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using three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements. On Earth The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to planetary differentiation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements. The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica, forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii. Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium. Despite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm) or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm, comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is spodumene, which occurs in large deposits worldwide. Rubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, zinnwaldite, and lepidolite, although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten, but is much less abundant than rubidium. Francium-223, the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the product of the alpha decay of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the earth's crust at any time, due to its extremely short half-life of 22 minutes. Properties Physical and chemical The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation, and dissociation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, as well as very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high
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401
second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity; thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations. The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar ionic radii; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li+ ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase. The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, and barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble. All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored in mineral oil or kerosene (paraffin oil). They react aggressively with the halogens to form the alkali metal halides, which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all soluble in water except lithium fluoride (Li F). The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods of the periodic table because of their low effective nuclear charge and the ability to attain a noble gas configuration by losing just one electron. Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like alcohols and phenols, gaseous ammonia, and alkynes, the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides. The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus; thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations. The alkalides are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form anions and were thought to be able to appear in salts only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells, which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides, and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and low ionisation potentials. Alkalides are chemically similar to the electrides, which are salts with trapped electrons acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse sodium hydride", H+Na− (both ions being complexed), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na+H−: it is unstable in
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".", "ĠThis", "Ġeffect", "Ġalso", "Ġmeans", "Ġthat", "Ġmost", "Ġsimple", "Ġlithium", "Ġsalts", "Ġare", "Ġcommonly", "Ġencountered", "Ġin", "Ġhyd", "rated", "Ġform", ",", "Ġbecause", "Ġthe", "Ġan", "hyd", "rous", "Ġforms", "Ġare", "Ġextremely", "Ġhy", "gro", "sc", "opic", ":", "Ġthis", "Ġallows", "Ġsalts", "Ġlike", "Ġlithium", "Ġchloride", "Ġand", "Ġlithium", "Ġb", "rom", "ide", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġde", "hum", "id", "ifiers", "Ġand", "Ġair", "-", "condition", "ers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFran", "cium", "Ġ", "ĠFran", "cium", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġpredicted", "Ġto", "Ġshow", "Ġsome", "Ġdifferences", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġhigh", "Ġatomic", "Ġweight", ",", "Ġcausing", "Ġits", "Ġelectrons", "Ġto", "Ġtravel", "Ġat", "Ġconsiderable", "Ġfractions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġspeed", "Ġof", "Ġlight", "Ġand", "Ġthus", "Ġmaking", "Ġrelat", "iv", "istic", "Ġeffects", "Ġmore", "Ġprominent", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġcontrast", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġtrend", "Ġof", "Ġdecreasing", "Ġelectr", "one", "gat", "ivities", "Ġand", "Ġion", "isation", "Ġenergies", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", ",", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "'s", "Ġelectr", "one", "g", "ativity", "Ġand", "Ġion", "isation", "Ġenergy", "Ġare", "Ġpredicted", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġhigher", "Ġthan", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "'s", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġrelat", "iv", "istic", "Ġstabil", "isation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ7", "s", "Ġelectrons", ";", "Ġalso", ",", "Ġits", "Ġatomic", "Ġradius", "Ġis", "Ġexpected", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġabnorm", "ally", "Ġlow", ".", "ĠThus", ",", "Ġcontrary", "Ġto", "Ġexpectation", ",", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġreactive", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġknown", "Ġphysical", "Ġproperties", "Ġof", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "Ġalso", "Ġdev", "iate", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġclear", "Ġtrends", "Ġgoing", "Ġfrom", "Ġlithium", "Ġto", "Ġca", "es", "ium", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġion", "isation", "Ġenergy", ",", "Ġelectron", "Ġaffinity", ",", "Ġand", "Ġan", "ion", "Ġpolar", "is", "ability", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġp", "auc", "ity", "Ġof", "Ġknown", "Ġdata", "Ġabout", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "Ġmany", "Ġsources", "Ġgive", "Ġextrap", "olated", "Ġvalues", ",", "Ġignoring", "Ġthat", "Ġrelat", "iv", "istic", "Ġeffects", "Ġmake", "Ġthe", "Ġtrend", "Ġfrom", "Ġlithium", "Ġto", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "Ġbecome", "Ġin", "app", "lic", "able", "Ġat", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfew", "Ġproperties", "Ġof", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġpredicted", "Ġtaking", "Ġrelativity", "Ġinto", "Ġaccount", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġelectron", "Ġaffinity", "Ġ(", "47", ".", "2", "Ġk", "J", "/", "mol", ")", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġent", "hal", "py", "Ġof", "Ġdiss", "ociation", "Ġof", "Ġthe" ]
402
isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be metastable or stable. In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula [M(H2O)n]+, where n is the solvation number. Their coordination numbers and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the first coordination sphere, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a dative covalent bond, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by hydrogen bonds to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to polarise the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. The solvation number for Li+ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the tetrahedral [Li(H2O)4]+: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact ion pairs, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach [Li(H2O)4]+ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an octahedral hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral [Na(H2O)6]+ ion. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the [K(H2O)8]+ and [Rb(H2O)8]+ ions, which have the square antiprismatic structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate [Cs(H2O)12]+ ion. Lithium The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li+ cation polarises anions and gives its compounds a more covalent character. Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable nitride, a property common among all the alkaline earth metals (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form organometallic compounds with significant covalent character (e.g. LiMe and MgMe2). Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent. Conversely, lithium perchlorate and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li+ has a high solvation energy. This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely hygroscopic: this allows salts like lithium chloride and lithium bromide to be used in dehumidifiers and air-conditioners. Francium Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high atomic weight, causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making relativistic effects more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing electronegativities and ionisation energies of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its atomic radius is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47.2 kJ/mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the
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"24", "Ġare", "Ġtrace", "Ġradio", "is", "ot", "opes", "Ġproduced", "Ġcos", "m", "ogen", "ically", ",", "Ġpotassium", "-", "40", "Ġand", "Ġrub", "idium", "-", "87", "Ġhave", "Ġvery", "Ġlong", "Ġhalf", "-", "l", "ives", "Ġand", "Ġthus", "Ġoccur", "Ġnaturally", ",", "Ġand", "Ġall", "Ġisot", "opes", "Ġof", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "Ġare", "Ġradioactive", ".", "ĠCa", "es", "ium", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġradioactive", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġno", "Ġnaturally", "Ġoccurring", "Ġradio", "is", "ot", "opes", ".", "Ġ(", "Fran", "cium", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġbeen", "Ġdiscovered", "Ġyet", "Ġat", "Ġthat", "Ġtime", ".)", "ĠThe", "Ġnatural", "Ġlong", "-", "lived", "Ġradio", "is", "ot", "ope", "Ġof", "Ġpotassium", ",", "Ġpotassium", "-", "40", ",", "Ġmakes", "Ġup", "Ġabout", "Ġ0", ".", "012", "%", "Ġof", "Ġnatural", "Ġpotassium", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthus", "Ġnatural", "Ġpotassium", "Ġis", "Ġweak", "ly", "Ġradioactive", ".", "ĠThis", 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"Ġafter", "Ġuse", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġconstitutes", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġradio", "activity", "Ġstill", "Ġleft", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠChern", "obyl", "Ġaccident", ".", "ĠCa", "es", "ium", "-", "137", "Ġundergo", "es", "Ġhigh", "-", "energy", "Ġbeta", "Ġdecay", "Ġand", "Ġeventually", "Ġbecomes", "Ġstable", "Ġbar", "ium", "-", "137", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġem", "itter", "Ġof", "Ġgamma", "Ġradiation", ".", "ĠCa", "es", "ium", "-", "137", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġvery", "Ġlow", "Ġrate", "Ġof", "Ġneutron", "Ġcapture", "Ġand", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġfeas", "ibly", "Ġdisposed", "Ġof", "Ġin", "Ġthis", "Ġway", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġmust", "Ġbe", "Ġallowed", "Ġto", "Ġdecay", ".", "ĠCa", "es", "ium", "-", "137", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġtr", "acer", "Ġin", "Ġhyd", "rolog", "ic", "Ġstudies", ",", "Ġanalogous", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġtr", "it", "ium", ".", "ĠSmall", "Ġamounts", "Ġof", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "-", "134", "Ġand", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "-", "137", "Ġwere", "Ġreleased", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġenvironment", "Ġduring", "Ġnearly", "Ġall", "Ġnuclear", "Ġweapon", "Ġtests", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġnuclear", "Ġaccidents", ",", "Ġmost", "Ġnotably", "Ġthe", "ĠGo", "i", "â", "nia", "Ġaccident", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠChern", "obyl", "Ġdisaster", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġof", "Ġ2005", ",", "Ġca", "es", "ium", "-", "137", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġprincipal", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġradiation", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġzone", "Ġof", "Ġalienation", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "ĠChern", "obyl", "Ġnuclear", "Ġpower", "Ġplant", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġchemical", "Ġproperties", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", "Ġmake", "Ġit", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġmost", "Ġproblematic", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġshort", "-", "to", "-", "medium", "-", "lif", "etime", "Ġf", "ission", "Ġproducts", "Ġbecause", "Ġit", "Ġeasily", "Ġmoves", "Ġand", "Ġspreads", "Ġin", "Ġnature", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġhigh", "Ġwater", "Ġsol", "ub", "ility", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġsalts", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġtaken", "Ġup", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġmistakes", "Ġit", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġessential", "Ġcongen", "ers", "Ġsodium", "Ġand", "Ġpotassium", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPeriod", "ic", "Ġtrends", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", "Ġare", "Ġmore", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġeach", "Ġother", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġelements", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġother", "Ġgroup", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġeach", "Ġother", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġinstance", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġmoving", "Ġdown", "Ġthe", "Ġtable", ",", "Ġall", "Ġknown", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", "Ġshow", "Ġincreasing", "Ġatomic", "Ġradius", ",", "Ġdecreasing", "Ġelectr", "one" ]
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Fr2 molecule (42.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium. Nuclear All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either odd–odd (both proton and neutron number are odd) or odd–even (proton number is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even mass numbers, whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd primordial nuclides are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived radioisotope potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number (isobars) free to beta decay toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. Beryllium is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number. All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope: sodium-22 and sodium-24 are trace radioisotopes produced cosmogenically, potassium-40 and rubidium-87 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally, and all isotopes of francium are radioactive. Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87. Caesium-137, with a half-life of 30.17 years, is one of the two principal medium-lived fission products, along with strontium-90, which are responsible for most of the radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the Chernobyl accident. Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable barium-137. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay. Caesium-137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of tritium. Small amounts of caesium-134 and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents, most notably the Goiânia accident and the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium. Periodic trends The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electrone
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gativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. Atomic and ionic radii The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the shielding effect, when an atom has more than one electron shell, each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals, the outermost electron only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the nuclear charge (which is equal to the atomic number) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group. The ionic radii of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different electron shell than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the effective nuclear charge has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases. First ionisation energy The first ionisation energy of an element or molecule is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one mole of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with electric charge +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge, the amount of shielding by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in main group elements. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. (This trend is broken in francium due to the relativistic stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.) The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled electron shell and is thus difficult to remove. Reactivity The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and atomisation energies of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in chemical reactions, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the metallic bond of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in radius and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the activation energy of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group. Electronegativity Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent, the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an ionic bond). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception. Because of
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"Ġcharged", "Ġmetal", "Ġsurface", "Ġand", "Ġnegatively", "Ġcharged", "Ġwater", "Ġions", "." ]
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the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, lithium iodide (Li I) will dissolve in organic solvents, a property of most covalent compounds. Lithium fluoride (LiF) is the only alkali halide that is not soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent. Melting and boiling points The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes state from solid to liquid while the boiling point of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. (The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.) Density The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure (body-centred cubic) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at room temperature. Compounds The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na. Hydroxides All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an aqueous solution of a strongly basic alkali metal hydroxide and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with effervescence, but sodium and potassium can ignite, and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing hydrogen gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water). The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides. Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a Coulomb explosion rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions.
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406
The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes. The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give oligomeric alkoxides. They easily react with carbon dioxide to form carbonates or bicarbonates, or with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfides or bisulfides, and may be used to separate thiols from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of aluminium, zinc, tin, and lead react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. Silicon dioxide is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack silicate glass. Intermetallic compounds The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each other and the elements from groups 2 to 13 in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the sodium amalgams with mercury, including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and CsAu are semiconductors. NaK is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The eutectic mixture melts at −12.6 °C. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C. Compounds with the group 13 elements The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium), such as NaTl, are poor conductors or semiconductors, unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the Zintl anions involved. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl−—)n with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters. Boron is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal borides tend to be boron-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving deltahedral structures, and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high vapour pressure at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 °C, but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB10, NaB6, NaB15, and KB6. Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following Wade's rules to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13. Compounds with the group 14 elements Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides, Li2C2 and Na2C2, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with graphite; their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC60 (dark grey, almost black), MC48 (dark grey, almost black), MC36 (blue), MC24 (steel blue), and MC8 (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). Upon heating of KC8, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the
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conversion in sequence to KC24, KC36, KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water. While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC8, the smaller ones initially form MC6, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce buckminsterfullerene to produce solid fullerides MnC60; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where n = 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve n = 1. When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the carbon group (silicon, germanium, tin, and lead), ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the silicides M4Si4 (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M+ and tetrahedral ions. The chemistry of alkali metal germanides, involving the germanide ion Ge4− and other cluster (Zintl) ions such as , , , and [(Ge9)2]6−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion (Sn4−), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9). The monatomic plumbide ion (Pb4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia. Nitrides and pnictides Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions, and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen exothermic, forming lithium nitride. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic, so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. Sodium nitride (Na3N) and potassium nitride (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions. Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless azide salts involving the linear anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing. All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a pnictogen – phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10.3, and KP15. While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ion
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"Ġpowerful", "Ġoxid", "ising", "Ġagents", ".", "ĠSodium", "Ġper", "oxide", "Ġand", "Ġpotassium", "Ġsuper", "oxide", "Ġreact", "Ġwith", "Ġcarbon", "Ġdioxide", "Ġto", "Ġform", "Ġthe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetal", "Ġcarbon", "ate", "Ġand", "Ġoxygen", "Ġgas", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġallows", "Ġthem", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġsubmarine", "Ġair", "Ġpur", "ifiers", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġwater", "Ġvap", "our", ",", "Ġnaturally", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġbreath", ",", "Ġmakes", "Ġthe", "Ġremoval", "Ġof", "Ġcarbon", "Ġdioxide", "Ġby", "Ġpotassium", "Ġsuper", "oxide", "Ġeven", "Ġmore", "Ġefficient", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġthe", "Ġstable", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", "Ġexcept", "Ġlithium", "Ġcan", "Ġform", "Ġred", "Ġoz", "on", "ides", "Ġ(", "MO", "3", ")", "Ġthrough", "Ġlow", "-", "tem", "perature", "Ġreaction", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpowdered", "Ġan", "hyd", "rous", "Ġhyd", "rox", "ide", "Ġwith", "Ġozone", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġoz", "on", "ides", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġthen", "Ġextracted", "Ġusing", "Ġliquid", 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"Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġ(", "with", "Ġthe", "Ġexception", "Ġof", "Ġfr", "an", "cium", "'s", ").", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġexcess", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġch", "al", "c", "ogen", "Ġcan", "Ġsimilarly", "Ġresult", "Ġin", "Ġlower", "Ġch", "al", "c", "ogen", "ides", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġch", "al", "c", "ogen", "Ġions", "Ġcontaining", "Ġchains", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġch", "al", "c", "ogen", "Ġatoms", "Ġin", "Ġquestion", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġsodium", "Ġcan", "Ġreact", "Ġwith", "Ġsulfur" ]
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ic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some metallic bonding. The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine (SbH3). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds. Oxides and chalcogenides All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple oxides (containing the O2− ion), peroxides (containing the ion, where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms), superoxides (containing the ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide, but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide. Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide, while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric (spontaneously catch fire in air). The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition, the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers; the presence of water vapour, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO3) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, . Rubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1. Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 (copper-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured suboxides, such as Cs7O (bronze), Cs4O (red-violet), Cs11O3 (violet), Cs3O (dark green), CsO, Cs3O2, as well as Cs7O2. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O. The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens (sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur
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to form the sulfide (Na2S) and various polysulfides with the formula Na2Sx (x from 2 to 6), containing the ions. Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions, the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the and ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal polonides are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C. Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table, the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine), forming salts known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well-known of the twenty is certainly sodium chloride, otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water except for lithium fluoride (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li+ and F− ions, causing the electrostatic interactions between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for magnesium fluoride, consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium. The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the hydride anion acts as a pseudohalide: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the cyanides. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for lithium cyanide, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO (yellow), Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations. Coordination complexes Alkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits coordination numbers from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ([M(H2O)6)]+), with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ([Li(H2O)4)]+); the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as desiccants. Alkali metals also readily form complexes with crown ethers (e.g. 12-crown-4 for Li+, 15-crown-5 for Na+, 18-crown-6 for K+, and 21-crown-7 for Rb+) and cryptands due to electrostatic attraction. Ammonia solutions The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia, forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M+ and solvated electron e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide (MNH2, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 and rediscovered by
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410
W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a catalyst. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides, europium and ytterbium. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause identified the colour as being due to the presence of solvated electrons, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like mercury. In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M+), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), diatomic alkali metal molecules (M2) and alkali metal anions (M−). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis. Organometallic Organolithium Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds, which are bonded covalently. Organolithium compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form oligomers with the structure (RLi)x where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a carbanion, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. For use as bases, butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ((CH3Li)x), which exists in tetrameric (x = 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (x = 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially n-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the Grignard reaction. For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise aldehydes and ketones by reaction with metal carbonyls. The reaction with nickel tetracarbonyl, for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes electrophilic substitution to give the desired aldehyde (using H+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product. LiR + [Ni(CO)4] Li+[RCONi(CO)3]− Li+[RCONi(CO)3]− Li+ + RCHO + [(solvent)Ni(CO)3] Li+[RCONi(CO)3]− Li+ + R'COR + [(solvent)Ni(CO)3] Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with N,N-disubstituted amides to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with carbon monoxide. They thermally decompose to eliminate a β-hydrogen, producing alkenes and lithium hydride: another route is the reaction of ethers with alkyl- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic carboxylic acids (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal-halogen exchange. Heavier alkali metals Unlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide. Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is Schlosser's base
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"Ġcombustion", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetal", "Ġper", "ox", "ides", "Ġare", "Ġion", "ic", "Ġcompounds", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġunstable", "Ġin", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġper", "oxide", "Ġan", "ion", "Ġis", "Ġweak", "ly", "Ġbound", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġc", "ation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġhydro", "lys", "ed", ",", "Ġforming", "Ġstronger", "Ġc", "oval", "ent", "Ġbonds", ".", "ĠNa", "2", "O", "2", "Ġ+", "Ġ2", "H", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "Ġ2", "Na", "OH", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "2", "ĠThe", "Ġother", "Ġoxygen", "Ġcompounds", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġunstable", "Ġin", "Ġwater", ".", "Ġ2", "KO", "2", "Ġ+", "Ġ2", "H", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "Ġ2", "K", "OH", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "2", "Ġ+", "ĠO", "2", "ĠLi", "2", "O", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "Ġ2", "Li", "OH", "Ġ", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġsulfur", "Ġ", "ĠWith", "Ġsulfur", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġform", "Ġsulf", "ides", "Ġand", "Ġpoly", "s", "ulf", "ides", ".", "Ġ2", "Na", "Ġ+", "Ġ1", "/", "8", "S", "8", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "2", "S", "Ġ+", "Ġ1", "/", "8", "S", "8", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "2", "S", "2", "...", "Na", "2", "S", "7", "ĠBecause", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetal", "Ġsulf", "ides", "Ġare", "Ġessentially", "Ġsalts", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġweak", "Ġacid", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġbase", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġform", "Ġbasic", "Ġsolutions", ".", "ĠS", "2", "-", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠHS", "âĪĴ", "Ġ+", "ĠHO", "âĪĴ", "ĠHS", "âĪĴ", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠH", "2", "S", "Ġ+", "ĠHO", "âĪĴ", "Ġ", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġnitrogen", "Ġ", "ĠLith", "ium", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġmetal", "Ġthat", "Ġcombines", "Ġdirectly", "Ġwith", "Ġnitrogen", "Ġat", "Ġroom", "Ġtemperature", ".", "Ġ3", "Li", "Ġ+", "Ġ1", "/", "3", "N", "2", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠLi", "3", "N", "ĠLi", "3", "N", "Ġcan", "Ġreact", "Ġwith", "Ġwater", "Ġto", "Ġliberate", "Ġammonia", ".", "ĠLi", "3", "N", "Ġ+", "Ġ3", "H", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "Ġ3", "Li", "OH", "Ġ+", "ĠNH", "3", "Ġ", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġhydrogen", "Ġ", "ĠWith", "Ġhydrogen", ",", "Ġalk", "ali", "Ġmetals", "Ġform", "Ġsaline", "Ġhy", "dr", "ides", "Ġthat", "Ġhydro", "ly", "se", "Ġin", "Ġwater", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNa", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "H", "Ġ(", "at", "Ġhigh", "Ġtemperatures", ")", "ĠNa", "H", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "O", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "OH", "Ġ+", "ĠH", "2", "Ġ", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġcarbon", "Ġ", "ĠLith", "ium", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġmetal", "Ġthat", "Ġreacts", "Ġdirectly", "Ġwith", "Ġcarbon", "Ġto", "Ġgive", "Ġdil", "ith", "ium", "Ġacet", "yl", "ide", ".", "ĠNa", "Ġand", "ĠK", "Ġcan", "Ġreact", "Ġwith", "Ġacet", "ylene", "Ġto", "Ġgive", "Ġacet", "yl", "ides", ".", "Ġ2", "Li", "Ġ+", "Ġ2", "C", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠLi", "2", "C", "2", "ĠNa", "Ġ+", "ĠC", "2", "H", "2", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "C", "2", "H", "Ġ+", "Ġ1", "/", "2", "H", "2", "Ġ(", "at", "Ġ1500", "C", ")", "ĠNa", "Ġ+", "ĠNa", "C", "2", "H", "ĠâĨĴ", "ĠNa", "2", "C", "2", "Ġ(", "at", "Ġ2", "200", "C", ")", "Ġ", "ĠReaction", "Ġwith", "Ġwater", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "Ġreaction" ]
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, a mixture of n-butyllithium and potassium tert-butoxide. This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium (KCH2CHCH2). cis-2-Butene and trans-2-butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas isomerisation is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents. Alkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of ethers, generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because Wurtz coupling occurs: RM + R'X → R–R' + MX As such, they have to be made by reacting alkylmercury compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the nickel arsenide structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations. The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example cyclopentadienes and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being tetrahydrofuran. The most important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide, NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with cyclooctatetraene in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal cyclooctatetraenides; for example, dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as uranocene. The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark-green sodium naphthalenide, Na+[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent. Representative reactions of alkali metals Reaction with oxygen Upon reacting with oxygen, alkali metals form oxides, peroxides, superoxides and suboxides. However, the first three are more common. The table below shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion. The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation, and it is hydrolysed, forming stronger covalent bonds. Na2O2 + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2O2 The other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water. 2KO2 + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2O2 + O2 Li2O + H2O → 2LiOH Reaction with sulfur With sulfur, they form sulfides and polysulfides. 2Na + 1/8S8 → Na2S + 1/8S8 → Na2S2...Na2S7 Because alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions. S2- + H2O → HS− + HO− HS− + H2O → H2S + HO− Reaction with nitrogen Lithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature. 3Li + 1/3N2 → Li3N Li3N can react with water to liberate ammonia. Li3N + 3H2O → 3LiOH + NH3 Reaction with hydrogen With hydrogen, alkali metals form saline hydrides that hydrolyse in water. Na + H2 → NaH (at high temperatures) NaH + H2O → NaOH + H2 Reaction with carbon Lithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give dilithium acetylide. Na and K can react with acetylene to give acetylides. 2Li + 2C → Li2C2 Na + C2H2 → NaC2H + 1/2H2 (at 1500C) Na + NaC2H → Na2C2 (at 2200C) Reaction with water On reaction
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"b", "au", "Ġprinciple", ")", "Ġwould", "Ġput", "Ġelement", "Ġ169", ",", "Ġun", "hex", "enn", "ium", ",", "Ġunder", "Ġun", "un", "enn", "ium", ",", "ĠDir", "ac", "-", "F", "ock", "Ġcalculations", "Ġpredict", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġnext", "Ġelement", "Ġafter", "Ġun", "un", "enn", "ium", "Ġwith", "Ġalk", "ali", "-", "metal", "-", "like", "Ġproperties", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġelement", "Ġ165", ",", "Ġun", "hex", "pent", "ium", ",", "Ġwhich" ]
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with water, they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs. Na + H2O → NaOH + 1/2H2 Reaction with other salts The alkali metals are very good reducing agents. They can reduce metal cations that are less electropositive. Titanium is produced industrially by the reduction of titanium tetrachloride with Na at 4000C (van Arkel–de Boer process). TiCl4 + 4Na → 4NaCl + Ti Reaction with organohalide compounds Alkali metals react with halogen derivatives to generate hydrocarbon via the Wurtz reaction. 2CH3-Cl + 2Na → H3C-CH3 + 2NaCl Alkali metals in liquid ammonia Alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia or other donor solvents like aliphatic amines or hexamethylphosphoramide to give blue solutions. These solutions are believed to contain free electrons. Na + xNH3 → Na+ + e(NH3)x− Due to the presence of solvated electrons, these solutions are very powerful reducing agents used in organic synthesis. Reaction 1) is known as Birch reduction. Other reductions that can be carried by these solutions are: S8 + 2e− → S82- Fe(CO)5 + 2e− → Fe(CO)42- + CO Extensions Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first period 8 element, the undiscovered element ununennium (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties. Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as periodic trends, ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii; this effect is already seen for francium. This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects. The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium. On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 °C and 30 °C. The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm, very close to that of rubidium (247 pm), so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue+ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb+, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state, which is not seen in any other alkali metal, in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character, due to the involvement of the 7p3/2 electrons in the bonding. Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table (by the aufbau principle) would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165, unhexpentium, which
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is predicted to have the electron configuration [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1/22 9s1. This element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s-block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh). Unsepttrium, element 173, may be an even better heavier homologue of ununennium; with a predicted electron configuration of [Usb] 6g1, it returns to the alkali-metal-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p-shell in energy, and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium. The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium, unhexpentium, and unsepttrium stems from the fact that they are located close to the expected locations of islands of stability, centered at elements 122 (306Ubb) and 164 (482Uhq). Pseudo-alkali metals Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals". These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power. Hydrogen The element hydrogen, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal; when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H2); however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as dilithium, Li2) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state. Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens, but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H+ compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration. It is sometimes placed above fluorine due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute. The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 kJ/mol) is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as alkalides, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high pressures,
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such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as metallic hydrogen. The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition. The 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns1), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H+, or gain one to form the hydride ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of acid-base chemistry. Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge-transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium). Ammonium and derivatives The ammonium ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal salts are soluble in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 GPa), and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury. Other "pseudo-alkali metals" include the alkylammonium cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the quaternary ammonium cations () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic pnictogens), creating a phosphonium () or arsonium () cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while stibonium () itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised. Cobaltocene and derivatives Cobaltocene, Co(C5H5)2, is a metallocene, the cobalt analogue of ferrocene. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the 18-electron rule. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and decamethylcobalt
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415
ocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene (involving iridium) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability. Thallium Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl+ (164 pm), K+ (152 pm) and Ag+ (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer's 1868 periodic table. (Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group and left the space below caesium blank.) However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium. While Tl+ is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except TlF) are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium. Copper, silver, and gold The group 11 metals (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled d subshell and free s electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between s electrons and the partially filled d subshell that lower electron mobility." Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are paramagnetic and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals. In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the iron triad and platinum group metals), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals. The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p6s1; group 11: d10s1). However, the similarities are largely confined to the stoichiometries of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so
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"Ġpotassium", "Ġminerals", "Ġ(" ]
