "ĠDunn", "ĠÃī", "mile", "ĠDur", "k", "heim", "Ġ", "ĠE", "Ġ", "ĠMary", "ĠLindsay", "ĠElm", "end", "olf", "ĠVer", "rier", "ĠEl", "win", "ĠMatthew", "ĠEngel", "ke", "ĠFriedrich", "ĠEngels", "ĠArt", "uro", "ĠEsc", "obar", "ĠE", ".", "ĠE", ".", "ĠEvans", "-", "P", "rit", "chard", "Ġ", "ĠF", "Ġ", "ĠJames", "ĠFerguson", "ĠRaymond", "ĠF", "irth", "ĠRaymond", "ĠD", ".", "ĠFog", "elson", "ĠMeyer", "ĠFort", "es", "ĠGregory", "ĠForth", "ĠDian", "ĠF", "os", "sey", "ĠKate", "ĠFox", "ĠRobin", "ĠFox", "ĠJames", "ĠFraz", "er", "ĠL", "ina", "ĠF", "ru", "zz", "etti", "Ġ", "ĠG", "Ġ", "ĠClifford", "ĠGe", "ert", "z", "ĠAlfred", "ĠG", "ell", "ĠErnest", "ĠG", "ell", "ner", "ĠHerb", "ĠDi", "ĠG", "io", "ia", "ĠMax", "ĠGl", "uck", "man", "ĠMaurice", "ĠGod", "el", "ier", "ĠJane", "ĠGood", "all", "ĠMar", "j", "orie", "ĠHar", "ness", "ĠGoodwin", "ĠIgor", "ĠGore", "vich", "ĠHarold", "ĠA", ".", "ĠGould", "ĠDavid", "ĠGra", "e", "ber", "ĠHil", "ma", "ĠGran", "qv", "ist", "ĠJ", ".", "ĠPatrick", "ĠGray", "ĠMarcel", "ĠGri", "au", "le", "ĠJacob", "ĠGrimm", "ĠWilhelm", "ĠGrimm", "Ġ", "ĠH", "Ġ", "ĠAbd", "ell", "ah", "ĠHamm", "oud", "i", "ĠMichael", "ĠH", "arkin", "ĠMichael", "ĠHar", "ner", "ĠJohn", "ĠP", ".", "ĠHarrington", "ĠMarvin", "ĠHarris", "ĠK", ".", "ĠDavid", "ĠHarrison", "ĠKirst", "en", "ĠHast", "rup", "ĠJacqu", "etta", "ĠHaw", "kes", "ĠStephen", "ĠC", ".", "ĠHead", "ley", "ĠThor", "ĠHe", "yer", "d", "ahl", "ĠTe", "ĠR", "ang", "i", "ĠH", "Ä«", "ro", "a", "Ġ(", "Sir", "ĠPeter", "ĠBuck", ")", "ĠArthur", "ĠMaurice", "ĠH", "oc", "art", "ĠIan", "ĠHod", "der", "ĠE", ".", "ĠAdam", "son", "ĠHo", "eb", "el", "ĠEarn", "est", "ĠH", "oot", "on", "ĠRobin", "ĠW", ".", "G", ".", "ĠHorton", "ĠAle", "Å¡", "ĠH", "rd", "li", "Äį", "ka", "ĠEva", "ĠVer", "bits", "ky", "ĠHunt", "ĠDell", "ĠH", "ymes", "Ġ", "ĠI", "Ġ", "ĠMiy", "ako", "ĠIn", "ou", "e", "ĠBill", "ĠIr", "ons", "Ġ", "ĠJ", "Ġ", "ĠI", "ra", "ĠJack", "nis", "ĠJohn", "ĠM", ".", "ĠJan", "zen", "ĠThomas", "ĠDes", "ĠJean", "ĠF", ".", "ĠL", "anda", "ĠJ", "oc", "ano", "ĠAlfred", "ĠE", ".", "ĠJohnson", "ĠWilliam", "ĠJones", "ĠMich", "al", "ĠJose", "phy", "ĠJeffrey", "ĠS", ".", "ĠJur", "is", "Ġ", "ĠK", "Ġ", "ĠSergei", "ĠKan", "ĠJ", "omo", "ĠKen", "y", "atta", "ĠDavid", "ĠK", "ert", "zer", "ĠAlice", "ĠBeck", "ĠKe", "hoe", "ĠAnat", "oly", "ĠKh", "az", "an", "ov", "ĠRichard", "ĠG", ".", "ĠKlein", "ĠChris", "ĠKnight", "ĠEdu", "ardo", "ĠK", "ohn", "ĠDor", "in", "ne", "ĠK", ".", "ĠK", "ondo", "ĠAnd", "rey", "ĠKor", "ot", "ay", "ev", "ĠConrad", "ĠK", "ott", "ak", "ĠCharles", "ĠH", ".", "ĠKraft", "ĠGro", "ver", "ĠK", "rant", "z", "ĠAlfred", "ĠL", ".", "ĠK", "roe", "ber", "ĠThe", "od", "ora", "ĠK", "roe", "ber", "ĠLars", "ĠKr", "ut", "ak", "ĠAdam", "ĠKu", "per", "Ġ", "ĠL", "Ġ", "ĠWilliam", "ĠLab", "ov", "ĠGeorge", "ĠLak", "off", "ĠHarold", "ĠE", ".", "ĠLambert", "ĠEdmund", "ĠLe", "ach", "ĠEleanor", "ĠLe", "ac", "ock", "ĠMurray", "ĠLeaf", "ĠLouis", "ĠLe", "ake", "y", "ĠMary", "ĠLe", "ake", "y", "ĠRichard", "ĠLe", "ake", "y", "ĠRichard", "ĠB", "ors", "h", "ay", "ĠLee", "ĠCharles", "ĠMiller", "ĠLeslie", "ĠClaude", "ĠL", "é", "vi", "-", "Stra", "uss", "ĠEllen", "ĠLew", "in", "ĠC", ".", "ĠScott", "ĠLittle", "ton", "ĠAlbert", "ĠB", "ue", "ll", "ĠLewis", "ĠOscar", "ĠLewis", "ĠPhillip", "ĠHarold", "ĠLewis", "ĠIris", "ĠL", "ó", "pez", "ĠRobert", "ĠLow", "ie", "ĠNancy", "ĠLur", "ie", "Ġ", "ĠM", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAlan", "ĠMac", "f", "arlane", "ĠSab", "a", "ĠMahm", "ood", "ĠBron", "is", "ÅĤ", "aw", "ĠMal", "in", "owski", "ĠGeorge", "ĠMarcus", "ĠJonathan", "ĠM", ".", "ĠMarks", "ĠKarl", "ĠMarx", "ĠJohn", "ĠAld", "en", "ĠMason", "ĠMichael", "ĠAt", "wood", "ĠMason", "ĠMarcel", "ĠMa", "uss", "ĠPhillip", "ĠMc", "Arthur", "ĠIrma", "ĠMcCl", "aur", "in", "ĠCharles", "ĠHarrison", "ĠMcN", "utt", "ĠMargaret", "ĠMead", "ĠM", "erv", "yn", "ĠMe", "gg", "itt", "ĠJose", "f", "ĠM", "enge", "le", "ĠNicholas", "ĠMik", "l", "ou", "ho", "-", "Mac", "lay", "ĠEmily", "ĠMartin", "ĠHor", "ace", "ĠMitchell", "ĠMiner", "ĠSidney", "ĠMint", "z", "ĠAshley", "ĠMont", "agu", "ĠJames", "ĠMo", "oney", "ĠHenri", "etta", "ĠL", ".", "ĠMoore", "ĠJohn", "ĠH", ".", "ĠMoore", "ĠLewis", "ĠH", ".", "ĠMorgan", "ĠDesmond", "ĠMorris", "ĠGeorge", "ĠMurd", "ock", "ĠY", "ol", "anda", "ĠMurphy", "Ġ", "ĠN", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠLaura", "ĠN", "ader", "ĠMon", "i", "ĠNag", "ĠJeremy", "ĠNar", "by", "ĠRa", "oul", "ĠNar", "oll", "ĠJos", "iah", "ĠN", "ott", "ĠEr", "land", "ĠNord", "ens", "ki", "ö", "ld", "Ġ", "ĠO", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠGan" ]
551
Japan (1980) Heilongjiang, China (1981) Montana, United States (1985) Tyumen, Russia (1992) Khanty–Mansi, Russia (1995) Yamalo-Nenets, Russia (1997) Jalisco, Mexico (1999) Alaska, United States (2002) Saxony, Germany (2002) Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine (2004) Lviv, Ukraine (2005) California, United States (1997) Guangdong, China (2017) See also Index of Alberta-related articles Outline of Alberta Notes References Further reading External links Government of Alberta website Alberta Encyclopedia List of streets in Alberta with maps 1905 establishments in Canada Provinces of Canada States and territories established in 1905 Canadian Prairies <|endoftext|> A John Adair B. R. Ambedkar Giulio Angioni Jon Altman Arjun Appadurai Talal Asad Timothy Asch Scott Atran Marc Augé B Nigel Barley Fredrik Barth Vasily Bartold Keith H. Basso Daisy Bates Gregory Bateson Mary Catherine Bateson Ruth Behar Ruth Benedict Dorothy A. Bennett Carl H. Berendt Lee Berger Brent Berlin Catherine Helen Webb Berndt Catherine L. Besteman Theodore C. Bestor Lewis Binford Evelyn Blackwood Wilhelm Bleek Maurice Bloch Anton Blok Franz Boas Tom Boellstorff Paul Bohannan Dmitri Bondarenko Pere Bosch-Gimpera Pierre Bourdieu Philippe Bourgois Paul Broca Christian Bromberger Kari Bruwelheide C Julio Caro Baroja Edmund Carpenter Napoleon Chagnon Pierre Clastres Mabel Cook Cole Malcolm Carr Collier Harold C. Conklin Carleton S. Coon Frank Hamilton Cushing D Regna Darnell Raymond Dart Emma Lou Davis Wade Davis Ernesto de Martino Ella Cara Deloria Raymond J. DeMallie Philippe Descola Stanley Diamond Mary Douglas Cora Du Bois Eugene Dubois Ann Dunham Katherine Dunham Elizabeth Cullen Dunn Émile Durkheim E Mary Lindsay Elmendolf Verrier Elwin Matthew Engelke Friedrich Engels Arturo Escobar E. E. Evans-Pritchard F James Ferguson Raymond Firth Raymond D. Fogelson Meyer Fortes Gregory Forth Dian Fossey Kate Fox Robin Fox James Frazer Lina Fruzzetti G Clifford Geertz Alfred Gell Ernest Gellner Herb Di Gioia Max Gluckman Maurice Godelier Jane Goodall Marjorie Harness Goodwin Igor Gorevich Harold A. Gould David Graeber Hilma Granqvist J. Patrick Gray Marcel Griaule Jacob Grimm Wilhelm Grimm H Abdellah Hammoudi Michael Harkin Michael Harner John P. Harrington Marvin Harris K. David Harrison Kirsten Hastrup Jacquetta Hawkes Stephen C. Headley Thor Heyerdahl Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck) Arthur Maurice Hocart Ian Hodder E. Adamson Hoebel Earnest Hooton Robin W.G. Horton Aleš Hrdlička Eva Verbitsky Hunt Dell Hymes I Miyako Inoue Bill Irons J Ira Jacknis John M. Janzen Thomas Des Jean F. Landa Jocano Alfred E. Johnson William Jones Michal Josephy Jeffrey S. Juris K Sergei Kan Jomo Kenyatta David Kertzer Alice Beck Kehoe Anatoly Khazanov Richard G. Klein Chris Knight Eduardo Kohn Dorinne K. Kondo Andrey Korotayev Conrad Kottak Charles H. Kraft Grover Krantz Alfred L. Kroeber Theodora Kroeber Lars Krutak Adam Kuper L William Labov George Lakoff Harold E. Lambert Edmund Leach Eleanor Leacock Murray Leaf Louis Leakey Mary Leakey Richard Leakey Richard Borshay Lee Charles Miller Leslie Claude Lévi-Strauss Ellen Lewin C. Scott Littleton Albert Buell Lewis Oscar Lewis Phillip Harold Lewis Iris López Robert Lowie Nancy Lurie M Alan Macfarlane Saba Mahmood Bronisław Malinowski George Marcus Jonathan M. Marks Karl Marx John Alden Mason Michael Atwood Mason Marcel Mauss Phillip McArthur Irma McClaurin Charles Harrison McNutt Margaret Mead Mervyn Meggitt Josef Mengele Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay Emily Martin Horace Mitchell Miner Sidney Mintz Ashley Montagu James Mooney Henrietta L. Moore John H. Moore Lewis H. Morgan Desmond Morris George Murdock Yolanda Murphy N Laura Nader Moni Nag Jeremy Narby Raoul Naroll Josiah Nott Erland Nordenskiöld O Gan
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552
anath Obeyesekere Kaori O'Connor Aihwa Ong Marvin Opler Morris Opler Sherry Ortner Keith F. Otterbein P Elsie Clews Parsons Bronislav Pilsudski Thomas J. Pluckhahn Hortense Powdermaker A.H.J. Prins Harald E.L. Prins Q Buell Quain James Quesada R Paul Rabinow Wilhelm Radloff Lucinda Ramberg Roy Rappaport Hans Ras Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Kathy Reichs Audrey Richards W. H. R. Rivers Paul Rivet Joel Robbins Renato Rosaldo Gayle Rubin Robert A. Rubinstein S Marshall Sahlins Noel B. Salazar Roger Sandall Edward Sapir Patricia Sawin Nancy Scheper-Hughes Wilhelm Schmidt Tobias Schneebaum James C. Scott Thayer Scudder Elman Service Afanasy Shchapov Gerald F. Schroedl Florence Connolly Shipek Sydel Silverman Cathy Small Christen A. Smith Jacques Soustelle Melford Spiro James Spradley Julian Steward Herbert Spencer Marilyn Strathern William Sturtevant Niara Sudarkasa T Michael Taussig Edward Burnett Tylor Colin Turnbull Victor Turner Bruce Trigger V Karl Verner L. P. Vidyarthi Eduardo Viveiros de Castro Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf W Anthony F. C. Wallace Lee Henderson Watkins Camilla Wedgwood Hank Wesselman Kath Weston Douglas R. White Isobel Mary White Leslie White Tim White Benjamin Whorf Unni Wikan Clark Wissler Eric Wolf Alvin Wolfe Sol Worth Y Nur Yalman Kim Yeshi Z Jarrett Zigon R. Tom Zuidema Fictional anthropologists Mary Albright (Jane Curtin) in the sitcom 3rd Rock from the Sun Temperance "Bones" Brennan (Emily Deschanel) in the television series Bones Temperance Brennan in the novel series Temperance Brennan by Kathy Reichs Chakotay (Robert Beltran) in the television series Star Trek: Voyager Michael Burnham (Sonequa Martin-Green) in the television series Star Trek: Discovery Daniel Jackson (Michael Shanks, James Spader) in the television series and film Stargate SG-1 Charlotte Lewis (Rebecca Mader) in the television series Lost See also List of female anthropologists List of Black Anthropologists References Anthropologists <|endoftext|>Actinopterygii (; ), members of which are known as ray-finned fishes, is a clade (traditionally class or subclass) of the bony fishes. They comprise over 50% of living vertebrate species. The ray-finned fishes are so-called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). By species count, actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates, and they comprise nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish. They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from Paedocypris, at , to the massive ocean sunfish, at , and the long-bodied oarfish, at . The vast majority of Actinopterygii (~95%) are teleosts. Characteristics Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is the more derived structure. Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all teleosts, the most advanced actinopterygians, have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows. Ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes, including tetrapods, possessed lungs used for aerial respiration. Only bichirs retain ventrally budding lungs. Body shapes and fin arrangements Ray-finned fish vary in size and shape,
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553
in their feeding specializations, and in the number and arrangement of their ray-fins. Reproduction In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny. Most families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in Middle Triassic species of Saurichthys. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality "preadapts" a species for evolving male parental care. There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred. Classification and fossil record Actinopterygii is divided into the classes Cladistia and Actinopteri. The latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei and Neopterygii. The Neopterygii, in turn, is divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei. During the Mesozoic (Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous) and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified widely. As a result, 96% of living fish species are teleosts (40% of all fish species belong to the teleost subgroup Acanthomorpha), while all other groups of actinopterygians represent depauperate lineages. The classification of ray-finned fishes can be summarized as follows: Cladistia, which include bichirs and reedfish Actinopteri, which include: Chondrostei, which include Acipenseriformes (paddlefishes and sturgeons) Neopterygii, which include: Teleostei (most living fishes) Holostei, which include: Lepisosteiformes (gars) Amiiformes (bowfin) The cladogram below shows the main clades of living actinopterygians and their evolutionary relationships to other extant groups of fishes and the four-limbed vertebrates (tetrapods). The latter include mostly terrestrial species but also groups that became secondarily aquatic (e.g. Whales and Dolphins). Tetrapods evolved from a group of bony fish during the Devonian period. Approximate divergence dates for the different actinopterygian clades (in millions of years, mya) are from Near et al., 2012. The polypterids (bichirs and reedfish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The Elopomorpha (eels and tarpons) appear to be the most basal teleosts. The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is Andreolepis hedei, dating back 420 million years (Late Silurian). Remains have been found in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia. The earliest fossil relatives of modern teleosts are from the Triassic period (Prohalecites, Pholidophorus), although it is suspected that teleosts originated already during the Paleozoic Era. Taxonomy The listing below is a summary of all extinct (indicated by a dagger, †) and living groups of Actinopterygii with their respcective taxonomic rank. The taxonomy
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554
follows Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes with notes when this differs from Nelson, ITIS and FishBase and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016 and Xu 2021. Order †?Asarotiformes Schaeffer 1968 Order †?Discordichthyiformes Minikh 1998 Order †?Paphosisciformes Grogan & Lund 2015 Order †?Scanilepiformes Selezneya 1985 Order †Cheirolepidiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 Order †Paramblypteriformes Heyler 1969 Order †Rhadinichthyiformes Order †Palaeonisciformes Hay 1902 Order †Tarrasiiformes sensu Lund & Poplin 2002 Order †Ptycholepiformes Andrews et al. 1967 Order †Haplolepidiformes Westoll 1944 Order †Aeduelliformes Heyler 1969 Order †Platysomiformes Aldinger 1937 Order †Dorypteriformes Cope 1871 Order †Eurynotiformes Sallan & Coates 2013 Class Cladistia Pander 1860 Order †Guildayichthyiformes Lund 2000 Order Polypteriformes Bleeker 1859 (bichirs and reedfishes) Class Actinopteri Cope 1972 s.s. Order †Elonichthyiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 Order †Phanerorhynchiformes Order †Bobasatraniiformes Berg 1940 Order †Saurichthyiformes Aldinger 1937 Subclass Chondrostei Müller, 1844 Order †Birgeriiformes Heyler 1969 Order †Chondrosteiformes Aldinger, 1937 Order Acipenseriformes Berg 1940 (includes sturgeons and paddlefishes) Subclass Neopterygii Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012 Order †Pholidopleuriformes Berg 1937 Order †Redfieldiiformes Berg 1940 Order †Platysiagiformes Brough 1939 Order †Polzbergiiformes Griffith 1977 Order †Perleidiformes Berg 1937 Order †Louwoichthyiformes Xu 2021 Order †Peltopleuriformes Lehman 1966 Order †Luganoiiformes Lehman 1958 Order †Pycnodontiformes Berg 1937 Infraclass Holostei Müller 1844 Division Halecomorpha Cope 1872 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 Order †Parasemionotiformes Lehman 1966 Order †Ionoscopiformes Grande & Bemis 1998 Order Amiiformes Huxley 1861 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 (bowfins) Division Ginglymodi Cope 1871 Order †Dapediiformes Thies & Waschkewitz 2015 Order †Semionotiformes Arambourg & Bertin 1958 Order Lepisosteiformes Hay 1929 (gars) Clade Teleosteomorpha Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013 Order †Prohaleciteiformes Arratia 2017 Division Aspidorhynchei Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 Order †Aspidorhynchiformes Bleeker 1859 Order †Pachycormiformes Berg 1937 Infraclass Teleostei Müller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013 Order †?Araripichthyiformes Order †?Ligulelliiformes Taverne 2011 Order †?Tselfatiiformes Nelson 1994 Order †Pholidophoriformes Berg 1940 Order †Dorsetichthyiformes Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 Order †Leptolepidiformes Order †Crossognathiformes Taverne 1989 Order †Ichthyodectiformes Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969 Teleocephala de Pinna 1996 s.s. Megacohort Elopocephalai Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 (Elopomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) Order Elopiformes Gosline 1960 (ladyfishes and tarpon) Order Albuliformes Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Forey et al. 1996 (bonefishes) Order Notacanthiformes Goodrich 1909 (halosaurs and spiny eels) Order Anguilliformes Jarocki 1822 sensu Goodrich 1909 (true eels) Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai sensu Ar
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"iform", "es", "ĠBle", "eker", "Ġ18", "59", "Ġ(", "p", "ike", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "co", "h", "ort", "ĠSt", "om", "iat", "i", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠOs", "mer", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "sm", "el", "ts", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠSt", "om", "iat", "iform", "es", "ĠRe", "gan", "Ġ1909", "Ġ(", "b", "rist", "lem", "outh", "s", "Ġand", "Ġmarine", "Ġhat", "chet", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "co", "h", "ort", "ĠNe", "ote", "le", "ost", "ei", "ĠNelson", "Ġ1969", "ĠInf", "rac", "oh", "ort", "ĠA", "tele", "op", "od", "ia", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠA", "tele", "op", "od", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "j", "ell", "yn", "ose", "Ġfish", ")", "Ġ", "ĠInf", "rac", "oh", "ort", "ĠE", "ury", "p", "tery", "g", "ia", "ĠRosen", "Ġ1973", "ĠSection", "ĠA", "ul", "opa", "Ġ[", "Cy", "cl", "os", "qu", "am", "ata", "ĠRosen", "Ġ1973", "]", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠA", "ul", "op", "iform", "es", "ĠRosen", "Ġ1973", "Ġ(", "Bomb", "ay", "Ġduck", "Ġand", "Ġl", "anc", "et", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSection", "ĠC", "ten", "os", "qu", "am", "ata", "ĠRosen", "Ġ1973", "ĠSub", "section", "ĠMy", "ct", "oph", "ata", "Ġ[", "Sc", "op", "el", "om", "or", "pha", "]", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠMy", "ct", "oph", "iform", "es", "ĠRe", "gan", "Ġ1911", "Ġ(", "lan", "tern", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "section", "ĠAc", "anth", "om", "or", "pha", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "ĠDivision", "ĠLamp", "rid", "acea", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ[", "L", "amp", "rid", "om", "or", "pha", ";", "ĠLamp", "rip", "tery", "g", "ii", "]", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠLamp", "r", "iform", "es", "ĠRe", "gan", "Ġ1909", "Ġ(", "o", "ar", "fish", ",", "Ġop", "ah", "Ġand", "Ġribbon", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠDivision", "ĠPar", "ac", "anth", "omorph", "acea", "Ġsens", "u", "ĠGrande", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "Par", "ac", "anth", "op", "tery", "g", "ii", "ĠGreenwood", "Ġ1937", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠPer", "c", "ops", "iform", "es", "ĠBerg", "Ġ1937", "Ġ(", "c", "ave", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġtrout", "-", "per", "ches", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠâĢ", "ł", "Sp", "hen", "o", "cephal", "iform", "es", "ĠRosen", "Ġ&", "ĠPatterson", "Ġ1969", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠZe", "iform", "es", "ĠRe", "gan", "Ġ1909", "Ġ(", "d", "ories", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠStyle", "ph", "or", "iform", "es", "ĠMi", "ya", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2007", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠGad", "iform", "es", "ĠGood", "rich", "Ġ1909", "Ġ(", "c", "ods", ")", "Ġ", "ĠDivision", "ĠPoly", "mix", "i", "acea", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "Poly", "my", "x", "iom", "or", "pha", ";", "ĠPoly", "mix", "i", "ip", "tery", "g", "ii", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠâĢ", "ł", "Pat", "terson", "ich", "thy", "iform", "es", "ĠG", "aud", "ant", "Ġ1976", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠâĢ", "ł", "C", "ten", "oth", "r", "iss", "iform", "es", "ĠBerg", "Ġ1937", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠPoly", "mix", "i", "iform", "es", "ĠLowe", "Ġ18", "38", "Ġ(", "beard", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠDivision", "ĠE", "u", "ac", "anth", "omorph", "acea", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "E", "u", "ac", "anth", "om", "or", "pha", "Ġsens", "u", "ĠJohnson", "Ġ&", "ĠPatterson", "Ġ1993", ";", "ĠAc", "anth", "op", "tery", "g", "ii", "ĠGou", "an", "Ġ17", "70", "Ġsens", "u" ]
555