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that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia, as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series, whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au−) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a pseudohalogen because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of mercury. Production and isolation The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their silicate ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide. The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, are more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and magnesium or calcium for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes fractional distillation for purification. Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the pyrolysis of the corresponding alkali metal azide, which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium. Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide, found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C. Na (g) + KCl (l) NaCl (l) + K (g) Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion. Metals like sodium are obtained by electrolysis of molten salts. Rb & Cs obtained mainly as by products of Li processing. To make pure cesium, ores of cesium and rubidium are crushed and heated to 650 °C with sodium metal, generating an alloy that can then be separated via a fractional distillation technique. Because metallic cesium is too reactive to handle, it is normally offered as cesium azide (CsN3). Cesium hydroxide is formed when cesium interacts aggressively with water and ice (CsOH). Rubidium is the 16th most prevalent element in the earth's crust, however it is quite rare. Some minerals found in North America, South Africa, Russia, and Canada contain rubidium. Some potassium minerals (
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417
lepidolites, biotites, feldspar, carnallite) contain it, together with caesium. Pollucite, carnallite, leucite, and lepidolite are all minerals that contain rubidium. As a by-product of lithium extraction, it is commercially obtained from lepidolite. Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and brines, which is a commercial supply. The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium. Rubidium is used in vacuum tubes as a getter, a material that combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes. For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite. Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and caesium alum (Cs, Rb)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with calcium metal at 750 °C and low pressure. As a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n, yielding francium-209, francium-210, and francium-211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238. Applications Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is often used in lithium-ion batteries, and lithium oxide can help process silica. Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide in space capsules and submarines. Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys. Sodium compounds have many applications, the most well-known being sodium chloride as table salt. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in sodium-vapour lamps, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as titanium and zirconium, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point, viscosity, and cross-section towards neutron absorption. Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base, and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors. Rubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used
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"idium", ",", "Ġand", "Ġan", "Ġincrease", "Ġin", "Ġthis", "Ġvalue", "Ġby", "Ġ50", "Ġto", "Ġ100", "Ġtimes", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġshow", "Ġnegative", "Ġeffects", "Ġin", "Ġtest", "Ġpersons", ".", "ĠRats", "Ġcan", "Ġsurvive", "Ġup", "Ġto", "Ġ50", "%", "Ġsubstitution", "Ġof", "Ġpotassium", "Ġby", "Ġrub" ]
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in purple fireworks, and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry. Francium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory. Biological role and precautions Metals Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal. Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months. Ions The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed. Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes. Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder (manic-depression) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified. Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions. Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate metabolism, and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency. Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rub
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"ite", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġlater", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġis", "Ġconsidered", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġancestor", "Ġof", "Ġmost", "Ġmodern", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠArabic", ",", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", ",", "ĠGreek", ",", "ĠHebrew", ",", "ĠLatin", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpossibly", "ĠBrah", "mic", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġcreated", "Ġby", "ĠSem", "itic", "-", "speaking", "Ġworkers", "Ġand", "Ġslaves", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠSinai", "ĠPeninsula", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġthe", "ĠProto", "-", "S", "ina", "itic", "Ġscript", "),", "Ġby", "Ġselecting", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġhier", "ogly", "ph", "s", "Ġcommonly", "Ġseen", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "ĠEgyptian", "Ġsurroundings", "Ġto", "Ġdescribe", "Ġthe", "Ġsounds", ",", "Ġas", "Ġopposed", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsemantic", "Ġvalues", ",", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "ĠCanaan", "ite", "Ġlanguage", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "ĠPeter", "ĠT", ".", "ĠDaniels", 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"Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġearlier", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġalphabet", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOf", "Ġthe", "Ġdozens", "Ġof", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġin", "Ġuse", "Ġtoday", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġpopular", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġnow", "Ġused", "Ġby", "Ġmany", "Ġlanguages", "Ġworld", "-", "wide", ",", "Ġoften", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġaddition", "Ġof", "Ġextra", "Ġletters", "Ġor", "Ġdi", "ac", "ritical", "Ġmarks", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġmost", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġhave", "Ġletters", "Ġcomposed", "Ġof", "Ġlines", "Ġ(", "linear", "Ġwriting", "),", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġexceptions", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġused", "Ġin", "ĠBra", "ille", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠKh", "mer", "Ġalphabet", "Ġ(", "for", "ĠKh", "mer", ")", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġlongest", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ74", "Ġletters", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlph", "ab", "ets", "Ġare", "Ġusually", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġstandard", 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idium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough. Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The median lethal dose (LD50) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment. Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium-134, iodine-131, and strontium-90, caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk. Notes References A Groups (periodic table) Periodic table Articles containing video clips <|endoftext|>An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols or graphemes (called letters) that represent the phonemes of certain spoken languages. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a syllable, for instance, and logographic systems use characters to represent words, morphemes, or other semantic units. The first fully phonemic script, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is considered to be the first alphabet, and is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and possibly Brahmic. It was created by Semitic-speaking workers and slaves in the Sinai Peninsula (as the Proto-Sinaitic script), by selecting a small number of hieroglyphs commonly seen in their Egyptian surroundings to describe the sounds, as opposed to the semantic values, of their own Canaanite language. However, Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida, or alphasyllabary, a set of graphemes that represent consonantal base letters which diacritics modify to represent vowels (as in Devanagari and other South Asian scripts), an abjad, in which letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants (as in the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic), and an "alphabet", a set of graphemes that represent both consonants and vowels. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, which was developed on the basis of the earlier Phoenician alphabet. Of the dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular is the Latin alphabet, which was derived from the Greek, and which is now used by many languages world-wide, often with the addition of extra letters or diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines (linear writing), there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. The Khmer alphabet (for Khmer) is the longest, with 74 letters. Alphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of "numbering" ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. Etymology The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, which in turn originated in the Greek ἀλ
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φάβητος (alphabētos). The Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha (α) and beta (β). The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet; aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, which also meant house. Sometimes, like in the alphabet song in English, the term "ABCs" is used instead of the word "alphabet" (Now I know my ABCs...). "Knowing one's ABCs", in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. History Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names. In the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the Sinai peninsula dated to circa the 15th century BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs. This script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the following vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit. The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called "Proto-Canaanite" before c. 1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the tenth century, two other forms can be distinguished, namely Canaanite and Aramaic. The Aramaic gave rise to the Hebrew script. The South Arabian alphabet, a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the Ge'ez alphabet (an abugida) is descended. Vowelless alphabets are called abjads, currently exemplified in scripts including Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution and some "weak" consonants are sometimes used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable (matres lectionis). These letters have a dual function since they are also used as pure consonants. The Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. The script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean. In Greece, the script was modified to add vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. It was the first alphabet in which vowels have independent letter forms separate from those of consonants. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent vowels. Vowels are significant in the Greek language, and the syllabical Linear B script that was used by the Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols, including 5 vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation that caused many different alphabets to evolve from it. European alphabets The Greek alphabet, in its Euboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the Italic languages. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant
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"Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠHawaiian", ",", "Ġand", "ĠItalian", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġuses", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġj", ",", "Ġk", ",", "Ġx", ",", "Ġy", "Ġand", "Ġw", "Ġonly", "Ġin", "Ġforeign", "Ġwords", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnother", "Ġnotable", "Ġscript", "Ġis", "ĠElder", "ĠF", "uth", "ark", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġevolved", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠOld", "ĠItal", "ic", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ".", "ĠElder", "ĠF", "uth", "ark", "Ġgave", "Ġrise", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġknown", "Ġcollectively", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠRun", "ic", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠRun", "ic", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġwere", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "ĠGerman", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġfrom", "ĠAD", "Ġ100", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "ĠMiddle", "ĠAges", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġusage", "Ġis", "Ġmostly", "Ġrestricted", "Ġto", "Ġeng", "ravings", "Ġon", "Ġstone", "Ġand", "Ġjewelry", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġins", "criptions", "Ġhave", "Ġalso", "Ġbeen", "Ġfound", "Ġon", "Ġbone", "Ġand", "Ġwood", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġhave", "Ġsince", "Ġbeen", "Ġreplaced", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġexcept", "Ġfor", "Ġdecorative", "Ġusage", "Ġfor", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġrunes", "Ġremained", "Ġin", "Ġuse", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠOld", "ĠHungarian", "Ġscript", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystem", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠHung", "arians", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġuse", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġentire", "Ġhistory", "Ġof", "ĠHungary", ",", "Ġalbeit", "Ġnot", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġofficial", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystem", ".", "ĠFrom", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġit", "Ġonce", "Ġagain", "Ġbecame", "Ġmore", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġpopular", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠGl", "ag", "olit", "ic", "Ġalphabet", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġinitial", "Ġscript", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlit", "urgical", "Ġlanguage", "ĠOld", "ĠChurch", "ĠSlav", "onic", "Ġand", "Ġbecame", ",", "Ġtogether", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġun", "cial", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġbasis", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġscript", ".", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġwidely", "Ġused", "Ġmodern", "Ġal", "ph", "abetic", "Ġscripts", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġnotable", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġuse", "Ġin", "ĠSlav", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġfor", "Ġother", "Ġlanguages", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ".", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġinclude", "Ġthe", "ĠSerbian", ",", "ĠMaced", "onian", ",", "ĠBulgarian", ",", "ĠRussian", ",", "ĠBelarus", "ian", "Ġand", "ĠUkrainian", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠGl", "ag", "olit", "ic", "Ġalphabet", "Ġis", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġcreated", "Ġby", "ĠSaints", "ĠCyr", "il", "Ġand", "ĠMethod", "ius", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġalphabet", "Ġwas", "Ġinvented", "Ġby", "ĠClement", "Ġof", "ĠOh", "rid", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġtheir", "Ġdisciple", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġfeature", "Ġmany", "Ġletters", "Ġthat", "Ġappear", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfrom", "Ġor", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġby", "ĠGreek", "Ġand", "ĠHebrew", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġlongest", "ĠEuropean", "Ġalphabet", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "-", "derived", "ĠSlov", "ak", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhas", "Ġ46", "Ġletters", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAsian", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "ĠBeyond", "Ġthe", "Ġlog", "ographic", "ĠChinese", "Ġwriting", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġphon", "etic", "Ġscripts", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġexistence", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠArabic", "Ġalphabet", ",", "ĠHebrew", "Ġalphabet", ",", "ĠSyri", "ac", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġab", "j", "ads", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMiddle", "ĠEast", "Ġare", "Ġdevelopments", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAram", "aic", "Ġalphabet", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMost", "Ġal", "ph", "abetic", "Ġscripts", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", "Ġand", "ĠEastern", "ĠAsia", "Ġare", "Ġdescended", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠBrah", "mi", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġdescendant", "Ġof", "ĠAram", "aic", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠKorea", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠHang", "ul", "Ġalphabet", "Ġwas", "Ġcreated", "Ġby", "ĠSe", "jong", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", ".", "ĠHang", "ul", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġunique", "Ġalphabet", ":", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġfeat", "ural", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġare", "Ġdesigned", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġsound", "'s", "Ġplace", "Ġof", "Ġartic", "ulation", "Ġ(", "P", "Ġto", "Ġlook", "Ġlike", "Ġthe", "Ġwidened", "Ġmouth", ",", "ĠL", "Ġto", "Ġlook", "Ġlike", "Ġthe", "Ġtongue", "Ġpulled", "Ġin", ",", "Ġetc", ".", ");", "Ġits", "Ġdesign", "Ġwas", "Ġplanned", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġgovernment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġday", ";", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġplaces", "Ġindividual", "Ġletters", "Ġin", "Ġsyll", "able", "Ġclusters", "Ġwith", "Ġequal", "Ġdimensions", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġway", "Ġas", "ĠChinese", "Ġcharacters", ",", "Ġto", "Ġallow", "Ġfor", "Ġmixed", "-", "script", "Ġwriting", "Ġ(", "one", "Ġsyll", "able", "Ġalways", "Ġtakes", "Ġup", "Ġone", "Ġtype", "-", "space", "Ġno", "Ġmatter", "Ġhow", "Ġmany", "Ġletters", "Ġget", "Ġstacked", "Ġinto", "Ġbuilding", "Ġthat", "Ġone", "Ġsound", "-", "block", ").", "Ġ", "ĠZh", "uy", "in", "Ġ(", "sometimes", "Ġcalled", "ĠB", "op", "om", "of", "o", ")", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġsemi", "-", "sy", "ll", "ab", "ary", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġphon", "etically", "Ġtransc", "ribe", "ĠMandarin", "ĠChinese", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠChina", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġthe", "Ġlater", "Ġestablishment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPeople", "'s", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠChina", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġadoption", "Ġof", "ĠH", "any", "u", "ĠP", "iny", "in", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "ĠZh", "uy", "in", "Ġtoday", "Ġis", "Ġlimited", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġwidely", "Ġused", "Ġin", "ĠTaiwan", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "ĠRepublic", "Ġof", "ĠChina", "Ġstill", "Ġgoverns", ".", "ĠZh", "uy", "in", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġform", "Ġof", "ĠChinese", "Ġshorthand", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "ĠChinese", "Ġcharacters", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġ1900", "s", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġelements", "Ġof", "Ġboth", "Ġan", "Ġalphabet", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ary", ".", "ĠLike", "Ġan", "Ġalphabet", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġof", "Ġsyll", "able", "Ġinitials", "Ġare", "Ġrepresented", "Ġby", "Ġindividual", "Ġsymbols", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġlike", "Ġa", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ary", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsyll", "able", "Ġfinals", "Ġare", "Ġnot", ";", "Ġrather", ",", "Ġeach", "Ġpossible", "Ġfinal", "Ġ(", "excluding", "Ġthe", "Ġmedial", "Ġglide", ")", "Ġis", "Ġrepresented", "Ġby", "Ġits", "Ġown", "Ġsymbol", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġl", "uan", "Ġis", "Ġrepresented", "Ġas", "Ġ", "ã", "Ħ", "Į", "ã", "Ħ", "¨", "ã", "Ħ¢", "Ġ(", "l", "-", "u", "-", "an", "),", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġsymbol", "Ġ", "ã", "Ħ¢", "Ġrepresents", "Ġthe", "Ġentire", "Ġfinal", "Ġ-", "an", ".", "ĠWhile", "ĠZh", "uy", "in", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmainstream", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystem", ",", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġoften", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġways", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġr", "oman", "ization", "Ġsystem", "âĢĶ", "that", "Ġis", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġaiding", "Ġin", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġinput", "Ġmethod", "Ġfor", "ĠChinese", "Ġcharacters", "Ġon", "Ġcomputers", "Ġand", "Ġcell", "phones", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEuropean", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ",", "Ġespecially", "ĠLatin", "Ġand", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġadapted", "Ġfor", "Ġmany", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠArabic", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġwidely", "Ġused", ",", "Ġsometimes", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġab", "jad", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġwith", "ĠUr", "du", "Ġand", "ĠPersian", ")", "Ġand", "Ġsometimes", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġcomplete", "Ġalphabet", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġwith", "ĠKurdish", "Ġand" ]
421
languages of Latin (the Romance languages) and then for most of the other languages of western and central Europe. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures, such as æ in Danish and Icelandic and Ȣ in Algonquian; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the thorn þ in Old English and Icelandic, which came from the Futhark runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the eth ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified d. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and Italian, which uses the letters j, k, x, y and w only in foreign words. Another notable script is Elder Futhark, which is believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century. The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular. The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the Cyrillic script. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius, while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by Clement of Ohrid, who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by Greek and Hebrew. The longest European alphabet is the Latin-derived Slovak alphabet, which has 46 letters. Asian alphabets Beyond the logographic Chinese writing, many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The Arabic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet, Syriac alphabet, and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the Brahmi script, which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic. In Korea, the Hangul alphabet was created by Sejong the Great. Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is a featural alphabet, where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation (P to look like the widened mouth, L to look like the tongue pulled in, etc.); its design was planned by the government of the day; and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as Chinese characters, to allow for mixed-script writing (one syllable always takes up one type-space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block). Zhuyin (sometimes called Bopomofo) is a semi-syllabary used to phonetically transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China. After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin, the use of Zhuyin today is limited, but it is still widely used in Taiwan where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the medial glide) is represented by its own symbol. For example, luan is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (l-u-an), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final -an. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system—that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with Urdu and Persian) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with Kurdish and
[ "ĠU", "y", "gh", "ur", ").", "Ġ", "ĠTypes", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġterm", "Ġ\"", "alph", "abet", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġby", "Ġlingu", "ists", "Ġand", "Ġpale", "ographers", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "Ġa", "Ġwide", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġnarrow", "Ġsense", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġwider", "Ġsense", ",", "Ġan", "Ġalphabet", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġscript", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġsegment", "al", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġlevel", "âĢĶ", "that", "Ġis", ",", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġseparate", "Ġglyph", "s", "Ġfor", "Ġindividual", "Ġsounds", "Ġand", "Ġnot", "Ġfor", "Ġlarger", "Ġunits", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġsyll", "ables", "Ġor", "Ġwords", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġnarrower", "Ġsense", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġscholars", "Ġdistinguish", "Ġ\"", "true", "\"", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġfrom", "Ġtwo", "Ġother", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġsegment", "al", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġab", "j", "ads", "Ġand", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġthree", "Ġdiffer", "Ġfrom", "Ġeach", "Ġother", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġthey", "Ġtreat", "Ġvow", "els", ":", "Ġab", "j", "ads", "Ġhave", "Ġletters", "Ġfor", "Ġconson", "ants", "Ġand", "Ġleave", "Ġmost", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġunex", "pressed", ";", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġconson", "ant", "-", "based", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġindicate", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġwith", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", "Ġto", "Ġor", "Ġa", "Ġsystematic", "Ġgraphic", "Ġmodification", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġconson", "ants", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnarrow", "Ġsense", ",", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġhand", ",", "Ġconson", "ants", "Ġand", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġare", "Ġwritten", "Ġas", "Ġindependent", "Ġletters", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġearliest", "Ġknown", "Ġalphabet", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwider", "Ġsense", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠW", "adi", "Ġel", "-", "Hol", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġan", "Ġab", "jad", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġthrough", "Ġits", "Ġsuccessor", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġancestor", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠArabic", ",", "ĠGreek", ",", "ĠLatin", "Ġ(", "via", "Ġthe", "ĠOld", "ĠItal", "ic", "Ġalphabet", "),", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġ(", "via", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġalphabet", ")", "Ġand", "ĠHebrew", "Ġ(", "via", "ĠAram", "aic", ").", "Ġ", "ĠExamples", "Ġof", "Ġpresent", "-", "day", "Ġab", "j", "ads", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "ĠArabic", "Ġand", "ĠHebrew", "Ġscripts", ";", "Ġtrue", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġinclude", "ĠLatin", ",", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", ",", "Ġand", "ĠKorean", "Ġhang", "ul", ";", "Ġand", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġwrite", "ĠT", "igr", "iny", "a", ",", "ĠAm", "har", "ic", ",", "ĠHindi", ",", "Ġand", "ĠThai", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠCanadian", "ĠAboriginal", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ics", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġan", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ary", "Ġas", "Ġtheir", "Ġname", "Ġwould", "Ġimply", ",", "Ġsince", "Ġeach", "Ġglyph", "Ġstands", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġmodified", "Ġby", "Ġrotation", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġvowel", ".", "Ġ(", "In", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ary", ",", "Ġeach", "Ġconson", "ant", "-", "v", "ow", "el", "Ġcombination", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġrepresented", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġseparate", "Ġglyph", ".)", "Ġ", "ĠAll", "Ġthree", "Ġtypes", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġaugmented", "Ġwith", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ic", "Ġglyph", "s", ".", "ĠU", "gar", "itic", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġis", "Ġbasically", "Ġan", "Ġab", "jad", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhas", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ic", "Ġletters", "Ġfor", "Ġ.", "Ġ(", "These", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġtime", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġare", "Ġindicated", ".)", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġis", "Ġbasically", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhas", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ic", "Ġletters", "Ġfor", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "Ñı", ",", "ĠÐ", "µ", ",", "Ġ", "Ñ", "İ", ");", "ĠCop", "tic", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġletter", "Ġfor", "Ġ.", "ĠDev", "an", "ag", "ari", "Ġis", "Ġtypically", "Ġan", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", "Ġaugmented", "Ġwith", "Ġdedicated", "Ġletters", "Ġfor", "Ġinitial", "Ġvow", "els", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġsome", "Ġtraditions", "Ġuse", "Ġà¤", "ħ", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġzero", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġgraphic", "Ġbase", "Ġfor", "Ġsuch", "Ġvow", "els", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġboundaries", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġthree", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġsegment", "al", "Ġscripts", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġalways", "Ġclear", "-", "cut", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "ĠSor", "ani", "ĠKurdish", "Ġis", "Ġwritten", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠArabic", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġnormally", "Ġan", "Ġab", "jad", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġin", "ĠKurdish", ",", "Ġwriting", "Ġthe", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġis", "Ġmandatory", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfull", "Ġletters", "Ġare", "Ġused", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthe", "Ġscript", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġalphabet", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġlanguages", "Ġmay", "Ġuse", "Ġa", "ĠSem", "itic", "Ġab", "jad", "Ġwith", "Ġmandatory", "Ġvowel", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", ",", "Ġeffectively", "Ġmaking", "Ġthem", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġhand", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠPh", "ag", "sp", "a", "Ġscript", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMongol", "ĠEmpire", "Ġwas", "Ġbased", "Ġclosely", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠTibetan", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġall", "Ġvowel", "Ġmarks", "Ġwere", "Ġwritten", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġpreceding", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġas", "Ġdi", "ac", "ritic", "Ġmarks", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġshort", "Ġa", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġwritten", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠInd", "ic", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", ",", "Ġone", "Ġcould", "Ġargue", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġlinear", "Ġarrangement", "Ġmade", "Ġthis", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġalphabet", ".", "ĠConversely", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġvowel", "Ġmarks", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠT", "igr", "iny", "a", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠAm", "har", "ic", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", "Ġ(", "iron", "ically", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "Ġ\"", "ab", "ug", "ida", "\")", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġso", "Ġcompletely", "Ġassimil", "ated", "Ġinto", "Ġtheir", "Ġconson", "ants", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġmodifications", "Ġare", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġsystematic", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġlearned", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ary", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġsegment", "al", "Ġscript", ".", "ĠEven", "Ġmore", "Ġextreme", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "ahl", "avi", "Ġab", "jad", "Ġeventually", "Ġbecame", "Ġlog", "ographic", ".", "Ġ(", "See", "Ġbelow", ".)", "Ġ", "ĠThus", "Ġthe", "Ġprimary", "Ġclassification", "Ġof", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġreflects", "Ġhow", "Ġthey", "Ġtreat", "Ġvow", "els", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġton", "al", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġfurther", "Ġclassification", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġtreatment", "Ġof", "Ġtone", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġnames", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġyet", "Ġexist", "Ġto", "Ġdistinguish", "Ġthe", "Ġvarious", "Ġtypes", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġdisregard", "Ġtone", "Ġentirely", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġcarry", "Ġa", "Ġheavy", "Ġfunctional", "Ġload", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "ĠSomali", "Ġand", "Ġmany", "Ġother", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠAfrica", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠAmericas", ".", "ĠSuch", "Ġscripts", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġtone", "Ġwhat", "Ġab", "j", "ads", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġvow", "els", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġcommonly", ",", "Ġtones", "Ġare", "Ġindicated", "Ġwith", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġare", "Ġtreated", "Ġin", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcase", "Ġfor", "ĠVietnamese", "Ġ(", "a", "Ġtrue", "Ġalphabet", ")", "Ġand", "ĠThai", "Ġ(", "an", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", ").", "ĠIn", "ĠThai", ",", "Ġtone", "Ġis", "Ġdetermined", "Ġprimarily", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġchoice", "Ġof", "Ġconson", "ant", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", "Ġfor", "Ġdis", "amb", "ig", "uation", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠPoll", "ard", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġan", "Ġab", "ug", "ida", ",", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġare", "Ġindicated", "Ġby", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġplacement", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdi", "ac", "ritic", "Ġrelative", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġis", "Ġmodified", "Ġto", "Ġindicate", "Ġthe", "Ġtone", ".", "ĠMore", "Ġrarely", ",", "Ġa", "Ġscript", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġseparate", "Ġletters", "Ġfor", "Ġtones", ",", "Ġas", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcase", "Ġfor", "ĠH", "mong", "Ġand", "ĠZhu", "ang", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġscripts", ",", "Ġregardless", "Ġof", "Ġwhether", "Ġletters", "Ġor", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", "Ġare", "Ġused", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġtone", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġmarked", ",", "Ġjust", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġvowel", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġmarked", "Ġin", "ĠInd", "ic", "Ġab", "ug", "idas", ";", "Ġin", "ĠZh", "uy" ]
422
Uyghur). Types The term "alphabet" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is segmental at the phoneme level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters. The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet) and Hebrew (via Aramaic). Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts; true alphabets include Latin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya, Amharic, Hindi, and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant that is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.) All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. Ugaritic, for example, is basically an abjad, but has syllabic letters for . (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet, but has syllabic letters for (я, е, ю); Coptic has a letter for . Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a zero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels. The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short a was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. (See below.) Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For tonal languages, further classification can be based on their treatment of tone, though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in Somali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for Vietnamese (a true alphabet) and Thai (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the Pollard script, an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for Hmong and Zhuang. For most of these scripts, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas; in Zhuy
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",", "Ġtheolog", "ian", ",", "Ġstates", "man", "Ġand", "Ġhy", "mn", "ologist", ",", "Ġbest", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġinvent", "ing", "Ġthe", "ĠArmenian", "Ġalphabet", "Ġc", ".", "âĢ", "ī", "405", "ĠAD", ";", "Ġother", "ĠGeorgian", "Ġand", "ĠWestern", "Ġscholars", "Ġare", "Ġagainst", "Ġthis", "Ġtheory", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġscholars", "Ġlink", "Ġthe", "Ġcreation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGeorgian", "Ġscript", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġprocess", "Ġof", "ĠChristian", "ization", "Ġof", "ĠI", "ber", "ia", ",", "Ġa", "Ġcore", "ĠGeorgian", "Ġkingdom", "Ġof", "ĠKart", "li", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġalphabet", "Ġwas", "Ġtherefore", "Ġmost", "Ġprobably", "Ġcreated", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġconversion", "Ġof", "ĠI", "ber", "ia", "Ġunder", "ĠKing", "ĠMir", "ian", "ĠIII", "Ġ(", "326", "Ġor", "Ġ337", ")", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠBir", "Ġel", "ĠQ", "utt", "Ġins", "criptions", "Ġof", "Ġ430", ",", "Ġcontempor", "aneously", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠArmenian", "Ġalphabet", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSy", "ll", "ab", "aries", "Ġtypically", "Ġcontain", "Ġ50", "Ġto", 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",", "Ġa", "Ġnew", "Ġletter", "Ġ", "Ö", "ĩ", "Ġ(", "capital", "Ġ", "Ô", "µ", "Õ", "İ", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġadded", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġlig", "ature", "Ġbefore", "Ġ", "Õ", "¥", "+", "Ö", "Ĥ", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġ", "Õ", "Ĵ", "Ġ", "Ö", "Ĥ", "Ġwas", "Ġdiscarded", "Ġand", "Ġreintrodu", "ced", "Ġas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġnew", "Ġletter", "Ġ", "Õ", "Ī", "Õ", "Ĵ", "Ġ", "Õ", "¸", "Ö", "Ĥ", "Ġ(", "which", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġdig", "raph" ]
423
in not only is one of the tones unmarked, but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone, like the virama of Indic. The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book Pahlavi script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters. (The Hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the ʻokina and five long vowels. However, Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been conflated—that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in Arabic, another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented g, d, y, k, or j. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi papyri, up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is, they had become logograms as in Egyptian Demotic. The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari. When written in Devanagari, Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the visarga mark for final aspiration and special letters for kš and jñ, though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the khutma letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. Thai has a total of 59 symbols, consisting of 44 consonants, 13 vowels and 2 syllabics, not including 4 diacritics for tone marks and one for vowel length. The largest known abjad is Sindhi, with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz (for Cyrillic), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and Slovak (for the Latin script), with 46. However, these scripts either count di- and tri-graphs as separate letters, as Spanish did with ch and ll until recently, or uses diacritics like Slovak č. The Georgian alphabet ( ) is an alphabetic writing system. With 33 letters, it is the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent. The original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters were removed in the 19th century by Ilia Chavchavadze. The Georgian alphabet is much closer to Greek than the other Caucasian alphabets. The letter order parallels the Greek, with the consonants without a Greek equivalent organized at the end of the alphabet. The origins of the alphabet are still unknown. Some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Մաշտոց Mesrop Maštoc') also known as Mesrob the Vartabed, who was an early medieval Armenian linguist, theologian, statesman and hymnologist, best known for inventing the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD; other Georgian and Western scholars are against this theory. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia, a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli. The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430, contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet. Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. The Armenian alphabet ( or ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language. It was created in year 405 A.D. originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, while the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph
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"Ġconson", "ant", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġexceptions", "Ġwere", "ĠY", "Ġand", "ĠZ", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwere", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġalphabet", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "ĠE", "tr", "us", "can", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "ĠY", "ĠGra", "eca", "Ġ\"", "Greek", "ĠY", "\"", "Ġ(", "pron", "ounced", "ĠI", "ĠGra", "eca", "Ġ\"", "Greek", "ĠI", "\")", "Ġand", "Ġz", "eta", "Ġ(", "from", "ĠGreek", ")âĢĶ" ]
424