ratia 1999 Supercohort Osteoglossocephala sensu Arratia 1999 (Osteoglossomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) Order †Lycopteriformes Chang & Chou 1977 Order Hiodontiformes McAllister 1968 sensu Taverne 1979 (mooneye and goldeye) Order Osteoglossiformes Regan 1909 sensu Zhang 2004 (bony-tongued fishes) Supercohort Clupeocephala Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010 Cohort Otomorpha Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Otocephala; Ostarioclupeomorpha) Subcohort Clupei Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Clupeomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) Order †Ellimmichthyiformes Grande 1982 Order Clupeiformes Bleeker 1859 (herrings and anchovies) Subcohort Alepocephali Order Alepocephaliformes Marshall 1962 Subcohort Ostariophysi Sagemehl 1885 Section Anotophysa (Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885 Order †Sorbininardiformes Taverne 1999 Order Gonorynchiformes Regan 1909 (milkfishes) Section Otophysa Garstang 1931 Order Cypriniformes Bleeker 1859 sensu Goodrich 1909 (barbs, carp, danios, goldfishes, loaches, minnows, rasboras) Order Characiformes Goodrich 1909 (characins, pencilfishes, hatchetfishes, piranhas, tetras, dourado / golden (genus Salminus) and pacu) Order Gymnotiformes Berg 1940 (electric eels and knifefishes) Order Siluriformes Cuvier 1817 sensu Hay 1929 (catfishes) Cohort Euteleosteomorpha (Greenwood et al. 1966) (Euteleostei Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996) Subcohort Lepidogalaxii Lepidogalaxiiformes Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (salamanderfish) Subcohort Protacanthopterygii Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996 Order Argentiniformes (barreleyes and slickheads) (formerly in Osmeriformes) Order Galaxiiformes Order Salmoniformes Bleeker 1859 sensu Nelson 1994 (salmon and trout) Order Esociformes Bleeker 1859 (pike) Subcohort Stomiati Order Osmeriformes (smelts) Order Stomiatiformes Regan 1909 (bristlemouths and marine hatchetfishes) Subcohort Neoteleostei Nelson 1969 Infracohort Ateleopodia Order Ateleopodiformes (jellynose fish) Infracohort Eurypterygia Rosen 1973 Section Aulopa [Cyclosquamata Rosen 1973] Order Aulopiformes Rosen 1973 (Bombay duck and lancetfishes) Section Ctenosquamata Rosen 1973 Subsection Myctophata [Scopelomorpha] Order Myctophiformes Regan 1911 (lanternfishes) Subsection Acanthomorpha Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Division Lampridacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 [Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii] Order Lampriformes Regan 1909 (oarfish, opah and ribbonfishes) Division Paracanthomorphacea sensu Grande et al. 2013 (Paracanthopterygii Greenwood 1937) Order Percopsiformes Berg 1937 (cavefishes and trout-perches) Order †Sphenocephaliformes Rosen & Patterson 1969 Order Zeiformes Regan 1909 (dories) Order Stylephoriformes Miya et al. 2007 Order Gadiformes Goodrich 1909 (cods) Division Polymixiacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii) Order †Pattersonichthyiformes Gaudant 1976 Order †Ctenothrissiformes Berg 1937 Order Polymixiiformes Lowe 1838 (beardfishes) Division Euacanthomorphacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993; Acanthopterygii Gouan 1770 sensu
[ "])", "ĠSub", "division", "ĠB", "ery", "c", "im", "orph", "aceae", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠB", "ery", "c", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "f", "ang", "to", "oths", "Ġand", "Ġpine", "cone", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ(", "in", "cl", ".", "ĠStephan", "ober", "y", "c", "iform", "es", ";", "ĠC", "et", "om", "im", "iform", "es", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "division", "ĠHol", "ocent", "rim", "orph", "aceae", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠHol", "ocent", "r", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "Sold", "ier", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "division", "ĠPer", "com", "orph", "aceae", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "Per", "com", "or", "pha", "Ġsens", "u", "ĠMi", "ya", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2003", ";", "ĠAc", "anth", "opter", "i", ")", "ĠSeries", "ĠO", "ph", "idi", "im", "oph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠO", "ph", "idi", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "pe", "ar", "lf", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSeries", "ĠBat", "r", "ach", "oid", "im", "oph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠBat", "r", "ach", "oid", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "t", "oad", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSeries", "ĠG", "obi", "om", "oph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠKurt", "iform", "es", "(", "N", "urs", "ery", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġcardinal", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠG", "obi", "iform", "es", "(", "Sleep", "ers", "Ġand", "Ġgo", "bies", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSeries", "ĠS", "com", "br", "im", "oph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠSy", "ng", "n", "ath", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "se", "ah", "orses", ",", "Ġpipe", "f", "ishes", ",", "Ġsea", "Ġm", "oths", ",", "Ġcor", "net", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġflying", "Ġg", "urn", "ards", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠS", "com", "br", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "T", "un", "as", "Ġand", "Ġ(", "mac", "ke", "rel", "s", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSeries", "ĠCar", "ang", "im", "oph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "series", "ĠAn", "ab", "ant", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2014", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠSyn", "br", "anch", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "sw", "amp", "Ġe", "els", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠAn", "ab", "ant", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "Lab", "yrinth", "ici", ")", "Ġ(", "g", "our", "am", "ies", ",", "Ġsnake", "heads", ",", "Ġ)", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "series", "ĠCar", "ang", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2014", "Ġ", "ĠCar", "ang", "aria", "Ġinc", "ert", "ae", "Ġsed", "is", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠI", "st", "i", "oph", "or", "iform", "es", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "M", "arl", "ins", ",", "Ġsword", "f", "ishes", ",", "Ġbill", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠCar", "ang", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "Jack", "Ġmac", "ke", "rel", "s", ",", "Ġpomp", "anos", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠPle", "uron", "ect", "iform", "es", "ĠBle", "eker", "Ġ18", "59", "Ġ(", "flat", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "series", "ĠOval", "ent", "aria", "ĠSmith", "Ġ&", "ĠNear", "Ġ2012", "Ġ(", "St", "i", "ass", "ny", "iform", "es", "Ġsens", "u", "ĠLi", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2009", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOval", "ent", "aria", "Ġinc", "ert", "ae", "Ġsed", "is", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠC", "ich", "l", "iform", "es", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", "Ġ(", "C", "ich", "l", "ids", ",", "ĠCon", "vict", "Ġbl", "enny", ",", "Ġleaf", "Ġfishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠA", "ther", "in", "iform", "es", "ĠRosen", "Ġ1964", "Ġ(", "sil", "vers", "ides", "Ġand", "Ġrainbow", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠCy", "pr", "in", "od", "ont", "iform", "es", "ĠBerg", "Ġ1940", "Ġ(", "live", "be", "arers", ",", "Ġkill", "if", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠBel", "on", "iform", "es", "ĠBerg", "Ġ1940", "Ġ(", "flying", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġrice", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠMug", "il", "iform", "es", "ĠBerg", "Ġ1940", "Ġ(", "m", "ul", "lets", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠBl", "enn", "i", "iform", "es", "ĠSpringer", "Ġ1993", "Ġ(", "Bl", "enn", "ies", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠGob", "ies", "oc", "iform", "es", "ĠGill", "Ġ18", "72", "Ġ(", "C", "ling", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSeries", "ĠE", "uper", "car", "ia", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2014", "Ġ(", "Per", "com", "orph", "aria", "ĠBet", "anc", "ur", "-", "Rod", "rig", "uez", "Ġet", "Ġal", ".", "Ġ2013", ")", "ĠE", "uper", "car", "ia", "Ġinc", "ert", "ae", "Ġsed", "is", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠGer", "re", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "M", "oj", "arr", "as", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠLab", "r", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "Wr", "asses", "Ġand", "ĠPar", "rot", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠCap", "ro", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "Bo", "arf", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠL", "oph", "i", "iform", "es", "ĠGar", "man", "Ġ1899", "Ġ(", "Ang", "ler", "f", "ishes", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠTet", "ra", "od", "ont", "iform", "es", "ĠRe", "gan", "Ġ1929", "Ġ(", "File", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġp", "uffer", "fish", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠCent", "r", "arch", "iform", "es", "ĠBle", "eker", "Ġ18", "59", "Ġ(", "Sun", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġmand", "arin", "Ġfishes", ")", "ĠOrder", "ĠG", "aster", "ost", "e", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "St", "ickle", "backs", "Ġand", "Ġrelatives", ")", "ĠOrder", "ĠScor", "pa", "en", "iform", "es", "Ġ(", "L", "ion", "f", "ishes", "Ġand", "Ġrelatives", ")", "Ġ", "ĠOrder", "ĠPer", "c", "iform", "es", "ĠBle", "eker", "Ġ18", "59", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠRay", "-", "fin", "ned", "Ġfish", "ĠFish", "Ġclasses", "ĠSil", "ur", "ian", "Ġb", "ony", "Ġfish", "ĠExt", "ant", "ĠSil", "ur", "ian", "Ġfirst", "Ġappearances", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Albert", "ĠEinstein", "Ġ(", "Ġ;", "Ġ;", "Ġ14", "ĠMarch", "Ġ18", "79", "Âł", "âĢĵ", "Ġ18", "ĠApril", "Ġ1955", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "ĠGerman", "-", "born", "Ġtheoretical", "Ġphysicist", ",", "Ġwidely", "Ġacknowledged", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgreatest", "Ġphysicists", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġtime", ".", "ĠEinstein", "Ġis", "Ġbest", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġthe", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġrelativity", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhe", "Ġalso", "Ġmade", "Ġimportant", "Ġcontributions", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġquantum", "Ġmechanics", ".", "ĠRel", "ativity", "Ġand", "Ġquantum", "Ġmechanics", "Ġare", "Ġtogether", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġpillars", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "Ġphysics", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġmass", "âĢĵ", "energy", "Ġequival", "ence", "Ġformula", "Ġ,", "Ġwhich", "Ġarises", "Ġfrom", "Ġrelativity", "Ġtheory", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġdubbed", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġmost", "Ġfamous", "Ġequation", "\".", "ĠHis", "Ġwork", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġinfluence", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġof", "Ġscience", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġreceived", "Ġthe", "Ġ1921", "ĠNobel", "ĠPrize", "Ġin", "ĠPhysics", "Ġ\"", "for", "Ġhis", "Ġservices", "Ġto", "Ġtheoretical", "Ġphysics", ",", "Ġand", "Ġespecially", "Ġfor", "Ġhis", "Ġdiscovery", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlaw", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġphoto", "electric", "Ġeffect", "\",", "Ġa", "Ġpivotal", "Ġstep", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġquantum", "Ġtheory", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġintellectual", "Ġachievements", "Ġand", "Ġoriginal", "ity", "Ġresulted", "Ġin", "Ġ\"", "E", "instein", "\"", "Ġbecoming", "Ġsynonymous", "Ġwith", "Ġ\"", "gen", "ius", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ1905", ",", "Ġa", "Ġyear", "Ġsometimes", "Ġdescribed", "Ġas", "Ġhis", "Ġann", "us", "Ġmir", "abil" ]
556
]) Subdivision Berycimorphaceae Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Beryciformes (fangtooths and pineconefishes) (incl. Stephanoberyciformes; Cetomimiformes) Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Holocentriformes (Soldierfishes) Subdivision Percomorphaceae Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Percomorpha sensu Miya et al. 2003; Acanthopteri) Series Ophidiimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Ophidiiformes (pearlfishes) Series Batrachoidimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Batrachoidiformes (toadfishes) Series Gobiomopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Kurtiformes(Nurseryfishes and cardinalfishes) Order Gobiiformes(Sleepers and gobies) Series Scombrimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Order Syngnathiformes (seahorses, pipefishes, sea moths, cornetfishes and flying gurnards) Order Scombriformes (Tunas and (mackerels) Series Carangimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Subseries Anabantaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 Order Synbranchiformes (swamp eels) Order Anabantiformes (Labyrinthici) (gouramies, snakeheads, ) Subseries Carangaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 Carangaria incertae sedis Order Istiophoriformes Betancur-Rodriguez 2013 (Marlins, swordfishes, billfishes) Order Carangiformes (Jack mackerels, pompanos) Order Pleuronectiformes Bleeker 1859 (flatfishes) Subseries Ovalentaria Smith & Near 2012 (Stiassnyiformes sensu Li et al. 2009) Ovalentaria incertae sedis Order Cichliformes Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Cichlids, Convict blenny, leaf fishes) Order Atheriniformes Rosen 1964 (silversides and rainbowfishes) Order Cyprinodontiformes Berg 1940 (livebearers, killifishes) Order Beloniformes Berg 1940 (flyingfishes and ricefishes) Order Mugiliformes Berg 1940 (mullets) Order Blenniiformes Springer 1993 (Blennies) Order Gobiesociformes Gill 1872 (Clingfishes) Series Eupercaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013) Eupercaria incertae sedis Order Gerreiformes (Mojarras) Order Labriformes (Wrasses and Parrotfishes) Order Caproiformes (Boarfishes) Order Lophiiformes Garman 1899 (Anglerfishes) Order Tetraodontiformes Regan 1929 (Filefishes and pufferfish) Order Centrarchiformes Bleeker 1859 (Sunfishes and mandarin fishes) Order Gasterosteiformes (Sticklebacks and relatives) Order Scorpaeniformes (Lionfishes and relatives) Order Perciformes Bleeker 1859 References External links Ray-finned fish Fish classes Silurian bony fish Extant Silurian first appearances <|endoftext|>Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of modern physics. His mass–energy equivalence formula , which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius". In 1905, a year sometimes described as his annus mirabil
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557
is ('miracle year'), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers. These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced special relativity, and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence. Einstein thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that nature "does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics. Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, Einstein became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time Prussian. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein, of Jewish origin, objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons. Life and career Early life and education Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current. Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field". Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem at age 12. A family tutor Max Talmud says that after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, after a short
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558
time "[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had "mastered integral and differential calculus". At age 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music), Einstein was introduced to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him." In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul. In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service. In September 1896 he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6. At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old Serbian named Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her. In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded a Federal teaching diploma. There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his landmark 1905 papers, known as the Annus Mirabilis papers, and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions. Marriages and children Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl", born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that, despite their close relationship before, Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Löwenthal; she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally. Einstein and Marić divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed to give Marić his future (in the event, 1921) Nobel Prize money. In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam
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. In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006, Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa. Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the noted Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton). Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death. Patent office After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office, as an assistant examiner – level III. Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology". Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time. With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Mileva who attentively listened but did not participate. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook. First scientific papers In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his dissertation, A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Zürich, serving as pro-forma advisor. His work was accepted in July, and Einstein was awarded a Ph.D. Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (amazing year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26. Academic career By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after he gave a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann. When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans". In the spring of 1913, Einstein was enticed to move to Berlin with an offer that included membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and a linked University of Berlin professorship, enabling him to concentrate exclusively on research. On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the
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"Ġif", "Ġhe", "Ġwere", "Ġa", "Ġhead", "Ġof", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġphysicist", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġincluded", "Ġa", "Ġcannon", "Ġsalute", "Ġupon", "Ġarriving", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġhome" ]
560
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established. Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at Humboldt University of Berlin. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. Einstein assumed his position with the academy, and Berlin University, after moving into his Dahlem apartment on 1 April 1914. As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918). In 1911, Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle to calculate the deflection of light from another star by the Sun's gravity. In 1913, Einstein improved upon those calculations by using Riemannian space-time to represent the gravity field. By the fall of 1915, Einstein had successfully completed his general theory of relativity, which he used to calculate that deflection, and the perihelion precession of Mercury. In 1919, that deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. Einstein's scientific accomplishments while in Berlin, included finishing the general theory of relativity, proving the gyromagnetic effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and Bose–Einstein statistics. 1921–1922: Travels abroad Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Sciences on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London. He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in Democracy in America (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy." In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art. In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home
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561
of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón y Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences. From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924), a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee. 1925: Visit to South America In the months of March and April 1925, Einstein visited South America, where he spent about a month in Argentina, a week in Uruguay, and a week in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935) with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. The visit by Einstein and his wife was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Travel to the US In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention, he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy". Chaplin's film, City Lights, was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis". 1933: Emigration to the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's
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apartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of . To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study In October 1933, Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four
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first selected (along with John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon." To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project. For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it." A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student. Einstein has said "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination". Personal life Assisting Zionist causes Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925 and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs. Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute
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564
, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important. Einstein was not a nationalist; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. Einstein felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. His views were not shared by the majority of Jews seeking to form a new country; as a result, Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement. Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post. The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it. Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music." His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty." At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight. What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student." Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet. Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation". Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?" His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience." Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself." The FBI created a secret dossier on