before). The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left-to-right, like the Latin and Greek alphabets. It also uses bicameral script like those. The Armenian word for "alphabet" is (), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet Ա այբ ayb and Բ բեն ben. Alphabetical order Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of collation—namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called alphabetical order. The basic ordering of the Latin alphabet (A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z), which is derived from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order, is well established, although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the French é, à, and ô) and of certain combinations of letters (multigraphs). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for the purposes of collation. However, in Icelandic, the accented letters such as á, í, and ö are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from the sounds represented by their unaccented counterparts. In Spanish, ñ is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as á and é are not. The ll and ch were also considered single letters, but in 1994 the Real Academia Española changed the collating order so that ll is between lk and lm in the dictionary and ch is between cg and ci, and in 2010 the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies changed it so they were no longer letters at all. In German, words starting with sch- (which spells the German phoneme ) are inserted between words with initial sca- and sci- (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after initial sz, as though it were a single letter—in contrast to several languages such as Albanian, in which dh-, ë-, gj-, ll-, rr-, th-, xh- and zh- (all representing phonemes and considered separate single letters) would follow the letters d, e, g, l, n, r, t, x and z respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with an umlaut are collated ignoring the umlaut—contrary to Turkish that adopted the graphemes ö and ü, and where a word like tüfek, would come after tuz, in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory where umlauts are sorted like ä = ae since names such as Jäger also appear with the spelling Jaeger, and are not distinguished in the spoken language. The Danish and Norwegian alphabets end with æ—ø—å, whereas the Swedish and Finnish ones conventionally put å—ä—ö at the end. It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ABCDE order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, Gothic, Cyrillic, and Latin; the other, HMĦLQ, was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic. Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. Runic used an unrelated Futhark sequence, which was later simplified. Arabic uses its own sequence, although Arabic retains the traditional abjadi order for numbering. The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on phonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean hangul, and even Japanese kana, which is not an alphabet. Names of letters The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound (acrophony), continue to be used to varying degrees in Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Greek and Arabic. The names were abandoned in Latin, which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel (usually e) before or after the consonant; the two exceptions were Y and Z, which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan, and were known as Y Graeca "Greek Y" (pronounced I Graeca "Greek I") and zeta (from Greek)—
[ "this", "Ġdiscrepancy", "Ġwas", "Ġinherited", "Ġby", "Ġmany", "ĠEuropean", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "Ġz", "ed", "Ġfor", "ĠZ", "Ġin", "Ġall", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "ĠEnglish", "Ġother", "Ġthan", "ĠAmerican", "ĠEnglish", ".", "ĠOver", "Ġtime", "Ġnames", "Ġsometimes", "Ġshifted", "Ġor", "Ġwere", "Ġadded", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġdouble", "ĠU", "Ġfor", "ĠW", "Ġ(\"", "double", "ĠV", "\"", "Ġin", "ĠFrench", "),", "Ġthe", "ĠEnglish", "Ġname", "Ġfor", "ĠY", ",", "Ġand", "ĠAmerican", "Ġz", "ee", "Ġfor", "ĠZ", ".", "ĠComp", "aring", "Ġnames", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġand", "ĠFrench", "Ġgives", "Ġa", "Ġclear", "Ġreflection", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠV", "ow", "el", "ĠShift", ":", "ĠA", ",", "ĠB", ",", "ĠC", "Ġand", "ĠD", "Ġare", "Ġpronounced", "Ġ", "Ġin", "Ġtoday", "'s", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġin", "Ġcontemporary", "ĠFrench", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġ.", "ĠThe", "ĠFrench", "Ġnames", "Ġ(", "from", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "ĠEnglish", "Ġnames", "Ġare", "Ġderived", ")", "Ġpreserve", "Ġthe", "Ġqualities", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠEnglish", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġfrom", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠV", "ow", "el", "ĠShift", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġcontrast", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġnames", "Ġof", "ĠF", ",", "ĠL", ",", "ĠM", ",", "ĠN", "Ġand", "ĠS", "Ġ()", "Ġremain", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġbecause", "Ġ\"", "short", "\"", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġwere", "Ġlargely", "Ġunaffected", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠShift", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġoriginally", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġwere", "Ġgiven", "Ġnames", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "ĠSlav", "ic", "Ġwords", ";", "Ġthis", "Ġwas", "Ġlater", "Ġabandoned", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġin", "Ġfavor", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġsystem", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthat", "Ġused", "Ġin", "ĠLatin", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLetters", "Ġof", "ĠArmenian", "Ġalphabet", "Ġalso", "Ġhave", "Ġdistinct", "Ġletter", "Ġnames", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOrth", "ography", "Ġand", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġ", "ĠWhen", "Ġan", "Ġalphabet", "Ġis", "Ġadopted", "Ġor", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġa", "Ġgiven", "Ġlanguage", ",", "Ġan", "Ġorth", "ography", "Ġgenerally", "Ġcomes", "Ġinto", "Ġbeing", ",", "Ġproviding", "Ġrules", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġspelling", "Ġof", "Ġwords", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġlanguage", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġaccordance", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġon", "Ġwhich", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġare", "Ġbased", ",", "Ġthese", "Ġrules", "Ġwill", "Ġgenerally", "Ġmap", "Ġletters", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġ(", "significant", "Ġsounds", ")", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġspoken", "Ġlanguage", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġa", "Ġperfectly", "Ġphon", "emic", "Ġorth", "ography", "Ġthere", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġconsistent", "Ġone", "-", "to", "-", "one", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "em", "es", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġwriter", "Ġcould", "Ġpredict", "Ġthe", "Ġspelling", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġgiven", "Ġits", "Ġpronunciation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġspeaker", "Ġwould", "Ġalways", "Ġknow", "Ġthe", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġgiven", "Ġits", "Ġspelling", ",", "Ġand", "Ġvice", "Ġversa", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġideal", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġusually", "Ġachieved", "Ġin", "Ġpractice", ";", "Ġsome", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ(", "such", "Ġas", "ĠSpanish", "Ġand", "ĠFinnish", ")", "Ġcome", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġit", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġothers", "Ġ(", "such", "Ġas", "ĠEnglish", ")", "Ġdev", "iate", "Ġfrom", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġmuch", "Ġlarger", "Ġdegree", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġlanguage", "Ġoften", "Ġevolves", "Ġindependently", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystem", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystems", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfor", "Ġlanguages", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġdesigned", "Ġfor", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthe", "Ġdegree", "Ġto", "Ġwhich", "Ġletters", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġalphabet", "Ġcorrespond", "Ġto", "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġlanguage", "Ġvaries", "Ġgreatly", "Ġfrom", "Ġone", "Ġlanguage", "Ġto", "Ġanother", "Ġand", "Ġeven", "Ġwithin", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġlanguage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLanguages", "Ġmay", "Ġfail", "Ġto", "Ġachieve", "Ġa", "Ġone", "-", "to", "-", "one", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġbetween", "Ġletters", "Ġand", "Ġsounds", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġof", "Ġseveral", "Ġways", ":", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġlanguage", "Ġmay", "Ġrepresent", "Ġa", "Ġgiven", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġcombination", "Ġof", "Ġletters", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġjust", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġletter", ".", "ĠTwo", "-", "letter", "Ġcombinations", "Ġare", "Ġcalled", "Ġdig", "raph", "s", "Ġand", "Ġthree", "-", "letter", "Ġgroups", "Ġare", "Ġcalled", "Ġtrig", "raph", "s", ".", "ĠGerman", "Ġuses", "Ġthe", "Ġt", "etr", "agraph", "s", "Ġ(", "four", "Ġletters", ")", "Ġ\"", "ts", "ch", "\"", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġ", "Ġand", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġborrowed", "Ġwords", ")", "Ġ\"", "ds", "ch", "\"", "Ġfor", "Ġ.", "ĠKab", "ard", "ian", "Ġalso", "Ġuses", "Ġa", "Ġt", "etr", "agraph", "Ġfor", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġphon", "em", "es", ",", "Ġnamely", "Ġ\"", "к", "Ñ", "ħ", "Ñ", "Ĭ", "Ñĥ", "\".", "ĠTwo", "Ġletters", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġone", "Ġsound", "Ġoccur", "Ġin", "Ġseveral", "Ġinstances", "Ġin", "ĠHungarian", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġ(", "where", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġinstance", ",", "Ġcs", "Ġstands", "Ġfor", "Ġ[", "t", "Ê", "ĥ", "],", "Ġs", "z", "Ġfor", "Ġ[", "s", "],", "Ġz", "s", "Ġfor", "Ġ[", "Ê", "Ĵ", "],", "Ġd", "z", "s", "Ġfor", "Ġ[", "d", "Ê", "Ĵ", "]).", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġlanguage", "Ġmay", "Ġrepresent", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġwith", "Ġtwo", "Ġor", "Ġmore", "Ġdifferent", "Ġletters", "Ġor", "Ġcombinations", "Ġof", "Ġletters", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġexample", "Ġis", "Ġmodern", "ĠGreek", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġwrite", "Ġthe", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġ", "Ġin", "Ġsix", "Ġdifferent", "Ġways", ":", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "though", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġis", "Ġrare", ").", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġlanguage", "Ġmay", "Ġspell", "Ġsome", "Ġwords", "Ġwith", "Ġun", "pron", "ounced", "Ġletters", "Ġthat", "Ġexist", "Ġfor", "Ġhistorical", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġreasons", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġspelling", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠThai", "Ġword", "Ġfor", "Ġ\"", "beer", "\"", "Ġ[", "à¹", "Ģ", "à¸", "ļ", "à¸", "µ", "à¸", "¢", "à¸", "£", "à¹", "Į", "]", "Ġretains", "Ġa", "Ġletter", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġ\"", "r", "\"", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠEnglish", "Ġword", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfrom", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġsil", "ences", "Ġit", ".", "Ġ", "ĠP", "ron", "unciation", "Ġof", "Ġindividual", "Ġwords", "Ġmay", "Ġchange", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġsurrounding", "Ġwords", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġsentence", "Ġ(", "sand", "hi", ").", "Ġ", "ĠDifferent", "Ġdialect", "s", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġlanguage", "Ġmay", "Ġuse", "Ġdifferent", "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġword", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġlanguage", "Ġmay", "Ġuse", "Ġdifferent", "Ġsets", "Ġof", "Ġsymbols", "Ġor", "Ġdifferent", "Ġrules", "Ġfor", "Ġdistinct", "Ġsets", "Ġof", "Ġvocabulary", "Ġitems", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠJapanese", "Ġh", "ir", "ag", "ana", "Ġand", "Ġk", "at", "ak", "ana", "Ġsyll", "ab", "aries", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġvarious", "Ġrules", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġfor", "Ġspelling", "Ġwords", "Ġfrom", "ĠLatin", "Ġand", "ĠGreek", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "ĠGerman", "ic", "Ġvocabulary", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNational", "Ġlanguages", "Ġsometimes", "Ġelect", "Ġto", "Ġaddress", "Ġthe", "Ġproblem", "Ġof", "Ġdialect", "s", "Ġby", "Ġsimply", "Ġassoci", "ating", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġnational", "Ġstandard", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġnational", "Ġlanguages", "Ġlike", "ĠFinnish", ",", "ĠArmenian", ",", "ĠTurkish", ",", "ĠRussian", ",", "ĠSer", "bo", "-", "Cro", "at", "ian", "Ġ(", "Ser", "bian", ",", "ĠCroatian", "Ġand", "ĠBos", "nian", ")", "Ġand", "ĠBulgarian", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġvery", "Ġregular", "Ġspelling", "Ġsystem", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġnearly", "Ġone", "-", "to", "-", "one", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġbetween", "Ġletters", "Ġand", "Ġphon", "em", "es", ".", "ĠSt", "rict", "ly", "Ġspeaking", ",", "Ġthese", "Ġnational", "Ġlanguages", "Ġlack", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġcorresponding", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġverb", "Ġ\"", "to", "Ġspell", "\"", "Ġ(", "meaning", "Ġto", "Ġsplit", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġinto", "Ġits", "Ġletters", "),", "Ġthe", "Ġclosest", "Ġmatch", "Ġbeing", "Ġa", "Ġverb", "Ġmeaning", "Ġto", "Ġsplit", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġinto", "Ġits", "Ġsyll", "ables", ".", "ĠSimilarly", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠItalian", "Ġverb", "Ġcorresponding", "Ġto", "Ġ'", "spell", "Ġ(", "out", ")", "',", "Ġcomp", "it", "are", ",", "Ġis", "Ġunknown", "Ġto", "Ġmany", "ĠItalians", "Ġbecause", "Ġspelling", "Ġis", "Ġusually", "Ġtrivial", ",", "Ġas", "ĠItalian", "Ġspelling", "Ġis", "Ġhighly", "Ġphon", "emic", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġstandard", "ĠSpanish", ",", "Ġone", "Ġcan", "Ġtell", "Ġthe", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġfrom", "Ġits", "Ġspelling", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġnot", "Ġvice", "Ġversa", ",", "Ġas", "Ġcertain" ]
425
this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the term zed for Z in all forms of English other than American English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as in double U for W ("double V" in French), the English name for Y, and American zee for Z. Comparing names in English and French gives a clear reflection of the Great Vowel Shift: A, B, C and D are pronounced in today's English, but in contemporary French they are . The French names (from which the English names are derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N and S () remain the same in both languages, because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift. In Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words; this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin. Letters of Armenian alphabet also have distinct letter names. Orthography and pronunciation When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an orthography generally comes into being, providing rules for the spelling of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes (significant sounds) of the spoken language. In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However, this ideal is not usually achieved in practice; some languages (such as Spanish and Finnish) come close to it, while others (such as English) deviate from it to a much larger degree. The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: A language may represent a given phoneme by a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called digraphs and three-letter groups are called trigraphs. German uses the tetragraphs (four letters) "tsch" for the phoneme and (in a few borrowed words) "dsch" for . Kabardian also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely "кхъу". Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance, cs stands for [tʃ], sz for [s], zs for [ʒ], dzs for [dʒ]). A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example is modern Greek which may write the phoneme in six different ways: , , , , , and (though the last is rare). A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for "beer" [เบียร์] retains a letter for the final consonant "r" present in the English word it was borrowed from, but silences it. Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence (sandhi). Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items, such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original Germanic vocabulary. National languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. Some national languages like Finnish, Armenian, Turkish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb "to spell" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell (out)', compitare, is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard Spanish, one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as certain
[ "Ġphon", "em", "es", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġrepresented", "Ġin", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġone", "Ġway", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġa", "Ġgiven", "Ġletter", "Ġis", "Ġconsistently", "Ġpronounced", ".", "ĠFrench", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġits", "Ġsilent", "Ġletters", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġheavy", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġnasal", "Ġvow", "els", "Ġand", "Ġel", "ision", ",", "Ġmay", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġlack", "Ġmuch", "Ġcorrespondence", "Ġbetween", "Ġspelling", "Ġand", "Ġpronunciation", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġits", "Ġrules", "Ġon", "Ġpronunciation", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġcomplex", ",", "Ġare", "Ġactually", "Ġconsistent", "Ġand", "Ġpredictable", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġfair", "Ġdegree", "Ġof", "Ġaccuracy", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġextreme", "Ġare", "Ġlanguages", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġpron", "unci", "ations", "Ġof", "Ġmany", "Ġwords", "Ġsimply", "Ġhave", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġmemor", "ized", "Ġas", "Ġthey", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġcorrespond", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġspelling", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġconsistent", "Ġway", ".", "ĠFor", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġpartly", "Ġbecause", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠV", "ow", "el", "ĠShift", "Ġoccurred", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġorth", "ography", "Ġwas", "Ġestablished", ",", "Ġand", "Ġbecause", "ĠEnglish", "Ġhas", "Ġacquired", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġloan", "words", "Ġat", "Ġdifferent", "Ġtimes", ",", "Ġretaining", "Ġtheir", "Ġoriginal", "Ġspelling", "Ġat", "Ġvarying", "Ġlevels", ".", "ĠEven", "ĠEnglish", "Ġhas", "Ġgeneral", ",", "Ġalbeit", "Ġcomplex", ",", "Ġrules", "Ġthat", "Ġpredict", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġfrom", "Ġspelling", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthese", "Ġrules", "Ġare", "Ġsuccessful", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", ";", "Ġrules", "Ġto", "Ġpredict", "Ġspelling", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġhigher", "Ġfailure", "Ġrate", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSometimes", ",", "Ġcountries", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġwritten", "Ġlanguage", "Ġundergo", "Ġa", "Ġspelling", "Ġreform", "Ġto", "Ġreal", "ign", "Ġthe", "Ġwriting", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġspoken", "Ġlanguage", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġcan", "Ġrange", "Ġfrom", "Ġsimple", "Ġspelling", "Ġchanges", "Ġand", "Ġword", "Ġforms", "Ġto", "Ġswitching", "Ġthe", "Ġentire", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystem", "Ġitself", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwhen", "ĠTurkey", "Ġswitched", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠArabic", "Ġalphabet", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠLatin", "-", "based", "ĠTurkish", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġwhen", "ĠKazakh", "Ġchanges", "Ġfrom", "Ġan", "ĠArabic", "Ġscript", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġscript", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", "'s", "Ġinfluence", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġhaving", "Ġa", "Ġtransition", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġjust", "Ġlike", "ĠTurkish", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġscript", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġofficial", "Ġin", "ĠUzbek", "istan", "Ġand", "ĠTurk", "men", "istan", "Ġbefore", "Ġthey", "Ġall", "Ġswitched", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠUzbek", "istan", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġhaving", "Ġa", "Ġreform", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", "Ġto", "Ġuse", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġmarked", "Ġby", "Ġapost", "rop", "hes", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġdig", "raph", "s", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġstandard", "Ġsystem", "Ġof", "Ġsymbols", "Ġused", "Ġby", "Ġlingu", "ists", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġsounds", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġlanguage", ",", "Ġindependently", "Ġof", "Ġorth", "ography", ",", "Ġis", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "ĠInternational", "ĠPh", "on", "etic", "ĠAlphabet", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠA", "ĠIs", "ĠFor", "ĠA", "ard", "v", "ark", "Ġ", "ĠAb", "ec", "ed", "arium", "Ġ", "ĠAc", "roph", "ony", "Ġ", "ĠA", "ksh", "ara", "Ġ", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġbook", "Ġ", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġeffect", "Ġ", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġsong", "Ġ", "ĠAlphabet", "ical", "Ġorder", "Ġ", "ĠButterfly", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġ", "ĠCharacter", "Ġencoding", "Ġ", "ĠConstruct", "ed", "Ġscript", "Ġ", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġ", "ĠEnglish", "Ġalphabet", "Ġ", "ĠHang", "ul", "Ġ", "ĠI", "CA", "O", "Ġ(", "NAT", "O", ")", "Ġspelling", "Ġalphabet", "Ġ", "ĠLip", "ogram", "Ġ", "ĠList", "Ġof", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystems", "Ġ", "ĠP", "ang", "ram", "Ġ", "ĠThai", "Ġscript", "Ġ", "ĠTh", "oth", "Ġ", "ĠTrans", "liter", "ation", "Ġ", "ĠUnicode", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠB", "ibliography", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠOverview", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġancient", "Ġwriting", "Ġsystems", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠChapter", "Ġ3", "Ġtraces", "Ġand", "Ġsummarizes", "Ġthe", "Ġinvention", "Ġof", "Ġal", "ph", "abetic", "Ġwriting", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠChapter", "Ġ4", "Ġtraces", "Ġthe", "Ġinvention", "Ġof", "Ġwriting", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠOrigins", "Ġof", "Ġab", "c", "Ġ", "Ġ\"", "Language", ",", "ĠWriting", "Ġand", "ĠAlphabet", ":", "ĠAn", "ĠInterview", "Ġwith", "ĠChrist", "ophe", "ĠRico", "\",", "Ġ", "ĠDam", "q", "Äģ", "t", "um", "Ġ3", "Ġ(", "2007", ")", "Ġ", "ĠMichael", "ĠE", "verson", "'s", "ĠAlph", "ab", "ets", "Ġof", "ĠEurope", "Ġ", "ĠEvolution", "Ġof", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", ",", "Ġanimation", "Ġby", "ĠProf", ".", "ĠRobert", "ĠFr", "ad", "kin", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠMaryland", "Ġ", "ĠHow", "Ġthe", "ĠAlphabet", "ĠWas", "ĠBorn", "Ġfrom", "ĠHier", "ogly", "ph", "s", "âĢĶ", "B", "iblical", "ĠArchae", "ology", "ĠReview", "Ġ", "ĠAn", "ĠEarly", "ĠHell", "enic", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġ", "ĠMuseum", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠAlphabet", ",", "ĠBBC", "ĠRadio", "Ġ4", "Ġdiscussion", "Ġwith", "ĠEleanor", "ĠRob", "son", ",", "ĠAlan", "ĠMill", "ard", "Ġand", "ĠRos", "al", "ind", "ĠThomas", "Ġ(", "In", "ĠOur", "ĠTime", ",", "Ġ18", "ĠDec", ".", "Ġ2003", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠOrth", "ography", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "The", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", "Ġor", "Ġpro", "ton", "Ġnumber", "Ġ(", "sy", "mbol", "ĠZ", ")", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġchemical", "Ġelement", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġprot", "ons", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnucleus", "Ġof", "Ġevery", "Ġatom", "Ġof", "Ġthat", "Ġelement", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", "Ġuniquely", "Ġidentifies", "Ġa", "Ġchemical", "Ġelement", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġidentical", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcharge", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnucleus", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġan", "Ġun", "charged", "Ġatom", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġequal", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġelectrons", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġsum", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", "ĠZ", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġneut", "rons", "ĠN", "Ġgives", "Ġthe", "Ġmass", "Ġnumber", "ĠA", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġatom", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġprot", "ons", "Ġand", "Ġneut", "rons", "Ġhave", "Ġapproximately", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġmass", "Ġ(", "and", "Ġthe", "Ġmass", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġelectrons", "Ġis", "Ġnegligible", "Ġfor", "Ġmany", "Ġpurposes", ")", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġmass", "Ġdefect", "Ġof", "Ġnucle", "on", "Ġbinding", "Ġis", "Ġalways", "Ġsmall", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnucle", "on", "Ġmass", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġatomic", "Ġmass", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġatom", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġexpressed", "Ġin", "Ġunified", "Ġatomic", "Ġmass", "Ġunits", "Ġ(", "making", "Ġa", "Ġquantity", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "relative", "Ġisot", "opic", "Ġmass", "\"),", "Ġis", "Ġwithin", "Ġ1", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwhole", "Ġnumber", "ĠA", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAt", "oms", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", "Ġbut", "Ġdifferent", "Ġneutron", "Ġnumbers", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhence", "Ġdifferent", "Ġmass", "Ġnumbers", ",", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġisot", "opes", ".", "ĠA", "Ġlittle", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġthree", "-", "quarters", "Ġof", "Ġnaturally", "Ġoccurring", "Ġelements", "Ġexist", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmixture", "Ġof", "Ġisot", "opes", "Ġ(", "see", "Ġmon", "ois", "ot", "opic", "Ġelements", "),", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġaverage", "Ġisot", "opic", "Ġmass", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġisot", "opic", "Ġmixture", "Ġfor", "Ġan", "Ġelement", "Ġ(", "called", "Ġthe", "Ġrelative", "Ġatomic", "Ġmass", ")", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġdefined", "Ġenvironment", "Ġon", "ĠEarth", ",", "Ġdetermines", "Ġthe", "Ġelement", "'s", "Ġstandard", "Ġatomic", "Ġweight", ".", "ĠHistorically", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġthese", "Ġatomic", "Ġweights", "Ġof", "Ġelements", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġcomparison", "Ġto", "Ġhydrogen", ")", "Ġthat", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "Ġquantities", "Ġmeasurable", "Ġby", "Ġchem", "ists", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġconventional", "Ġsymbol", "ĠZ", "Ġcomes", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠGerman", "Ġword", "Ġ", "Ġ'", "number", "',", "Ġwhich", ",", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "Ġsynthesis", "Ġof", "Ġideas", "Ġfrom", "Ġchemistry", "Ġand", "Ġphysics", ",", "Ġmerely", "Ġden", "oted", "Ġan", "Ġelement", "'s", "Ġnumerical", "Ġplace", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġperiodic", "Ġtable", ",", "Ġwhose", "Ġorder", "Ġwas", "Ġthen", "Ġapproximately", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġnot", "Ġcompletely", ",", "Ġconsistent", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġorder", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġelements", "Ġby", "Ġatomic", "Ġweights", ".", "ĠOnly", "Ġafter", "Ġ1915", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe" ]
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phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet, and as when Kazakh changes from an Arabic script to a Cyrillic script due to the Soviet Union's influence, and in 2021, having a transition to the Latin alphabet, just like Turkish. The Cyrillic script used to be official in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan before they all switched to the Latin alphabets, including Uzbekistan that is having a reform of the alphabet to use diacritics on the letters that is marked by apostrophes and the letters that are digraphs. The standard system of symbols used by linguists to represent sounds in any language, independently of orthography, is called the International Phonetic Alphabet. See also A Is For Aardvark Abecedarium Acrophony Akshara Alphabet book Alphabet effect Alphabet song Alphabetical order Butterfly Alphabet Character encoding Constructed script Cyrillic English alphabet Hangul ICAO (NATO) spelling alphabet Lipogram List of writing systems Pangram Thai script Thoth Transliteration Unicode References Bibliography Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems. Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing. Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing External links The Origins of abc "Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico", Damqātum 3 (2007) Michael Everson's Alphabets of Europe Evolution of alphabets, animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs—Biblical Archaeology Review An Early Hellenic Alphabet Museum of the Alphabet The Alphabet, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Eleanor Robson, Alan Millard and Rosalind Thomas (In Our Time, 18 Dec. 2003) Orthography <|endoftext|>The atomic number or proton number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons. The sum of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons N gives the mass number A of an atom. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in unified atomic mass units (making a quantity called the "relative isotopic mass"), is within 1% of the whole number A. Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers, and hence different mass numbers, are known as isotopes. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see monoisotopic elements), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard atomic weight. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century. The conventional symbol Z comes from the German word 'number', which, before the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order was then approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the
[ "Ġsuggestion", "Ġand", "Ġevidence", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "ĠZ", "Ġnumber", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġthe", "Ġnuclear", "Ġcharge", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġphysical", "Ġcharacteristic", "Ġof", "Ġatoms", ",", "Ġdid", "Ġthe", "Ġword", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "and", "Ġits", "ĠEnglish", "Ġequivalent", "Ġatomic", "Ġnumber", ")", "Ġcome", "Ġinto", "Ġcommon", "Ġuse", "Ġin", "Ġthis", "Ġcontext", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġperiodic", "Ġtable", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġnatural", "Ġnumber", "Ġfor", "Ġeach", "Ġelement", "Ġ", "ĠLo", "ose", "ly", "Ġspeaking", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġexistence", "Ġor", "Ġconstruction", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġperiodic", "Ġtable", "Ġof", "Ġelements", "Ġcreates", "Ġan", "Ġordering", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġelements", ",", "Ġand", "Ġso", "Ġthey", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġnumbered", "Ġin", "Ġorder", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDmit", "ri", "ĠMend", "ele", "ev", "Ġclaimed", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġarranged", "Ġhis", "Ġfirst", "Ġperiodic", "Ġtables", "Ġ(", "first", "Ġpublished", "Ġon", "ĠMarch", "Ġ6", ",", "Ġ18", "69", ")", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġof", 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suggestion and evidence that this Z number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word (and its English equivalent atomic number) come into common use in this context. History The periodic table and a natural number for each element Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order. Dmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6, 1869) in order of atomic weight ("Atomgewicht"). However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of iodine (atomic weight 126.9). This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, Z, but that number was not known or suspected at the time. A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onward (hafnium was not known at this time). The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek In 1911, Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold , ), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was exactly equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized Z). This proved eventually to be the case. Moseley's 1913 experiment The experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913. Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his Bohr model of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of Z. To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminum (Z = 13) to gold (Z = 79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube. The square root of the frequency of these photons increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion (Moseley's law) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i.e. the element number Z. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series (from lanthanum to lutetium inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time. Missing elements After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (Z = 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with Z < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time, the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (Z = 96). The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of Z, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model
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had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907, Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms. In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of +79, consistent with its atomic number. The discovery of the neutron makes Z the proton number All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. After 1932, therefore, an element's atomic number Z was also realized to be identical to the proton number of its nuclei. Chemical properties Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is Z (the atomic number). The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics. The number of electrons in each element's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of any mixture of atoms with a given atomic number. New elements The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of , all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life of a nuclide becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though undiscovered nuclides with certain "magic" numbers of protons and neutrons may have relatively longer half-lives and comprise an island of stability. A hypothetical element composed only of neutrons has also been proposed and would have atomic number 0. See also Effective atomic number Mass number Neutron number Atomic theory Chemical element History of the periodic table List of elements by atomic number Prout's hypothesis References Chemical properties Nuclear physics Atoms Dimensionless numbers of chemistry Numbers <|endoftext|>Anatomy (Greek anatomē, 'dissection') is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. Definition Derived from the Greek anatomē "dissection" (from anat
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"Ġtwo", "Ġgerm", "Ġlayers", "Ġof", "Ġect", "od", "erm", "Ġand", "Ġend", "od", "erm", "Ġare", "Ġcalled", "Ġdi", "pl", "obl", "astic", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġmore", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġanimals", "Ġwhose", "Ġstructures", "Ġand", "Ġorgans", "Ġare", "Ġformed", "Ġfrom", "Ġthree", "Ġgerm", "Ġlayers", "Ġare", "Ġcalled", "Ġtri", "pl", "obl", "astic", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtri", "pl", "obl", "astic", "Ġanimal", "'s", "Ġtissues", "Ġand", "Ġorgans", "Ġare", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġthree", "Ġgerm", "Ġlayers", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġembryo", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġect", "od", "erm", ",", "Ġmes", "od", "erm", "Ġand", "Ġend", "od", "erm", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnimal", "Ġtissues", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġgrouped", "Ġinto", "Ġfour", "Ġbasic", "Ġtypes", ":", "Ġconnect", "ive", ",", "Ġepit", "helial", ",", "Ġmuscle", "Ġand", "Ġnervous", "Ġtissue", ".", "Ġ", "ĠConnect", "ive", "Ġtissue", "ĠConnect", "ive", "Ġtissues", "Ġare", "Ġfib", "rous", "Ġand", "Ġmade", "Ġup", "Ġof", "Ġcells", "Ġscattered", "Ġamong", "Ġin", "organic", "Ġmaterial", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "Ġext", "race", "llular", "Ġmatrix", ".", "ĠConnect", "ive", "Ġtissue", "Ġgives", "Ġshape", "Ġto", "Ġorgans", "Ġand", "Ġholds", "Ġthem", "Ġin", "Ġplace", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmain", "Ġtypes", "Ġare", "Ġloose", "Ġconnect", "ive", "Ġtissue", ",", "Ġadip", "ose", "Ġtissue", ",", "Ġfib", "rous", "Ġconnect", "ive", "Ġtissue", ",", "Ġcart", "ilage", "Ġand", "Ġbone", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġext", "race", "llular", "Ġmatrix", "Ġcontains", "Ġproteins", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġchief", "Ġand", "Ġmost", "Ġabundant", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġcollagen", ".", "ĠColl", "agen", "Ġplays", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġpart", "Ġin", "Ġorganizing", "Ġand", "Ġmaintaining", "Ġtissues", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmatrix", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġmodified", "Ġto", "Ġform", "Ġa", "Ġskeleton", "Ġto", "Ġsupport", "Ġor", "Ġprotect", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġex", "os", "keleton", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġthick", "ened", ",", "Ġrigid", "Ġcut", "icle", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġstiff", "ened", "Ġby", "Ġmineral", "ization", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġcrust", "ace", "ans", "Ġor", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġcross", "-", "l", "inking", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġproteins", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġinsects", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġend", "os", "keleton", "Ġis", "Ġinternal", "Ġand", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġall", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġless", "Ġdeveloped", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEp", "it", "hel", "ium", "Ġ", "ĠEp", "it", "helial", "Ġtissue", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġof", "Ġclosely", "Ġpacked", "Ġcells", ",", "Ġbound", "Ġto", "Ġeach", "Ġother", "Ġby", "Ġcell", "Ġad", "hesion", "Ġmolecules", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġlittle", "Ġinter", "cell", "ular", "Ġspace", ".", "ĠEp", "it", "helial", "Ġcells", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġsqu", "amous", "Ġ(", "flat", "),", "Ġcub", "oidal", "Ġor", "Ġcolumn", "ar", "Ġand", "Ġrest", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġbasal", "Ġl", "amina", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "Ġlayer", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbasement", "Ġmembrane", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlower", "Ġlayer", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġret", "icular", "Ġl", "amina", "Ġlying", "Ġnext", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġconnect" ]
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émnō "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά aná "up", and τέμνω témnō "I cut"), anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition). Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection, in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in which a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy. However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy. Animal tissues The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted a sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells. Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic. All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue. Connective tissue Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed. Epithelium Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina, the upper layer of the basement membrane, the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connect