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Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come". The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Religious and philosophical views Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me." Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York, and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly." He died in Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn." Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others. 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Phys
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ik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are: Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. Special relativity Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. There is evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić, on this work. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and deflection of light. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curv
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"Ġthese", "Ġquantities", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġdetermined", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "ĠLag", "rang", "ian", "Ġwith", "Ġtranslation", "Ġinvari", "ance", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġgeneral", "Ġcovari", "ance", "Ġmakes", "Ġtranslation", "Ġinvari", "ance", "Ġinto", "Ġsomething", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġgauge", "Ġsymmetry", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġenergy", "Ġand", "Ġmomentum", "Ġderived", "Ġwithin", "Ġgeneral", "Ġrelativity", "Ġby", "ĠNo", "ether", "'s", "Ġprescriptions", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġmake", "Ġa", "Ġreal", "Ġtens", "or", "Ġfor", "Ġthis", "Ġreason", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEinstein", "Ġargued", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġtrue", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġfundamental", "Ġreason", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġgravitational", "Ġfield", "Ġcould", "Ġbe", "Ġmade", "Ġto", "Ġvanish", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġchoice", "Ġof", "Ġcoordinates", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġmaintained", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġnon", "-", "c", "ov", "ari", "ant", "Ġenergy", "Ġmomentum", "Ġpseud", "ot", "ensor", "Ġwas", ",", "Ġin", "Ġfact", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "Ġdescription", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġenergy", "Ġmomentum", "Ġdistribution", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġgravitational", "Ġfield", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġapproach", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġechoed", "Ġby", "ĠLev", "ĠLand", "au", "Ġand", "ĠEv", "gen", "y", "ĠLif", "sh", "itz", ",", "Ġand", "Ġothers", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġbecome", "Ġstandard", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġnon", "-", "c", "ov", "ari", "ant", "Ġobjects", "Ġlike", "Ġpseud", "ot", "ens", "ors", "Ġwas", "Ġheavily", "Ġcriticized", "Ġin" ]
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ature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder". The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space." It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in
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1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves. The geodesic equation, which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model. Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University
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. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the "EPR paper". In a thought experiment, he considered two particles, which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. Given Einstein's concept of local realism, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called "spooky action at a distance"). Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated." Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of
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",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġdecision", "Ġwas", "Ġlater", "Ġvacated", "Ġin", "Ġits", "Ġentirety", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġunderlying", "Ġclaims", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġparties", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġlawsuit", "Ġwere", "Ġultimately", "Ġsettled", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġright", "Ġis", "Ġenforce", "able", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠHebrew", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠJerusalem", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġexclusive", "Ġrepresentative", "Ġof", "Ġthat", "Ġright", ".", "ĠCor", "bis", ",", "Ġsuccessor", "Ġto", "ĠThe", "ĠRoger", "ĠRich", "man", "ĠAgency", ",", "Ġlicenses", "Ġthe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġname", "Ġand", "Ġassociated", "Ġimagery", ",", "Ġas", "Ġagent", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġuniversity", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġpopular", "Ġculture", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠEinstein", "Ġbecame", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġfamous", "Ġscientific", "Ġcelebrities", ",", "Ġbeginning", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġconfirmation", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġgeneral", "Ġrelativity", "Ġin", "Ġ1919", ".", "ĠDespite", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġpublic", "Ġhaving", 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"Ġfor", "Ġmany", "Ġnovels", ",", "Ġfilms", ",", "Ġplays", ",", "Ġand", "Ġworks", "Ġof", "Ġmusic", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġfavorite", "Ġmodel", "Ġfor", "Ġdepictions", "Ġof", "Ġabsent", "-", "minded", "Ġprofessors", ";", "Ġhis", "Ġexpressive", "Ġface", "Ġand", "Ġdistinctive", "Ġhairst", "yle", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġwidely", "Ġcopied", "Ġand", "Ġexaggerated", ".", "ĠTime", "Ġmagazine", "'s", "ĠFreder" ]
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its opposite, entangled quantum states, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. Unified field theory Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which were well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long ignored Einstein's approaches to unification, Einstein's work has motivated modern quests for a theory of everything, in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization. Schrödinger gas model Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. Einstein refrigerator In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities, beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Freder
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571
ic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true". Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Publications Scientific First of a series of papers on this topic. A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . . Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page Others . The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. See also Albert Einstein House in Princeton Einstein's thought experiments Einstein notation The Einstein Theory of Relativity, an educational film Frist Campus Center at Princeton University room 302 is associated with Einstein. (The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory.) Heinrich Burkhardt Bern Historical Museum (Einstein Museum) History of gravitational theory List of coupled cousins List of German inventors and discoverers Jewish Nobel laureates List of peace activists Relativity priority dispute Sticky bead argument Notes References Works cited Further reading , or External links Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein Einstein and his love of music, Physics World including the Nobel Lecture 11 July 1923 Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) (MSNBC, 19 March 2012) Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein" at Princeton University Home page of Albert Einstein at The Institute for Advanced Study Albert – The Digital Repository of the IAS, which contains many digitized original documents and photographs 1879 births 1955 deaths 20th-century American engineers 20th-century American physicists 20th-century American writers American agnostics American humanists American letter writers American Nobel laureates American pacifists American relativity theorists American science writers American Zionists American Ashkenazi Jews Charles University faculty Swiss cosmologists Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm Albert ETH Zurich alumni ETH Zurich faculty German agnostics German Ashkenazi Jews German emigrants to Switzerland German humanists 19th-century German Jews German Nobel laureates German relativity theorists Institute for Advanced Study faculty Jewish agnostics Jewish American physicists Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Jewish physicists Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Naturalised citizens of Austria Naturalised citizens of Switzerland Naturalized citizens of the United States New Jersey Hall of Fame inductees Nobel laureates in Physics Pantheists Patent examiners People who lost German citizenship Philosophers of mathematics Philosophers of science Philosophy of science Quantum physicists Scientists from Munich Spinozists Stateless people Denaturalized citizens of Germany Swiss agnostics Swiss emigrants to the United States Swiss Ashkenazi Jews 20th-century Swiss inventors 20th-century American inventors Swiss physicists Winners of the Max Planck Medal Google Doodles University of Zurich alumni University of Bern faculty University of Zurich faculty Swiss Nobel laureates Pipe smokers <|endoftext|>The Igreja Presbiteriana Conservadora do Brasil () (IPCB) is a Presbyterian Reformed denomination, founded in 1940, by the churches and members that separated from the Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil (IPIB). The main reason for the split was the decision of the IPIB General Assembly, in 1938, to appoint a commission to draw up a new confession of faith. This confession would replace the Westminster Confession of Faith and be tolerant of annihilationism. The members who opposed this split and formed the IPCB. It is currently the third largest reformed denomination in Brazil, right after the Presbyterian Church of Brazil (IPB) and a IPIB, preserving traditional positions of Presbyterianism. History The Conservative Presbyterian Church of Brazil (IPCB) emerged on February 11 of 1940, when, after two years of debates and internal discussions on doctrinal issues, the 2nd Independent Presbyterian Church of São Paulo shut down Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil (IPIB) to become Conservative Presbyterian Church
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"ĠGraveyard", "Ġof", "ĠEmpires", "Ġthe", "Ġland", "Ġhas", "Ġhistorically", "Ġbeen", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġvarious", "Ġpeoples", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġwitnessed", "Ġnumerous", "Ġmilitary", "Ġcampaigns", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthose", "Ġby", "ĠAlexander", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMa", "ury", "a", "ĠEmpire", ",", "ĠArab", "ĠMuslims", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMong", "ols", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠBritish", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmost", "Ġrecently", "Ġby", "Ġan", "ĠAmerican", "-", "led", "Ġcoalition", ".", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġalso", "Ġserved", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġsource", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "ĠGre", "co", "-", "B", "act", "rians", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠM", "ugh", "als", ",", "Ġamong", "Ġothers", ",", "Ġrose", "Ġto", "Ġform", "Ġmajor", "Ġempires", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġvarious", "Ġconqu", "ests", "Ġand", "Ġperiods", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "ĠIranian", "Ġand", "ĠIndian", "Ġcultural", "Ġspheres", "Ġmade", "Ġthe", "Ġarea", "Ġa", "Ġcenter", "Ġfor", "ĠZoro", "ast", "rian", "ism", ",", "ĠBuddhism", ",", "ĠHindu", "ism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlater", "ĠIslam", "Ġthroughout", "Ġhistory", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġmodern", "Ġstate", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġbegan", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠDur", "ran", "i", "Ġdynasty", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ18", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠDur", "ran", "i", "ĠAfghan", "ĠEmpire", "Ġat", "Ġits", "Ġpeak", "Ġhaving", "Ġsp", "anned", "Ġfrom", "Ġeastern", "ĠIran", "Ġto", "Ġnorthern", "ĠIndia", ".", "ĠFollowing", "Ġits", "Ġdecline", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġdeath", "Ġof", "ĠTim", "ur", "ĠShah", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġsmaller", "Ġindependent", "Ġkingdoms", "Ġof", "ĠHer", "at", ",", "ĠKand", "ahar", "Ġand", "ĠKabul", ",", "Ġbefore", "Ġbeing", "Ġreunited", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġafter", "Ġwars", "Ġof", "Ġunification", "Ġled", "Ġby", "ĠD", "ost", "ĠMohammad", "ĠKhan", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthis", "Ġtime", ",", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġbecame" ]
572
of São Paulo. The conflict began when the IPIB Synod, in 1938, recognized the existence of different positions within the denomination regarding Annihilationism and eternal punishment and appointed a commission to draft a new confession, which would replace the Westminster Confession of Faith hitherto adopted by the denomination. The 2nd Independent Presbyterian Church of São Paulo did not accept this modification and left the denomination. The first presbytery of the denomination consisted of 11 churches and 5 pastors or ministers. A seminary was organised in 1954. A Missionary Department was formed and as the church began to develop, some churches are among indigenous people. Theology The denomination subscribe: Apostles Creed Westminster Confession of Faith Westminster Shorter Catechism Westminster Larger Catechism The IPCB does not admit ordination of woman and therefore only men can be pastors, elders and deacons. Since its foundation it has been an anti-Masonic church, cessationist, governs worship by the Regulative principle of worship and does not practice exclusive psalmody. The denomination also opposes the practice of clapping during the liturgy. Demographics According to denomination statistics, it had 3,578 members in 2006. In 2018, it published new statistics, which reported 4,371 members (3,716 communicants and 655 non-communicants), with a growth of 22.16% between 2006 and 2018. In the same period, the Brazilian population grew 11.31%. The IPCB consisted, in 2018, of 92 ecclesiastical work fronts with church or congregation status: 56 local churches, 19 local congregations, 4 presbyteral congregations, 13 congregations, congregations of the Missionary Department. In addition, it had 12 preaching points. The denomination is, therefore, present in 11 states of the federation (Central-West Region: Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul; Northern Brazil: Acre, Amazonas, Rondônia; Northeast Region: Alagoas, Bahia, Pernambuco; Southeast Region: Minas Gerais, São Paulo; Region Southern: Paraná). On July 19, 2009, the IPCB organized its General Meeting. Due to the growth of churches, in 2017, the denomination already consisted of 8 Presbyteries (Bandeirante, Brasil-Central, Centro-Sul, Guarulhos, Oeste Paulista, Paraná, Paulistano and Piratininga) and two Synods (Southeast and Midwest). Journal and seminary The church publishes its own newspaper the Conservative Presbyterian. It owns a seminary in San Bernando de Campo founded in 1953. In 1983 the denomination founded the Missionary Department and new church plans in various Brazilian cities are underway. References Presbyterian denominations in Brazil Protestant denominations <|endoftext|>Afghanistan (), officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia it is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying of land, the country is predominately mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. , its population is 40.2 million, composed mostly of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks. Kabul is the country's largest city and also serves as its capital. Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic era, and the country's strategic location along the historic Silk Road connected it to the cultures of other parts of Asia as well as Europe, leaving behind a mosaic of ethnolinguistic and religious groups that has influenced the modern Afghan nation. Known as the Graveyard of Empires the land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and most recently by an American-led coalition. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, among others, rose to form major empires. The various conquests and periods in both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres made the area a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam throughout history. The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani dynasty in the 18th century, with the Durrani Afghan Empire at its peak having spanned from eastern Iran to northern India. Following its decline and the death of Timur Shah, it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms of Herat, Kandahar and Kabul, before being reunited in the 19th century after wars of unification led by Dost Mohammad Khan. During this time, Afghanistan became
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"Ġhistorical", "Ġactivities", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġcompares", "Ġto", "ĠEgypt", "Ġin", "Ġterms", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhistorical", "Ġvalue", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġarchaeological", "Ġsites", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAncient", "Ġera", "Ġ", "ĠArchae", "ological", "Ġexploration", "Ġdone", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġsuggests", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġgeographical", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġclosely", "Ġconnected", "Ġby", "Ġculture", "Ġand", "Ġtrade", "Ġwith", "Ġits", "Ġneighbors", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", ",", "Ġwest", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnorth", ".", "ĠArt", "ifacts", "Ġtypical", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPale", "olithic", ",", "ĠMes", "olithic", ",", "ĠNe", "olithic", ",", "ĠBronze", ",", "Ġand", "ĠIron", "ĠAges", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "ĠAfghanistan", ".", "ĠUrban", "Ġcivilization", "Ġis", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbegun", "Ġas", "Ġearly", "Ġas", "Ġ3000", "ĠBCE", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠMund", "ig", "ak", "Ġ(", "near", "ĠKand", "ahar", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġcenter", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠHel", "mand", "Ġculture", ".", "ĠMore", "Ġrecent", "Ġfindings", "Ġestablished", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠInd", "us", "ĠValley", "ĠCivilization", "Ġstretched", "Ġup", "Ġtowards", "Ġmodern", "-", "day", "ĠAfghanistan", ",", "Ġmaking", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "Ġcivilization", "Ġtoday", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠPakistan", ",", "ĠAfghanistan", ",", "Ġand", "ĠIndia", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmore", "Ġdetail", ",", "Ġit", "Ġextended", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhat", "Ġtoday", "Ġis", "Ġnorthwest", "ĠPakistan", "Ġto", "Ġnorthwest", "ĠIndia" ]
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a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Empire (in British-ruled India) and the Russian Empire; from India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War; however, the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afghanistan. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign dominance, and eventually emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan. This monarchy lasted almost 50 years, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan was established. Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, revolutions, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The country is currently under the control of the Taliban, an Islamist political movement which returned to power in 2021 after a 20-year-long war with the United States and its allies. The country has high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition. Afghanistan's economy is the world's 96th-largest, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $72.9 billion by purchasing power parity; the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 169th out of 186 countries . Etymology The root name "Afghān" is, according to some scholars, derived from the Sanskrit name of the Aśvakan or Assakan, ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region. Aśvakan literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "cavalrymen" (from aśva or aspa, the Sanskrit and Avestan words for "horse"). Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to ethnic Pashtuns. The Arabic and Persian form of the name, Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century geography book Hudud al-'Alam. The last part of the name, "-stan" is a Persian suffix for "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam: History Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Indo-Scythians, Kushans, Kidarites, Hephthalites, Alkhons, Nezaks, Zunbils, Turk Shahis, Hindu Shahis, Lawiks, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Khaljis, Kartids, Lodis, Surs, Mughals, and finally, the Hotak and Durrani dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state. Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely, Bactra (Balkh), Alexandria on the Oxus (Ai-Khanoum), Kapisi, Sigal, Kabul, Kunduz, Zaranj, Firozkoh, Herat, Ghazna (Ghazni), Binban (Bamyan), and Kandahar. The country has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires; among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the "graveyard of empires", though it is unknown who coined the phrase. Prehistory and antiquity Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. Ancient era Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) was a center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India
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and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan, shows Afghanistan to have been a part of Indus Valley Civilization. After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to as Ariana. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria within its eastern boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered. The region of Arachosia, around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism". Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE. The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones mainly from the Badakhshan region. During the first century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE, though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who, in turn, was replaced by the Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture. Medieval history Islamic conquest Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the arrival of Islam, the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions such as Zoroastrianism, Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism, Ancient Iranian religions, Hinduism, Christianity and Judaism. An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita or Mihr(Mithra) and portrayed Greek Gods like Heracles or Tyche as protectors of Buddha. The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th century. By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the wider region, with the exception of Kafiristan. Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi. The Ghazn
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575
avid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids, whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215. Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as Bamyan. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of Timur (aka Tamerlane), who established the Timurid Empire in 1370. Under the rule of Shah Rukh the city served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth. In the early 16th century, Babur arrived from Ferghana and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat. Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara, Iranian Safavids, and Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory. During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan (Herat and Balkh) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of Kandahar, Zabulistan, Ghazni, Kabulistan, and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan. However, up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; Sir George Elphinstone wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as "Afghanistan" was referred to by its own inhabitants as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan. Modern history Hotak Dynasty In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated Gurgin Khan and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais' son Mahmud for possibly planning to concede territories back to the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan, captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after the 1729 Battle of Damghan. Fall of the Hotak Dynasty In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the Siege of Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces invaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16 year old commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747. Rise of the Durrani Empire After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 Pashtuns. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his acension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, and then receding, Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Peshawar from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat in 1750, and had also captured Kashmir in 1752. Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan, (1750–1751) and (1754–1755). His first campaign had seen the siege of Mashhad, however he was forced to retreat after 4 months. In November 1750, he moved to siege Nishapur, however he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754, he captured Tun, and on 23 July, he sieged Mashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, however Shah rokh was reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give up Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari to the Afghans. Following this, Ahmad Shah had sieged Nishapur once again, and captured it. Objectives and Invasions of India Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during his reign. With the capture of Pesh
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576
awar, Ahmad Shah had used this as a convenient striking point to lead his military campaigns into Punjab and India. Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions, Ahmad Shah saw Afghanistan in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich neighboring country, which Ahmad Shah had capitalized on in multiple opportunities during his Invasions of India, he sought the reasons needed to fill his treasury in a war-plunder conquest based economy. Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in 1748, crossing the indus river, his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore into the Durrani Realm. Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at the Battle of Manupur (1748), where he was defeated and forced to retreat to back to Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah had returned the next year in 1749, where he had captured the area around Lahore and Punjab, presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign. From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah would lead 6 more invasions, the most important being his sixth invasion, with the Third Battle of Panipat, which created a power vacumn in northern India, halting Maratha expansion. Death of Ahmad Shah and his Successors Ahmad Shah Durrani had died in October 1772, what followed would be a civil war in succession, with his named successor, Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza. Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan, the influential prime minister of the Durrani Empire, and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in Kabul and Kandahar to bring support toward himself. Timur Shah's reforms also saw the capital of the Durrani Empire being shifted from Kandahar to Kabul, being able to cover the empire better as a base of ordination since it was essentially the heartland of the empire. This reform saw Kabul as the modern capital of Afghanistan today. Having consolidated power to himself, Timur Shah would fight multiple series of rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire apart, Timur Shah would also lead campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father did, however being more successful. Most prominent example of his battles during this campaign would be where Timur Shah led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani, with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen. Against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 in this battle and would stage a Durrani resurgence in Punjab. The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death, following this victory by Timur Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to Multan and recapture it, incorporating it into the Durrani empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the Siege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah would be succeeded by his son, Zaman Shah Durrani after his death on 18 or 20 May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, a mistake that would plunge the empire in civil war over succession crises. Zaman Shah Durrani would succeed to the Durrani Throne following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. This instigated civil war with his brothers, Mahmud Shah Durrani, and Humayun Mirza revolting against him. With Humayun centered in Kandahar, and Mahmud Shah centered in Herat. Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and also force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani. Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into Punjab, with the first two campaigns capturing Lahore, but being forced to retreat due to issues from a possible Qajar invasion, or his brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for Punjab in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh. However, he was forced to withdraw, with his brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting, Zaman Shah would be toppled from his reign, replaced by his brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani. However, just under 2 years in his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani would be deposed by his brother, Shah Shuja Durrani, on 13 July 1803. Shah Shuja would attempt to consolidate the Durrani Realm, which had been long striven by civil war. Shah Shuja would later be deposed by his brother at the Battle of Nimla (1809), where Mahmud Shah Durrani would defeat and force Shah Shuja to flee, with Shah Mahmud usurping the throne again for his second
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577
reign beginning on 3 May 1809. Barakzai dynasty and British wars By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the Persians in the west and the Sikh Empire in the east. Afghanistan was divided, including the Emirate of Herat centered in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire, mostly ruling as governors of major cities and provinces. After his murder for apparent treason against the Durrani king. Fateh Khan would be sentenced by Mahmud Shah Durrani, having him executed. His brothers, notably including Dost Mohammad Khan, rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself emir in 1826. Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city of Peshawar at the Battle of Nowshera. In 1837, during the Battle of Jamrud near the Khyber Pass, Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud Fort from the Sikh Khalsa Army, but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus ending the Afghan-Sikh Wars. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the first major conflict during "the Great Game" was initiated. In 1838, a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan and arrested Dost Mohammad, sent him into exile in India and replaced him with Shah Shuja, the former Durrani king as a puppet on the throne. Following an uprising that saw the assassination of Shah Shuja, the 1842 retreat from Kabul of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of Elphinstone's army, and the Battle of Kabul that led to its recapture, the British gave up on their attempts to try and subjugate Afghanistan, and allowed Dost Mohammad Khan as ruler and withdrew their military forces from Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan would spend most of his reign consolidating the parts of Afghanistan that were lost in the Durrani civil wars. Dost Mohammad Khan would launch numerous campaigns, and also be able to reunite the Afghan realm in his reign, securing Herat (1793–1863) in the Herat Campaign of 1862–63. Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863, a few months after his campaign to capture Herat. Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afghanistan, between Sher Ali Khan, Mohammad Afzal Khan, and Mohammad Azam Khan in the Afghan Civil War (1863–1869). Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until In 1878, the British had returned in the Second Anglo-Afghan War which was fought over perceived Russian influence in the region, Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan who had succeeded Sher Ali Khan after his death in 1879. Britain would gain control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the Treaty of Gandamak of 1879, making it an official British Protected State. In 1893, Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line, which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained politically independent until being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes. The Iron Amir viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as "trojan horses" and therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan. He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan. During the First World War, when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition, to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy. Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in February 1919, and Amanullah Khan eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan provoked the Third Anglo-Afghan War, entering British India via the Khyber Pass. After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the Soviet Union and the Weimar Republic of Germany. He proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan on 9 June 1926, when the Emirate of Afghanistan became the Kingdom of Afghanistan. Following a 1927
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578
–28 tour of Europe and Turkey, he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of slavery was abolished in the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1923. King Amanullah's wife, Queen Soraya, was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression. Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of several co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929). Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a fifteen-year-old Hazara student who was an Amanullah loyalist. Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned as King from 1933 to 1973. The tribal revolts of 1944–1947 saw King Zahir's reign challenged by Zadran, Safi, Mangal, and Wazir tribesmen led by Mazrak Zadran, Salemai, and Mirzali Khan, among others, many of whom were Amanullah loyalists. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey, the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq and Iran/Persia were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the League of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a national bank, and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry. The country built close relationships with the Axis powers, with Nazi Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan. Contemporary history Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a Pashtunistan, leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. Afterward, the 1964 constitution was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in. King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy. Democratic Republic and Soviet war In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President Mohammed Daoud Khan, in what is called the Saur Revolution. The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, with its first leader named as People's Democratic Party general secretary Nur Muhammad Taraki. This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism. The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of civil war by 1979, waged by guerrilla mujahideen (and smaller Maoist guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a proxy war as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (IS
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"Ġafter", "Ġthey", "Ġrefused", "Ġto", "Ġhand", "Ġover", "ĠOsama", "ĠBin", "ĠLaden", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġprime", "Ġsuspect", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ11", "Ġattacks", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "gu", "est", "\"", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġoperating", "Ġhis", "Ġal", "-", "Qaeda", "Ġnetwork", "Ġin", "ĠAfghanistan", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "ĠAfghans", "Ġsupported", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "Ġinvasion", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġinitial", "Ġinvasion", ",", "ĠUS", "Ġand", "ĠUK", "Ġforces", "Ġbombed", "Ġal", "-", "Qaeda", "Ġtraining", "Ġcamps", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlater", "Ġworking", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠNorthern", "ĠAlliance", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġregime", "Ġcame", "Ġto", "Ġan", "Ġend", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠDecember", "Ġ2001", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġgovernment", "Ġwas", "Ġoverth", "rown", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠAfghan", "ĠInter", "im", "ĠAdministration", "Ġunder", "ĠHam", "id", "ĠKar", "zai", "Ġwas", "Ġformed", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠInternational", "ĠSecurity", "ĠAssistance", "ĠForce", "Ġ(", "IS", "AF", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġestablished", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠUN", "ĠSecurity", "ĠCouncil", "Ġto", "Ġhelp", "Ġassist", "Ġthe", "ĠKar", "zai", "Ġadministration", "Ġand", "Ġprovide", "Ġbasic", "Ġsecurity", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġthis", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġtwo", "Ġdecades", "Ġof", "Ġwar", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġacute", "Ġfamine" ]
579
I), and the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime. Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham. In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the new general secretary of the People's Democratic Party. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin and thousands of people went missing. Displeased with Amin's government, the Soviet Army invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just three days later. A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War. The United States and Pakistan, along with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and China, continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles. Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans, and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to Pakistan and Iran. Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of landmines were planted, and some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province functioned as an organizational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad'. After the Soviet withdrawal, the civil war ensued until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader Mohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992. The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter. The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia and military in favor of powerful warlords. Post–Cold War conflict Another civil war broke out after the creation of a dysfunctional coalition government between leaders of various mujahideen factions. Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting, various mujahideen factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion, while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting. Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders. The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamic madrassas (schools) in Pakistan, who soon had military support from Pakistan. Taking control of Kandahar city that year, they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of Rabbani from Kabul in 1996, where they established an emirate that gained international recognition from 3 countries: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially women. During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes. After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, Pervez Musharraf, began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance. By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir Valley. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001. 21st century In October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over Osama Bin Laden, the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks, who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end. In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security. By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute famine
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"ĠNATO", "ĠSecretary", "ĠGeneral", "ĠJ", "ens", "ĠSt", "ol", "ten", "berg", "Ġsaid", "Ġthe", "Ġalliance", "Ġhad", "Ġagreed", "Ġto", "Ġstart", "Ġwithdrawing", "Ġits", "Ġtroops", "Ġfrom", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġby", "Ġ1", "ĠMay", ".", "ĠSoon", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġwithdrawal", "Ġof", "ĠNATO", "Ġtroops", "Ġstarted", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġlaunched", "Ġan", "Ġoffensive", "Ġagainst", "Ġthe", "ĠAfghan", "Ġgovernment", ",", "Ġquickly", "Ġadvancing", "Ġin", "Ġfront", "Ġof", "Ġcollapsing", "ĠAfghan", "Ġgovernment", "Ġforces", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġ15", "ĠAugust", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġonce", "Ġagain", "Ġcontrolled", "Ġa", "Ġvast", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "ĠAfghan", "Ġterritory", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġre", "-", "capt", "ured", "Ġthe", "Ġcapital", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠKabul", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmany", "Ġcivilians", ",", "Ġgovernment", "Ġofficials", "Ġand", "Ġforeign", "Ġdiplomats", "Ġwere", "Ġevacuated", ".", "ĠPresident", "ĠGh", "ani", "Ġfled", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġthat", "Ġday", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġof", 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"ĠTaliban", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġdeputy", "ĠPrime", "ĠMinister", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġprevious", "ĠEmir", "ate", ";", "Ġhis", "Ġappointment", "Ġwas", "Ġseen", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġcompromise", "Ġbetween", "Ġmoderates", "Ġand", "Ġhard", "liners", ".", "ĠA", "Ġnew", ",", "Ġall", "-", "male", "Ġcabinet", "Ġwas", "Ġformed", "Ġincluding", "ĠAbdul", "ĠHak", "im", "ĠIs", "ha", "q", "zai", "Ġas", "ĠMinister", "Ġof", "ĠJustice", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġ20", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ2021", ",", "ĠUnited", "ĠNations", "ĠSecretary", "-", "General", "ĠAnt", "ón", "io", "ĠG", "uter", "res", "Ġreceived", "Ġa", "Ġletter", "Ġfrom", "Ġacting", "Ġminister", "Ġof", "ĠForeign", "ĠAffairs", "ĠAmir", "ĠKhan", "ĠMut", "ta", "qi", "Ġto", "Ġformally", "Ġclaim", "ĠAfghanistan", "'s", "Ġseat", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmember", "Ġstate", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġofficial", "Ġspokesman", "Ġin", "ĠD", "oha", ",", "ĠSu", "h", "ail", "ĠSha", "he", "en", ",", "Ġand", "Ġasked", "Ġto", "Ġaddress", "Ġthe", "ĠGeneral", "ĠAssembly", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġprevious", "ĠTaliban", "Ġrule", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1996", "Ġto", "Ġ2001", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠNations", "Ġnever", "Ġrecognized", "Ġtheir", "Ġrepresentatives", "Ġand", "Ġchose", "Ġto", "Ġwork", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġthen", "-", "government", "Ġin", "Ġexile", "Ġinstead", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWestern", "Ġnations", "Ġhave", "Ġsuspended", "Ġmost", "Ġhumanitarian", "Ġaid", "Ġto", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġfollowing", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "'s", "Ġtakeover", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġin", "ĠAugust", "Ġ2021", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠWorld", "ĠBank", "Ġand", "ĠInternational", "ĠMonetary", "ĠFund", "Ġalso", "Ġhalted", "Ġpayments", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠOctober", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "'s", "Ġ39", "Ġmillion", "Ġpeople", "Ġfaced", "Ġan", "Ġacute", "Ġfood", "Ġshortage", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġ11", "ĠNovember", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠHuman", "ĠRights", "ĠWatch", "Ġreported", "Ġthat", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġwas", "Ġfacing", "Ġwidespread", "Ġfamine", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġan", "Ġeconomic", "Ġand", "Ġbanking", "Ġcrisis", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGe", "ography", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġis", "Ġlocated", "Ġin", "ĠSouthern", "-", "Central", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġregion", "Ġcentered", "Ġat", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġis", "Ġconsidered", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "cross", "roads", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġhas", "Ġhad", "Ġthe", "Ġnickname", "ĠHeart", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġrenowned", "ĠUr", "du", "Ġpoet", "ĠAll", "ama", "ĠI", "q", "bal" ]