[ "ive", "Ġtissue", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġext", "race", "llular", "Ġmatrix", "Ġsecret", "ed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġcells", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġmany", "Ġdifferent", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġepit", "hel", "ium", ",", "Ġmodified", "Ġto", "Ġsuit", "Ġa", "Ġparticular", "Ġfunction", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġrespiratory", "Ġtract", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtype", "Ġof", "Ġc", "iliated", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġlining", ";", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsmall", "Ġintestine", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġmicro", "vill", "i", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġlining", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlarge", "Ġintestine", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġintestinal", "Ġvill", "i", ".", "ĠSkin", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġouter", "Ġlayer", "Ġof", "Ġker", "atin", "ized", "Ġstrat", "ified", "Ġsqu", "amous", "Ġepit", "hel", "ium", "Ġthat", "Ġcovers", "Ġthe", "Ġexterior", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġverte", "brate", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠKer", "atin", "ocytes", "Ġmake", "Ġup", "Ġto", "Ġ95", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcells", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġskin", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġcells", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġexternal", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġtypically", "Ġsec", "rete", "Ġan", "Ġext", "race", "llular", "Ġmatrix", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġcut", "icle", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsimple", "Ġanimals", "Ġthis", "Ġmay", "Ġjust", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġcoat", "Ġof", "Ġgly", "cop", "rote", "ins", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmore", "Ġadvanced", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġglands", "Ġare", "Ġformed", "Ġof", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġcells", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMuscle", "Ġtissue", "Ġ", "ĠMuscle", "Ġcells", "Ġ(", "my", "ocytes", ")", "Ġform", "Ġthe", "Ġactive", "Ġcontract", "ile", "Ġtissue", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠMuscle", "Ġtissue", "Ġfunctions", "Ġto", "Ġproduce", "Ġforce", "Ġand", "Ġcause", "Ġmotion", ",", "Ġeither", "Ġlocom", "otion", "Ġor", "Ġmovement", "Ġwithin", "Ġinternal", "Ġorgans", ".", "ĠMuscle", "Ġis", "Ġformed", "Ġof", "Ġcontract", "ile", "Ġfil", "aments", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġseparated", "Ġinto", "Ġthree", "Ġmain", "Ġtypes", ";", "Ġsmooth", "Ġmuscle", ",", "Ġskeletal", "Ġmuscle", "Ġand", "Ġcardiac", "Ġmuscle", ".", "ĠSmooth", "Ġmuscle", "Ġhas", "Ġno", "Ġstri", "ations", "Ġwhen", "Ġexamined", "Ġmicrosc", "op", "ically", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġcontracts", "Ġslowly", "Ġbut", "Ġmaintains", "Ġcontract", "ibility", "Ġover", "Ġa", "Ġwide", "Ġrange", "Ġof", "Ġstretch", "Ġlengths", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġsuch", "Ġorgans", "Ġas", "Ġsea", "Ġan", "em", "one", "Ġtentacles", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġwall", "Ġof", "Ġsea", "Ġcuc", "umbers", ".", "ĠSke", "letal", "Ġmuscle", "Ġcontracts", "Ġrapidly", "Ġbut", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlimited", "Ġrange", "Ġof", "Ġextension", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmovement", "Ġof", "Ġappend", "ages", "Ġand", "Ġjaws", ".", "ĠOb", "lique", "ly", "Ġstri", "ated", "Ġmuscle", "Ġis", "Ġintermediate", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġtwo", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfil", "aments", "Ġare", "Ġstaggered", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġtype", "Ġof", "Ġmuscle", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġearth", "worms", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġextend", "Ġslowly", "Ġor", "Ġmake", "Ġrapid", "Ġcontract", "ions", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġhigher", "Ġanimals", "Ġstri", "ated", "Ġmuscles", "Ġoccur", "Ġin", "Ġbundles", "Ġattached", "Ġto", "Ġbone", "Ġto", "Ġprovide", "Ġmovement", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġarranged", "Ġin", "Ġantagon", "istic", "Ġsets", ".", "ĠSmooth", "Ġmuscle", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwalls", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġuterus", ",", "Ġbladder", ",", "Ġintest", "ines", ",", "Ġstomach", ",", "Ġo", "es", "oph", "agus", ",", "Ġrespiratory", "Ġair", "ways", ",", "Ġand", "Ġblood", "Ġvessels", ".", "ĠCard", "iac", "Ġmuscle", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġonly", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġheart", ",", "Ġallowing", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġcontract", "Ġand", "Ġpump", "Ġblood", "Ġround", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "Ġ", "ĠN", "erv", "ous", "Ġtissue", "Ġ", "ĠN", "erv", "ous", "Ġtissue", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġof", "Ġmany", "Ġnerve", "Ġcells", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġneurons", "Ġwhich", "Ġtransmit", "Ġinformation", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsome", "Ġslow", "-", "moving", "Ġrad", "ially", "Ġsymm", "etrical", "Ġmarine", "Ġanimals", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġc", "ten", "oph", "ores", "Ġand", "Ġc", "n", "id", "arians", "Ġ(", "including", "Ġsea", "Ġan", "em", "ones", "Ġand", "Ġjelly", "fish", "),", "Ġthe", "Ġnerves", "Ġform", "Ġa", "Ġnerve", "Ġnet", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġin", "Ġmost", "Ġanimals", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġorganized", "Ġlong", "itud", "inally", "Ġinto", "Ġbundles", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsimple", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġreceptor", "Ġneurons", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġwall", "Ġcause", "Ġa", "Ġlocal", "Ġreaction", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġstimulus", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmore", "Ġcomplex", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġspecialized", "Ġreceptor", "Ġcells", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġche", "more", "cept", "ors", "Ġand", "Ġphot", "ore", "cept", "ors", "Ġare", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġgroups", "Ġand", "Ġsend", "Ġmessages", "Ġalong", "Ġneural", "Ġnetworks", "Ġto", "Ġother", "Ġparts", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġorganism", ".", "ĠNe", "ur", "ons", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġconnected", "Ġtogether", "Ġin", "Ġgang", "lia", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġhigher", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġspecialized", "Ġreceptors", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġbasis", "Ġof", "Ġsense", "Ġorgans", "Ġand", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġcentral", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġ(", "brain", "Ġand", "Ġspinal", "Ġcord", ")", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġperipheral", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlatter", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġsensory", "Ġnerves", "Ġthat", "Ġtransmit", "Ġinformation", "Ġfrom", "Ġsense", "Ġorgans", "Ġand", "Ġmotor", "Ġnerves", "Ġthat", "Ġinfluence", "Ġtarget", "Ġorgans", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġperipheral", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġis", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġsom", "atic", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġwhich", "Ġconve", "ys", "Ġsensation", "Ġand", "Ġcontrols", "Ġvoluntary", "Ġmuscle", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġautonom", "ic", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġwhich", "Ġinvol", "untarily", "Ġcontrols", "Ġsmooth", "Ġmuscle", ",", "Ġcertain", "Ġglands", "Ġand", "Ġinternal", "Ġorgans", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġstomach", ".", "Ġ", "ĠVer", "te", "brate", "Ġanatomy", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAll", "Ġverte", "brates", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġsimilar", "Ġbasic", "Ġbody", "Ġplan", "Ġand", "Ġat", "Ġsome", "Ġpoint", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġlives", ",", "Ġmostly", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġembryonic", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġshare", "Ġthe", "Ġmajor", "Ġchord", "ate", "Ġcharacteristics", ";", "Ġa", "Ġstiff", "ening", "Ġrod", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġnot", "och", "ord", ";", "Ġa", "Ġdorsal", "Ġhollow", "Ġtube", "Ġof", "Ġnervous", "Ġmaterial", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġneural", "Ġtube", ";", "Ġph", "aryn", "ge", "al", "Ġar", "ches", ";", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġtail", "Ġposterior", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġanus", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġspinal", "Ġcord", "Ġis", "Ġprotected", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġverte", "bral", "Ġcolumn", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġabove", "Ġthe", "Ġnot", "och", "ord", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġgastrointestinal", "Ġtract", "Ġis", "Ġbelow", "Ġit", ".", "ĠN", "erv", "ous", "Ġtissue", "Ġis", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġect", "od", "erm", ",", "Ġconnect", "ive", "Ġtissues", "Ġare", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġmes", "od", "erm", ",", "Ġand", "Ġgut", "Ġis", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "od", "erm", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġposterior", "Ġend", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtail", "Ġwhich", "Ġcontinues", "Ġthe", "Ġspinal", "Ġcord", "Ġand", "Ġverte", "bra", "e", "Ġbut", "Ġnot", "Ġthe", "Ġgut", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmouth", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġanterior", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġanimal", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġanus", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġbase", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtail", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġdefining", "Ġcharacteristic", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġverte", "brate", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġverte", "bral", "Ġcolumn", ",", "Ġformed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsegment", "ed", "Ġseries", "Ġof", "Ġverte", "bra", "e", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmost", "Ġverte", "brates", "Ġthe", "Ġnot", "och", "ord", "Ġbecomes", "Ġthe", "Ġnucleus", "Ġpul", "pos", "us", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġinter", "ver", "te", "bral", "Ġdiscs", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġverte", "brates", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġst", "ur", "geon", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġco", "el", "ac", "anth", "Ġretain", "Ġthe", "Ġnot", "och", "ord", "Ġinto", "Ġadulthood", ".", "ĠJ", "awed", "Ġverte", "brates", "Ġare", "Ġtyp", "ified", "Ġby", "Ġpaired", "Ġappend", "ages", ",", "Ġfins", "Ġor", "Ġlegs", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġsecond", "arily", "Ġlost", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlimbs", "Ġof", "Ġverte", "brates", "Ġare", "Ġconsidered", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġhom", "olog", "ous", "Ġbecause", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġunderlying", "Ġskeletal", "Ġstructure", "Ġwas", "Ġinherited", "Ġfrom", "Ġtheir", "Ġlast", "Ġcommon", "Ġancestor", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġarguments", "Ġput", "Ġforward", "Ġby", "ĠCharles", "ĠDarwin", "Ġto", "Ġsupport", "Ġhis", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġevolution", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFish", "Ġanatomy", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġbody", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġfish", "Ġis", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġa", "Ġhead", ",", "Ġtrunk", "Ġand", "Ġtail", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġthe", "Ġdivisions", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġthree", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġalways", "Ġexternally", "Ġvisible", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġskeleton", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġforms", "Ġthe", "Ġsupport", "Ġstructure", "Ġinside", "Ġthe", "Ġfish", ",", "Ġis", "Ġeither", "Ġmade", "Ġof", "Ġcart" ]
430
ive tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin. The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins. In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells. Muscle tissue Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. Nervous tissue Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach. Vertebrate anatomy All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics; a stiffening rod, the notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube; pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm, connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution. Fish anatomy The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cart
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"Ġmostly", "Ġuniform", "Ġin", "Ġsize", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsurface", "Ġcells", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġep", "ider", "mis", "Ġare", "Ġmodified", "Ġinto", "Ġhorny", "Ġscales", "Ġwhich", "Ġcreate", "Ġa", "Ġwaterproof", "Ġlayer", ".", "ĠRept", "iles", "Ġare", "Ġunable", "Ġto", "Ġuse", "Ġtheir", "Ġskin", "Ġfor", "Ġresp", "iration", "Ġas", "Ġdo", "Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġefficient", "Ġrespiratory", "Ġsystem", "Ġdrawing", "Ġair", "Ġinto", "Ġtheir", "Ġlungs", "Ġby", "Ġexpanding", "Ġtheir", "Ġchest", "Ġwalls", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġheart", "Ġresembles", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġamphib", "ian", "Ġbut", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġse", "pt", "um", "Ġwhich", "Ġmore", "Ġcompletely", "Ġseparates", "Ġthe", "Ġoxygen", "ated", "Ġand", "Ġde", "oxy", "gen", "ated", "Ġbloodstream", "s", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġreproductive", "Ġsystem", "Ġhas", "Ġevolved", "Ġfor", "Ġinternal", "Ġfertil" ]
431
ilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure. Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases. The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column. Amphibian anatomy Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs, salamanders and caecilians. They are tetrapods, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping, a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist. In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side. Reptile anatomy Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles, tuataras, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. They are tetrapods, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertil
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"Ġand", "Ġribs", "Ġthough", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġspecies", "Ġretain", "Ġa", "Ġvest", "ige", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpel", "vis", "Ġand", "Ġrear", "Ġlimbs", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġpelvic", "Ġsp", "urs", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbar", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġf", "en", "est", "ra", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġbeen", "Ġlost", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġjaws", "Ġhave", "Ġextreme", "Ġflexibility", "Ġallowing", "Ġthe", "Ġsnake", "Ġto", "Ġswallow", "Ġits", "Ġprey", "Ġwhole", ".", "ĠSn", "akes", "Ġlack", "Ġmove", "able", "Ġeyel", "ids", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġeyes", "Ġbeing", "Ġcovered", "Ġby", "Ġtransparent", "Ġ\"", "spect", "acle", "\"", "Ġscales", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġe", "ard", "rums", "Ġbut", "Ġcan", "Ġdetect", "Ġground", "Ġvibrations", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġbones", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġskull", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġfor", "ked", "Ġtongues", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġorgans", "Ġof", "Ġtaste", "Ġand", "Ġsmell", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġspecies", "Ġhave", "Ġsensory", "Ġpits", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġheads", "Ġenabling", 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432
ization, with a copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid. Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers. Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye. Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey. Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Bird anatomy Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks. The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes. Mammal anatomy Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic
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"Ġinspection", "Ġof", "Ġc", "ada", "vers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġmicroscopic", "Ġanatomy", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġhist", "ology", ")", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġaided", "Ġby", "Ġpractical", "Ġexperience", "Ġexamining", "Ġhist", "ological", "Ġpreparations", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġslides", ")", "Ġunder", "Ġa", "Ġmicroscope", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHuman", "Ġanatomy", ",", "Ġphysiology", "Ġand", "Ġbi", "ochemistry", "Ġare", "Ġcomplementary", "Ġbasic", "Ġmedical", "Ġsciences", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġgenerally", "Ġtaught", "Ġto", "Ġmedical", "Ġstudents", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġfirst", "Ġyear", "Ġat", "Ġmedical", "Ġschool", ".", "ĠHuman", "Ġanatomy", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġtaught", "Ġregion", "ally", "Ġor", "Ġsystem", "ically", ";", "Ġthat", "Ġis", ",", "Ġrespectively", ",", "Ġstudying", "Ġanatomy", "Ġby", "Ġbodily", "Ġregions", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġhead", "Ġand", "Ġchest", ",", "Ġor", "Ġstudying", "Ġby", "Ġspecific", "Ġsystems", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġnervous", "Ġor", "Ġrespiratory", "Ġsystems", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmajor", "Ġanatomy", "Ġtextbook", ",", "ĠGray", "'s", "ĠAnat", "omy", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġre", "organized", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġsystems", "Ġformat", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġregional", "Ġformat", ",", "Ġin", "Ġline", "Ġwith", "Ġmodern", "Ġteaching", "Ġmethods", ".", "ĠA", "Ġthorough", "Ġworking", "Ġknowledge", "Ġof", "Ġanatomy", "Ġis", "Ġrequired", "Ġby", "Ġphysicians", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġsurgeons", "Ġand", "Ġdoctors", "Ġworking", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġdiagnostic", "Ġspecial", "ties", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġhist", "opath", "ology", "Ġand", "Ġrad", "iology", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAcademic", "Ġanat", "om", "ists", "Ġare", "Ġusually", "Ġemployed", "Ġby", "Ġuniversities", ",", "Ġmedical", "Ġschools", "Ġor", "Ġteaching", "Ġhospitals", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġteaching", "Ġanatomy", ",", "Ġand", "Ġresearch", "Ġinto", "Ġcertain", "Ġsystems", ",", "Ġorgans", ",", "Ġtissues", "Ġor", "Ġcells", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ver", "te", "brate", "Ġanatomy", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ver", "te", "brates", "Ġconstitute", "Ġa", "Ġvast", "Ġarray", "Ġof", "Ġliving", "Ġorganisms", "Ġranging", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġsimplest", "Ġun", "ice", "llular", "Ġe", "uk", "ary", "otes", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠPar", "ame", "cium", "Ġto", "Ġsuch", "Ġcomplex", "Ġmult", "ice", "llular", "Ġanimals", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġoct", "opus", ",", "Ġlobster", "Ġand", "Ġdragon", "fly", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġconstitute", "Ġabout", "Ġ95", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġanimal", "Ġspecies", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġdefinition", ",", "Ġnone", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġcreatures", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġbackbone", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcells", "Ġof", "Ġsingle", "-", "cell", "Ġprot", "ozo", "ans", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġbasic", "Ġstructure", "Ġas", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "Ġmult", "ice", "llular", "Ġanimals", "Ġbut", "Ġsome", "Ġparts", "Ġare", "Ġspecialized", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġequivalent", "Ġof", "Ġtissues", "Ġand", "Ġorgans", ".", "ĠLoc", "om", "otion", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġprovided", "Ġby", "Ġc", "ilia", "Ġor", "Ġfl", "age", "lla", "Ġor", "Ġmay", "Ġproceed", "Ġvia", "Ġthe", "Ġadvance", "Ġof", "Ġpseud", "op", "od", "ia", ",", "Ġfood", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġgathered", "Ġby", "Ġph", "ag", "ocy", "t", "osis", ",", "Ġenergy", "Ġneeds", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġsupplied", "Ġby", "Ġphotos", "ynthesis", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcell", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġsupported", "Ġby", "Ġan", "Ġend", "os", "keleton", "Ġor", "Ġan", "Ġex", "os", "keleton", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġprot", "ozo", "ans", "Ġcan", "Ġform", "Ġmult", "ice", "llular", "Ġcolonies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMet", "azo", "ans", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġmult", "ice", "llular", "Ġorganism", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġdifferent", "Ġgroups", "Ġof", "Ġcells", "Ġserving", "Ġdifferent", "Ġfunctions", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmost", "Ġbasic", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġmet", "az", "oan", "Ġtissues", "Ġare", "Ġepit", "hel", "ium", "Ġand", "Ġconnect", "ive", "Ġtissue", ",", "Ġboth", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġnearly", "Ġall", "Ġinver", "te", "brates", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġouter", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġep", "ider", "mis", "Ġis", "Ġnormally", "Ġformed", "Ġof", "Ġepit", "helial", "Ġcells", "Ġand", "Ġsecret", "es", "Ġan", "Ġext", "race", "llular", "Ġmatrix", "Ġwhich", "Ġprovides", "Ġsupport", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġorganism", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġend", "os", "keleton", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġmes", "od", "erm", "Ġis", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġe", "chin", "oder", "ms", ",", "Ġsp", "ong", "es", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġc", "ep", "hal", "op", "ods", ".", "ĠEx", "os", "ke", "let", "ons", "Ġare", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġep", "ider", "mis", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġof", "Ġch", "it", "in", "Ġin", "Ġar", "throp", "ods", "Ġ(", "in", "sect", "s", ",", "Ġspiders", ",", "Ġticks", ",", "Ġsh", "rim", "ps", ",", "Ġcrabs", ",", "Ġlob", "sters", ").", "ĠCal", "cium", "Ġcarbon", "ate", "Ġconstitutes", "Ġthe", "Ġshells", "Ġof", "Ġm", "oll", "us", "cs", ",", "Ġbr", "achi", "op", "ods", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġtube", "-", "building", "Ġpoly", "cha", "ete", "Ġworms", "Ġand", "Ġsil", "ica" ]
433
and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea. Mammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its development. Human anatomy Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet. Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, podiatrists, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope. Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology. Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Invertebrate anatomy Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus, lobster and dragonfly. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia, food may be gathered by phagocytosis, energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies. Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods. Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica
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"Ġthor", "ax", "Ġand", "Ġone", "Ġor", "Ġtwo", "Ġpairs", "Ġof", "Ġwings", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġabdomen", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġof", "Ġeleven", "Ġsegments", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġfused", "Ġand", "Ġhouses", "Ġthe", "Ġdigestive", ",", "Ġrespiratory", ",", "Ġexc", "ret", "ory", "Ġand", "Ġreproductive", "Ġsystems", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġconsiderable", "Ġvariation", "Ġbetween", "Ġspecies", "Ġand", "Ġmany", "Ġadaptations", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġparts", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġwings", ",", "Ġlegs", ",", "Ġantenna", "e", "Ġand", "Ġmouth", "parts", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSp", "iders", "Ġa", "Ġclass", "Ġof", "Ġar", "ach", "n", "ids", "Ġhave", "Ġfour", "Ġpairs", "Ġof", "Ġlegs", ";", "Ġa", "Ġbody", "Ġof", "Ġtwo", "Ġsegments", "âĢĶ", "a", "Ġc", "ep", "hal", "oth", "or", "ax", "Ġand", "Ġan", "Ġabdomen", ".", "ĠSp", "iders", "Ġhave", "Ġno", "Ġwings", "Ġand", "Ġno", "Ġantenna", "e", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġmouth", "parts", "Ġcalled", "Ġche", "lic", "er", "ae", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġconnected", "Ġto", "Ġvenom", "Ġglands", "Ġas", "Ġmost", "Ġspiders", "Ġare", "Ġvenom", "ous", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġsecond", "Ġpair", "Ġof", "Ġappend", "ages", "Ġcalled", "Ġped", "ipal", "ps", "Ġattached", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġc", "ep", "hal", "oth", "or", "ax", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġhave", "Ġsimilar", "Ġsegment", "ation", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlegs", "Ġand", "Ġfunction", "Ġas", "Ġtaste", "Ġand", "Ġsmell", "Ġorgans", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġeach", "Ġmale", "Ġped", "ipal", "p", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġspoon", "-", "shaped", "Ġcy", "mb", "ium", "Ġthat", "Ġacts", "Ġto", "Ġsupport", "Ġthe", "Ġcop", "ulatory", "Ġorgan", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġbranches", "Ġof", "Ġanatomy", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠSuper", "f", "icial", "Ġor", "Ġsurface", "Ġanatomy", "Ġis", "Ġimportant", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġanatomical", "Ġlandmarks", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġreadily", "Ġseen", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġexterior", "Ġcont", "ours", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġenables", "Ġphysicians", "Ġor", "Ġveterinary", "Ġsurgeons", "Ġto", "Ġgauge", "Ġthe", "Ġposition", "Ġand", "Ġanatomy", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġassociated", "Ġdeeper", "Ġstructures", ".", "ĠSuper", "f", "icial", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġdirectional", "Ġterm", "Ġthat", "Ġindicates", "Ġthat", "Ġstructures", "Ġare", "Ġlocated", "Ġrelatively", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCompar", "ative", "Ġanatomy", "Ġrelates", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcomparison", "Ġof", "Ġanatomical", "Ġstructures", "Ġ(", "both", "Ġgross", "Ġand", "Ġmicroscopic", ")", "Ġin", "Ġdifferent", "Ġanimals", ".", "Ġ", "ĠArt", "istic", "Ġanatomy", "Ġrelates", "Ġto", "Ġanat", "omic", "Ġstudies", "Ġfor", "Ġartistic", "Ġreasons", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "ĠAncient", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ1600", "ĠBCE", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠEdwin", "ĠSmith", "ĠPap", "yrus", ",", "Ġan", "ĠAncient", "ĠEgyptian", "Ġmedical", "Ġtext", ",", "Ġdescribed", "Ġthe", "Ġheart", ",", "Ġits", "Ġvessels", ",", "Ġliver", ",", "Ġsp", "leen", ",", "Ġkidneys", ",", "Ġhypothal", "amus", ",", "Ġuterus", "Ġand", "Ġbladder", ",", "Ġand", "Ġshowed", "Ġthe", "Ġblood", "Ġvessels", "Ġdiver", "ging", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġheart", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠE", "bers", "ĠPap", "yrus", "Ġ(", "c", ".", "Ġ15", "50", "ĠBCE", ")", "Ġfeatures", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "t", "reat", "ise", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġheart", "\",", "Ġwith", "Ġvessels", "Ġcarrying", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "'s", "Ġfluids", "Ġto", "Ġor", "Ġfrom", "Ġevery", "Ġmember", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAncient", "ĠGreek", "Ġanatomy", "Ġand", "Ġphysiology", "Ġunderwent", "Ġgreat", "Ġchanges", "Ġand", "Ġadvances", "Ġthroughout", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġmedieval", "Ġworld", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOver", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġmedical", "Ġpractice", "Ġexpanded", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġcontinually", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġunderstanding", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfunctions", "Ġof", "Ġorgans", "Ġand", "Ġstructures", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠPhen", "omen", "al", "Ġanatomical", "Ġobservations", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġbody", "Ġwere", "Ġmade", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhave", "Ġcontributed", "Ġtowards", "Ġthe", "Ġunderstanding", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbrain", ",", "Ġeye", ",", "Ġliver", ",", "Ġreproductive", "Ġorgans", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠHell", "en", "istic", "ĠEgyptian", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠAlexandria", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġstepping", "-", "stone", "Ġfor", "ĠGreek", "Ġanatomy", "Ġand", "Ġphysiology", ".", "ĠAlexandria", "Ġnot", "Ġonly", "Ġhoused", "Ġthe", "Ġbiggest", "Ġlibrary", "Ġfor", "Ġmedical", "Ġrecords", "Ġand", "Ġbooks", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġliberal", "Ġarts", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGreeks", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġmany", "Ġmedical", "Ġpractitioners", "Ġand", "Ġphilosophers", ".", "ĠGreat", "Ġpatronage", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġarts", "Ġand", "Ġsciences", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "to", "le", "my", "Ġrulers", "Ġhelped", "Ġraise", "ĠAlexandria", "Ġup", ",", "Ġfurther", "Ġr", "iv", "alling", "Ġthe", "Ġcultural", "Ġand", "Ġscientific", "Ġachievements", "Ġof", "Ġother", "ĠGreek", "Ġstates", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġstriking", "Ġadvances", "Ġin", "Ġearly", "Ġanatomy", "Ġand", "Ġphysiology", "Ġtook", "Ġplace", "Ġin", "ĠHell", "en", "istic", "ĠAlexandria", ".", "ĠTwo", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġfamous", "Ġanat", "om", "ists", "Ġand", "Ġphysi", "ologists", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġthird", "Ġcentury", "Ġwere", "ĠHer", "oph", "ilus", "Ġand", "ĠEr", "as", "ist", "r", "atus", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġtwo", "Ġphysicians", "Ġhelped", "Ġpioneer", "Ġhuman", "Ġdis", "section", "Ġfor", "Ġmedical", "Ġresearch", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġalso", "Ġconducted", "Ġv", "iv", "is", "ect", "ions", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġc", "ada", "vers", "Ġof", "Ġcondemned", "Ġcriminals", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġconsidered", "Ġtaboo", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "ĠRenaissance", "âĢĶ", "Her", "oph", "ilus", "Ġwas", "Ġrecognized", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġperson", "Ġto", "Ġperform", "Ġsystematic", "Ġdisse", "ctions", ".", "ĠHer", "oph", "ilus", "Ġbecame", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġhis", "Ġanatomical", "Ġworks" ]
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forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria. Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (polyps, sea anemones, jellyfish) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles. Marcello Malpighi, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Arthropod anatomy Arthropods comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes (ocelli) and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts. Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ. Other branches of anatomy Superficial or surface anatomy is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body. It enables physicians or veterinary surgeons to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body. Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals. Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons. History Ancient In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body. Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and the nervous system. The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states. Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works
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"âĢĵ", "15", "64", "),", "Ġprofessor", "Ġof", "Ġanatomy", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠUniversity", "Ġof", "ĠPad", "ua", ",", "Ġis", "Ġconsidered", "Ġthe", "Ġfounder", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "Ġhuman", "Ġanatomy", ".", "ĠOriginally", "Ġfrom", "ĠBr", "ab", "ant", ",", "ĠVes", "al", "ius", "Ġpublished", "Ġthe", "Ġinfluential", "Ġbook", "ĠDe", "Ġhuman", "i", "Ġcorpor", "is", "Ġfabric", "a", "Ġ(\"", "the", "Ġstructure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġbody", "\"),", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġformat", "Ġbook", "Ġin", "Ġseven", "Ġvolumes", ",", "Ġin", "Ġ15", "43", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġaccurate", "Ġand", "Ġintric", "ately", "Ġdetailed", "Ġillustrations", ",", "Ġoften", "Ġin", "Ġalleg", "orical", "Ġposes", "Ġagainst", "ĠItalian", "ate", "Ġlandscapes", ",", "Ġare", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġmade", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġartist", "ĠJan", "Ġvan", "ĠCal", "car", ",", "Ġa", "Ġpupil", "Ġof", "ĠTit", "ian", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠEngland", ",", "Ġanatomy", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġsubject", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġpublic", "Ġlectures", "Ġgiven", "Ġin", "Ġany", "Ġscience", ";", "Ġthese", "Ġwere", "Ġgiven", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠCompany", "Ġof", "ĠBar" ]
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making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. Great feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland. The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the Hippocratic Corpus, an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty. In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century. Medieval to early modern Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Originally from Brabant, Vesalius published the influential book De humani corporis fabrica ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543. The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian. In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the Company of Bar
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436
bers and Surgeons in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians. Late modern In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins. A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers. Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832, while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery". The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching. Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically. Before the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and inspection, palpation and auscultation of the living. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens. The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy. Equally important advances have occurred in non-invasive techniques for examining the interior structures of the body. X-rays can be passed through the body and used in medical radiography and fluoroscopy to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. Magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and ultrasound imaging have all enabled examination of internal structures in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations. See also Anatomical model Outline of human anatomy Plastination Notes Bibliography "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray External links Anatomy, In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. Melvyn Bragg with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and Harold Ellis. Anatomia Collection: anatomical plates 1522 to 1867 (digitized books and images) Lyman, Henry Munson. The Book of Health (1898). Science History Institute Digital Collections . Gunther von Hagens True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching. Branches of biology Morphology (biology) <|endoftext|>Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency, is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement (e.g., "If the lamp were broken, then the room would be dark"), and invalidly inferring its converse ("The room
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is dark, so the lamp is broken"), even though the converse may not be true. This arises when a consequent ("the room would be dark") has more than one other possible antecedent (for example, "the lamp is not plugged in" or "the lamp is in working order, but is switched off"). Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes. The opposite statement, denying the consequent, is a valid form of argument. Formal description Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement and invalidly concluding its converse . The name affirming the consequent derives from using the consequent, Q, of , to conclude the antecedent P. This illogic can be summarized formally as or, alternatively, . The root cause of such a logic error is sometimes failure to realize that just because P is a possible condition for Q, P may not be the only condition for Q, i.e. Q may follow from another condition as well. Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements having true converses. If P and Q are "equivalent" statements, i.e. , it is possible to infer P under the condition Q. For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday" and "It is my birthday, so it is August 13" are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement "August 13 is my birthday" (an abbreviated form of ). Using one statement to conclude the other is not an example of affirming the consequent, but some people may misapply the approach. Additional examples Example 1 One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then Bill Gates is rich. Bill Gates is rich. Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. Owning Fort Knox is not the only way to be rich. Any number of other ways to be rich exist. However, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone is not rich" (non-Q), then "this person does not own Fort Knox" (non-P). This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. Example 2 Here is another useful, obviously-fallacious example, but one that does not require familiarity with who Bill Gates is and what Fort Knox is: If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs. My cat has four legs. Therefore, my cat is a dog. Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", etc.) can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs must imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else. This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong (intuitively, a cat cannot be a dog), and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious. Example 3 Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: If Brian had been thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower, then he would be dead. Brian is dead. Therefore, Brian was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower. Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the only cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death. Affirming the consequent is commonly used in rationalization, and thus appears as a coping mechanism in some people. Example 4 In Catch-22, the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington", who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed. "You can read, though, can't you?" the colonel persevered sarcastically. "The author signed his name." "That's my name there." "Then you wrote it. Q.E.D." P in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and Q 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes.See also List of fallacies Abductive reasoning Appeal to consequences Confusion of the inverse Denying the antecedent ELIZA effect Fallacy of the single cause Fallacy of the und
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438
istributed middle Inference to the best explanation Modus ponens Modus tollens Post hoc ergo propter hoc'' Necessity and sufficiency References Propositional fallacies Logic articles needing expert attention <|endoftext|>Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian film director, screenwriter, and film theorist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in Russian and world cinema. His films explored spiritual and metaphysical themes, and are noted for their slow pacing and long takes, dreamlike visual imagery, and preoccupation with nature and memory. Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK under filmmaker Mikhail Romm, and subsequently directed his first five features in the Soviet Union: Ivan's Childhood (1962), Andrei Rublev (1966), Solaris (1972), Mirror (1975), and Stalker (1979). A number of his films from this period are ranked among the best films ever made. After years of creative conflict with state film authorities, Tarkovsky left the country in 1979 and made his final two films abroad; Nostalghia (1983) and The Sacrifice (1986) were produced in Italy and Sweden respectively. In 1986, he also published a book about cinema and art entitled Sculpting in Time. He died of cancer later that year. Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards at the Cannes Film Festival throughout his career (including the FIPRESCI prize, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury, and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury) and winner of the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival for his debut film Ivan's Childhood. In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious Lenin Prize. Three of his films—Andrei Rublev, Mirror, and Stalker—featured in Sight & Sounds 2012 poll of the 100 greatest films of all time. Life and career Childhood and early life Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the Yuryevetsky District of the Ivanovo Industrial Oblast (modern-day Kadyysky District of the Kostroma Oblast, Russia) to the poet and translator Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky, a native of Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine, and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute who later worked as a corrector; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate. Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in ) was a Polish nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who arrived from Iași. Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian nobility that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov, a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of the Kaluga Governorate who studied law at the Moscow State University and served as a judge in Kozelsk. from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1890–1907 (Wikisource, in Russian) According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the Shamkhalate of Tarki, Dagestan, although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it "a myth, even a prank of sorts," stressing that none of the documents confirms this version. Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. He returned home in 1943, having been awarded a Red Star after being shot in one of his legs (which he would eventually need to amputate due to gangrene). Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939, Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war, the three evacuated to Yuryevets, living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943, the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet Andrei Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the Zamoskvorechye District in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with tuberculosis. Many themes of his childhood—the
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439
evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film Mirror. In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureyka near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province. During this time in the taiga, Tarkovsky decided to study film. Film school student Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush (Irina) whom he married in April 1957. The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The Khrushchev Thaw relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the Italian neorealists, French New Wave, and of directors such as Kurosawa, Buñuel, Bergman, Bresson, Wajda (whose film Ashes and Diamonds influenced Tarkovsky) and Mizoguchi. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm, who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956, Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, The Killers, from a short story of Ernest Hemingway. The longer television film There Will Be No Leave Today followed in 1959. Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students. Classmate Aleksandr Gordon, who married Tarkovsky's sister, in particular directed, wrote, edited, and acted in the two films with Tarkovsky. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray, who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film Clear Skies. Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects. During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959, they wrote the script Antarctica – Distant Country, which was later published in the Moskovsky Komsomolets. Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm, but it was rejected. They were more successful with the script The Steamroller and the Violin, which they sold to Mosfilm. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. Film career in the Soviet Union Tarkovsky's first feature film was Ivan's Childhood in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival in the year 1962. In the same year, on 30 September, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. In 1965, he directed the film Andrei Rublev about the life of Andrei Rublev, the fifteenth-century Russian icon painter. Andrei Rublev was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. Nevertheless, the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles – a significant sum for that period. A version of the film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and won the FIPRESCI prize. He divorced his wife, Irina, in June 1970. In the same year, he married Larisa Kizilova (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film Andrei Rublev (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, (nicknamed Andriosha, meaning "little Andre" or "Andre Junior") was born in the same year on 7 August. In 1972, he