580
at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest infant and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry, and infrastructure was in ruins. Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country. Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process. The Taliban began an insurgency to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, government corruption, and the Taliban insurgency. Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country, and the Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five million Afghans were repatriated. The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011, dropping to about 16,000 in 2018. In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF. Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces and continue their fight against the Taliban. It was estimated in 2015 that "about 147,000 people have been killed in the Afghanistan war since 2001. More than 38,000 of those killed have been civilians". A report titled Body Count concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict. On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May. Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government, quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan government forces. On 15 August 2021, as the Taliban once again controlled a vast majority of Afghan territory, they re-captured the capital city of Kabul, and many civilians, government officials and foreign diplomats were evacuated. President Ghani fled Afghanistan that day. As of 16 August 2021, an unofficial Coordination Council led by senior statesmen was in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban. On 17 August, the First Vice President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Amrullah Saleh, proclaimed himself the caretaker President of Afghanistan and announced the formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+ troops in the Panjshir Valley, along with Ahmad Massoud. However, on 6 September, the Taliban took control of most of the Panjshir province, with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains to continue fighting within the province. Fights in the valley ceased mid-September, while resistances leaders Amrullah Saleh and Ahmad Massoud fled to neighboring Tajikistan. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was swiftly restored as its opponents were defeated or left the country. It is apparently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund, who took office on 7 September 2021. Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban and was a deputy Prime Minister in their previous Emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners. A new, all-male cabinet was formed including Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai as Minister of Justice. On 20 September 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister of Foreign Affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha, Suhail Shaheen, and asked to address the General Assembly. During the previous Taliban rule from 1996 to 2001, the United Nations never recognized their representatives and chose to work with the then-government in exile instead. Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021 and the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted payments. In October 2021, more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage. On 11 November 2021, the Human Rights Watch reported that Afghanistan was facing widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis. Geography Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia. The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia", and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia. The renowned Urdu poet Allama Iqbal
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581
once wrote about the country: At over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country, slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is landlocked. Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the Durand Line) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the north-east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the north-east; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered Kashmir. Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with the Sistan and Baluchestan Province, South Khorasan Province and Razavi Khorasan Province of Iran; Ahal Region, Mary Region and Lebap Region of Turkmenistan; Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan; Khatlon Region and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan; Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China; and the Gilgit-Baltistan territory, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and Balochistan province of Pakistan. The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. It is dominated by the Hindu Kush range, the western extension of the Himalayas that stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Mountains in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the Turkestan Plains and the Sistan Basin; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively. Forests exist in the corridor between Nuristan and Paktika provinces (see East Afghan montane conifer forests), and tundra in the north-east. The country's highest point is Noshaq, at above sea level. The lowest point lies in Jowzjan Province along the Amu River bank, at above sea level. Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. The Amu Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby Hari Rud flows west towards Herat, and the Arghandab River from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the Indus River, such as the Helmand River. One exception is the Kabul River which flows in an easternly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean. Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed. The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive, causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter. The last strong earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan. This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. Climate Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast (around Nuristan), and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the Sistan Basin of the southwest, the Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the north, where temperatures average over in July and can go over . The country is generally arid in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the monsoon zone, except the Nuristan Province which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain. Biodiversity Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. Snow leopards, Siberian tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation alpine tundra regions. The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor
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"ĠIran", ",", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġwhom", "Ġwere", "Ġborn", "Ġand", "Ġraised", "Ġin", "Ġthose", "Ġtwo", "Ġcountries", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġof", "Ġ2013", ",", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġrefugee", "-", "producing", "Ġcountry", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġa", "Ġtitle", "Ġheld", "Ġfor", "Ġ32", "Ġyears", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcurrent", "Ġpopulation", "Ġgrowth", "Ġrate", "Ġis", "Ġ2", ".", "37", "%,", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġoutside", "Ġof", "ĠAfrica", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġpopulation", "Ġis", "Ġexpected", "Ġto", "Ġreach", "Ġ82", "Âł", "million", "Ġby", "Ġ2050", "Ġif", "Ġcurrent", "Ġpopulation", "Ġtrends", "Ġcontinue", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpopulation", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġincreased", "Ġsteadily", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġ1980", "s", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġcivil", "Ġwar", "Ġcaused", "Ġmillions", "Ġto", "Ġflee", "Ġto", "Ġother", "Ġcountries", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠPakistan", ".", "ĠMillions", "Ġhave", "Ġsince", "Ġreturned", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġwar", "Ġconditions", 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"ash", "t", "uns", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġethnic", "Ġgroup", ",", "Ġcomprising", "Ġ39", "%", "Ġ(", "2019", "Ġsoc", "iological", "Ġresearch", "Ġdata", "Ġby", "ĠThe", "ĠAsia", "ĠFoundation", "),", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "ĠT", "aji", "ks", "Ġ(", "or", "ĠF", "ars", "iw", "ans", "),", "Ġcomprising", "Ġ37", "%.", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġpopulation", ".", "ĠGenerally", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġthree", "Ġmajor", "Ġethnic", "Ġgroups", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "ĠT", "aji", "ks", ",", "ĠHaz", "ar", "as", "Ġand", "ĠUz", "be", "ks", ".", "ĠA", "Ġfurther", "Ġ10", "Ġother", "Ġethnic", "Ġgroups", "Ġare", "Ġrecognized", "Ġand", "Ġeach", "Ġare", "Ġrepresented", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAfghan", "ĠNational", "ĠAnthem", ".", "Ġ", "ĠD", "ari", "Ġand", "ĠP", "ash", "to", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġofficial", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", ";", "Ġbilingual", "ism", "Ġis", "Ġvery", "Ġcommon", ".", "ĠD", "ari", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġand", "Ġmutually", "Ġintellig", "ible", "Ġwith", "ĠPersian", 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582
region of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes, wolves, otters, deer, wild sheep, lynx and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, hedgehogs, gophers, and large carnivores such as jackals and hyenas. Gazelles, wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains of the south and west, while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south. Marmots and ibex also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, and pheasants exist in some parts of the country. The Afghan hound is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west. Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel, Afghan snowfinch, Afghanodon (or the "Paghman mountain salamander"), Stigmella kasyi, Vulcaniella kabulensis, Afghan leopard gecko, Wheeleria parviflorellus, amongst others. Endemic flora include Iris afghanica. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within. The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as pine trees, spruce trees, fir trees and larches, whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of broadleaf trees, short grass, perennial plants and shrublands. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants. Several regions are designated protected areas; there are three national parks: Band-e Amir, Wakhan and Nuristan. Afghanistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries. Demographics The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority, whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million. In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million. About 23.9% of them are urbanite, 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic. An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring Pakistan and Iran, most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years. The current population growth rate is 2.37%, one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue. The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan. Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa. Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down. The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8. Ethnicity and languages Afghans are divided into several ethnolinguistic groups. The Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group, comprising 39% (2019 sociological research data by The Asia Foundation), followed by Tajiks (or Farsiwans), comprising 37%. of the country's population. Generally the other three major ethnic groups are the Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the Afghan National Anthem. Dari and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common. Dari, which is a variety of and mutually intelligible with Persian (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in Iran) functions as the lingua franca in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called Farsiwans. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy. According to CIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 50%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum
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"Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpopulation", "Ġwas", "Ġurban", "ized", "Ġas", "Ġof", "Ġ2020", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlowest", "Ġfigures", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ";", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġonly", "Ġhigher", "Ġthan", "ĠCambodia", ",", "ĠNepal", "Ġand", "ĠSri", "ĠLanka", ".", "ĠUrban", "ization", "Ġhas", "Ġincreased", "Ġrapidly", ",", "Ġparticularly", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcapital", "ĠKabul", ",", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġreturning", "Ġrefugees", "Ġfrom", "ĠPakistan", "Ġand", "ĠIran", "Ġafter", "Ġ2001", ",", "Ġinternally", "Ġdisplaced", "Ġpeople", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrural", "Ġmigrants", ".", "ĠUrban", "ization", "Ġin", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġis", "Ġdifferent", "Ġfrom", "Ġtypical", "Ġurban", "ization", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġcentered", "Ġon", "Ġjust", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġcities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġonly", "Ġcity", "Ġwith", "Ġover", "Ġa", "Ġmillion", "Ġresidents", "Ġis", "Ġits", "Ġcapital", ",", "ĠKabul", ",", "Ġlocated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġother", "Ġlarge", "Ġcities", "Ġare", "Ġlocated", "Ġgenerally", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "ring", "\"", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "ĠCentral", "ĠHighlands", ",", "Ġnamely", "ĠKand", "ahar", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", ",", "ĠHer", "at", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwest", ",", "ĠMaz", "ar", "-", "i", "-", "Shar", "if", "Ġand", "ĠKund", "uz", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnorth", ",", "Ġand", "ĠJal", "al", "abad", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGovern", "ance", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠFollowing", "Ġthe", "Ġeffective", "Ġcollapse", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠIslamic", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġ2021", "ĠTaliban", "Ġoffensive", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġdeclared", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġan", "ĠIslamic", "ĠEmir", "ate", ".", "ĠA", "Ġnew", "Ġcare", "taker", "Ġgovernment", "Ġwas", "Ġannounced", "Ġon", "Ġ7", "ĠSeptember", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġof", "Ġ8", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġno", "Ġother", "Ġcountry", "Ġhad", "Ġformally", "Ġrecognized", "Ġthe", "ĠIslamic", "ĠEmir", "ate", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġde", 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"ĠHe", "k", "mat", "y", "ar", ",", "Ġmet", "Ġwith", "Ġboth", "ĠHam", "id", "ĠKar", "zai", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", "ĠPresident", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", ",", "Ġand", "ĠAbdullah", "ĠAbdullah", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġchairman", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠHigh", "ĠCouncil", "Ġfor", "ĠNational", "ĠRecon", "c", "iliation", "Ġand", "Ġformer", "ĠChief", "ĠExecutive", ",", "Ġin", "ĠD", "oha", ",", "ĠQatar", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġaim", "Ġof", "Ġforming", "Ġa", "Ġgovernment", "Ġ(", "though", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġunclear", "Ġwhether", "Ġeither", "ĠKar", "zai", "Ġor", "ĠAbdullah", "Ġwill", "Ġbe", "Ġdirectly", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġsuch", "Ġgovernment", ").", "ĠPresident", "ĠAsh", "raf", "ĠGh", "ani", ",", "Ġhaving", "Ġfled", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "Ġadvance", "Ġto", "Ġeither", "ĠTaj", "ik", "istan", "Ġor", "ĠUzbek", "istan", ",", "Ġemerged", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠArab", "ĠEmirates", "Ġand", "Ġsaid", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġsupported", "Ġsuch", "Ġnegotiations", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġtalks", "Ġto", "Ġreturn", "Ġto", "ĠAfghanistan", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "ĠIslamic", "ĠEmir", "ate", "Ġis", "Ġundergoing", "Ġa", "Ġtransitional", "Ġpolitical", "Ġperiod", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġunofficial", "ĠCoord", "ination", "ĠCouncil", "Ġled", "Ġby", "Ġsenior", "Ġstates", "men", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprocess", "Ġof", "Ġcoordinating", "Ġthe", "Ġtransfer", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġinstitutions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠIslamic", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", ".", "ĠTaliban", "Ġforces", ",", "Ġmeanwhile", ",", "Ġexercise", "Ġeffective", "Ġpolice", "Ġauthority", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠKabul", "Ġmeetings", "Ġon", "Ġgovernment", "Ġformation", "Ġare", "Ġmen", "-", "only", "Ġmeetings", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "ĠFaw", "z", "ia", "ĠKo", "ofi", ",", "Ġformer", "Ġmember", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAfghan", "ĠNational", "ĠAssembly", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġstated", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġmen", "-", "only", "Ġgovernment", "Ġwould", "Ġ\"" ]
583
to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language.There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani. When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand Hindustani (Urdu-Hindi), partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of Bollywood films respectively. English is also understood by some of the population, and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s. Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which was taught in public schools during the 1980s. Religion An estimated 99.7% of the Afghan population is Muslim and most are thought to adhere to the Sunni Hanafi school. According to Pew Research Center, as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% Shia and 3% non-denominational. The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia. Michael Izady estimated 70% of the population to be followers of Sunni Islam, 25% Imami Shia Islam, 4.5% Ismaili Shia Islam, and 0.5% other religions. Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar) accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs. According to Deutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India. There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with the exception of one person, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. After the second Taliban takeover, he left Afghanistan for the United States. Afghan Christians, who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches. Urbanization As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants. Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities. The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely Kandahar in the south, Herat in the west, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kunduz in the north, and Jalalabad in the east. Governance Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September. As of 8 September 2021, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the de jure government of Afghanistan. A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the loya jirga (grand assembly), a Pashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new head of state, adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war. Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747, with the most recent one occurring in August 2020. Development of Taliban government On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met with both Hamid Karzai, the former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar, with the aim of forming a government (though it is unclear whether either Karzai or Abdullah will be directly involved in any such government). President Ashraf Ghani, having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan. , the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with an unofficial Coordination Council led by senior statesmen in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban. Taliban forces, meanwhile, exercise effective police authority in the country. The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings according to Fawzia Koofi, former member of the Afghan National Assembly, who stated that a men-only government would "