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"Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġsummer", "Ġof", "Ġ1979", ",", "ĠT", "ark", "ovsky", "Ġtraveled", "Ġto", "ĠItaly", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġhe", "Ġshot", "Ġthe", "Ġdocumentary", "ĠVoy", "age", "Ġin", "ĠTime", "Ġtogether", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġlong", "-", "time", "Ġfriend", "ĠTon", "ino", "ĠGuer", "ra", ".", "ĠT", "ark", "ovsky", "Ġreturned", "Ġto", "ĠItaly", "Ġin", "Ġ1980", "Ġfor", "Ġan", "Ġextended", "Ġtrip", ",", "Ġduring", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġand", "ĠGuer", "ra", "Ġcompleted", "Ġthe", "Ġscript", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfilm", "ĠNost", "al", "gh", "ia", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthis", "Ġperiod", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġtook", "ĠPolar", "oid", "Ġphotographs", "Ġdepicting", "Ġhis", "Ġpersonal", "Ġlife", ".", "Ġ", "ĠT", "ark", "ovsky", "Ġreturned", "Ġto", "ĠItaly", "Ġin", "Ġ1982", "Ġto", "Ġstart", "Ġshooting", "ĠNost", "al", "gh", "ia", ",", "Ġbut", "ĠMos", "film", "Ġthen", "Ġwithdrew", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġproject", ",", "Ġso", "Ġhe", "Ġsought", "Ġand", "Ġreceived", "Ġfinancial", "Ġbacking", "Ġfrom", 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completed Solaris, an adaptation of the novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem. He had worked on this together with screenwriter Friedrich Gorenstein as early as 1968. The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival, won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, and was nominated for the Palme d'Or. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film Mirror, a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles Confession, White day and A white, white day. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category", a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry. During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay Hoffmanniana, about the German writer and poet E. T. A. Hoffmann. In December 1976, he directed Hamlet, his only stage play, at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow. The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn, who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay Sardor together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was Stalker, inspired by the novel Roadside Picnic by the brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel Dead Mountaineer's Hotel and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on Roadside Picnic. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to the point where he hired Alexander Knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. In a question and answer session at the Edinburgh Filmhouse on 11 February 1981, Tarkovsky trenchantly rejected suggestions that the film was either impenetrably mysterious or a political allegory. In 1979, Tarkovsky began production of the film The First Day (Russian: Первый День Pervyj Dyen), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of Peter the Great and starred Natalya Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov. To get the project approved by Goskino, Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film. Film career outside the Soviet Union During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary Voyage in Time together with his long-time friend Tonino Guerra. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip, during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film Nostalghia. During this period, he took Polaroid photographs depicting his personal life. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting Nostalghia, but Mosfilm then withdrew from the project, so he sought and received financial backing from the Italian RAI. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983, and it was presented at the Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called Grand Prix du cinéma de creation with Robert Bresson. Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film from winning the Palme d'Or, a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet
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"ĠHa", "iku", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġcreate", "Ġ\"", "images", "Ġin", "Ġsuch", "Ġa", "Ġway", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġmean", "Ġnothing", "Ġbeyond", "Ġthemselves", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠT", "ark", "ovsky", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġa", "Ġdeeply", "Ġreligious", "ĠOrthodox", "ĠChristian", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġbelieved", "Ġgreat", "Ġart", "Ġshould", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġhigher", "Ġspiritual", "Ġpurpose", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġperfection", "ist", "Ġnot", "Ġgiven", "Ġto", "Ġhumor", "Ġor", "Ġhumility", ":", "Ġhis", "Ġsignature", "Ġstyle", "Ġwas", "Ġponder", "ous", "Ġand", "Ġliterary", ",", "Ġhaving", "Ġmany", "Ġcharacters", "Ġthat", "Ġpond", "ered", "Ġover", "Ġreligious", "Ġthemes", "Ġand", "Ġissues", "Ġregarding", "Ġfaith", ".", "Ġ", "ĠT", "ark", "ovsky", "Ġperceived", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġart", "Ġof", "Ġcinema", "Ġhas", "Ġonly", "Ġbeen", "Ġtruly", "Ġmastered", "Ġby", "Ġvery" ]
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Union again. After Cannes he went to London to stage and choreograph the opera Boris Godunov at the Royal Opera House under the musical direction of Claudio Abbado. At a press conference in Milan on 10 July 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Western Europe. He stated, "I am not a Soviet dissident, I have no conflict with the Soviet Government," but if he returned home, he added, "I would be unemployed." At that time, his son Andriosha was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985, Tarkovsky was processed as a Soviet Defector at a refugee camp in Latina, Italy, registered with the serial number 13225/379, and officially welcomed to the West. Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 preparing the film The Sacrifice. It was finally shot in 1985 in Sweden, with many of the crew being alumni from Ingmar Bergman's films, including cinematographer Sven Nykvist. Tarkovsky's vision of his film was greatly influenced by Bergman's style. While The Sacrifice is about an apocalypse and impending death, faith, and possible redemption, in the making-of documentary Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky, in a particularly poignant scene, writer/director Michal Leszczylowski follows Tarkovsky on a walk as he expresses his sentiments on death — he claims himself to be immortal and has no fear of dying. Ironically, at the end of the year Tarkovsky was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, Andre Jr, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. What would be Tarkovsky's final film was dedicated to him. The Sacrifice was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son. Death In Tarkovsky's last diary entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength left — that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as Martyrology and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was erected in 1994, was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife, Larisa, reads: To the man who saw the Angel. Larisa died in 1998 and is buried beside her husband. A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes, but was assassinated by the KGB. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause. As with Tarkovsky, his wife Larisa and actor Anatoly Solonitsyn all died from the very same type of lung cancer. Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in Stalker, is convinced that they were all poisoned by the chemical plant where they were shooting the film. Influences Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the Khrushchev Thaw, during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience that influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, Mikhail Romm, allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves". Tarkovsky was also a deeply religious Orthodox Christian, who believed great art should have a higher spiritual purpose. He was a perfectionist not given to humor or humility: his signature style was ponderous and literary, having many characters that pondered over religious themes and issues regarding faith. Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very
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few filmmakers, stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that "they can be counted on the fingers of one hand". In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films. The list includes: Diary of a Country Priest and Mouchette by Robert Bresson; Winter Light, Wild Strawberries, and Persona by Ingmar Bergman; Nazarín by Luis Buñuel; City Lights by Charlie Chaplin; Ugetsu by Kenji Mizoguchi; Seven Samurai by Akira Kurosawa, and Woman in the Dunes by Hiroshi Teshigahara. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean Vigo, and Carl Theodor Dreyer. With the exception of City Lights, the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as Boris Barnet, Sergei Parajanov and Alexander Dovzhenko highly. He said of Dovzhenko's Earth: "I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and met extraordinary people. They spread calmness, had such tact, they conveyed a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom that I have seldom come across on such a scale. Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides. [...] This trespassing of the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of man. Dovzhenko understood this." Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of science fiction, largely dismissing it for its "comic book" trappings and vulgar commercialism. However, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film The Terminator, saying that its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but was nevertheless impressed by the film. Cinematic style In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued: "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart." His films are characterized by metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said: "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema." Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably Solaris. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film Mirror, Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by Aristotle: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome Andrei Rublev, which features a color epilogue of Rublev's authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in Stalker's case sepia sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film
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mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life. Bergman on Tarkovsky Ingmar Bergman, a renowned director, commented on Tarkovsky: Contrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that "with Autumn Sonata Bergman does Bergman", adding: "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that Fellini began to make Fellini films [...] Buñuel nearly always made Buñuel films." This pastiche of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke". Vadim Yusov Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration. Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed. Sven Nykvist In his last film, The Sacrifice, Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist, who had worked on many films with director Ingmar Bergman. (Nykvist was not alone: several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman, notably lead actor Erland Josephson, who had also acted for Tarkovsky in Nostalghia.) Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it, but ultimately stated that choosing to work with Tarkovsky was one of the best choices he had ever made. Personal life Sexuality Film scholars Vita T. Johnson and Graham Petrie, in The Films of Andrei Tarkovsky: A Visual Fugue (1994), wrote that Tarkovsky was bisexual and speculated more controversially that he was also ephebophilic. Noting that Tarkovsky's favorite hair color was red, they argue that his work portrays female sexuality negatively except in the case of a sexually precocious red-haired child in Mirror who is also played by his own red-haired step-daughter. Film teacher David Pratt criticized the evidence given for the theory as insufficient. Dina Iordanova likewise found the claim on bisexuality too undeveloped. Donato Totaro, however, took this claim seriously and said that "perhaps the authors were 'protecting' their source, given that homosexuality is still a taboo subject in Russia." Filmography Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. His features are: Ivan's Childhood (1962) Andrei Rublev (1966) Solaris (1972) Mirror (1975) Stalker (1979) Nostalghia (1983) The Sacrifice (1986) He also wrote several screenplays. Furthermore, he directed the play Hamlet for the stage in Moscow, directed the opera Boris Godunov in London, and he directed a radio production of the short story Turnabout by William Faulkner. He also wrote Sculpting in Time, a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was Ivan's Childhood in 1962. He then directed Andrei Rublev in 1966, Solaris in 1972, Mirror in 1975 and Stalker in 1979. The documentary Voyage in Time was produced in Italy in 1982, as was Nostalghia in 1983. His last film The Sacrifice was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a cowriter. Tarkovsky once said that a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films. Published books Sculpting in Time, published in 1986 Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970–1986, published in 1989 A book of 60 photos, Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids, taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky. Unproduced screenplays ConcentrateConcentrate (, Kontsentrat) is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the taiga as a member of a research expedition, prior to his enrollment in film school. It's about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the concentrates collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to
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444
Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarkovsky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, "excellent" () for this work. In 1994, fragments of Concentrate were filmed and used in the documentary Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon. HoffmannianaHoffmanniana () is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author E. T. A. Hoffmann. In 1974, an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann, and also thought about Ibsen's Peer Gynt. In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann. He planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his dacha. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October. Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm, it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to Goskino in February 1976, and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film, the screenplay was never realized. In 1984, during the time of his exile in the West, Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea. Films about Tarkovsky Voyage in Time (1983): documents the travels in Italy of Andrei Tarkovsky in preparation for the making of his film Nostalghia, Tonino Guerra. Tarkovsky: A Poet in the Cinema (1984): directed by Donatella Baglivo. Moscow Elegy (1987): a documentary/homage to Tarkovsky by Aleksandr Sokurov. Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit (1988): Andrej Tarkowskijs Exil und Tod. Documentary directed by Ebbo Demant. Germany. One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich (1999): French documentary film directed by Chris Marker. "Andrey" (color/b&w, short-fiction, 35 mm, 15 min, 2006) A film by Nariné Mktchyan and Arsen Azatyan. Festivals: Yerevan IFF 2006, Rotterdam IFF 2007, Busan IFF 2007, Sydney IFF 2007, Zerkalo FF Ivanovo (Special Prize) 2008, Kinoshock FF 2014. Tarkovsky: Time Within Time (2015): documentary by P. J. Letofsky. Andrei Tarkovsky: A Cinema Prayer (2019): a poetic documentary by Tarkovsky's son Andrei A. Tarkovsky Awards and commemoration Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. At the Venice Film Festival, the Golden Lion of the for Ivan's Childhood At the Cannes Film Festival, the FIPRESCI prize three times, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury three times (more than any other director), the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury twice, and the Best Director award once. He was also nominated for the Palme d'Or three times. In 1987, the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for The Sacrifice. Under the influence of Glasnost and Perestroika, Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine Iskusstvo Kino was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile. Posthumously, he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator Yuri Norstein. In three consecutive events, the Moscow International Film Festival awarded the Andrei Tarkovsky Award in 1993, 1995, and 1997. In 1996, the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryeve
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445
ts, his childhood town. A minor planet, 3345 Tarkovskij, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1982, has been named after him. Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary Moscow Elegy, by Russian film director Alexander Sokurov. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky is a 1988 documentary film by Michal Leszczylowski, an editor of the film The Sacrifice. Film director Chris Marker produced the television documentary One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000. At the entrance to the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, Gennady Shpalikov and Vasily Shukshin. Reception and influence on others Andrei Tarkovsky and his works have received praise from many filmmakers, critics and thinkers. The Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as saying: "His unusual sensitivity is both overwhelming and astounding. It almost reaches a pathological intensity. Probably there is no equal among film directors alive now." Kurosawa also commented: "I love all of Tarkovsky's films. I love his personality and all his works. Every cut from his films is a marvelous image in itself. But the finished image is nothing more than the imperfect accomplishment of his idea. His ideas are only realized in part. And he had to make do with it." The Iranian filmmaker Abbas Kiarostami remarked that: "Tarkovsky's works separate me completely from physical life, and are the most spiritual films I have seen". The Polish filmmaker Krzysztof Kieślowski commented that: "Andrei Tarkovsky was one of the greatest directors of recent years," and regarded Tarkovsky's film, Ivan's Childhood as an influence on his own work. The Armenian filmmaker Sergei Paradjanov remarked that watching Tarkovsky's film, Ivan's Childhood was his main inspiration to become a filmmaker by saying: "I did not know how to do anything and I would not have done anything if there had not been Ivan's Childhood". The Austrian filmmaker Michael Haneke voted for Mirror on his top 10 films in the 2002 Sight & Sound directors' poll and later said that he has seen the picture at least 25 times. The German filmmaker Wim Wenders dedicated his film Wings of Desire to Tarkovsky (along with François Truffaut and Yasujirō Ozu). The French filmmaker Chris Marker directed a documentary film as a homage to Tarkovsky called One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich and used Tarkovsky's concept of "The Zone" (from the film, Stalker) for his film, Sans Soleil. The Greek filmmaker Theo Angelopoulos regarded Tarkokvsky's film Stalker as one of the films that influenced him. The Greek-Australian filmmaker Alex Proyas was "extremely influenced" by Tarkovsky's work and cited Stalker as one his favorite films. The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre highly praised Tarkovsky's film Ivan's Childhood, saying that it was one of the most beautiful films he had ever seen. The Japanese filmmaker Mamoru Oshii, known for his works such as Ghost in the Shell was influenced by Tarkovsky. The Indian-born British American novelist Salman Rushdie praised Tarkovsky and his work Solaris by calling it a "a sci-fi masterpiece". Film historian Steven Dillon says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky. Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky. He once said in an interview: "Andrei Rublev is maybe my favorite film ever", and in another interview, he added: "I remember, the first time I saw a Tarkovsky film, I was shocked by it. I did not know what to do. I was shocked by it. I was fascinated, because suddenly I realized that film could have so many more layers to it than what I had imagined before". There are many direct references and hidden tributes to Tarkovsky's movies in Iñarritu's drama The Revenant. Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky's. He dedicated his film Antichrist to
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"Ġand", "Ġmeaningful", "Ġcontext", "-", "dependent", "Ġinterpretations", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlatter", "Ġrepresents", "Ġa", "Ġchoice", "Ġbetween", "Ġany", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġpossible", "Ġinterpretations", ",", "Ġnone", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġstandard", "Ġagreed", "-", "upon", "Ġmeaning", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġambiguity", "Ġis", "Ġclosely", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġv", "agu", "eness", ".", "Ġ", "ĠL", "ingu", "istic", "Ġambiguity", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġproblem", "Ġin", "Ġlaw", ",", "Ġbecause", "Ġthe", "Ġinterpretation", "Ġof", "Ġwritten", "Ġdocuments", "Ġand", "Ġoral", "Ġagreements", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġof", "Ġparamount", "Ġimportance", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLex", "ical", "Ġambiguity", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġlex", "ical", "Ġambiguity", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġor", "Ġphrase", "Ġper", "tains", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġhaving", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġone", "Ġmeaning", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlanguage", "Ġto", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġword", "Ġbelongs", ".", "Ġ\"", "Me", "aning", "\"", "Ġhere", "Ġrefers", "Ġto", "Ġwhatever", "Ġshould", "Ġbe", "Ġcaptured", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġgood", "Ġdictionary", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġinstance", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġword", "Ġ\"", "bank", "\"", "Ġhas", "Ġseveral", "Ġdistinct", "Ġlex", "ical", "Ġdefinitions", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġ\"", "financial", "Ġinstitution", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "edge", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġriver", "\".", "ĠOr", "Ġconsider", "Ġ\"", "ap", "othe", "c", "ary", "\".", "ĠOne", "Ġcould", "Ġsay", "Ġ\"", "I", "Ġbought", "Ġherbs", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġap", "othe", "c", "ary", "\".", "ĠThis", "Ġcould", "Ġmean", "Ġone", "Ġactually", "Ġspoke", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġap", "othe", "c", "ary", "Ġ(", "ph", "arm", "acist", ")", "Ġor", "Ġwent", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġap", "othe", "c", "ary", "Ġ(", "ph", "arm", "acy", ").", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcontext", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġan", "Ġambiguous", "Ġword", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġoften", "Ġmakes", "Ġit", "Ġevident", "Ġwhich", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmeanings", "Ġis", "Ġintended", ".", "ĠIf", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġinstance", ",", "Ġsomeone", "Ġsays", "Ġ\"", "I", "Ġburied", "Ġ$", "100", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbank", "\",", "Ġmost", "Ġpeople", "Ġwould", "Ġnot", "Ġthink", "Ġsomeone", "Ġused", "Ġa", "Ġshovel", "Ġto", "Ġdig", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmud", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġlinguistic", "Ġcontexts", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġprovide", "Ġsufficient", "Ġinformation", "Ġto", "Ġdis", "amb", "ig", "uate", "Ġa", "Ġused", "Ġword", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLex", "ical", "Ġambiguity", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġaddressed", "Ġby", "Ġalgorith", "mic", "Ġmethods", "Ġthat", "Ġautomatically", "Ġassociate", "Ġthe", "Ġappropriate", "Ġmeaning", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġin", "Ġcontext", ",", "Ġa", "Ġtask", "Ġreferred", "Ġto", "Ġas", "Ġword", "Ġsense", "Ġdis", "amb", "ig", "uation", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġmulti", "-", "defined", "Ġwords", "Ġrequires", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "Ġor", "Ġspeaker", "Ġto", "Ġclarify", "Ġtheir", "Ġcontext", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsometimes", "Ġelaborate", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġspecific", "Ġintended", "Ġmeaning", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġwhich", "Ġcase", ",", "Ġa", "Ġless" ]
446
him, and, while discussing it with critic David Jenkins, asked: “Have you seen Mirror? I was hypnotised! I’ve seen it 20 times. It’s the closest thing I’ve got to a religion – to me he is a god". See also European art cinema Slow cinema Moscow International Film Festival ReferencesNotesBibliography''' Schmidt, Stefan W. (2016). "Somatography and Film: Nostalgia as Haunting Memory Shown in Tarkovsky's Nostalghia." Journal of Aesthetics and Phenomenology, 3 (1): 27–41. Somatography and Film: Nostalgia as Haunting Memory Shown in Tarkovsky's Nostalghia Tumanov, Vladimir (2016). "Philosophy of Mind and Body in Andrei Tarkovsky's Solaris." Film-Philosophy''. 20 (2-3): 357–375. DOI: Philosophy of Mind and Body in Andrei Tarkovsky's Solaris Further reading External links Andrei Tarkovsky at Senses of Cinema Website about Andrei Tarkovsky, Films, Articles, Interviews Andrei Tarkovsky: Biography wrestles with the filmmaker's remarkable life Nostalghia.com - An Andrei Tarkovsky Information Site, at Film Studies Program in the Department of Communication and Culture, University of Calgary 1932 births 1986 deaths 20th-century Russian diarists 20th-century Russian male actors 20th-century Russian male writers 20th-century Russian non-fiction writers 20th-century Russian screenwriters Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners Deaths from cancer in France Deaths from lung cancer Directors of Golden Lion winners Film directors from Kostroma Oblast Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty Lenin Prize winners Male actors from Ivanovo Oblast Male actors from Kostroma Oblast People from Kadyysky District People's Artists of the RSFSR Russian experimental filmmakers Russian male film actors Russian opera directors Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia Russian people of Polish descent Russian people of Romanian descent Science fiction film directors Soviet diarists Soviet documentary film directors Soviet emigrants to France Soviet emigrants to Italy Soviet film directors Soviet male film actors Soviet non-fiction writers Soviet screenwriters Writers from Ivanovo Oblast Writers from Kostroma Oblast <|endoftext|>Ambiguity is a type of meaning in which a phrase, statement or resolution is not explicitly defined, making several interpretations plausible. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ambi- part of the term reflects an idea of "two", as in "two meanings".) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Linguistic forms Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness. Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem in law, because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. Lexical ambiguity The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river". Or consider "apothecary". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary (pharmacist) or went to the apothecary (pharmacy). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as word sense disambiguation. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less
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ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "weasel words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (That's a good hammer), "exemplary" (She's a good student), "pleasing" (This is good soup), "moral" (a good person versus the lesson to be learned from a story), "righteous", etc. "I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock"). Semantic and syntactic ambiguity Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one interpretation. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the words "her duck" can refer either to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw"). Syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity. For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, formal languages (such as computer programming languages), see Ambiguous grammar. Usually, semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand. The sentence "We saw her duck" is also syntactically ambiguous. Conversely, a sentence like "He ate the cookies on the couch" is also semantically ambiguous. Rarely, but occasionally, the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning. For example, the command "Cook, cook!" can be parsed as "Cook (noun used as vocative), cook (imperative verb form)!", but also as "Cook (imperative verb form), cook (noun used as vocative)!". It is more common that a syntactically unambiguous phrase has a semantic ambiguity; for example, the lexical ambiguity in "Your boss is a funny man" is purely semantic, leading to the response "Funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?" Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen. Metonymy involves referring to one entity by the name of a different but closely related entity (for example, using "wheels" to refer to a car, or "Wall Street" to refer to the stock exchanges located on that street or even the entire US financial sector). In the modern vocabulary of critical semiotics, metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humor. Philosophy Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think they oppose taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think they oppose only those taxes that they believe will hinder economic growth. In writing
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, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true—an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In continental philosophy (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole. In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay in phenomenological ontology" Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as there have been philosophers and they have thought, most of them have tried to mask it... And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples has always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment." Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. Literature and rhetoric In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel The Great Gatsby. Mathematical notation Mathematical notation, widely used in physics and other sciences, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguities remain. Names of functions The ambiguity in the style of writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function, which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several special functions still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: Sinc function Elliptic integral of the third kind; translating elliptic integral form MAPLE to Mathematica, one should replace the second argument to its square, see Talk:Elliptic integral#List of notations; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. Exponential integral Hermite polynomial Expressions Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical
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and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, . Then, if one sees , there is no way to distinguish whether it means multiplied by , or function evaluated at argument equal to . In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages (C++ and Fortran) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The Wolfram Language used in Mathematica allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression f=f(x) is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most programming languages, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, is interpreted as ; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. In the scientific journal style, one uses roman letters to denote elementary functions, whereas variables are written using italics. For example, in mathematical journals the expression does not denote the sine function, but the product of the three variables , , , although in the informal notation of a slide presentation it may stand for . Commas in multi-component subscripts and superscripts are sometimes omitted; this is also potentially ambiguous notation. For example, in the notation , the reader can only infer from the context whether it means a single-index object, taken with the subscript equal to product of variables , and , or it is an indication to a trivalent tensor. Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions An expression such as can be understood to mean either or . Often the author's intention can be understood from the context, in cases where only one of the two makes sense, but an ambiguity like this should be avoided, for example by writing or . The expression means in several texts, though it might be thought to mean , since commonly means . Conversely, might seem to mean , as this exponentiation notation usually denotes function iteration: in general, means . However, for trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, this notation conventionally means exponentiation of the result of function application. The expression can be interpreted as meaning ; however, it is more commonly understood to mean . Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics It is common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with and states with fixed number of photons with . Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on quantum mechanics. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions, especially if some normalized adimensional, dimensionless variables are used. Expression may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even dimension, as in the case of the Einstein coefficients), depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like Ludwig Wittgenstein states in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: "...Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning." A highly confusing term is gain. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term intensity is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of
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irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or resolution of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also Accuracy and precision and its talk. The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of underdetermination—for example, leaves open what the value of X is—while its opposite is a self-contradiction, also called inconsistency, paradoxicalness, or oxymoron, or in mathematics an inconsistent system—such as , which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher. Constructed language Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. Biology In structural biology, ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying protein conformations. The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in dividing the macromolecule into subunits called domains. The difficulty of this task arises from the fact that different definitions of what a domain is can be used (e.g. folding autonomy, function, thermodynamic stability, or domain motions), which sometimes results in a single protein having different—yet equally valid—domain assignments. Christianity and Judaism Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans. The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.) Music In music, pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous meters or rhythms, and ambiguous phrasing, or (Stein 2005, p.79) any aspect of music. The music of Africa is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey (1935, p.195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." Visual art In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the Necker cube, which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called multistable perception. The opposite of such ambiguous images are impossible objects. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? Social psychology and the bystander effect In social psychology, ambiguity is a factor used in determining peoples' responses to various situations. High levels of ambiguity in an emergency (e.g. an unconscious man lying on a park bench) make witnesses less likely to offer any sort of assistance, due to the fear that they may have misinterpreted the situation and acted unnecessarily. Alternately, non-ambiguous emergencies (e.g. an injured person verbally asking for help) illicit more consistent intervention and assistance. With regard to the bystander effect, studies have shown that emergencies deemed ambiguous trigger the appearance of the classic bystander effect (wherein more witnesses decrease the likelihood of any of them helping) far more than non-ambiguous emergencies. Computer science In computer science, the SI prefixes kilo-, mega- and giga- were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 10242 and 10243) contrary to the metric system in which
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"ocry", "ph", "on", "Ġof", "ĠJohn", ",", "Ġa", "Ġwork", "Ġbelonging", "Ġto", "ĠSeth", "ian", "ĠGn", "ost", "icism", ",", "ĠAbel", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġoffspring", "Ġof", "ĠY", "ald", "abo", "ath", "Ġand", "ĠEve", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġplaced", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġelements", "Ġof", "Ġwater", "Ġand", "Ġearth", "Ġas", "ĠEl", "oh", "im", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwas", "Ġonly", "Ġgiven", "Ġhis", "Ġname", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġdeception", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMand", "ae", "an", "Ġinterpretation", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠMand", "ae", "an", "Ġbeliefs", "Ġand", "Ġscriptures", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "ĠQ", "ol", "ast", "Äģ", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠBook", "Ġof", "ĠJohn", "Ġand", "ĠGen", "z", "Äģ", "ĠRabb", "Äģ", ",", "ĠAbel", "Ġis", "Ġcogn", "ate", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġangel", "ic", "Ġs", "oter", "iological", "Ġfigure", "ĠHib", "il", "ĠZi", "wa", ",", "Ġ(", ",", "Ġsometimes", "Ġtranslated", "Ġ\"", "Spl", "end", "id", "ĠHib", "el", "\"),", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġspoken", "Ġof", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠHay", "yi", "Ġor", "Ġof", "ĠM", "anda", "Ġd", "-", "Hay", "yi", ",", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġbrother", "Ġto", "ĠAn", "ush", "Ġ(", "En", "osh", ")", "Ġand", "Ġto", "ĠSheet", "il", "Ġ(", "S", "eth", "),", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠAdam", ".", "ĠElse", "where", ",", "ĠAn", "ush", "Ġis", "Ġspoken", "Ġof", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠSheet", "il", ",", "Ġand", "ĠSheet", "il", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠHib", "il", ",", "Ġwhere", "ĠHib", "il", "Ġcame", "Ġto", "ĠAdam", "Ġand", "ĠEve", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġyoung", "Ġboy" ]
451
these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. DRAM) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G unambiguous in texts conforming to the new standard—this led to a new ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576) is less uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950,000 to 1,050,000). As non-volatile storage devices begin to exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 109 and 1012 bytes. See also References External links Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements Leaving out ambiguities when writing Semantics Mathematical notation Concepts in epistemology Barriers to critical thinking Formal semantics (natural language) <|endoftext|>Abel is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis within Abrahamic religions. He was the younger brother of Cain, and the younger son of Adam and Eve, the first couple in Biblical history. He was a shepherd who offered his firstborn flock up to God as an offering. God accepted his offering but not his brother's. Cain then killed Abel out of jealousy. According to Genesis, this was the first murder in the history of mankind. Genesis narrative Interpretations Jewish and Christian interpretations According to the narrative in Genesis, Abel ( Hébel, in pausa Hā́ḇel; Hábel; , Hābēl) is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a root meaning "breath". Julius Wellhausen has proposed that the name is independent of the root. Eberhard Schrader had previously put forward the Akkadian (Old Assyrian dialect) ablu ("son") as a more likely etymology. In Christianity, comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of Jesus, the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Jesus speaks of Abel as "righteous", and the Epistle to the Hebrews states that "The blood of sprinkling ... [speaks] better things than that of Abel" (). The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance (hence the curse and mark). Abel is invoked in the litany for the dying in the Roman Catholic Church, and his sacrifice is mentioned in the Canon of the Mass along with those of Abraham and Melchizedek. The Alexandrian Rite commemorates him with a feast day on December 28. According to the Coptic Book of Adam and Eve (at 2:1–15), and the Syriac Cave of Treasures, Abel's body, after many days of mourning, was placed in the Cave of Treasures, before which Adam and Eve, and descendants, offered their prayers. In addition, the Sethite line of the Generations of Adam swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the unrighteous. In the Book of Enoch (22:7), regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical, the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs, crying for vengeance, for the destruction of the seed of Cain. This view is later repeated in the Testament of Abraham (A:13 / B:11), where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls. Sethian Gnostic interpretation In the Apocryphon of John, a work belonging to Sethian Gnosticism, Abel is the offspring of Yaldaboath and Eve, who is placed over the elements of water and earth as Elohim, but was only given his name as a form of deception. Mandaean interpretation According to Mandaean beliefs and scriptures including the Qolastā, the Book of John and Genzā Rabbā, Abel is cognate with the angelic soteriological figure Hibil Ziwa, (, sometimes translated "Splendid Hibel"), who is spoken of as a son of Hayyi or of Manda d-Hayyi, and as a brother to Anush (Enosh) and to Sheetil (Seth), who is the son of Adam. Elsewhere, Anush is spoken of as the son of Sheetil, and Sheetil as the son of Hibil, where Hibil came to Adam and Eve as a young boy
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when they were still virgins, but was called their son. Hibil is an important lightworld being (uthra) who conquered the World of Darkness. As Yawar Hibil, he is one of multiple figures known as Yawar (), being so named by and after his father. Islamic interpretation According to Shi'a Muslim belief, Abel ("Habeel") is buried in the Nabi Habeel Mosque, located on the west mountains of Damascus, near the Zabadani Valley, overlooking the villages of the Barada river (Wadi Barada), in Syria. Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque for ziyarat. The mosque was built by Ottoman Wali Ahmad Pasha in 1599. Notes References Bereshit (parashah) Biblical murder victims Book of Genesis people Children of Adam and Eve Male murder victims Shepherds Uthras Hebrew Bible people in Mandaeism <|endoftext|>An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Animal, Animals, or The Animal may also refer to: People The Animal (nickname), a set index of people nicknamed "The Animal" or "Animal" Professional wrestlers Road Warrior Animal, commonly shortened to "Animal", the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis (1960–2020) Animal Hamaguchi, ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi (born 1947) George Steele (1937–2017), American professional wrestler, author and actor known as "The Animal" Dave Bautista (born 1969), American retired professional wrestler whose nickname is "The Animal" Books and publications Animal (book), full title Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife, a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors Animal, 2012 novel by K'wan Foye Animal (journal), full title: Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience, British academic journal Animals (novel), a 2014 novel by Emma Jane Unsworth Film and television Film Animal (1977 film), a French film (L'Animal) starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch Animal (2001 film), an Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé Animal (2005 film), an American direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard Animal (2014 film), an American horror film starring Keke Palmer Animals (2003 film), a stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais Animals (2012 film), a Spanish film Animals (2014 film), a British drama film written by and starring David Dastmalchian Animals (2017 film), a German film Animals (2019 film), an Australian film The Animal, a 2001 American comedy film featuring Rob Schneider The Animals (film), a 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos Television Animals (American TV series), a 2016–2018 animated series Animals (South Korean TV series), a 2015 reality-variety show "Animals" (The Goodies), a 1980 episode "Animals" (Men Behaving Badly), a 1992 episode "Animals" (Off the Air), a 2011 episode "Animals" (The Vicar of Dibley), a 1994 episode "The Animals" (Orange Is the New Black), a 2016 episode Animal (audio drama), a 2011 audio drama based on Doctor Who Characters Animal (Muppet), a character from the television series The Muppet Show Animal, a character in the television series Takeshi's Castle Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom Herman's Head Dennis "Animal" Price, a character on the TV series Lou Grant Music The Animals, a British rock band A.N.I.M.A.L., an Argentinian heavy metal band Animal (Nick Culmer) lead singer of the Anti-Nowhere League Albums Animal (Animosity album), 2007 Animal (Bar-Kays album), 1989 Animal (Big Scary album), 2016 Animal (Kesha album), 2010 Animal (Lump album), 2021 Animal (Motor Ace album), 2005 Animal (Maria Becerra album), 2021 Animals (Pink Floyd album), 1977 Animals (This Town Needs Guns album), 2008 Animals (EP) by Ryan Starx, 2013 The Animals (American album), by The Animals, 1964 The Animals (British album), by The Animals, 1964 Animal, a 2009 album by AutoKratz Animal, a 2013 album by Berlin Animal, a 2008 album by Far East Movement Animal!, a 2008 album by Margot & the Nuclear So and So's Songs "Animal" "Animal", by Against Me!
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453
from New Wave "Animal" (Álvaro Soler song), 2017 "Animal", by Ani DiFranco from Educated Guess "Animal", by Aurora from A Different Kind of Human (Step 2) "Animal", by Black Light Burns from Cruel Melody "Animal" (Conor Maynard song), 2013 "Animal" (Def Leppard song), 1987 "Animal", by Ellie Goulding from Lights "Animal" (Jebediah song), 1999 "Animal" (Juvenile song), 2006 "Animal", by Karen O and the Kids from Where the Wild Things Are "Animal", by Kat DeLuna from 9 Lives "Animal", by Kesha from Animal "Animal", by the Men from Open Your Heart, 2012 "Animal" (Miike Snow song), 2009 "Animal", by Mindless Self Indulgence from If "Animal", by Mudmen from Overrated "Animal", by Nada Surf from You Know Who You Are, 2016 "Animal" (Neon Trees song), 2010 "Animal" (Pearl Jam song), 1994 "Animal" (R.E.M. song), 2004 "Animal" (R.I.O. song), 2011 "Animal", by Subhumans from Demolition War "Animal", by Sunhouse from Crazy On The Weekend "Animal", by The Kinks from To the Bone "Animal", by Toto from Past to Present 1977–1990 "Animal" (Troye Sivan song), 2018 "Animals" "Animals" (Architects song), 2020 "Animals", by CocoRosie from The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn "Animals", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for "Clocks" "Animals", by Dead Poetic from Vices "Animals" (Kevin Ayers song), 1980 "Animals" (Maroon 5 song), 2014 "Animals" (Martin Garrix song), 2013 "Animals" (Muse song), 2012 "Animals" (Nickelback song), 2005 "Animals", by Talking Heads from Fear of Music "Animals", by The End from Elementary "Animals", by Todrick Hall featuring Matt Bloyd from Forbidden "Animal (F**k Like a Beast)", by W.A.S.P., 1984 "The Animal" "The Animal" (Disturbed song), 2010 "The Animal", by Steve Vai from Passion and Warfare Other ANIMAL (computer worm), an early self-replicating computer program ANIMAL (image processing), an interactive software environment for image processing Animals (Israeli organization), an animal rights group based in Israel See also Animals, Animals, Animals, an American educational television series (1976–1981) Animalia (disambiguation) Animalism (disambiguation) Operation Animals, a World War II Allied deception operation in Greece <|endoftext|>The aardvark ( ; Orycteropus afer) is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike most other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. The animal is listed as "least concern" by the IUCN, although its numbers are decreasing. Aardvarks are afrotheres, a clade which also includes elephants, manatees, and hyraxes. Name and taxonomy Name The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the "African ant bear", "anteater" (not to be confused with the South American anteater), or the "Cape anteater" after the Cape of Good Hope. The name "aardvark" is Afrikaans (), comes from earlier Afrikaans erdvark and means "earth pig" or "ground pig" (aarde: "earth/ground", vark: "pig"), because of its burrowing habits. The name Orycteropus means "burrowing foot", and the name afer refers to Africa. The name of the aardvark's order, Tubulidentata, comes from the tubule-style teeth. Taxonomy The aardvark is not closely related to the pig;
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454
rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs and golden moles. Along with the sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra, and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks. Evolutionary history Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably Myorycteropus africanus from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the genus Orycteropus was Orycteropus mauritanicus, found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East. The mysterious Pleistocene Plesiorycteropus from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that Plesiorycteropus is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution. Subspecies The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: Orycteropus afer afer O. a. adametzi Grote, 1921 O. a. aethiopicus Sundevall, 1843 O. a. angolensis Zukowsky & Haltenorth, 1957 O. a. erikssoni Lönnberg, 1906 O. a. faradjius Hatt, 1932 O. a. haussanus Matschie, 1900 O. a. kordofanicus Rothschild, 1927 O. a. lademanni Grote, 1911 O. a. leptodon Hirst, 1906 O. a. matschiei Grote, 1921 O. a. observandus Grote, 1921 O. a. ruvanensis Grote, 1921 O. a. senegalensis Lesson, 1840 O. a. somalicus Lydekker, 1908 O. a. wardi Lydekker, 1908 O. a. wertheri Matschie, 1898 The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions O. a. capensis or Cape ant-bear from South Africa. Description The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at times to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals. An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsect
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"Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", "Ġis", "Ġanother", "Ġunique", "Ġarea", ",", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġcontains", "Ġten", "Ġnasal", "Ġcon", "ch", "ae", ",", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġany", "Ġother", "Ġplac", "ental", "Ġmammal", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġsides", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnost", "rils", "Ġare", "Ġthick", "Ġwith", "Ġhair", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtip", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsn", "out", "Ġis", "Ġhighly", "Ġmobile", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġmoved", "Ġby", "Ġmodified", "Ġmim", "etic", "Ġmuscles", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġflesh", "y", "Ġdividing", "Ġtissue", "Ġbetween", "Ġits", "Ġnost", "rils", "Ġprobably", "Ġhas", "Ġsensory", "Ġfunctions", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġuncertain", "Ġwhether", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġo", "lf", "actory", "Ġor", "Ġvibr", "atory", "Ġin", "Ġnature", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġnose", "Ġis", "Ġmade", "Ġup", "Ġof", "Ġmore", "Ġturb", "inate", "Ġbones", "Ġthan", "Ġany", "Ġother", "Ġmammal", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġbetween", "Ġ9", "Ġand", "Ġ11", ",", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġdogs", "Ġwith", "Ġ4", "Ġto", "Ġ5", ".", "ĠWith", 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",", "Ġthin", ",", "Ġsnake", "like", ",", "Ġprotr", "uding", "Ġtongue", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġmuch", "Ġas", "Ġ", "Ġlong", ")", "Ġand", "Ġelaborate", "Ġstructures", "Ġsupporting", "Ġa", "Ġkeen", "Ġsense", "Ġof", "Ġsmell", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġears", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġvery", "Ġeffective", ",", "Ġare", "Ġdisproportionately", "Ġlong", ",", "Ġabout", "Ġ", "Ġlong", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġeyes", "Ġare", "Ġsmall", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġhead", ",", "Ġand", "Ġconsist", "Ġonly", "Ġof", "Ġrods", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDigest", "ive", "Ġsystem", "ĠThe", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", "'s", "Ġstomach", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġmuscular", "Ġp", "yl", "oric", "Ġarea", "Ġthat", "Ġacts", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġg", "izzard", "Ġto", "Ġgrind", "Ġswallowed", "Ġfood", "Ġup", ",", "Ġthereby", "Ġrendering", "Ġchewing", "Ġunnecessary", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġc", "ec", "um", "Ġis", "Ġlarge", ".", "ĠBoth", "Ġsexes", "Ġemit", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġsmelling", "Ġsecretion", "Ġfrom", "Ġan", "Ġanal", "Ġgland", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġsal", "iv", "ary", "Ġglands", "Ġare", "Ġhighly", 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"Ġand", "Ġterm", "ites", ")", "Ġis", "Ġavailable", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġspend", "Ġthe", "Ġdaylight", "Ġhours", "Ġin", "Ġdark", "Ġbur", "rows", "Ġto", "Ġavoid", "Ġthe", "Ġheat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġday", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġonly", "Ġmajor", "Ġhabitat", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġis", "Ġswamp", "Ġforest", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġhigh", "Ġwater", "Ġtable", "Ġpre", "cludes", "Ġdigging", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġsufficient", "Ġdepth", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġalso", "Ġavoid", "Ġterrain", "Ġrocky", "Ġenough", "Ġto", "Ġcause", "Ġproblems", "Ġwith", "Ġdigging", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġdocumented", "Ġas", "Ġhigh", "Ġas", "Ġ", "Ġin", "ĠEthiopia", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġpresent", "Ġthroughout", "Ġsub", "-", "Saharan", "ĠAfrica", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġto", "ĠSouth", "ĠAfrica", "Ġwith", "Ġfew", "Ġexceptions", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġcoastal", "Ġareas", "Ġof", "ĠNam", "ibia", ",", "ĠIvory", "ĠCoast", ",", "Ġand", "ĠGhana", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "ĠMadagascar", ".", 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455
iphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. Head The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth, Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten nasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods. Digestive system The aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of teats in the inguinal region. Genetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa. Habitat and range Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar. Ecology and behaviour Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag
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".", "ĠIt", "Ġavoids", "Ġinh", "aling", "Ġthe", "Ġdust", "Ġby", "Ġsealing", "Ġthe", "Ġnost", "rils", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġsuccessful", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", "'s", "Ġlong", "Ġ(", "up", "Ġto", "Ġ)", "Ġtongue", "Ġl", "icks", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġinsects", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "ites", "'", "Ġbiting", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġants", "'", "Ġst", "inging", "Ġattacks", "Ġare", "Ġrendered", "Ġfutile", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġtough", "Ġskin", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġan", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", "Ġvisit", "Ġat", "Ġa", "Ġterm", "ite", "Ġmound", ",", "Ġother", "Ġanimals", "Ġwill", "Ġvisit", "Ġto", "Ġpick", "Ġup", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġleft", "overs", ".", "ĠTer", "mite", "Ġm", "ounds", "Ġalone", "Ġdon", "'t", "Ġprovide", "Ġenough", "Ġfood", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthey", "Ġlook", "Ġfor", "Ġterm", "ites", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġmove", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġthese", "Ġinsects", "Ġmove", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġcan", "Ġform", "Ġcolumns", "Ġ", "Ġlong", "Ġand", "Ġthese", "Ġtend", "Ġto", 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456
fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quickly . Feeding The aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (myrmecophagy); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop to dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the Odontotermes, Microtermes, and Pseudacanthotermes genera. On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as in a night. Vocalization The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear. Movement The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges
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",", "Ġthe", "Ġcharm", "Ġis", "Ġsaid", "Ġto", "Ġgive", "Ġthe", "Ġowner", "Ġthe", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġpass", "Ġthrough", "Ġwalls", "Ġor", "Ġroofs", "Ġat", "Ġnight", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcharm", "Ġis", "Ġsaid", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġby", "Ġburgl", "ars", "Ġand", "Ġthose", "Ġseeking", "Ġto", "Ġvisit", "Ġyoung", "Ġgirls", "Ġwithout", "Ġtheir", "Ġparents", "'", "Ġpermission", ".", "ĠAlso", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġtribes", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠMarg", "bet", "u", ",", "ĠAy", "anda", ",", "Ġand", "ĠLogo", ",", "Ġwill", "Ġuse", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", "Ġteeth", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġbrace", "lets", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġregarded", "Ġas", "Ġgood", "Ġluck", "Ġcharms", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmeat", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġresemblance", "Ġto", "Ġpork", ",", "Ġis", "Ġeaten", "Ġin", "Ġcertain", "Ġcultures", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġancient", "ĠEgyptian", "Ġgod", "ĠSet", "Ġis", "Ġusually", "Ġdepicted", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġhead", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġunidentified", "Ġanimal", ",", "Ġwhose", "Ġsimilarity", "Ġto", 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, while the main burrow is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog, ant-eating chat, Nycteris thebaica and warthogs. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, which also serves as protection from its predators. Reproduction Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a gestation period of seven months, one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season, and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age. Conservation Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as least concern. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically. Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was London Zoo in 1869, which had an animal from South Africa. Mythology and popular culture In African folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures. The ancient Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. The titular character of Arthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by WGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, Arthur's Nose (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. Otis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon The Ant and the Aardvark as well as in the Canadian animated series The Raccoons. The supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy
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, the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip B.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble. Cerebus the Aardvark is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. Footnotes References External links IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group A YouTube video introducing the Bronx Zoo's aardvarks "The Biology of the Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)" a diploma thesis (without images) "The Biology of the Aardvark" (Orycteropus afer)" the thesis with images Orycteropus Mammals of Africa Myrmecophagous mammals Mammals described in 1766 Extant Zanclean first appearances Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas <|endoftext|>The aardwolf (Proteles cristata) is an insectivorous mammal in the family Hyaenidae, native to East and Southern Africa. Its name means "earth-wolf" in Afrikaans and Dutch. It is also called "maanhaar-jackal" (Afrikaans for "mane-jackal"), "termite-eating hyena" and "civet hyena", based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland, a characteristic shared with the African civet. Unlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora, the aardwolf does not hunt large animals. It eats insects and their larvae, mainly termites; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites. The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is nocturnal, resting in burrows during the day and emerging at night to seek food. Taxonomy The aardwolf is generally classified with the hyena family Hyaenidae, though it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena, which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years. The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic, or can be divided into subspecies P. c. cristatus of Southern Africa and P. c. septentrionalis of East Africa. Etymology The generic name proteles comes from two words both of Greek origin, protos and teleos which combined means "complete in front" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. The specific name, cristatus, comes from Latin and means "provided with a comb", relating to their mane. Description The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena, but with a more slender muzzle, black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct mane down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip. The aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about )than the eastern version (around ). This makes the aardwolf, the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena. As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats. Distribution and habitat
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Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and bushland, avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs, including farmland. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time. There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests. An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of . Behavior Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat. They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs with their young. If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a single territory. The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, and upwards of 200 per night. An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous feces middens, within their territory. When they deposit excreta at their middens, they dig a small hole and cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark, springhare, or porcupine dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands. Feeding The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on Trinervitermes. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat Trinervitermes bettonianus, in central Africa, they eat Trinervitermes rhodesiensis, and in southern Africa, they eat T. trinervoides. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark, which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 termites per night using its long, sticky tongue. They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out Hodotermes mossambicus, a type of harvester termite active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera Odontotermes and Macrotermes. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. Unlike other hyenas, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat car
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"Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġtheir" ]
460
rion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, Trinervitermes, forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about per hour, which translates to per summer night and per winter night. Breeding The breeding season varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into oestrus, they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with her. Copulation lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours. Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days, producing two to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December), when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age. Conservation The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern. In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf. Interaction with humans Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos. Frankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months. Notes References References Further reading External links Animal Diversity Web IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org Mammals described in 1783 Carnivorans of Africa Hyenas Mammals of Southern Africa Fauna of East Africa Myrmecophagous mammals Taxa named by Anders Sparrman <|endoftext|>Adobe (; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials, is Spanish for mudbrick. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like Pueblo Revival or Territorial Revival. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5,100 B.C. Description Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . The maximum sizes can reach up to ; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud in situ, resulting in a different typology known as rammed earth. Strength In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their
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461
greater thermal mass, but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake, and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Distribution Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, southwestern North America, Spain, and Eastern Europe.) Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica, and the Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. Etymology The word adobe has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 BC) word ḏbt "mud brick" (with vowels unwritten). Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or "pre-Coptic", and finally to Coptic (c. 600 BC), where it appeared as ⲧⲱⲃⲉ tōbə. This was adopted into Arabic as aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached. tuba, This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as adobe , probably via Mozarabic. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to mudbrick construction. In more modern English usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico, regardless of the construction method. Composition An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles , with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays, with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition. Material properties Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in2 (2.07 newton/mm2) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in2 (0.345 newton/mm2) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun (radiation) and from the surrounding air (convection) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation
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"Ġorganic", "Ġmatter", "Ġwill", "Ġstay", "Ġin", "Ġsuspension", "Ġfor", "Ġdays", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġthe", "Ġwater", "Ġhas", "Ġcleared", ",", "Ġpercentages", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġvarious", "Ġparticles", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġdetermined", ".", "ĠFifty", "Ġto", "Ġ60", "Ġpercent", "Ġsand", "Ġand", "Ġ35", "Ġto", "Ġ40", "Ġpercent", "Ġclay", "Ġwill", "Ġyield", "Ġstrong", "Ġbricks", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠCooperative", "ĠState", "ĠResearch", ",", "ĠEducation", ",", "Ġand", "ĠExtension", "ĠService", "Ġat", "ĠNew", "ĠMexico", "ĠState", "ĠUniversity", "Ġrecommends", "Ġa", "Ġmix", "Ġof", "Ġnot", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġâ", "ħ", "ĵ", "Ġclay", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġ½", "Ġsand", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnever", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġâ", "ħ", "ĵ", "Ġs", "ilt", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġ", "ĠGreat", "ĠDepression", ",", "Ġdesigner", "Ġand", "Ġbuilder", "ĠHugh", "ĠW", ".", "ĠCom", "stock", "Ġused", "Ġcheaper", "Ġmaterials", "Ġand", "Ġmade", "Ġa", "Ġspecialized", "Ġad", "obe", "Ġbrick", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "Bit", "ud", "obe", 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"Ġand", "Ġfoundation", "Ġsettling", "Ġmay", "Ġcause", "Ġcracking", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwall", ".", "ĠFoot", "ing", "Ġdepth", "Ġis", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġbelow", "Ġthe", "Ġground", "Ġfrost", "Ġlevel", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfooting", "Ġand", "Ġstem", "Ġwall", "Ġare", "Ġcommonly", "Ġ24", "Ġand", "Ġ14", "Ġinches", "Ġthick", ",", "Ġrespectively", ".", "Ġ", "ĠModern", "Ġconstruction", "Ġcodes", "Ġcall", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġreinforcing", "Ġsteel", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfooting", "Ġand", "Ġstem", "Ġwall", ".", "ĠAdobe", "Ġbricks", "Ġare", "Ġlaid", "Ġby", "Ġcourse" ]
462
in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There is an effective R-value for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft2 °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R0 by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for a 10-inch wall R0=4.1 hr ft2 °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft3 or 1700 kg/m3, giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft3 °F) or 1700 kJ/(m3 K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.013 ft2/h or 3.3x10−7 m2/s. Uses Poured and puddled adobe walls Poured and puddled adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called cob, is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish. Adobe bricks Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar, or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than ⅓ clay, not less than ½ sand, and never more than ⅓ silt. During the Great Depression, designer and builder Hugh W. Comstock used cheaper materials and made a specialized adobe brick called "Bitudobe." His first adobe house was built in 1936. In 1948, he published the book Post-Adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining A Rugged Timber Frame And Modern Stabilized Adobe, which described his method of construction, including how to make "Bitudobe." In 1938, he served as an adviser to the architects Franklin & Kump Associates, who built the Carmel High School, which used his Post-adobe system. Adobe wall construction The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course
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"obe", "Ġwalls", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "water", "proof", "ing", "Ġplaster", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "also", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "ĠC", "tes", "iph", "on", "ĠArch", ")", "Ġin", "ĠIraq", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġmud", "Ġbrick", "Ġarch", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġbuilt", "Ġbeginning", "Ġin", "Ġ540", "ĠAD", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "ĠSo", "il", "-", "based", "Ġbuilding", "Ġmaterials", "ĠMason", "ry", "ĠAdobe", "Ġbuildings", "Ġand", "Ġstructures", "ĠAppropri", "ate", "Ġtechnology", "ĠVern", "acular", "Ġarchitecture", "ĠSustainable", "Ġbuilding", "ĠBuildings", "Ġand", "Ġstructures", "Ġby", "Ġconstruction", "Ġmaterial", "ĠWestern", "Ġ(", "genre", ")", "Ġstaples", "Ġand", "Ġterminology", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "An", "Ġadventure", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġexciting", "Ġexperience", "Ġor", "Ġundertaking", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġtypically", "Ġbold", ",", "Ġsometimes", "Ġrisky", ".", "ĠAdventures", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġactivities", "Ġwith", "Ġsome" ]
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. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. Adobe roof The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called vigas, lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed. Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. In 1927, the Uniform Building Code (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By the 1980s however, seismic related changes in the California Building Code effectively ended solid wall adobe construction in California; however Post-and-Beam adobe and veneers are still being used. Adobe around the world The largest structure ever made from adobe is the Arg-é Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks and the ciudellas of Chan Chan and Tambo Colorado, both in Peru. See also used adobe walls (waterproofing plaster) (also known as Ctesiphon Arch) in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world, built beginning in 540 AD References External links Soil-based building materials Masonry Adobe buildings and structures Appropriate technology Vernacular architecture Sustainable building Buildings and structures by construction material Western (genre) staples and terminology <|endoftext|>An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is typically bold, sometimes risky. Adventures may be activities with some
[ "Ġpotential", "Ġfor", "Ġphysical", "Ġdanger", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġtraveling", ",", "Ġexploring", ",", "Ġsk", "yd", "iving", ",", "Ġmountain", "Ġclimbing", ",", "Ġsc", "uba", "Ġdiving", ",", "Ġriver", "Ġraft", "ing", "Ġor", "Ġparticipating", "Ġin", "Ġextreme", "Ġsports", ".", "ĠAdventures", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġundertaken", "Ġto", "Ġcreate", "Ġpsychological", "Ġarousal", "Ġor", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġachieve", "Ġa", "Ġgreater", "Ġgoal", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġpursuit", "Ġof", "Ġknowledge", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġonly", "Ġbe", "Ġobtained", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġrisky", "Ġmanner", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMot", "ivation", "ĠAdvent", "urous", "Ġexperiences", "Ġcreate", "Ġpsychological", "Ġarousal", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġinterpreted", "Ġas", "Ġnegative", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "Ġfear", ")", "Ġor", "Ġpositive", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "Ġflow", ").", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "Ġsome", "Ġpeople", ",", "Ġadventure", "Ġbecomes", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġpursuit", "Ġin", "Ġand", "Ġof", "Ġitself", ".", "ĠAccording", 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"Ġform", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "ad", "venture", "Ġseeker", "\"", "Ġcharacter", "Ġtook", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "ĠMiddle", "ĠAges", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġadventure", "Ġnovel", "Ġexhibits", "Ġthese", "Ġ\"", "prot", "agonist", "Ġon", "Ġadventurous", "Ġjourney", "\"", "Ġcharacteristics", "Ġas", "Ġdo", "Ġmany", "Ġpopular", "Ġfeature", "Ġfilms", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠStar", "ĠWars", "Ġand", "ĠRaiders", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLost", "ĠArk", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOut", "doors", "ĠAdventure", "Ġbooks", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġtheme", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhero", "Ġor", "Ġmain", "Ġcharacter", "Ġgoing", "Ġto", "Ġface", "Ġthe", "Ġwilderness", "Ġor", "ĠMother", "ĠNature", ".", "ĠExamples", "Ġinclude", "Ġbooks", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠHat", "chet", "Ġor", "ĠMy", "ĠSide", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMountain", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġbooks", "Ġare", "Ġless", "Ġabout", "Ġ\"", "quest", "ing", "\",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġmythology", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġadventure", "Ġnovels", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġmore", "Ġabout", "Ġsurviving", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", ",", "Ġliving", "Ġoff", "Ġthe", "Ġland", ",", "Ġgaining", "Ġnew", "Ġexperiences", ",", "Ġand", "Ġbecoming", "Ġcloser", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnatural", "Ġworld", ".", "Ġ", "ĠQuest", "ing", "ĠMany", "Ġadventures", "Ġare", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġidea", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġquest", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġhero", "Ġgoes", "Ġoff", "Ġin", "Ġpursuit", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġreward", ",", "Ġwhether", "Ġit", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġskill", ",", "Ġprize", ",", "Ġtreasure", ",", "Ġor", "Ġperhaps", "Ġthe", "Ġsafety", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġperson", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "Ġway", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhero", "Ġmust", "Ġovercome", "Ġvarious", "Ġobstacles", "Ġto", "Ġobtain", "Ġtheir", "Ġreward", ".", "Ġ", "ĠVideo", "Ġgames", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġvideo", "-", "game", "Ġculture", ",", "Ġan", "Ġadventure", "Ġgame", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġvideo", "Ġgame", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġplayer", "Ġassumes", "Ġthe", "Ġrole", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġprotagonist", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġinteractive", "Ġstory", "Ġdriven", "Ġby", "Ġexploration", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġpuzzle", "-", "s", "olving", ".", 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"ĠOthers", "Ġwere", "Ġpersonal", "Ġjournals", ",", "Ġonly", "Ġlater", "Ġpublished", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġjournals", "Ġof", "ĠLewis", "Ġand", "ĠClark", "Ġor", "ĠCaptain", "ĠJames", "ĠCook", "'s", "Ġjournals", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġbooks", "Ġwritten", "Ġby", "Ġthose", "Ġnot", "Ġdirectly", "Ġa", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġadventure", "Ġin", "Ġquestion", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠThe", "ĠRight", "ĠStuff", "Ġby", "ĠTom", "ĠWolfe", "Ġor", "Ġbooks", "Ġwritten", "Ġby", "Ġthose", "Ġparticipating", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġadventure", "Ġbut", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġformat", "Ġother", "Ġthan", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġjournal", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠCon", "quist", "ad", "ors", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠU", "seless", "Ġby", "ĠLionel", "ĠTer", "ray", ".", "ĠDocument", "aries", "Ġoften", "Ġuse", "Ġthe", "Ġtheme", "Ġof", "Ġadventure", "Ġas", "Ġwell", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAdventure", "Ġsports", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġmany", "Ġsports", "Ġclassified", "Ġas", "Ġadventure", "Ġgames", "Ġor", "Ġsports", ",", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġinherent", "Ġdanger", "Ġand", "Ġexcitement", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġinclude", "Ġmountain", "Ġclimbing", ",", "Ġsk", "yd", "iving", ",", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġextreme", "Ġsports", ".", "Adventure", "Ġsports", "Ġhas", "Ġfast", "Ġcaught", "Ġup", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠIndian", "Ġmil", "ieu", ".", "ĠIndia", "Ġoffers", "Ġimmense", "Ġopportunity", "Ġfor", "Ġadventure", "Ġlovers", "Ġthroughout", "Ġits", "Ġlength", "Ġand", "Ġbreadth", ".", "ĠAng", "ling", "Ġ&", "ĠFishing", "Ġare", "Ġtwo", "Ġremarkable", "Ġadventure", "Ġactivities", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġmany", "Ġothers", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġoffered", "Ġin", "ĠIndia", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġspecially", "Ġsuited", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠIndian", "Ġsub", "cont", "inent", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġinnumerable", "Ġrivers", "Ġthat", "Ġcourse", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġexpansive", "ĠGang", "etic", "ĠPlains", ",", "Ġand", "Ġoriginate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "Ġreaches", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmagnificent", "ĠHimal", "ay", "as", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠIndian", "ĠHimal", "aya", "Ġare", "Ġan", "Ġultimate", "Ġdestination", "Ġfor", "Ġadventure", "Ġlovers", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġattracted", "Ġtrek", "kers", "Ġand", "Ġlovers", "Ġof", "Ġnature", "ĠIndian", "Ġhim", "al", "ay", "as", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġsignificant", "Ġlife", "Ġg", "iver", "Ġrivers", ",", "Ġlike", "ĠG", "anges", "ĠBe", "as", ",", "ĠSat", "lu", "j", "Ġand", "Ġtheir", "Ġt", "ribut", "aries", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠHimal", "ayan", "Ġmountain", "Ġranges", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", "Ġoffer", "Ġbreathtaking", ",", "Ġhighly", "Ġchallenging", "Ġtrek", "king", "Ġroutes", ".", "ĠMount", "aine", "ering", "Ġin", "ĠIndia", "Ġwas", "Ġintroduced", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠEuropeans", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ18", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠIndia", "Ġoffers", "Ġan", "Ġexciting", "Ġmount", "aine", "ering", "Ġexperience", "Ġto", "Ġan", "Ġadventure", "Ġsport", "Ġlover", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠHimal", "ay", "as", "Ġthat", "Ġstretch", "Ġfrom", "Ġnorth", "-", "west", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", "Ġto", "Ġfar", "Ġnorth", "-", "east", "Ġoffers", 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potential for physical danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting or participating in extreme sports. Adventures are often undertaken to create psychological arousal or in order to achieve a greater goal such as the pursuit of knowledge that can only be obtained in a risky manner. Motivation Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal, which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. fear) or positive (e.g. flow). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer André Malraux, in his La Condition Humaine (1933), "If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?". Similarly, Helen Keller stated that "Life is either a daring adventure or nothing." Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of recreation or excitement: examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer Jason Lewis, for example, uses adventures to draw global sustainability lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. Adventure education intentionally uses challenging experiences for learning. Author Jon Levy suggests that an experience should meet several criteria to be considered an adventure: Be remarkable—that is, worth talking about Involve adversity or perceived risk Bring about personal growth Mythology and fiction Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as Homer's The Odyssey. The knight errant was the form the "adventure seeker" character took in the late Middle Ages. The adventure novel exhibits these "protagonist on adventurous journey" characteristics as do many popular feature films, such as Star Wars and Raiders of the Lost Ark. Outdoors Adventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the wilderness or Mother Nature. Examples include books such as Hatchet or My Side of the Mountain. These books are less about "questing", such as in mythology or other adventure novels, but more about surviving on their own, living off the land, gaining new experiences, and becoming closer to the natural world. Questing Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest: the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward, whether it be a skill, prize, treasure, or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way, the hero must overcome various obstacles to obtain their reward. Video games In video-game culture, an adventure game is a video game in which the player assumes the role of a protagonist in an interactive story driven by exploration and puzzle-solving. The genre's focus on story allows it to draw heavily from other narrative-based media, literature and film, encompassing a wide variety of literary genres. Many adventure games (text and graphic) are designed for a single player, since this emphasis on story and character makes multi-player design difficult. Nonfiction works From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as Marco Polo's journal The Travels of Marco Polo or Mark Twain's Roughing It. Others were personal journals, only later published, such as the journals of Lewis and Clark or Captain James Cook's journals. There are also books written by those not directly a part of the adventure in question, such as The Right Stuff by Tom Wolfe or books written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other than that of a journal, such as Conquistadors of the Useless by Lionel Terray. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well. Adventure sports There are many sports classified as adventure games or sports, due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include mountain climbing, skydiving, or other extreme sports.Adventure sports has fast caught up in the Indian milieu. India offers immense opportunity for adventure lovers throughout its length and breadth. Angling & Fishing are two remarkable adventure activities among the many others that are offered in India. They are specially suited to the Indian subcontinent because of innumerable rivers that course through the expansive Gangetic Plains, and originate in the upper reaches of the magnificent Himalayas. The Indian Himalaya are an ultimate destination for adventure lovers and has attracted trekkers and lovers of nature Indian himalayas are the source of significant life giver rivers, like Ganges Beas, Satluj and their tributaries. The Himalayan mountain ranges of India offer breathtaking, highly challenging trekking routes. Mountaineering in India was introduced by the Europeans in the 18th century. India offers an exciting mountaineering experience to an adventure sport lover. The Himalayas that stretch from north-west of India to far north-east offers a number of high rise peaks that are considered ideal for mountaineering. Some of the places for mountaineering in India are Leh Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Garhwal and K