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"Ġconcerns", "Ġabout", "Ġforming", "Ġa", "Ġbroad", "-", "based", "Ġgovernment", "Ġacceptable", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġinternational", "Ġcommunity", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġlater", "Ġadded", "Ġhowever", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠTaliban", "'s", "ĠRah", "b", "ari", "ĠSh", "ura", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgroup", "'s", "Ġleadership", "Ġcouncil", "Ġwas", "Ġdivided", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġhard", "line", "ĠHa", "qq", "ani", "ĠNetwork", "Ġand", "Ġmoderate", "ĠAbdul", "ĠGh", "ani", "ĠBar", "ad", "ar", "Ġover", "Ġappointments", "Ġneeded", "Ġto", "Ġform", "Ġan", "Ġ\"", "in", "clusive", "\"", "Ġgovernment", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġculminated", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġskirm", "ish", "Ġwhich", "Ġled", "Ġto", "ĠBar", "ad", "ar", "Ġbeing", "Ġinjured", "Ġand", "Ġtreated", "Ġin", "ĠPakistan", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġspeculated", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġgovernment", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġannounced", "Ġon", "Ġ11", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ9", "/", "11", "Ġattacks", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġinvitations", 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"Ġappeared", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġabolished", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAdministrative", "Ġdivisions", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġis", "Ġadministr", "atively", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġ34", "Ġprovinces", "Ġ(", "w", "il", "ay", "at", ").", "ĠEach", "Ġprovince", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġgovernor", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġcapital", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcountry", "Ġis", "Ġfurther", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġnearly", "Ġ400", "Ġprovincial", "Ġdistricts", ",", "Ġeach", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġnormally", "Ġcovers", "Ġa", "Ġcity", "Ġor", "Ġseveral", "Ġvillages", ".", "ĠEach", "Ġdistrict", "Ġis", "Ġrepresented", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġdistrict", "Ġgovernor", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġprovincial", "Ġgovernors", "Ġare", "Ġnow", "Ġappointed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠPrime", "ĠMinister", "Ġof", "ĠAfghanistan", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġdistrict", "Ġgovernors", "Ġare", "Ġselected", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġprovincial", "Ġgovernors", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġprovincial", "Ġgovernors", "Ġare", "Ġrepresentatives", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcentral", "Ġgovernment", "Ġin", "ĠKabul", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġresponsible", "Ġfor", "Ġall", "Ġadministrative", "Ġand", "Ġformal", "Ġissues", "Ġwithin", "Ġtheir", "Ġprovinces", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġprovincial", "Ġcouncils", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġelected", "Ġthrough", "Ġdirect", "Ġand", "Ġgeneral", "Ġelections", "Ġfor", "Ġfour", "Ġyears", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfunctions", "Ġof", "Ġprovincial", "Ġcouncils", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġpart", "Ġin", "Ġprovincial", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġplanning", "Ġand", "Ġto", "Ġparticipate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmonitoring", "Ġand", "Ġappraisal", "Ġof", "Ġother", "Ġprovincial", "Ġgovernance", "Ġinstitutions", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġarticle", "Ġ140", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġconstitution", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġpresidential", "Ġdecree", "Ġon", "Ġelectoral", "Ġlaw", ",", "Ġmayors", "Ġof", "Ġcities", "Ġshould", "Ġbe", "Ġelected", "Ġthrough", "Ġfree", "Ġand", "Ġdirect", "Ġelections", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġfour", "-", "year", "Ġterm", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġpractice", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġmayors", "Ġare", "Ġappointed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġgovernment", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġlist", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġ34", "Ġprovinces", "Ġin", "Ġalphabet", "ical", "Ġorder", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠBad", "akh", "sh", "an", "Ġ", "ĠBad", "gh", "is", "Ġ", "ĠB", "agh", "lan", "Ġ", "ĠBalk", "h", "Ġ", "ĠBam", "yan", "Ġ", "ĠDay", "k", "und", "i", "Ġ", "ĠFar", "ah", "Ġ", "ĠF", "ary", "ab", "Ġ", "ĠGh", "az", "ni", "Ġ", "ĠGh", "or", "Ġ", "ĠHel", "mand", "Ġ", "ĠHer", "at", "Ġ", "ĠJ", "ow", "z", "jan", "Ġ", "ĠKabul", "Ġ", "ĠKand", "ahar", "Ġ", "ĠKap", "isa", "Ġ", "ĠK", "host", "Ġ", "ĠKun", "ar", "Ġ", "ĠKund", "uz", "Ġ", "ĠL", "agh", "man", "Ġ", "ĠLog", "ar", "Ġ", "ĠN", "ang", "ar", "har", "Ġ", "ĠNim", "ru", "z", "Ġ", "ĠNur", "istan", "Ġ", "ĠO", "ru", "z", "gan", "Ġ", "ĠPak", "t", "ia", "Ġ", "ĠPak", "t", "ika", "Ġ", "ĠPan", "j", "sh", "ir", "Ġ", "ĠPar", "wan", "Ġ", "ĠSam", "angan", "Ġ", "ĠSar", "-", "e", "ĠPol", "Ġ", "ĠTak", "har", "Ġ", "ĠWard", "ak", "Ġ", "ĠZ", "abul", "Ġ", "ĠForeign", "Ġrelations", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġbecame", "Ġa", "Ġmember", "Ġof", "Ġthe" ]
584
not be complete". Many figures within the Taliban generally agree that continuation of the Constitution of Afghanistan may, potentially, be workable as the basis for the new state as their objections to the former government were religious, and not political, in nature. On 20 August, Abdul Ghani Baradar arrived in Kabul from Kandahar to begin formal negotiations with the Coordination Council on the composition and structure of the new government. Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at the Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mohammad Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet. According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a unitary Deobandist Islamic republic. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime Minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai is likely to be promoted to Chief Justice. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan. However, later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations were not yet completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar, and that the announcement of the new government would not take place until 4 September or later. Government formation was further delayed with the announcement postponed to some time during the week of 6 September, due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community. It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan. It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11 September 2021, the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, with invitations possibly being extended to the governments of Turkey, China, Iran, Pakistan, and Qatar. As of early September, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only, stating that women would not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the government and that women were "ruled out" from the Cabinet. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, protested in Herat and Kabul, calling for women to be included in the Cabinet. The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs appeared to have been abolished. Administrative divisions Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat). Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor. The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan, and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government. The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order: Badakhshan Badghis Baghlan Balkh Bamyan Daykundi Farah Faryab Ghazni Ghor Helmand Herat Jowzjan Kabul Kandahar Kapisa Khost Kunar Kunduz Laghman Logar Nangarhar Nimruz Nuristan Oruzgan Paktia Paktika Panjshir Parwan Samangan Sar-e Pol Takhar Wardak Zabul Foreign relations Afghanistan became a member of the
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"Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġtop", "Ġproducers", "Ġof", "Ġcannabis", ".", "Ġ", "ĠS", "aff", "ron", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġexpensive", "Ġspice" ]
585
United Nations in 1946. Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and India, with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950. Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups. The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally unrecognized, but has had notable unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar. Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally. Military The Islamic Emirate Army captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan Armed Forces following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion. Human rights Economy Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018, or $72.9 billion by purchasing power parity (PPP). Its GDP per capita is $2,024 (PPP). Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits, it remains one of the world's least developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability. The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and nuts. It has $2.8 billion in external debt. The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%). While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the Afghani (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank. One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country. Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near Jalalabad. Similar development projects have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities. An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year. Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003. Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items. Afghanistan is a member of WTO, SAARC, ECO, and OIC. It holds an observer status in SCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India. Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central bank, blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts. Agriculture Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018. The country is known for producing pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of opium – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium. It is also one of the world's top producers of cannabis. Saffron, the most expensive spice
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586
, grows in Afghanistan, particularly Herat Province. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute. Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147. Mining The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc, barite, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum. In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth at least . Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its mineral deposits, its gross national product would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average of crude oil, of natural gas, and of natural gas liquids. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north. The country has significant amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other minerals. The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains of rare earth elements. In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion, making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history. The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan. Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least . One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium". The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia, which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves. Other larger deposits are the ones of Bauxit and Cobalt. In a 2011 news story, the CSM reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers." Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit. Infrastructure Energy According to the World Bank, 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008. Overall the figure stands at 98.7%. As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. The majority of electricity production is via hydropower, helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains. However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul. In recent years an increasing number of solar, biomass and wind power plants have been constructed. Currently under development are the CASA-1000 project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline. Power is managed by the Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company). Important dams include the Kajaki Dam, Dahla Dam, and the Sardeh Band Dam. Tourism Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016. In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity. Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the Wakhan Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities
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"Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠAbout", "Ġ21", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġare", "Ġfemales", ".", "ĠFormer", "ĠEducation", "ĠMinister", "ĠGh", "ul", "am" ]
587
including Herat, Kandahar and Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal. Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict. The city of Ghazni has significant history and historical sites, and together with Bamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively. The cities of Herat, Kandahar, Balkh, and Zaranj are also very historic. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander the Great and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali, believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, Bactrian Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s. Communication Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by Afghan Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN Group, and Roshan. The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1, which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide. Transportation Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is Highway 1, often called the "Ring Road", which extends for and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush. The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy. A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel, completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan. It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the Kabul–Kandahar and the Kabul–Jalalabad Road. Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities. Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, Ariana Afghan Airlines, and by the private company Kam Air. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include Air India, Emirates, Gulf Air, Iran Aseman Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Turkish Airlines. The country has four international airports: Hamid Karzai International Airport (formerly Kabul International Airport), Kandahar International Airport, Herat International Airport, and Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. Including domestic airports, there are 43. Bagram Air Base is a major military airfield. The country has three rail links: one, a line from Mazar-i-Sharif to the Uzbekistan border; a long line from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border (where it continues as part of Turkmen Railways); and a short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki, which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan. These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between Khaf, Iran and Herat, western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019. About of the line will lie on the Afghan side. There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country. Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and auto rickshaws. In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, mules or horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads. Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan. Education Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 and higher education, which is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden girls and female teachers from returning to secondary schools. Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities around the country. About 21% of these are females. Former Education Minister Ghulam
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"ization", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġsome", "ĠP", "ash", "t", "uns", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "ĠPersian", "ized", ".", "ĠThose", "Ġwho", "Ġhave", "Ġlived", "Ġin", "ĠPakistan", "Ġand", "ĠIran", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġ30", "Ġyears", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġfurther", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġcultures", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġneighboring", "Ġnations", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAfghan", "Ġpeople", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġstrongly", "Ġreligious", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAfghans", ",", "Ġparticularly", "ĠP", "ash", "t", "uns", ",", "Ġare", "Ġnoted", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġtribal", "Ġsolidarity", "Ġand", "Ġhigh", "Ġregard", "Ġfor", "Ġpersonal", "Ġhonor", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġwriter", "Ġconsiders", "Ġthe", "Ġtribal", "Ġsystem", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "Ġway", "Ġof", "Ġorganizing", "Ġlarge", "Ġgroups", "Ġof", "Ġpeople", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġcountry", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġgeographically", "Ġdifficult", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġsociety", "Ġthat", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġmaterial", "istic", "Ġpoint", "Ġof", "Ġview", ",", "Ġhas", 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588
Farooq Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of formal learning. The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) followed by Kabul University (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Balkh University and Kunduz University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education; from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978. As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%). The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses. Health According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancy is estimated to be around 60 years. The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is 66 to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births. The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 midwives, with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year. There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the Jamhuriat Hospital and Jinnah Hospital. In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility. Disability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war. It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs. Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures. Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on maternal death, among other things. Culture Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country. Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a patriarch. In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun way). Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality, the provision of sanctuary to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood. The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. The remaining Afghans are culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization, while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious. Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor. One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. There are various Afghan tribes, and an estimated 2–3 million nomads. Afghan culture is deeply Islamic, but pre-Islamic practices persist. One example is bacha bazi, a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys. Child marriage is prevalent in Afghanistan; the legal age for marriage is 16. The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's parallel cousin, and the groom is often expected to pay a bride price. In the villages, families typically occupy mudbrick houses, or compounds with mudbrick or stone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution
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"-", "Af", "ghan", "ĠWar", ",", "Ġ\"", "war", "Ġr", "ugs", "\",", "Ġa", "Ġvariant", "Ġof", "ĠAfghan", "Ġr", "ugs", ",", "Ġwere", "Ġcreated", "Ġwith", "Ġdesigns", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġpain", "Ġand", "Ġmisery", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġconflict", ".", "ĠEvery", "Ġprovince", "Ġhas", "Ġits", "Ġown", "Ġspecific", "Ġcharacteristics", "Ġin", "Ġmaking", "Ġr", "ugs", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠTurk", "ic", "-", "pop", "ulated", "Ġareas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnorth", "-", "west", ",", "Ġbride", "Ġand", "Ġwedding", "Ġceremony", "Ġprices", "Ġare", "Ġdriven", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġbride", "'s", "Ġweaving", "Ġskills", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPot", "tery", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġcrafted", "Ġin", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġfor", "Ġmillennia", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġvillage", "Ġof", "ĠI", "stal", "if", ",", "Ġnorth", "Ġof", "ĠKabul", ",", "Ġis", "Ġin", "Ġparticular", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġcenter", ",", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġunique", "Ġtur", "qu", "oise", "Ġand", "Ġgreen", "Ġpot", "tery", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtheir", "Ġmethods", "Ġof", 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589
(mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. About 15% of the population are nomadic, locally called kochis. When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and kerosene from the villagers; villagers buy wool and milk from the nomads. Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms of shalwar kameez, especially perahan tunban and khet partug. Women would normally wear a chador for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the burqa, a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the Taliban enforced this dress on women when they were in power. Another popular dress is the chapan which acts as a coat. The karakul is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President Hamid Karzai. The pakol is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud. The Mazari hat originates from northern Afghanistan. Architecture The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the Great Mosque of Herat, the Blue Mosque, the Minaret of Jam, the Chil Zena, the Qala-i Bost in Lashkargah, the ancient Greek city of Ai-Khanoum. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at Paghman and the Darul Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves. Art and ceramics Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still handmade by tribal and nomadic people today. Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women. Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the Soviet-Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant of Afghan rugs, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs. In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills. Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery, and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries. Much of lapis lazuli stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in Chinese porcelain as cobalt blue, later used in ancient Mesopotamia and Turkey. The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of oil painting found in cave murals in the country. A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is Gandhara Art, produced by a fusion of Greco-Roman art and Buddhist art between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style, with Kamaleddin Behzad of Herat being one of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and early Safavid periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century. Media and entertainment Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations. Radio Television Afghanistan, originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as TOLO and Shamshad TV. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873, and there are hundreds of print outlets today. By the 1920s, Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services. Voice of America, BBC, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio. Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002
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"ĠAbdullah", "ĠAns", "ari", "Ġof", "ĠHer", "at", ",", "Ġa", "Ġgreat", "Ġmystic", "Ġand", "ĠSu", "fi", "Ġsaint", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ11", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "ĠSan", "ai", "Ġof", "ĠGh", "az", "ni", ",", "Ġauthor", "Ġof", "Ġmystical", "Ġpoems", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ12", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġand", ",", "Ġfinally", ",", "ĠR", "umi", "Ġof", "ĠBalk", "h", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ13", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġconsidered", "Ġthe", "Ġpers", "ophon", "ist", "Ġthroughout", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġgreatest", "Ġmystical", "Ġpoet", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġentire", "ĠMuslim", "Ġworld", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAfghan", "ĠP", "ash", "to", "Ġliterature", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġquant", "itatively", "Ġremarkable", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġgreat", "Ġgrowth", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġalways", "Ġhad", "Ġan", "Ġessentially", "Ġlocal", "Ġmeaning", "Ġand", "Ġimportance", ",", "Ġfeeling", "Ġthe", "Ġinfluence", "Ġof", "Ġboth", "ĠPersian", "Ġliterature", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcontiguous", "Ġliter", "atures", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", ".", "ĠBoth", "Ġmain", "Ġliter", "atures", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnineteenth", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġshown", "Ġthemselves", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġsensitive", "Ġto", "Ġgenres", "Ġ(", "no", "vel", ",", "Ġtheater", "),", "Ġmovements", "Ġand", "Ġstyl", "istic", "Ġfeatures", "Ġimported", "Ġfrom", "ĠEurope", ".", "Ġ", "ĠKh", "ush", "al", "ĠKhan", "ĠKh", "att", "ak", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ17", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġis", "Ġconsidered", "Ġthe", "Ġnational", "Ġpoet", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġnotable", "Ġpoets", "Ġinclude", "ĠR", "abi", "'", "a", "ĠBalk", "hi", ",", "ĠJ", "ami", ",", "ĠRahman", "ĠBab", "a", ",", "ĠKhal", "il", "ullah", "ĠKhal", "ili", ",", "Ġand", "ĠPar", "ween", "ĠP", "az", "hw", "ak", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHol", "idays", "Ġand", "Ġfestivals", "Ġ", "ĠAfghanistan", "'s", "Ġofficial", "ĠNew", "ĠYear", "Ġstarts", "Ġwith", "ĠNow", "ru", "z", ",", "Ġan", "Ġancient", "Ġtradition", "Ġthat", "Ġstarted", "Ġas", "Ġa", "ĠZoro", "ast", "rian", "Ġcelebration", "Ġin", "Ġpresent", "-", "day", "ĠIran", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwith", "Ġwhich", "Ġit", "Ġshares", "Ġthe", "Ġannual", "Ġcelebration", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġseveral", "Ġother", "Ġcountries", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġoccurs", "Ġevery", "Ġyear", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġ", "vern", "al", "Ġequ", "in", "ox", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠAfghanistan", ",", "ĠNow", "ru", "z", "Ġis", "Ġtypically", "Ġcelebrated", "Ġwith", "Ġmusic", "Ġand", "Ġdance", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġholding", "Ġbu", "z", "k", "ashi", "Ġtournaments", ".", "Ġ", "ĠY", "ald", "Äģ", ",", "Ġanother", "Ġnationally", "Ġcelebrated", "Ġancient", "Ġtradition", ",", "Ġcommemor", "ates", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "Ġgoddess", "ĠMith", "ra", "Ġand", "Ġmarks", "Ġthe", "Ġlongest", "Ġnight", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġyear", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġeve", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwinter", "Ġsol", "stice", "Ġ(", ";", "Ġusually", "Ġfalling", "Ġon", "Ġ20", "Ġor", "Ġ21" ]
590
, after more than two decades of tight controls. Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and listening to its filmi songs. It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry. The stereotypes of Afghans in India (Kabuliwala or Pathani) have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors. Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Zarine Khan, Celina Jaitly, and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban, and Kabul Express. Music Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like raga. Genres of this style of music include ghazal (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian tabla, sitar and harmonium, and local instruments like zerbaghali, as well as dayereh and tanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucusus and the Middle East. The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian sarod instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include Ustad Sarahang and Sarban. Pop music developed in the 1950s through Radio Kabul and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first Mermon Parwin. Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir, who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979. Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include Nashenas, Ubaidullah Jan, Mahwash, Ahmad Wali, Farhad Darya, and Naghma. Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds. The dance is considered part of Afghan identity. Cuisine Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, yogurt and whey. Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan. The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity. Afghanistan is known for its high quality pomegranates, grapes, and sweet melons. Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans, and a typical diet consists of naan, yoghurts, rice and meat. Literature Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. One of the poetic styles is called landay. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are Divs, monstrous creatures. Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of Herat when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems. The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic and Sufi saint in the 11th century, Sanai of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, Rumi of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported from Europe. Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include Rabi'a Balkhi, Jami, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak. Holidays and festivals Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz, an ancient tradition that started as a Zoroastrian celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the vernal equinox. In Afghanistan, Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding buzkashi tournaments. Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (; usually falling on 20 or 21
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"Ġshares", "Ġland", "Ġborders", "Ġwith", "ĠMonteneg", "ro", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthwest", ",", "ĠKosovo", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnortheast", ",", "ĠNorth", "ĠMacedonia", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", "Ġand", "ĠGreece", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", ".", "ĠTir", "ana", "Ġis", "Ġits", "Ġcapital", "Ġand", "Ġlargest", "Ġcity", ",", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "ĠDur", "r", "ë", "s", ",", "ĠV", "lor", "ë", "Ġand", "ĠSh", "k", "od", "ë", "r", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlbania", "Ġdisplays", "Ġvaried", "Ġclim", "atic", ",", "Ġgeological", ",", "Ġhyd", "rol", "ogical", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmorph", "ological", "Ġconditions", ",", "Ġdefined", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġ.", "ĠIt", "Ġpossesses", "Ġsignificant", "Ġdiversity", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġlandscape", "Ġranging", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġsnow", "-", "c", "apped", "Ġmountains", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAlban", "ian", "ĠAlps", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠKor", "ab", ",", "ĠSk", "ander", "be", "g", ",", "ĠP", "ind", "us", "Ġand", "ĠCer", "aun", "ian", "ĠMountains", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġhot", "Ġand", "Ġsunny", "Ġcoasts", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAlban", "ian", "ĠAd", "ri", "atic", "Ġand", "ĠI", "onian", "ĠSea", "Ġalong", "Ġthe", "ĠMediterranean", "ĠSea", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlbania", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġinhabited", "Ġby", "Ġdifferent", "Ġcivil" ]
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December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts. Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Ashura are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh community and the Hindu festival Diwali by the Hindu community. National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 under King Amanullah Khan and the country's full independence. Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as International Workers' Day and International Women's Day. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the Wakhi and Kyrgyz peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in Mazar-i-Sharif and the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province. Sports Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation. Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in the country. The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf, handball, boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodybuilding, track and field, skating, bowling, snooker, chess, and other sports. Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international events. basketball team won the first team sports title at the 2010 South Asian Games. Later that year, the country's cricket team followed it with the winning of 2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup. In 2012, the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian Beach Games. In 2013, Afghanistan's football team followed as it won the SAFF Championship. The Afghan national cricket team, which was formed in 2001, participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One and the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the 2015 Cricket World Cup. The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium near Jalalabad. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces. The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is buzkashi, mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The Afghan Hound (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was formerly used in wolf hunting. In 2002, traveler Rory Stewart reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas. See also Outline of Afghanistan Notes References Bibliography External links Afghanistan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Research Guide to Afghanistan 1709 establishments in Asia Central Asian countries Countries in Asia Iranian countries and territories Iranian Plateau Landlocked countries Least developed countries Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Current member states of the United Nations Pashto-speaking countries and territories Persian-speaking countries and territories South Asian countries States and territories established in 1709 States and territories established in 1747 Disputed territories in Asia Islamic states <|endoftext|>Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea within the Mediterranean Sea and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. Tirana is its capital and largest city, followed by Durrës, Vlorë and Shkodër. Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions, defined in an area of . It possesses significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps as well as the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains to the hot and sunny coasts of the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea along the Mediterranean Sea. Albania has been inhabited by different civil
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592
isations over time, such as the Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians and Ottomans. The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbër in the 12th century. The Kingdom of Albania and Principality of Albania formed between the 13th and 14th centuries. Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania in the 15th century, the Albanian resistance to Ottoman expansion into Europe led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim over most of Europe. Albania remained under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries, during which many Albanians (known as Arnauts) attained high-ranking offices in the empire, especially in the Southern Balkans and Egypt. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the Balkan Wars, the modern nation state of Albania declared independence in 1912. In the 20th century, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy which formed Greater Albania before becoming a protectorate of Nazi Germany. Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II, modeled under the terms of Hoxhaism. The Revolutions of 1991 concluded the fall of communism in Albania and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania. Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a developing country with an upper-middle income economy dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from centralised planning to a market-based economy. Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO, NATO, WTO, COE, OSCE, and OIC. It is an official candidate for membership in the European Union since 2014. It is one of the founding members of the Energy Community, including the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and Union for the Mediterranean. Etymology The term Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country. It may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of Albani () recorded by Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer from Alexandria, who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of Albanopolis located northeast of Durrës. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country and referred to themselves as . Nowadays, Albanians call their country . The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onwards, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles". History Prehistory The first attested traces of neanderthal presence in the territory of Albania dates back to the middle and upper Paleolithic period and were discovered in Xarrë and at Mount Dajt in the adjacent region of Tirana. Archaeological sites from this period include the Kamenica Tumulus, Konispol Cave and Pellumbas Cave. The discovered objects in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. They also demonstrate notable similarities with objects of the equivalent period found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and northwestern Greece. Multiple artefacts from the Iron and Bronze Ages near tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania, which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern Macedonia and Lefkada. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo-European people who spoke a Proto-Greek language. Hence, a part of this historical population later moved to Mycenae around 1600 BC and properly established the Mycenaean civilisation. Antiquity In ancient times, the incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples, among them numerous Illyrian tribes, Ancient Greeks and Thracians. In view of the Illyrian tribes, there is no evidence that these tribes used any
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593
collective nomenclature for themselves, while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used a common endonym. The endonym Illyrians seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in liaison with the Ancient Greeks resulting in the endonym Illyrians to be applied pars pro toto to all people of similar language and customs. The territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of the Vjosë. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the Bryges while the south was inhabited by the Ancient Greek-speaking tribe of the Chaonians, whose capital was at Phoenice. Other colonies such as Apollonia, Epidamnos and Amantia, were established by Ancient Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC. The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe, centred in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of Albania. Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron, the son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, Teuta, inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions. Middle Ages The Roman Empire was split in 395 upon the death of Theodosius I into an Eastern and Western Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the Barbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the Slavs crossed the Danube and largely absorbed the indigenous Ancient Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the Balkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century. In the 11th century, the Great Schism formalised the break of communion between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Church that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of River Shkumbin and established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 under the leadership of Progon of Kruja. The realm was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri. Upon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem of Kruja. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of the Byzantine Empire, under the Byzantine Doukai of Epirus or Laskarids of Nicaea. Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, Serbs and Venetians started to take possession over the territory. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianised. Few years after the dissolution of Arbanon, Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from the Despotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from Dyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down to Butrint. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta. During that time
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594
, several Albanian principalities were created, notably the Principality of Albania, Principality of Kastrioti, Lordship of Berat and Principality of Dukagjini. In the first half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania, and the League of Lezhë was held under Skanderbeg as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history. Ottoman Empire With the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into Southeast Europe. They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 and erected their garrisons across Southern Albania in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. The Albanians, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy taxes among others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the Janissary. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of Islamisation and the rapid construction of mosques which consequently modified the religious picture of Albania. A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the Assembly of Lezhë until the Siege of Shkodër under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the Lord of Albania. Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe also among others financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa. When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of Vlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe. The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, most Catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while Orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers. Others included members of the prominent Köprülü family, Zagan Pasha, Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. Furthermore, two sultans, Bayezid II and Mehmed III, both had mothers of Albanian origin. Rilindja The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an independent nation. Modern Albanian culture flourished too, especially Albanian literature and arts, and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Prior to the rise of nationalism, Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries, and Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. Through literature, Albanians started to make a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the Russian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Treaty of Berlin.