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umaon Himalayas in Uttarakhand, Kullu valley and Lahul Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim and some other parts of north-eastern region. See also Adventure film Adventure playground Adventure travel Exploration List of genres Sports Tourism Travel References External links Martin Feeney Going on a journey: Life in Year 10 Website of the Research Unit "Philology of Adventure": ongoing research project on the literary history of the adventure pattern What is an adventure? A definition of "adventure", "hero" and "epic" with an illustration of the hero's journey. Wikivoyage <|endoftext|>Asia () is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe, and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa and Europe. Asia covers an area of , about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Its 4.7 billion people constituting roughly 60% of the world's population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa; and to the east of the Turkish Straits, the Ural Mountains and Ural River, and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas, separating it from Europe. China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east, and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia, attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, as well as many other religions. Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East, temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia. Definition and boundaries Asia–Africa boundary The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. Asia–Europe boundary The threefold division of the Old World into Europe, Asia and Africa has been in use since the 6th century BC, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni river) in Georgia of Caucasus (from its mouth by Poti on the Black Sea coast, through the Surami Pass and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea), a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC. During the Hellenistic period, this convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy. The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when Peter the Great, king of the Tsardom of Russia, defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman
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"Ġnorthwestern", "Ġpeninsula", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġland", "mass", ".", "ĠAsia", ",", "ĠEurope", "Ġand", "ĠAfrica", "Ġmake", "Ġup", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġcontinuous", "Ġland", "mass", "âĢĶ", "Af", "ro", "-", "E", "uras", "ia", "Ġ(", "except", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠS", "uez", "ĠCanal", ")âĢĶ", "and", "Ġshare", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġcontinental", "Ġshelf", ".", "ĠAlmost", "Ġall", "Ġof", "ĠEurope", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", "Ġsit", "Ġatop", "Ġthe", "ĠEuras", "ian", "ĠPlate", ",", "Ġad", "joined", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠArabian", "Ġand", "ĠIndian", "ĠPlate", "Ġand", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġeastern", "most", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠSiberia", "Ġ(", "east", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠC", "hers", "ky", "ĠRange", ")", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerican", "ĠPlate", ".", "Ġ", "ĠE", "tymology", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġidea", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġplace", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "Asia", "\"", "Ġwas", "Ġoriginally", "Ġa", "Ġconcept", "Ġof", "ĠGreek", "Ġcivilization", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġthis", "Ġmight", "Ġnot", 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"from", "ĠSc", "ania", ").", "Ġ", "ĠBronze", "ĠAge", "ĠBefore", "ĠGreek", "Ġpoetry", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠAe", "ge", "an", "ĠSea", "Ġarea", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġa", "ĠGreek", "ĠDark", "ĠAge", ",", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġbeginning", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġsyll", "ab", "ic", "Ġwriting", "Ġwas", "Ġlost", "Ġand", "Ġal", "ph", "abetic", "Ġwriting", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġbegun", ".", "ĠPrior", "Ġto", "Ġthen", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠBronze", "ĠAge", "Ġthe", "Ġrecords", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAssy", "rian", "ĠEmpire", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠH", "itt", "ite", "ĠEmpire", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġvarious", "ĠMy", "c", "en", "ae", "an", "Ġstates", "Ġof", "ĠGreece", "Ġmention", "Ġa", "Ġregion", "Ġundoubtedly", "ĠAsia", ",", "Ġcertainly", "Ġin", "ĠAnat", "olia", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġif", "Ġnot", "Ġidentical", "Ġto", "ĠLydia", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġrecords", "Ġare", "Ġadministrative", "Ġand", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġinclude", "Ġpoetry", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠMy", "c", "en", "ae", "an", "Ġstates", "Ġwere", "Ġdestroyed", "Ġabout", "Ġ1200", "ĠBCE", "Ġby", "Ġunknown", 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"Ġhundreds" ]
466
Empire to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia, synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 and assigned to Tobolsk, where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, Vasily Tatishchev, and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book. In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north. Asia–Oceania boundary The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The Maluku Islands in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with New Guinea, to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process." Ongoing definition Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia". Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate. Etymology The idea of a place called "Asia" was originally a concept of Greek civilization, though this might not correspond to the entire continent currently known by that name. The English word comes from Latin literature, where it has the same form, "Asia". Whether "Asia" in other languages comes from Latin of the Roman Empire is much less certain, and the ultimate source of the Latin word is uncertain, though several theories have been published. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny. This metonymical change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as Scandinavia (from Scania). Bronze Age Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry. The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents, though one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces caused the clay tablets holding the Mycenaean administrative records to be preserved by baking. These tablets were written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B. This script was deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, Michael Ventris, subsequently assisted by the scholar, John Chadwick. A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds
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"Ġhad", "Ġread", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwhose", "Ġworks", "Ġare", "Ġnow", "Ġmissing", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġit", "Ġhe", "Ġmeans", "ĠAnat", "olia", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠPersian", "ĠEmpire", ",", "Ġin", "Ġcontrast", "Ġto", "ĠGreece", "Ġand", "ĠEgypt", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHerod", "ot", "us", "Ġcomments", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġpuzzled", "Ġas", "Ġto", "Ġwhy", "Ġthree", "Ġwomen", "'s", "Ġnames", "Ġwere", "Ġ\"", "given", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġtract", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġin", "Ġreality", "Ġone", "\"", "Ġ(", "Euro", "pa", ",", "ĠAsia", ",", "Ġand", "ĠLibya", ",", "Ġreferring", "Ġto", "ĠAfrica", "),", "Ġstating", "Ġthat", "Ġmost", "ĠGreeks", "Ġassumed", "Ġthat", "ĠAsia", "Ġwas", "Ġnamed", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġwife", "Ġof", "ĠPrometheus", "Ġ(", "i", ".", "e", ".", "ĠHes", "ione", "),", "Ġbut", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠL", "yd", "ians", "Ġsay", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġnamed", "Ġafter", "ĠAs", "ies", ",", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠCot", "ys", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġpassed", "Ġthe", "Ġname", "Ġon", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġtribe", "Ġat", "ĠSard", "is", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠGreek", "Ġmythology", ",", "Ġ\"", "Asia", "\"", "Ġ(", "á", "¼", "Ī", "Ïĥ", "Î", "¯", "α", ")", "Ġor", "Ġ\"", "As", "ie", "\"", "Ġ(", "á", "¼", "Ī", "Ïĥ", "Î", "¯", "Î", "·", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġname", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "N", "ymph", "Ġor", "ĠTitan", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "ĠLydia", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġancient", "ĠGreek", "Ġreligion", ",", "Ġplaces", "Ġwere", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġcare", "Ġof", "Ġfemale", "Ġdiv", "in", "ities", ",", "Ġparallel", "Ġto", "Ġguardian", "Ġangels", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpoets", "Ġdetailed", "Ġtheir", "Ġdo", "ings", "Ġand", "Ġgenerations", "Ġin", "Ġalleg", "oric", "Ġlanguage", "Ġsal", "ted", "Ġwith", "Ġentertaining", "Ġstories", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġsubsequently", "Ġplay", "wr", "ights", "Ġtransformed", "Ġinto", "Ġclassical", "ĠGreek", "Ġdrama", "Ġand", "Ġbecame", "Ġ\"", "Greek", "Ġmythology", "\".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "ĠHes", "iod", "Ġmentions", "Ġthe", "Ġdaughters", "Ġof", "ĠT", "eth", "ys", "Ġand", "ĠOcean", ",", "Ġamong", "Ġwhom", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "holy", "Ġcompany", "\",", "Ġ\"", "who", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠLord", "ĠApollo", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠRivers", "Ġhave", "Ġyouths", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġkeeping", "\".", "ĠMany", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġare", "Ġgeographic", ":", "ĠDor", "is", ",", "ĠRhode", "a", ",", "ĠEuropa", ",", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠHes", "iod", "Ġexplains", ":", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", "Ġ(", "att", "ributed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "ĠGreeks", "Ġto", "ĠHomer", ")", "Ġmentions", "Ġtwo", "ĠPh", "ry", "g", "ians", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġtribe", "Ġthat", "Ġreplaced", "Ġthe", "ĠLu", "v", "ians", "Ġin", "ĠLydia", ")", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠTrojan", "ĠWar", "Ġnamed", "ĠAs", "ios", "Ġ(", "an", "Ġadjective", "Ġmeaning", "Ġ\"", "Asian", "\");", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġa", "Ġmarsh", "Ġor", "Ġlow", "land", "Ġcontaining", "Ġa", "Ġmarsh", "Ġin", "ĠLydia", "Ġas", "Ġ.", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġmany", "ĠMuslims", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "Ġcame", "Ġfrom", "ĠAncient", "ĠEgypt", "'s", "ĠQueen", "ĠAs", "iya", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġadoptive", "Ġmother", "Ġof", "ĠMoses", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġhistory", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġseen", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġdistinct", "Ġhistories", "Ġof", "Ġseveral", "Ġperipheral", "Ġcoastal", "Ġregions", ":", "ĠEast", "ĠAsia", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠAsia", ",", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠMiddle", "ĠEast", ",", "Ġlinked", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġinterior", "Ġmass", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCentral", "ĠAsian", "Ġste", "pp", "es", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcoastal", "Ġperiphery", "Ġwas", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġearliest", "Ġknown", "Ġcivilizations", ",", "Ġeach", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġaround", "Ġfertile", "Ġriver", "Ġvalleys", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcivilizations", "Ġin", "ĠMes", "opot", "amia", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠInd", "us", "ĠValley", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠYellow", "ĠRiver", "Ġshared", "Ġmany", "Ġsimilarities", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġcivilizations", "Ġmay", "Ġwell", "Ġhave", "Ġexchanged", "Ġtechnologies", "Ġand", "Ġideas", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġmathematics", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġwheel", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġinnovations", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġwriting", ",", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġindividually", "Ġin", "Ġeach", "Ġarea", ".", "ĠCities", ",", "Ġstates", "Ġand", "Ġempires", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġin", "Ġthese", "Ġlow", "lands", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcentral", "Ġste", "ppe", "Ġregion", "Ġhad", "Ġlong", "Ġbeen", "Ġinhabited", "Ġby", "Ġhorse", "-", "mounted", "Ġnom", "ads", "Ġwho", "Ġcould", "Ġreach", "Ġall", "Ġareas", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġste", "pp", "es", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġearliest", "Ġpost", "ulated", "Ġexpansion", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġste", "ppe", "Ġis", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠIndo", "-", "Europe", "ans", ",", "Ġwho" ]
467
of male and female names formed by different methods. Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet lawiaiai, "captives", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia". Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased. The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female from there. There is a masculine form, . This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia". This name, Assuwa, has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia". The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE. Classical antiquity Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province Asia, located in western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as Herodotus, who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name. The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his Histories are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus (i.e. Hesione), but that the Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" (Ἀσία) or "Asie" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia". In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology". For example, Hesiod mentions the daughters of Tethys and Ocean, among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord Apollo and the Rivers have youths in their keeping". Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains: The Iliad (attributed by the ancient Greeks to Homer) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the Luvians in Lydia) in the Trojan War named Asios (an adjective meaning "Asian"); and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as . According to many Muslims, the term came from Ancient Egypt's Queen Asiya, the adoptive mother of Moses. History The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who
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"Ġcountries", "Ġand", "Ġterritories", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNorth", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "S", "iber", "ia", ")", "Ġ", "ĠCentral", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "The", "Ġ'", "st", "ans", ")", "Ġ", "ĠWestern", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "The", "ĠMiddle", "ĠEast", "Ġor", "ĠNear", "ĠEast", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSouth", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "Indian", "Ġsub", "cont", "inent", ")", "Ġ", "ĠEast", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "Far", "ĠEast", ")", "Ġ", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "East", "ĠIndies", "Ġand", "ĠInd", "och", "ina", ")", "Ġ", "ĠClimate", "Ġ", "ĠAsia", "Ġhas", "Ġextremely", "Ġdiverse", "Ġclimate", "Ġfeatures", ".", "ĠCl", "imates", "Ġrange", "Ġfrom", "Ġar", "ctic", "Ġand", "Ġsub", "ar", "ctic", "Ġin", "ĠSiberia", "Ġto", "Ġtropical", "Ġin", "Ġsouthern", "ĠIndia", "Ġand", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġmoist", "Ġacross", "Ġsoutheast", "Ġsections", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdry", "Ġacross", "Ġmuch", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġinterior", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġdaily", "Ġtemperature", "Ġranges", "Ġon", "ĠEarth", "Ġoccur", "Ġin", "Ġwestern", "Ġsections", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmon", "soon", "Ġcirculation", "Ġdominates", "Ġacross", "Ġsouthern", "Ġand", "Ġeastern", "Ġsections", ",", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠHimal", "ay", "as", "Ġforcing", "Ġthe", "Ġformation", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġthermal", "Ġlow", "Ġwhich", "Ġdraws", "Ġin", "Ġmoisture", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġsummer", ".", "ĠSouth", "western", "Ġsections", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcontinent", "Ġare", "Ġhot", ".", "ĠSiberia", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcold", "est", "Ġplaces", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠNorthern", "ĠHemisphere", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcan", "Ġact", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġar", "ctic", "Ġair", "Ġmasses", "Ġfor", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmost", "Ġactive", "Ġplace", "Ġon", "ĠEarth", "Ġfor", "Ġtropical", "Ġcycl", "one", "Ġactivity", "Ġlies", "Ġnortheast", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPhilippines", "Ġand", "Ġsouth", "Ġof", "ĠJapan", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġsurvey", "Ġcarried", "Ġout", "Ġin", "Ġ2010", "Ġby", "Ġglobal", "Ġrisk", "Ġanalysis", "Ġfarm", "ĠMaple", "croft", "Ġidentified", "Ġ16", "Ġcountries", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġextremely", "Ġvulnerable", "Ġto", "Ġclimate", "Ġchange", ".", "ĠEach" ]
468
spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people. The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road. The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. The Empire of Japan controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of World War II. Geography and climate Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at . Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains (or the Kuma–Manych Depression) and the Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 49 countries, five of them (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey) are transcontinental countries lying partly in Europe. Geographically, Russia is partly in Asia, but is considered a European nation, both culturally and politically. The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north. Main regions There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used, among others, by the UN statistics agency UNSD. This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories. North Asia (Siberia) Central Asia (The 'stans) Western Asia (The Middle East or Near East) South Asia (Indian subcontinent) East Asia (Far East) Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina) Climate Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each
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"Ġwhen", "ĠChina", "Ġovert", "ook", "ĠJapan", "Ġto", "Ġbecome", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġsecond", "Ġlargest", "Ġeconomy", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ1980", "s", "Ġand", "Ġearly", "Ġ1990", "s", ",", "ĠJapan", "'s", "ĠGDP", "Ġwas", "Ġalmost", "Ġas", "Ġlarge", "Ġ(", "current", "Ġexchange", "Ġrate", "Ġmethod", ")", "Ġas", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "ĠAsia", "Ġcombined", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1995", ",", "ĠJapan", "'s", "Ġeconomy", "Ġnearly", "Ġequ", "aled", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġeconomy", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġday", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "ĠJapanese", "Ġcurrency", "Ġreached", "Ġa", "Ġrecord", "Ġhigh", "Ġof", "Ġ79", "Ġyen", "/", "US", "$.", "ĠEconomic", "Ġgrowth", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", "Ġsince", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", "ĠII", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġ1990", "s", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġconcentrated", "Ġin", "ĠJapan", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġfour", "Ġregions", "Ġof", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", ",", "ĠTaiwan", ",", "ĠHong", "ĠKong", "Ġand", 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",", "Ġforests", ",", "Ġfish", ",", "Ġwater", ",", "Ġrice", ",", "Ġcopper", "Ġand", "Ġsilver", ".", "ĠManufacturing", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", "Ġhas", "Ġtraditionally", "Ġbeen", "Ġstrongest", "Ġin", "ĠEast", "Ġand", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", ",", "Ġparticularly", "Ġin", "ĠChina", ",", "ĠTaiwan", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", ",", "ĠJapan", ",", "ĠIndia", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠPhilippines", ",", "Ġand", "ĠSingapore", ".", "ĠJapan", "Ġand", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", "Ġcontinue", "Ġto", "Ġdominate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġmultinational", "Ġcorporations", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġincreasingly", "Ġthe", "ĠPR", "C", "Ġand", "ĠIndia", "Ġare", "Ġmaking", "Ġsignificant", "Ġin", "roads", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġcompanies", "Ġfrom", "ĠEurope", ",", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", "Ġand", "ĠJapan", "Ġhave", "Ġoperations", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", "'s", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġcountries", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġadvantage", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġabundant", "Ġsupply", "Ġof", "Ġcheap", "Ġlabour", "Ġand", "Ġrelatively", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġinfrastructure", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠCit", "igroup", "Ġ9", "Ġof", "Ġ11", "ĠGlobal", "ĠGrowth", "ĠGener", "ators", "Ġcountries", "Ġcame", "Ġfrom", "ĠAsia", "Ġdriven", "Ġby", "Ġpopulation", "Ġand", "Ġincome", "Ġgrowth", ".", "ĠThey" ]
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nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan, China and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a semi-arid climate, the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use renewable energy. The ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam - are among the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change in the world, however, ASEAN's climate mitigation efforts are not commensurate with the climate threats and risks it faces. Economy Asia has the largest continental economy by both GDP Nominal and PPP in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region. , the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, South Korea, Indonesia and Turkey based on GDP in both nominal and PPP. Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68 percent of international firms have an office in Hong Kong. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include Israel, Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines, and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman. According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE. Historically, India was the largest economy in the world for most of the two millennia from the 1st until 19th century, contributing 25% of the world's industrial output. China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1990 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which have now all received developed country status, having the highest GDP per capita in Asia. It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2025. By 2027, according to Goldman Sachs, China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, India, the Philippines, and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure. According to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They
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"Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "ĠAd", "ri", "atic", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "ĠItalian", "Ġhub", "Ġof", "ĠTri", "este", "Ġwith", "Ġits", "Ġrail", "Ġconnections", "Ġto", "ĠCentral", "Ġand", "ĠEastern", "ĠEurope", "Ġor", "Ġfurther", "Ġto", "ĠBarcelona", "Ġand", "Ġaround", "ĠSpain", "Ġand", "ĠFrance", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠEuropean", "Ġnorthern", "Ġports", ".", "ĠA", "Ġfar", "Ġsmaller", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgoods", "Ġtraffic", "Ġruns", "Ġvia", "ĠSouth", "ĠAfrica", "Ġto", "ĠEurope", ".", "ĠA", "Ġparticularly", "Ġsignificant", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAsian", "Ġgoods", "Ġtraffic", "Ġis", "Ġcarried", "Ġout", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "ĠPacific", "Ġtowards", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "Ġand", "ĠLong", "ĠBeach", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġcontrast", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsea", "Ġroutes", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSilk", "ĠRoad", "Ġvia", "Ġthe", "Ġland", "Ġroute", "Ġto", "ĠEurope", "Ġis", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġone", "Ġhand", "Ġstill", "Ġunder", "Ġconstruction", "Ġand", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġhand", "Ġis", "Ġmuch", "Ġsmaller", "Ġin", "Ġterms", "Ġof", "Ġscope", ".", "ĠInt", "ra", "-", "Asian", "Ġtrade", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġsea", "Ġtrade", ",", "Ġis", "Ġgrowing", "Ġrapidly", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2010", ",", "ĠAsia", "Ġhad", "Ġ3", ".", "3", "Ġmillion", "Ġmillionaires", "Ġ(", "people", "Ġwith", "Ġnet", "Ġworth", "Ġover", "ĠUS", "$", "1", "Ġmillion", "Ġexcluding", "Ġtheir", "Ġhomes", "),", "Ġslightly", "Ġbelow", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", "Ġwith", "Ġ3", ".", "4", "Ġmillion", "Ġmillionaires", ".", "ĠLast", "Ġyear", "ĠAsia", "Ġhad", "Ġtoppled", "ĠEurope", ".", "ĠCit", "igroup", "Ġin", "ĠThe", "ĠWealth", "ĠReport", "Ġ2012", "Ġstated", "Ġthat", "ĠAsian", "Ġcent", "a", "-", "million", "aire", "Ġovert", "ook", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", "'s", "Ġwealth", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġ\"", "economic", "Ġcenter", "Ġof", "Ġgravity", "\"", "Ġcontinued", "Ġmoving", "Ġeast", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġ2011", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġwere", "Ġ18", ",", "000", "ĠAsian", "Ġpeople", "Ġmainly", "Ġin", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", ",", "ĠChina", "Ġand", "ĠJapan", "Ġwho", "Ġhave", "Ġat", "Ġleast", "Ġ$", "100", "Ġmillion", "Ġin", "Ġdisposable", "Ġassets", ",", "Ġwhile", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", "Ġwith", "Ġ17", ",", "000", "Ġpeople", "Ġand", "ĠWestern", "ĠEurope", "Ġwith", "Ġ14", ",", "000", "Ġpeople", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTourism", "Ġ", "ĠWith", "Ġgrowing", "ĠRegional", "ĠTourism", "Ġwith", "Ġdomination", "Ġof", "ĠChinese", "Ġvisitors", ",", "ĠMaster", "Card", "Ġhas", "Ġreleased", "ĠGlobal", "ĠDestination", "ĠCities", "ĠIndex", "Ġ2013", "Ġwith", "Ġ10", "Ġof", "Ġ20", "Ġare", "Ġdominated", "Ġby", "ĠAsia", "Ġand", "ĠPacific", "ĠRegion", "ĠCities", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", "Ġa", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġcountry", "Ġfrom", "ĠAsia", "Ġ(", "Bang", "kok", ")", "Ġset", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtop", "-", "ranked", "Ġwith", "Ġ15", ".", "98", "Ġinternational", "Ġvisitors", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDem", "ographics", "Ġ", "ĠEast", "ĠAsia", "Ġhad", "Ġby", "Ġfar", "Ġthe", "Ġstrongest", "Ġoverall", "ĠHuman", "ĠDevelopment", "ĠIndex", "Ġ(", "HD", "I", ")", "Ġimprovement", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġregion", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġnearly", "Ġdoubling", "Ġaverage", "ĠHD", "I", "Ġattainment", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġpast", "Ġ40", "Ġyears", ",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġreport", "'s", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġhealth", ",", "Ġeducation", "Ġand", "Ġincome", "Ġdata", ".", "ĠChina", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġhighest", "Ġachie", "ver", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġin", "Ġterms", "Ġof", "ĠHD", "I", "Ġimprovement", "Ġsince", "Ġ1970", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġcountry", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "Top", "Ġ10", "ĠMo", "vers", "\"", "Ġlist", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġincome", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġhealth", "Ġor", "Ġeducation", "Ġachievements", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġper", "Ġcapita", "Ġincome", "Ġincreased", "Ġa", "Ġstunning", "Ġ21", "-", "fold", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġlast", "Ġfour", "Ġdecades", ",", "Ġalso", "Ġlifting", "Ġhundreds", "Ġof", "Ġmillions", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġincome", "Ġpoverty", ".", "ĠYet", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġregion", "'s", "Ġtop", "Ġperformers", "Ġin", "Ġimproving", "Ġschool", "Ġenrollment", "Ġand", "Ġlife", "Ġexpectancy", ".", "ĠNepal", ",", "Ġa", "ĠSouth", "ĠAsian", "Ġcountry", ",", "Ġemerges", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġfastest", "Ġmo", "vers", "Ġsince", "Ġ1970", "Ġmainly", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġhealth", "Ġand", "Ġeducation", "Ġachievements", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġpresent", "Ġlife", "Ġexpectancy", "Ġis", "Ġ25", "Ġyears", "Ġlonger", "Ġthan", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ1970", "s", ".", "ĠMore", "Ġthan", "Ġfour", "Ġof", "Ġevery", "Ġfive", "Ġchildren", "Ġof", "Ġschool", "Ġage", "Ġin", "ĠNepal", "Ġnow", "Ġattend", "Ġprimary", "Ġschool", ",", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġjust", "Ġone", "Ġin", "Ġfive", "Ġ40", "Ġyears", "Ġago", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHong", "ĠKong", "Ġranked", "Ġhighest", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġcountries", "Ġgrouped", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠHD", "I", "Ġ(", "number", "Ġ7", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "very", "Ġhigh", "Ġhuman", "Ġdevelopment", "\"", "Ġcategory", "),", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "ĠSingapore", "Ġ(", "9", "),", "ĠJapan", "Ġ(", "19", ")", "Ġand", "ĠSouth", "ĠKorea", "Ġ(", "22", ").", "ĠAfghanistan", "Ġ(", "155", ")", "Ġranked", "Ġlowest", "Ġamongst", "ĠAsian", "Ġcountries", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ169", "Ġcountries", "Ġassessed", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLanguages", "Ġ", "ĠAsia", "Ġis", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġseveral", "Ġlanguage", "Ġfamilies", "Ġand", "Ġmany", "Ġlanguage", "Ġisol", "ates", ".", "ĠMost", "ĠAsian", "Ġcountries", "Ġhave", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġone", "Ġlanguage", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġnative", "ly", "Ġspoken", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġinstance", ",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "ĠEth", "n", "ologue", ",", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ600", "Ġlanguages", "Ġare", "Ġspoken", "Ġin", "ĠIndonesia", ",", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ800", "Ġlanguages", "Ġspoken", "Ġin", "ĠIndia", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ100", "Ġare", "Ġspoken", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠPhilippines", ".", "ĠChina", "Ġhas", "Ġmany", "Ġlanguages", "Ġand", "Ġdialect", "s", "Ġin", "Ġdifferent", "Ġprovinces", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRel", "ig", "ions", "Ġ", "ĠMany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġmajor", "Ġreligions", "Ġhave", "Ġtheir", "Ġorigins", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġfive", "Ġmost", "Ġpracticed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġ(", "excluding", "Ġir", "rel", "igion", "),", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "ĠChristianity", ",", "ĠIslam", ",", "ĠHindu", "ism", ",", "ĠChinese", "Ġfolk", "Ġreligion", "Ġ(", "classified", "Ġas", "ĠConf", "uc", "ian", "ism", "Ġand", "ĠTao", "ism", "),", "Ġand", "ĠBuddhism", "Ġrespectively", ".", "ĠAsian", "Ġmythology", "Ġis", "Ġcomplex", "Ġand", "Ġdiverse", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstory", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠFlood", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġas", "Ġpresented", "Ġto", "ĠJews", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠHebrew", "ĠBible", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnarrative", "Ġof", "ĠNoah", "âĢĶ", "and", "Ġlater", "Ġto", "ĠChristians", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠOld", "ĠTestament", ",", "Ġand", "Ġto", "ĠMuslims", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠQuran", "âĢĶ", "is", "Ġearliest", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "ĠMes", "opot", "am", "ian", "Ġmythology", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠEn", "û", "ma", "ĠEli", "Å¡", "Ġand", "ĠEpic", "Ġof", "ĠGil", "games", "h", ".", "ĠHindu", "Ġmythology", "Ġsimilarly", "Ġtells", "Ġabout", "Ġan" ]
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are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Mongolia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa to Europe. A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out across the Pacific towards Los Angeles and Long Beach. In contrast to the sea routes, the Silk Road via the land route to Europe is on the one hand still under construction and on the other hand is much smaller in terms of scope. Intra-Asian trade, including sea trade, is growing rapidly. In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe. Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people. Tourism With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors. Demographics East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy. Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago. Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 7 in the world, which is in the "very high human development" category), followed by Singapore (9), Japan (19) and South Korea (22). Afghanistan (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed. Languages Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces. Religions Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding irreligion), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the Great Flood for example, as presented to Jews in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Noah—and later to Christians in the Old Testament, and to Muslims in the Quran—is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology, in the Enûma Eliš and Epic of Gilgamesh. Hindu mythology similarly tells about an
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avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. Ancient Chinese mythology also tells of a Great Flood spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control. Abrahamic The Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze faith, and Baháʼí Faith originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Jews who remained in the Middle East and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million, although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey (17,400), Azerbaijan (9,100), Iran (8,756), India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000), among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.) Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent. Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010, and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia and Georgia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the Levant, Anatolia and Fars, Syriac Christianity (Church of the East) and Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations, which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Vibrant indigenous minorities in Western Asia are adhering to the Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodoxy. Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Significant Christian communities also found in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia. Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shi'a country. The Druze Faith or Druzism originated in Western Asia, is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of figures like Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The number of Druze people worldwide is around one million, with about 45% to 50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel, with recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora. The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Baháʼí Temple in India. Indian and East Asian religions Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape. , Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Bali, Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as