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",", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġwas", "Ġeventually", "Ġreplaced", "Ġby", "Ġanother", "Ġmonarchy", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġsupport", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġfascist", "Ġregime", "Ġof", "ĠItaly", "Ġhowever", "," ]
595
From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the League of Prizren. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the Ottoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defence of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league Committee of the Real Muslims. Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from Vilayet of Scutari. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the Kararname that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia and Herzegovina are willing to defend the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under Abdyl Frashëri, became focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets, including Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir and Ioannina, into an unified vilayet, the Albanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the Battle of Novšiće, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan. Independence Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied with the establishment of the Senate and Government by the Assembly of Vlorë on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London. On 29 July 1913, the Treaty of London delineated the borders of the country and its neighbours, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece. Headquartered in Vlorë, the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied (Princ Vilhelm Vidi) was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land. In February 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the saviour of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince Wied appointed their leader, Prênk Bibë Doda, to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men, mostly from Kosovo, and northern Mirdita Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914. First Republic Following the end of the government of Fan Noli, the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King Zog I of Albania (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) served as the head of state for a seven-year term. Immediately after, Tirana was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital. The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the country was eventually replaced by another monarchy with a strong support by the fascist regime of Italy however,
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"Ġmain", "Ġmilitary", "Ġand", "Ġpolitical", "Ġforce", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnation", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCommunist", "Ġparty", "Ġsent", "Ġforces", "Ġto", "Ġnorthern", "ĠAlbania", "Ġagainst", "Ġthe", "Ġnationalists", "Ġto", "Ġeliminate", "Ġits", "Ġrivals", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġfaced", "Ġopen", "Ġresistance", "Ġin", "ĠNik", "aj", "-", "M", "ë", "rt", "ur", ",", "ĠD", "uk", "ag", "jin", "Ġand", "ĠKel", "m", "end", "Ġled", "Ġby", "ĠPre", "k", "ĠCal", "i", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġ15", "ĠJanuary", "Ġ1945", ",", "Ġa", "Ġclash", "Ġtook", "Ġplace", "Ġbetween", "Ġpartisans", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠBrigade", "Ġand", "Ġnationalist", "Ġforces", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠTam", "ara", "ĠBridge", ",", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdefeat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnationalist", "Ġforces", ".", "ĠAbout", "Ġ150", "ĠKel", "m", "endi", "Ġpeople", "Ġwere", "Ġkilled", "Ġor", "Ġtortured", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġevent", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġstarting", "Ġpoint", "Ġof", "Ġmany", "Ġother", "Ġissues", "Ġwhich", "Ġtook", "Ġplace", "Ġduring", "ĠEn", "ver", "ĠH", "ox", "ha", "'s", "Ġdictatorship", ".", "ĠClass", "Ġstruggle", "Ġwas", "Ġstrictly", "Ġapplied", ",", "Ġhuman", "Ġfreedom", "Ġand", "Ġhuman", "Ġrights", "Ġwere", "Ġdenied", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠKel", "m", "end", "Ġregion", "Ġwas", "Ġalmost", "Ġisolated", "Ġby", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġborder", "Ġand", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġlack", "Ġof", "Ġroads", "Ġfor", "Ġanother", "Ġ20", "Ġyears", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġinstitution", "Ġof", "Ġagricultural", "Ġcooper", "atives", "Ġbrought", "Ġabout", "Ġeconomic", "Ġdecline", ".", "ĠMany", "ĠKel", "m", "endi", "Ġpeople", "Ġfled", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġwere", "Ġexecuted", "Ġtrying", "Ġto", "Ġcross", "Ġthe", "Ġborder", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCommunism", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġaftermath", "Ġof", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", "ĠII", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġdefeat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAxis", "ĠPowers", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġbecame", "Ġinitially", "Ġa", "Ġsatellite", "Ġstate", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ",", "Ġand", "ĠEn", "ver", "ĠH", "ox", "ha", "Ġemerged", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġleader", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnewly", "Ġestablished", "ĠPeople", "'s", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠAlbania", ".", "ĠSoviet", "-", "Al", "ban", "ian", "Ġrelations", "Ġbegan", "Ġto", "Ġdeterior", "ate", "Ġafter", "ĠStalin", "'s", "Ġdeath", "Ġin", "Ġ1953", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthis", "Ġpoint", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġstarted", "Ġto", "Ġdevelop", "Ġforeign", "Ġrelations", "Ġwith", "Ġother", "Ġcommunist", "Ġcountries", ",", "Ġamong", "Ġothers", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠPeople", "'s", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠChina", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthis", "Ġperiod", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġexperienced", "Ġan", "Ġincreasing", "Ġindustrial", "isation", "Ġand", "Ġurban", "isation", ",", "Ġa", "Ġrapid", "Ġcollect", "iv", "isation", "Ġand", "Ġeconomic", "Ġgrowth", "Ġwhich", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġhigher", "Ġstandard", "Ġof", "Ġliving", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġgovernment", "Ġcalled", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġinfrastructure", "Ġand", "Ġmost", "Ġnotably", "Ġthe", "Ġintroduction", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġrailway", "Ġsystem", "Ġthat", "Ġcompletely", "Ġrevamped", "Ġtransportation", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġnew", "Ġland", "Ġreform", "Ġlaws", "Ġwere", "Ġpassed", "Ġgranting", "Ġownership", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġland", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġworkers", "Ġand", "Ġpeasants", "Ġwho", "Ġt", "illed", "Ġit", ".", "ĠAgriculture", "Ġbecame", "Ġcooperative", ",", "Ġand", "Ġproduction", "Ġincreased", "Ġsignificantly", ",", "Ġleading", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġbecoming", "Ġagric", "ult", "urally", "Ġself", "-", "sufficient", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġfield", "Ġof", "Ġeducation", ",", "Ġilliter", "acy", "Ġwas", "Ġeliminated", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġadult", "Ġpopulation", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġgovernment", "Ġalso", "Ġoversaw", "Ġthe", "Ġemancipation", "Ġof", "Ġwomen", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġexpansion", "Ġof", "Ġhealthcare", "Ġand", "Ġeducation", "Ġthroughout", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġaverage", "Ġannual", "Ġincrease", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġnational", "Ġincome", "Ġwas", "Ġ29", "%", "Ġand", "Ġ56", "%", "Ġhigher", "Ġthan", 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596
both maintained close relations until the Italian invasion of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure. In an attempt at social modernisation, the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. After being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943, the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency of the Kingdom of Italy governed by Victor Emmanuel III and his government. In October 1940, Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian invasion of Greece. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the German invasion. In April 1941, territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia, a strip of eastern Montenegro, the town of Tutin in central Serbia and most of Kosovo. Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government, military and law enforcement. Balli Kombëtar, which had fought against Italy, formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led National Liberation Movement of Albania. During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as the head of government. By the end of the Second World War, the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur, Dukagjin and Kelmend led by Prek Cali. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 Kelmendi people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border. Communism In the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the Axis Powers, the country became initially a satellite state of the Soviet Union, and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established People's Republic of Albania. Soviet-Albanian relations began to deteriorate after Stalin's death in 1953. At this point, the country started to develop foreign relations with other communist countries, among others with the People's Republic of China. During this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a railway system that completely revamped transportation. The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became cooperative, and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country. The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average, respectively. The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals, instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations, with much the same effect. Today a secular state without any official religion, religious freedoms and practises were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the waqfs along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the ulema and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949
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"Ġrefugees", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcrisis", "Ġled", "Ġboth", "ĠAle", "ks", "and", "ë", "r", "ĠMe", "ks", "i", "Ġand", "ĠSal", "i", "ĠBer", "isha", "Ġto", "Ġresign", "Ġfrom", "Ġoffice", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwake", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġelection", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠApril", "Ġ1997", ",", "ĠOperation", "ĠAl", "ba", ",", "Ġa", "ĠUN", "Ġpeace", "keeping", "Ġforce", "Ġled", "Ġby", "ĠItaly", ",", "Ġentered", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġwith", "Ġtwo", "Ġgoals", "Ġexclusively", "Ġto", "Ġassist", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġevacuation", "Ġof", "Ġexp", "atri", "ates", "Ġand", "Ġto", "Ġsecure", "Ġthe", "Ġground", "Ġfor", "Ġinternational", "Ġorganisations", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmain", "Ġinternational", "Ġorganisation", "Ġthat", "Ġwas", "Ġinvolved", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "ĠWestern", "ĠEuropean", "ĠUnion", "'s", "Ġmultinational", "ĠAlban", "ian", "ĠPolice", "Ġelement", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġworked", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġgovernment", "Ġto", "Ġrest", "ructure", "Ġthe", "Ġjudicial", "Ġsystem", "Ġand", "Ġsimultaneously", "Ġthe", "ĠAlban", 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"Ġand", "Ġ2017", "Ġparliamentary", "Ġelections", ".", "ĠAs", "ĠPrime", "ĠMinister", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġimplemented", "Ġnumerous", "Ġreforms", "Ġfocused", "Ġon", "Ġmodern", "ising", "Ġthe", "Ġeconomy", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġdemocrat", "ising", "Ġstate", "Ġinstitutions", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġjudiciary", "Ġand", "Ġlaw", "Ġenforcement", ".", "ĠUnemployment", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġsteadily", "Ġreduced", ",", "Ġwith", "ĠAlbania", "Ġachieving", "Ġthe", "Ġ4", "th", "Ġlowest", "Ġunemployment", "Ġrate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠBalkans", ".", "ĠR", "ama", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġplaced", "Ġgender", "Ġequality", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġcentre", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġagenda", ";", "Ġsince", "Ġ2017", "Ġalmost", "Ġ50", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġministers", "Ġare", "Ġfemale", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġwomen", "Ġserving", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġhistory", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "Ġ26", "ĠNovember", "Ġ2019", ",", "Ġa", "Ġ6", ".", "4", "Ġmagnitude", "Ġearthquake", "Ġravaged", 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"Ġstate", "Ġof", "Ġemergency", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmeasure", "Ġto", "Ġlimit", "Ġthe", "Ġrapid", "Ġspread", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpand", "emic", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "ĠCO", "VID", "-", "19", "Ġvaccination", "Ġcampaign", "Ġstarted", "Ġon", "Ġ11", "ĠJanuary", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġas", "Ġof", "Ġ11", "ĠAugust", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtotal", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġvaccines", "Ġadministered", "Ġso", "Ġfar", "Ġin", "ĠAlbania", "Ġamounts", "Ġto", "Ġ1", ",", "280", ",", "239", "Ġdoses", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġ2021", "Ġparliamentary", "Ġelections", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġruling", "ĠSocialist", "ĠParty", "Ġled", "Ġby", "ĠEd", "i", "ĠR", "ama", "Ġsecured", "Ġits", "Ġthird", "Ġconsecutive", "Ġvictory", ",", "Ġwinning", "Ġnearly", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġvotes", "Ġand", "Ġenough", "Ġseats", "Ġin", "Ġparliament", "Ġto", "Ġgovern", "Ġalone", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGe", "ography", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAlbania", "Ġhas", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġ", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġlocated", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠBalk", "an", "ĠPeninsula", "Ġin", "ĠSouth", "Ġand", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠEurope", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġshore", "line", "Ġfaces", "Ġthe", "ĠAd", "ri", "atic", "ĠSea", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthwest", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "onian", "ĠSea", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsouthwest", "Ġalong", "Ġthe", "ĠMediterranean", "ĠSea", ".", "ĠAlbania", "Ġlies", "Ġbetween", "Ġlat", "itudes", "Ġ42", "°", "Ġand", "Ġ39", "°", "ĠN", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlong", "itudes" ]
597
, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone. After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda. Preaching religion carried a three to ten-year prison sentence. Nonetheless, many Albanians continued to practise their beliefs secretly. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: "The state recognises no religion", states the 1976 constitution, "and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people". Fourth Republic After forty years of communism and isolation as well as the revolutions of 1989, people, most notably students, became politically active and campaigned against the government that led to the transformation of the existing order. Following the popular support in the first multi-party elections of 1991, the communists retained a stronghold in the parliament until the victory in the general elections of 1992 led by the Democratic Party. Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the International Monetary Fund, Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees. The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police. Contemporary Following the disintegration of the communist system, Albania focused on an active process of Westernisation with the goal of accession to the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In 2009, the country, together with Croatia, gained active membership in NATO, becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to do so. It also applied to join the European Union on 28 April 2009, receiving official candidate status on 24 June 2014. Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections. As Prime Minister, he implemented numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy, as well as democratising state institutions, including the country's judiciary and law enforcement. Unemployment has been steadily reduced, with Albania achieving the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. Rama has also placed gender equality at the centre of his agenda; since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers are female, the largest number of women serving in the country's history. On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with the epicentre positioned southwest of the town of Mamurras. The tremor was felt in Tirana and in places as far away as Taranto, Italy, and Belgrade, Serbia, while the most affected areas were the coastal city of Durrës and the village of Kodër-Thumanë. Response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid from the Albanian diaspora and several countries around the world. On 9 March 2020, COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June 2020, the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. The country's COVID-19 vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021, however, as of 11 August 2021, the total number of vaccines administered so far in Albania amounts to 1,280,239 doses. During the 2021 parliamentary elections, the ruling Socialist Party led by Edi Rama secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone. Geography Albania has an area of and is located on the Balkan Peninsula in South and Southeast Europe. Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and the Ionian Sea to the southwest along the Mediterranean Sea. Albania lies between latitudes 42° and 39° N, and longitudes
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"Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġest", "u", "aries", ",", "Ġwetlands", "Ġand", "Ġlakes", "Ġare", "Ġextraordinarily", "Ġimportant", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġgreater", "Ġflaming", "o", ",", "Ġpy", "g", "my", "Ġc", "orm", "or", "ant", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġextremely", "Ġrare", "Ġand", "Ġperhaps", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġiconic", "Ġbird", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġd", "al", "mat", "ian", "Ġpel", "ican", ".", "ĠOf", "Ġparticular", "Ġimportance", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġmed", "iterranean", "Ġmonk", "Ġseal", ",", "Ġlogger", "head", "Ġsea", "Ġturtle", "Ġand", "Ġgreen", "Ġsea", "Ġturtle", "Ġthat", "Ġuse", "Ġto", "Ġnest", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġcoastal", "Ġwaters", "Ġand", "Ġshores", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġterms", "Ġof", "Ġph", "y", "to", "ge", "ography", ",", "ĠAlbania", "Ġis", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠB", "oreal", "ĠKingdom", "Ġand", "Ġstretches", "Ġspecifically", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "ĠIll", "y", "rian", "Ġprovince", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCirc", "umb", "oreal", "Ġand", "ĠMediterranean", "ĠRegion" ]
598
21° and 19° E. Its northernmost point is Vërmosh at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude; the southernmost is Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Sazan at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Vërnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude. The highest point is Mount Korab at above the Adriatic; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at . The distance from the east to west is and from the north to south about . For a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest and the Skanderbeg Mountains in the centre. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake in Southern Europe and located in northwest. In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin. Of particular concern is the Vjosë, which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe. Climate The climate in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Defined by the Köppen classification, it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from mediterranean and subtropical in the western half to oceanic, continental and subarctic in the eastern half of Albania. The warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the northern and eastern highlands. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter to in summer. The highest temperature of was recorded in Kuçovë on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of was registered in the village of Shtyllë, Librazhd on 9 January 2017. Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about . The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographical location. The northwestern and southeastern highlands receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst the northeastern and southwestern highlands as well as the Western Lowlands the more limited amount. The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least of rain annually. An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of , which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country, particularly on the mountains in the north and east, including the Albanian Alps and Korab Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the Ceraunian Mountains, where it can lie even beyond March. Biodiversity A biodiversity hotspot, Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of its geographical location at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and the great diversity in its climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most endangered species of the country, the lynx and brown bear, as well as the wildcat, grey wolf, red fox, golden jackal, egyptian vulture and golden eagle, the latter constituting the national animal of the country. The estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo, pygmy cormorant and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the dalmatian pelican. Of particular importance are the mediterranean monk seal, loggerhead sea turtle and green sea turtle that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores. In terms of phytogeography, Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom and stretches specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal and Mediterranean Region
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"Ġpolice", "Ġduties", "Ġincluding", "Ġcriminal", "Ġinvestigation", ",", "Ġpatrol", "Ġactivity", ",", "Ġtraffic", "Ġpolicing", "Ġand", "Ġborder", "Ġcontrol", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġexecutive", "Ġpower", "Ġis", "Ġexercised", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġpresident", "Ġand", "Ġprime", "Ġminister", "Ġwhereby", "Ġthe", "Ġpower", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpresident", "Ġis", "Ġvery", "Ġlimited", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpresident", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcommander", "-", "in", "-", "chief", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmilitary", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġrepresentative", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġunity", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġpeople", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtenure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpresident", "Ġdepends", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġconfidence", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġparliament", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġelected", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġfive", "-", "year", "Ġterm", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġparliament", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "Ġthree", "-", "fif", "ths", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġits", "Ġmembers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġprime", "Ġminister", ",", "Ġappointed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġpresident", "Ġand", "Ġapproved", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġparliament", ",", "Ġis", "Ġauthorised", "Ġto", "Ġconstitute", "Ġthe", "Ġcabinet", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcabinet", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġprimarily", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprime", "Ġminister", "Ġin", "clusively", "Ġits", "Ġdeputies", "Ġand", "Ġministers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠForeign", "Ġrelations", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġsince", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġcommunism", "Ġand", "Ġisolation", "ism", ",", "ĠAlbania", "Ġhas", "Ġextended" ]
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. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm namely within the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests. Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a Mediterranean and Eurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of fir, oak, beech and pine. Protected areas The protected areas of Albania are areas designated and managed by the Albanian government. There are 15 national parks, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated national parks scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous two-thousanders, Valbonë Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory of within the rugged Albanian Alps in northern Albania. Shebenik-Jabllanicë National Park and Prespa National Park protect the mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the Great and Small Lakes of Prespa. Divjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the Mediterranean Sea, the Lagoon of Karavasta. The Ceraunian Mountains in southern Albania, rising immediately along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, characterises the topographical picture of Llogara National Park and continue on the Peninsula of Karaburun within the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park. Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that is surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and Channel of Vivari on the eastern half of the Straits of Corfu. Dajti National Park is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana. Environmental issues Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation. Climate change is predicted to have serious effects on the living conditions in Albania. The country is recognised as vulnerable to climate change impacts, ranked 80 among 181 countries in the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index of 2019. Factors that account for the country's vulnerability to climate change risks include geological and hydrological hazards, including earthquakes, flooding, fires, landslides, torrential rains, river and coastal erosion. As a party to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, Albania is committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45% and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of the climate change. The country has a moderate and improving performance in the Environmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2020. Albania's ranking has however decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012. In 2019, Albania had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77 from 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries. Governance Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign state whose politics operate under a framework laid out in the constitution wherein the president functions as the head of state and the prime minister as the head of government. The sovereignty is vested in the Albanian people and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly. The government is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the legislative, judiciary and executive. The legislative power is held by the parliament and is elected every four years by a system of party-list proportional representation by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic suffrage by secret ballot. The civil law, codified and based on the Napoleonic Code, is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The judicial power is vested in the supreme court, constitutional court, appeal court and administrative court. Law enforcement in the country is primarily the responsibility of the Albanian Police, the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control. The executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the commander-in-chief of the military and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the confidence of the parliament and is elected for a five-year term by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament, is authorised to constitute the cabinet. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers. Foreign relations In the time since the end of communism and isolationism, Albania has extended