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"ĠS", ".", "ĠBuck", ",", "Ġan", "Ġhonorary", "ĠAsian", "ĠNobel", "Ġlaureate", ",", "Ġhaving", "Ġspent", "Ġconsiderable", "Ġtime", "Ġin", "ĠChina", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġdaughter", "Ġof", "Ġmissionaries", ",", "Ġand", "Ġbased", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġher", "Ġnovels", ",", "Ġnamely", "ĠThe", "ĠGood", "ĠEarth", "Ġ(", "19", "31", ")", "Ġand", "ĠThe", "ĠMother", "Ġ(", "19", "33", "),", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġbi", "ographies", "Ġof", "Ġher", "Ġparents", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġtime", "Ġin", "ĠChina", ",", "ĠThe", "ĠExile", "Ġand", "ĠFighting", "ĠAngel", ",", "Ġall", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġearned", "Ġher", "Ġthe", "ĠLiterature", "Ġprize", "Ġin", "Ġ1938", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlso", ",", "ĠMother", "ĠTeresa", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", "Ġand", "ĠShir", "in", "ĠEb", "adi", "Ġof", "ĠIran", "Ġwere", "Ġawarded", "Ġthe", "ĠNobel", "ĠPeace", "ĠPrize", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġsignificant", "Ġand", "Ġpioneering", "Ġefforts", "Ġfor", "Ġdemocracy", "Ġand", "Ġhuman", "Ġrights", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġrights", "Ġof", "Ġwomen", "Ġand", "Ġchildren", ".", "ĠEb", "adi", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠIranian", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠMuslim", "Ġwoman", "Ġto", "Ġreceive", "Ġthe", "Ġprize", ".", "ĠAnother", "ĠNobel", "ĠPeace", "ĠPrize", "Ġwinner", "Ġis", "ĠA", "ung", "ĠSan", "ĠSu", "u", "ĠKy", "i", "Ġfrom", "ĠBurma", "Ġfor", "Ġher", "Ġpeaceful", "Ġand", "Ġnon", "-", "violent", "Ġstruggle", "Ġunder", "Ġa", "Ġmilitary", "Ġdictatorship", "Ġin", "ĠBurma", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġnonviolent", "Ġpro", "-", "democracy", "Ġactivist", "Ġand", "Ġleader", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNational", "ĠLeague", "Ġfor", "ĠDemocracy", "Ġin", "ĠBurma", "Ġ(", "My", "anmar", ")" ]
472
Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia (96%), Thailand (95%), Burma (80–89%), Japan (36–96%), Bhutan (75–84%), Sri Lanka (70%), Laos (60–67%) and Mongolia (53–93%). Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore (33–51%), Taiwan (35–93%), South Korea (23–50%), Malaysia (19–21%), Nepal (9–11%), Vietnam (10–75%), China (20–50%), North Korea (2–14%), and small communities in India and Bangladesh. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. Jainism is found mainly in India and in overseas Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities, Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism, thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. Modern conflicts Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-Second World War were: The Partition of India The Chinese Civil War The Kashmir conflict The Balochistan Conflict The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in India The Korean War The French-Indochina War The Vietnam War The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation The 1959 Tibetan uprising The Sino-Vietnamese War The Bangladesh Liberation War The Yom Kippur War The Xinjiang conflict The Iranian Revolution The Soviet–Afghan War The Iran–Iraq War The Cambodian Killing Fields The Insurgency in Laos The Lebanese Civil War The Sri Lankan Civil War The 1988 Maldives coup d'état The Dissolution of the Soviet Union The Gulf War The Nepalese Civil War The Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts The West Papua conflict The First Nagorno-Karabakh War The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests The Indonesian occupation of East Timor The 1999 Pakistani coup d'état The War in Afghanistan The Iraq War The South Thailand insurgency The 2006 Thai coup d'état The Burmese Civil War The Saffron Revolution The Kurdish-Turkish conflict The Arab Spring The Arab–Israeli conflict The Syrian Civil War The Sino-Indian War The 2014 Thai coup d'état The Moro conflict in the Philippines The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant The Turkish invasion of Syria The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar The Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen The Hong Kong protests The 2020 China–India skirmishes The 1969 inter-ethnic violence in Kuala Lumpur Culture Nobel prizes The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents for their time in China, The Exile and Fighting Angel, all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar)
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and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Malala Yousafzai, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala Yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career. On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1989. Political geography Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN: See also References to articles: Subregions of Asia Special topics: Asian Century Asian cuisine Asian furniture Asian Games Asia-Pacific Asian Para Games Asian Monetary Unit Asian people Eastern world Eurasia Far East East Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Central Asia Western Asia North Asia Fauna of Asia Flags of Asia Middle East Eastern Mediterranean Levant Near East Pan-Asianism Lists: List of cities in Asia List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia Projects Asian Highway Network Trans-Asian Railway Notes References Bibliography Further reading Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). External links Continents <|endoftext|>Aruba ( , , ) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands physically located in the mid-south of the Caribbean Sea, about north of the Venezuelan peninsula of Paraguaná and northwest of Curaçao. It measures long from its northwestern to its southeastern end and across at its widest point. Together with Bonaire
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"Ġnever", "Ġbecame", "Ġestablished", "Ġon", "ĠAr", "uba", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEarly", "ĠDutch", "Ġperiod", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠNetherlands", "Ġseized", "ĠAr", "uba", "Ġfrom", "ĠSpain", "Ġin", "Ġ16", "36", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcourse", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠThirty", "ĠYears", "'", "ĠWar", ".", "ĠPeter", "ĠSt", "uy", "ves", "ant", ",", "Ġlater", "Ġappointed", "Ġto", "ĠNew", "ĠAmsterdam", "Ġ(", "New", "ĠYork", "),", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠDutch", "Ġgovernor", ".", "ĠThose", "ĠA", "raw", "ak", "Ġwho", "Ġhad", "Ġsurvived", "Ġthe", "Ġdep", "red", "ations", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSpanish", "Ġwere", "Ġallowed", "Ġto", "Ġfarm", "Ġand", "Ġgra", "ze", "Ġlivestock", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠDutch", "Ġusing", "Ġthe", "Ġisland", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġmeat", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġother", "Ġpossessions", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCaribbean", ".", "ĠAr", "uba", "'s", "Ġproximity", "Ġto", "ĠSouth", "ĠAmerica", "Ġresulted", "Ġin", "Ġinteractions", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġcultures", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcoastal", "Ġareas", ";", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġarchitectural", "Ġsimilarities", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġseen", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "-", "century", "Ġparts", "Ġof", "ĠOr", "an", "j", "est", "ad", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnearby", "ĠVenezuelan", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠCor", "o", "Ġin", "ĠFal", "c", "ón", "ĠState", ".", "ĠHistorically", ",", "ĠDutch", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġwidely", "Ġspoken", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġisland", "Ġoutside", "Ġof", "Ġcolonial", "Ġadministration", ";", "Ġits", "Ġuse", "Ġincreased", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġand", "Ġearly", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcenturies", ".", "ĠStudents", "Ġon", "ĠCur", "a", "ç", "ao", ",", "ĠAr", "uba", ",", "Ġand", "ĠB" ]
474
and Curaçao, Aruba forms a group referred to as the ABC islands. Collectively, these and the other three Dutch substantial islands in the Caribbean are often called the Dutch Caribbean, of which Aruba has about one-third of the population. In 1986, it became a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and acquired the formal name the Country of Aruba. Aruba is one of the four countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along with the Netherlands, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten; the citizens of these countries are all Dutch nationals. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is Oranjestad. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. The climate has helped tourism, because visitors to the island can expect clear, sunny skies all year. Its area is and it is quite densely populated, with 101,484 inhabitants as at the 2010 Census. A January 2019 estimate of the population placed it at 116,600. Etymology The name Aruba most likely came from the Caquetio Oruba which means "Well situated island", seeing as it was the Caquetio who were present on the island when it was first colonised by Alonso de Ojeda. as of 1529 the name "Isla de Oruba" was used for the island by the Spanish until the Treaty of Westphalia, when the island was ceded to the Dutch and its name was changed to Aruba. There were many different names for Aruba used by other Amerindian groups, all of which could have contributed to the present-day name Aruba. Another Caquetio name for the island was Oibubia which means "Guided island". The Taino name for the island was Arubeira. The Kalinago also had two names for the island Ora Oubao which means "Shell island" and Oirubae which means "Companion of Curaçao". A common misconception is that the name Aruba came from the Spanish Oro hubo which means "There was gold". However the Spanish found no gold on Aruba during the time of their occupation, nicknaming Aruba and the rest of the ABC islands Islas Inútiles, meaning "Useless islands" due to the lack of gold. It was not until much later in 1824 that gold was found on Aruba by Willem Rasmijn, staring the Aruban Gold Rush. Another early Spanish name for Aruba was Isla de Brasil, named as such because of the many Brazilwood trees that grew on the island. History Pre-colonial era There has been a human presence on Aruba from as early as circa 2000 BC. The first identifiable group are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians who migrated from South America about 1000 AD. Archaeological evidence suggests continuing links between these native Arubans and Amerindian peoples of mainland South America. Spanish colonization The first Europeans to visit Aruba were Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda in 1499, who claimed the island for Spain. Both men described Aruba as an "island of giants", remarking on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetíos. Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and brazilwood from the island and described houses built into the ocean. Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba, and the Spanish began colonising the island. Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in 1508. From 1513 the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos, sending many to a life of forced labour in the mines of Hispaniola. The island's low rainfall and arid landscape meant that it was not considered profitable for a slave-based plantation system, so the type of large-scale slavery so common on other Caribbean islands never became established on Aruba. Early Dutch period The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of the Thirty Years' War. Peter Stuyvesant, later appointed to New Amsterdam (New York), was the first Dutch governor. Those Arawak who had survived the depredations of the Spanish were allowed to farm and graze livestock, with the Dutch using the island as a source of meat for their other possessions in the Caribbean. Aruba's proximity to South America resulted in interactions with the cultures of the coastal areas; for example, architectural similarities can be seen between the 19th-century parts of Oranjestad and the nearby Venezuelan city of Coro in Falcón State. Historically, Dutch was not widely spoken on the island outside of colonial administration; its use increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Students on Curaçao, Aruba, and B
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475
onaire were taught predominantly in Spanish until the late 18th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire took control of the island, occupying it between 1806 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch as per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. Aruba subsequently became part of the Colony of Curaçao and Dependencies along with Bonaire. During the 19th century, an economy based on gold mining, phosphate production and aloe vera plantations developed, but the island remained a relatively poor backwater. 20th and 21st centuries The first oil refinery in Aruba was built in 1928 by Royal Dutch Shell. The facility was built just to the west of the capital city, Oranjestad, and was commonly called the Eagle. Immediately following that, another refinery was built by Lago Oil and Transport Company, in an area now known as San Nicolas on the east end of Aruba. The refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields, bringing greater prosperity to the island. The refinery on Aruba grew to become one of the largest in the world. During World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. In 1940, the oil facilities in Aruba came under the administration of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, causing them to be attacked by the German navy in 1942. In August 1947, Aruba formulated its first Staatsreglement (constitution) for Aruba's status aparte as an autonomous state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, prompted by the efforts of Henny Eman, a noted Aruban politician. By 1954, the Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom. That created the Netherlands Antilles, which united all of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean into one administrative structure. Many Arubans were unhappy with the arrangement, however, as the new polity was perceived as being dominated by Curaçao. In 1972, at a conference in Suriname, Betico Croes, a politician from Aruba, proposed the creation of a Dutch Commonwealth of four states: Aruba, the Netherlands, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles, each to have its own nationality. Backed by his newly created party, the Movimiento Electoral di Pueblo, Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba, with the long-term goal of independence, adopting the trappings of an independent state in 1976 with the creation of a flag and national anthem. In March 1977, a referendum was held with the support of the United Nations. 82% of the participants voted for complete independence from the Netherlands. Tensions mounted as Croes stepped up the pressure on the Dutch government by organising a general strike in 1977. Croes later met with Dutch Prime Minister Joop den Uyl, with the two sides agreeing to assign the Institute of Social Studies in The Hague to prepare a study for independence, entitled Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid, achtergronden, modaliteiten, en mogelijkheden; een rapport in eerste aanleg (Aruba and independence, backgrounds, modalities, and opportunities; a preliminary report) (1978). Autonomy In March 1983, Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence, to be developed in a series of steps as the Crown granted increasing autonomy. In August 1985, Aruba drafted a constitution that was unanimously approved. On 1 January 1986, after elections were held for its first parliament, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles, officially becoming a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full independence planned for 1996. However, Croes was seriously injured in a traffic accident in 1985, slipping into a coma. He died in 1986, never seeing the enacting of status aparte for Aruba for which he had worked over many years. After his death, Croes was proclaimed Libertador di Aruba. Croes' successor, Henny Eman, of the Aruban People's Party (AVP), became the first Prime Minister of Aruba. In 1985, Aruba's oil refinery had closed. It had provided Aruba with 30 percent of its real income and 50 percent of government revenue. The significant blow to the economy led to a push for a dramatic increase in tourism, and that sector has expanded to become the island's largest industry. At a convention in The Hague in 1990, at the request of Aruba's Prime Minister Nelson Oduber, the governments of Aruba, the Netherlands, and the Netherlands Antilles postponed indefinitely Aruba's transition to full independence. The article scheduling Aruba's complete independence was rescinded in 1995, although it was decided that the process could be revived after another referendum. Geography Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc of the
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Lesser Antilles in the southern part of the Caribbean. It lies west of Curaçao and north of Venezuela's Paraguaná Peninsula. Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island, relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents. This is where the bulk of the population live and where most tourist development has occurred. The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched. The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills, such as Hooiberg at and Mount Jamanota, the highest on the island at above sea level. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at . The Natural Bridge was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore. It was a popular tourist destination until its collapse in 2005. Cities and towns The island, with a population of about 116,600 people (1 January 2019 estimate) does not have major cities. It is divided into six districts. Most of the island's population resides in or around the two major city-like districts of Oranjestad (the capital) and San Nicolaas. Oranjestad and San Nicolaas are both divided into two districts for census purposes only. The districts are as follows: Noord Oranjestad (East and West) Paradera San Nicolaas (North and South) Santa Cruz Savaneta Fauna The isolation of Aruba from the mainland of South America has fostered the evolution of multiple endemic animals. The island provides a habitat for the endemic Aruban Whiptail and Aruba Rattlesnake, as well as an endemic subspecies of Burrowing Owl and Brown-throated Parakeet. Flora The flora of Aruba differs from the typical tropical island vegetation. Xeric scrublands are common, with various forms of cacti, thorny shrubs, and evergreens. Aloe vera is also present, its economic importance earning it a place on the coat of arms of Aruba. Cacti like Melocactus and Opuntia are represented on Aruba by species like Opuntia stricta. Trees like Caesalpinia coriaria and Vachellia tortuosa are drought tolerant. Climate and natural hazards By the Köppen climate classification, Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). Rainfall is scarce, only 300 millimeters (12 inches) per year; in particular, rainy season is drier than it normally is in tropical climates; during the dry season, it almost never rains. Owing to the scarcity of rainfall, the landscape of Aruba is arid. Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from to , moderated by constant trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean, which come from the north-east. Yearly rainfall barely exceeds in Oranjestad, although it is extremely variable and can range from as little as during strong El Niño years (e.g. 1911/1912, 1930/1931, 1982/1983, 1997/1998) to over in La Niña years like 1933/1934, 1970/1971 or 1988/1989. Aruba is south of the typical latitudes of hurricanes but was affected by two in their early stages in late 2020. Demographics In terms of country of birth, the population is estimated to be 66% Aruban, 9.1% Colombian, 4.3% Dutch, 4.1% Dominican, 3.2% Venezuelan, 2.2% Curaçaoan, 1.5% Haitian, 1.2% Surinamese, 1.1% Peruvian, 1.1% Chinese, 6.2% other. In terms of ethnic composition, the population is estimated to be 75% mestizo, 15% black and 10% other ethnicities. Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands; although no full-blooded Aboriginals remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic Arawak heritage. Most of the population is descended from Caquetio Indians, African slaves, and Dutch settlers, and to a lesser extent the various other groups that have settled on the island over time, such as the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Sephardic Jews. Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighbouring South American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting foreign workers to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Most notable are those from Venezuela, which lies just to the south. In 2019, recently arrived Venezuelan refugees were estimated to number around 17,000, accounting for some 15%
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of the island's population. Language Aruba's official languages are Dutch and Papiamento. While Dutch is the sole language for all administration and legal matters, Papiamento is the predominant language used on Aruba. Papiamento is a Portuguese- and Spanish-based creole language, spoken on Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, that also incorporates words from Dutch and various West African languages. English and Spanish are also spoken, their usage having grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken, based on the size of their community, are Portuguese, Cantonese, French and German. In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of Papiamento. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island, with Aruba using etymological spelling, and Curaçao and Bonaire a phonetic spelling. Some are more oriented towards Portuguese and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. "y" instead of "j"), where others are more oriented towards Dutch. The book Buccaneers of America, first published in 1678, states through eyewitness account that the natives on Aruba spoke Spanish already. Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia. Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island, and Aruba also has significant Venezuelan and Colombian communities. Around 13% of the population today speaks Spanish natively. Use of English dates to the early 19th century, when the British took Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, officials already noted wide use of the language. Aruba has newspapers published in Papiamento: Diario, Bon Dia, Solo di Pueblo, and Awe Mainta, English: Aruba Daily, Aruba Today, and The News, and Dutch: Amigoe. Aruba has 18 radio stations (two AM and 16 FM) and two television stations (Telearuba and Channel 22). Religion Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, practiced by about 75% of the population. Various Protestant denominations are also present on the island. Regions Aruba is cartographically split into eight for censuses; these regions have no administrative function; some allude to parishes which include a few charitable community facilities: Government Along with the Netherlands, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten, Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with internal autonomy. Matters such as foreign affairs and defense are handled by the Netherlands. Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member Staten (Parliament) and an eight-member Cabinet; the Staten's 21 members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve a four-year term. The governor of Aruba is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch, and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are indirectly elected by the Staten for four-year terms. Aruba was formerly a part of the (now-defunct) Netherlands Antilles; however, it separated from that entity in 1986, gaining its own constitution. Aruba is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the European Union, though Aruba can and does receive support from the European Development Fund. Politics The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model. In Aruba, legal jurisdiction lies with the Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg (Court of First Instance) on Aruba, the Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, en van Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba (Joint Court of Justice of Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba) and the Hoge Raad der Nederlanden (Supreme Court of Justice of the Netherlands). The Korps Politie Aruba (Aruba Police Force) is the island's law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered. Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. By 2006, the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins. In 2006, the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. Direct taxes have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the IMF. Foreign relations Aruba is one of the overseas countries and territories (OCT) of the European Union and maintains economic and cultural
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478
relations with the European Union and the United States of America. Aruba is also a member of several international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund and Interpol. Military Defence on Aruba is the responsibility of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Dutch Armed Forces that protect the island include the Navy, Marine Corps, and the Coastguard including a platoon sized national guard. All forces are stationed at Marines base in Savaneta. Furthermore, in 1999, the U.S. Department of Defense established a Forward Operating Location (FOL) at the airport. Education Aruba's educational system is patterned after the Dutch system of education. The government of Aruba finances the public national education system. Schools are a mixture of public and private, including the International School of Aruba, the Schakel College and mostly the Colegio Arubano. There are three medical schools, American University School of Medicine Aruba (AUSOMA), Aureus University School of Medicine and Xavier University School of Medicine, as well as its own national university, the University of Aruba. Economy The island's economy is dominated by four main industries: tourism, aloe export, petroleum refining, and offshore banking. Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region. The GDP per capita (PPP) for Aruba was estimated to be $37,500 in 2017. Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the Netherlands. The agriculture and manufacturing sectors are fairly minimal. Gold mining was important in the 19th century. Aloe was introduced to Aruba in 1840 but did not become a big export until 1890. Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm, and over time the industry became very important to the economy. At one point, two-thirds of the island was covered in Aloe Vera fields, and Aruba became the largest exporter of aloe in the world. The industry continues today, though on a smaller scale. Access to biocapacity in Aruba is much lower than world average. In 2016, Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that Aruba contains. This is the extent of Aruba's biocapacity deficit. The official exchange rate of the Aruban florin is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to US$1. This fact, and the majority of tourists being US, means businesses of hotel and resort districts prefer to bank and trade with the consumer in US dollars. Aruba is a prosperous country. Unemployment is low (although the government has not published statistics since 2013) and per capita income is one of the highest in the Caribbean (approximately $24,087). At the end of 2018, the labor force participation rate was 56.6% for women. Until the mid-1980s, Aruba's main industry was oil refining. Then the refinery was shut down and the island's economy shifted towards tourism. Currently, Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests per year, of which three-quarters are Americans. Tourism is mainly focused on the beaches and the sea. The refinery has been closed and restarted repeatedly during the last decades. In recent years a letter of intent was signed with CITGO (the US subsidiary of the Venezuelan state oil company PDVSA) to explore the possibility of reopening the refinery again. Until 2009, the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba. This aid was mainly for law enforcement, education, administrative development, health care and sustainable economic development. This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request in 2009. Since 2015, however, a form of financial supervision has been reintroduced because Aruba's debt has risen sharply to over 80% of GDP. Aruba also has two free trade zones (Barcadera and Bushiri), where import and export and the movement of services are tax-free. Tourism Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry, receiving 1,082,000 tourists who stayed overnight in its territory in 2018. About of the Aruban gross national product is earned through tourism and related activities. Most tourists are from North America, with a market-share of 73.3%, followed by Latin America with 15.2% and Europe with 8.3%. In 2018, there were 40,231 visitors from the Netherlands. For private aircraft passengers bound for the United States, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) has a full pre-clearance facility since 1 February 2001 when Queen Beatrix Airport expanded. Since 2008, Ar
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"Ġport", ",", "ĠPa", "arden", "ba", "ai", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcruise", "Ġship", "Ġterminal", "Ġin", "ĠOr", "an", "j", "est", "ad", "/", "T", "arat", "ata", ",", "ĠCommand", "e", "urs", "ĠBa", "ai", "Ġ(", "Comm", "ander", "'s", "ĠBay", ")", "Ġin", "ĠSav", "an", "eta", ",", "Ġand", "ĠS", "int", "ĠNicola", "as", "ĠBa", "ai", "Ġin", "ĠSan", "ĠNicola", "as", ".", "ĠPa", "arden", "ba", "ai", "Ġservices", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġcruise", "-", "ship", "Ġlines", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠRoyal", "ĠCaribbean", ",", "ĠCarnival", ",", "ĠN", "CL", ",", "ĠHolland", "ĠAmerica", ",", "ĠM", "SC", "ĠCru", "ises", ",", "ĠCosta", "ĠCru", "ises", ",", "ĠP", "&", "O", "ĠCru", "ises", "Ġand", "ĠDisney", ".", "ĠNearly", "Ġone", "Ġmillion", "Ġtourists", "Ġenter", "Ġthis", "Ġport", "Ġper", "Ġyear", ".", "ĠAr", "uba", "ĠPorts", "ĠAuthority", ",", "Ġowned", "Ġand", "Ġoperated", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAr", "ub", "an", "Ġgovernment", ",", "Ġruns", "Ġthese", "Ġse", "ap", "orts", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAr", "ub", "us", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġgovernment", "-", "owned", "Ġbus", "Ġcompany", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġbuses", "Ġoperate", "Ġfrom", "Ġ3", ":", "30", "Âł", "a", ".", "m", ".", "Ġuntil", "Ġ12", ":", "30", "Âł", "a", ".", "m", ".,", "Ġ365", "Ġdays", "Ġa", "Ġyear", ".", "ĠPrivate", "Ġmin", "ib", "uses", "/", "people", "Ġmo", "vers", "Ġservice", "Ġzones", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠHotel", "ĠArea", ",", "ĠSan", "ĠNicola", "as", ",", "ĠSanta", "ĠCruz", "Ġand", "ĠNo", "ord", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġstreetcar", "Ġservice", "Ġruns", "Ġon", "Ġrails", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMain", "street", "Ġof", "ĠOr", "an", "j", "est", "ad", ".", "Ġ", "ĠUtilities", "ĠWater", "-", "Ġen", "ĠE", "ner", "gie", "bed", "ri", "j" ]
479
uba has been the only island to have this service for private flights. There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels, concentrated mainly on the west coast beaches. In Palm Beach are the luxury hotels aimed at American tourists. This area is also called "Highrise-area", because most of the hotels are located in (by Aruban standards) high-rise buildings. Eagle Beach, a short distance from Palm Beach in the direction of Oranjestad, offers hotels on a somewhat smaller and more intimate scale in low-rise buildings, hence the name "lowrise-area". Oranjestad is the port for the many cruise ships that visit Aruba. The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism in Aruba, since during a cruise a large part of the passengers go ashore to visit the island. With 334 cruise calls, Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in 2018. The 2017/2018 cruise season brought $102.8 million to Aruba's economy. Oranjestad is also home to several luxury hotels, upscale shopping malls, tourist-oriented shopping streets, and hospitality facilities. The main street, called Caya G.F. (Betico) Croes, has been redesigned in recent years, including new paving, new palm trees and a streetcar line for tourists. Culture Aruba has a varied culture. According to the Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister (BBSB), in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of "Sinterklaas" on 5 and 6 December and other national holidays like 27 April, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the King's birthday or "Dia di Rey" (Koningsdag) is celebrated. On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Day. Christmas and New Year's Eve are celebrated with the typical music and songs for gaitas for Christmas and the Dande for New Year, and ayaca, ponche crema, ham, and other typical foods and drinks. On 25 January, Betico Croes' birthday is celebrated. Dia di San Juan is celebrated on 24 June. Besides Christmas, the religious holy days of the Feast of the Ascension and Good Friday are also holidays on the island. The festival of Carnaval is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries. Its celebration in Aruba started in the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from Venezuela and the nearby islands (Curaçao, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados, St. Maarten, and Anguilla) who came to work for the oil refinery. Over the years, the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January until the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities (the Sunday before Ash Wednesday). Tourism from the United States has recently increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as Halloween in October and Thanksgiving Day in November. Architecture From the beginning of the colonization of the Netherlands until the beginning of the 20th century, the architecture in the most inhabited areas of Aruba was influenced by the Dutch colonial style and also some Spanish elements from the Catholic missionaries present in Aruba who later settled in Venezuela as well. After the boom of the oil industry and the tourist sector in the 20th century the architectural style of the island incorporated a more American and international influence. In addition, elements of the Art Deco style can still be seen in several buildings in San Nicolas. Therefore, it can be said that the island's architecture is a mixture of Spanish, Dutch, American and Caribbean influences. Infrastructure Aruba's Queen Beatrix International Airport is near Oranjestad. Aruba has four ports: Barcadera, the main cargo port, Paardenbaai, the cruise ship terminal in Oranjestad/Taratata, Commandeurs Baai (Commander's Bay) in Savaneta, and Sint Nicolaas Baai in San Nicolaas. Paardenbaai services all the cruise-ship lines such as Royal Caribbean, Carnival, NCL, Holland America, MSC Cruises, Costa Cruises, P&O Cruises and Disney. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports. Arubus is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until 12:30 a.m., 365 days a year. Private minibuses/people movers service zones such as the Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord. A streetcar service runs on rails on the Mainstreet of Oranjestad. Utilities Water- en Energiebedrij
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"speaking", "Ġcountries", "Ġand", "Ġterritories", "ĠFormer", "ĠDutch", "Ġcolonies", "ĠFormer", "ĠSpanish", "Ġcolonies", "ĠFormer", "ĠBritish", "Ġcolonies", "Ġand", "Ġprotector", "ates", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAmericas", "ĠIslands", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNetherlands", "ĠAnt", "illes", "ĠPop", "ulated", "Ġplaces", "Ġestablished", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ10", "th", "Ġcentury", "ĠSmall", "ĠIsland", "ĠDevelop", "ing", "ĠStates", "ĠSpecial", "Ġterritories", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠEuropean", "ĠUnion", "ĠStates", "Ġand", "Ġterritories", "Ġestablished", "Ġin", "Ġ1986", "ĠDepend", "ent", "Ġterritories", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCaribbean", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "The", "ĠArticles", "Ġof", "ĠConfederation", "Ġand", "ĠPer", "pet", "ual", "ĠUnion", "Ġwas", "Ġan", "Ġagreement", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġ13", "Ġoriginal", "Ġstates", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġof", "ĠAmerica", "Ġthat", "Ġserved", "Ġas", "Ġits", "Ġfirst", "Ġframe", "Ġof", "Ġgovernment", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġapproved", "Ġafter", "Ġmuch", "Ġdebate", "Ġ(", "between", "ĠJuly", "Ġ17", "76", "Ġand", "ĠNovember", "Ġ17", "77", ")", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠSecond", "ĠContinental", "ĠCongress", "Ġon", "ĠNovember", "Ġ15", ",", "Ġ17", "77", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsent", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstates", "Ġfor", "Ġratification", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠArticles", "Ġof", "ĠConfederation", "Ġcame", "Ġinto", "Ġforce", "Ġon", "ĠMarch", "Ġ1", ",", "Ġ17", "81", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġratification", "Ġby", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġstates", ".", "ĠA", "Ġguiding", "Ġprinciple", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠArticles", "Ġwas", "Ġto", "Ġpreserve" ]
480
f Aruba, N.V. (W.E.B.) produces potable water and power; its eponymous plant was one of the world's largest desalination plants as of 2007. Average daily consumption in Aruba is about . N.V. Elmar is the sole distributor of electricity on the island of Aruba. In 2012, Aruba set a goal of 100% clean electricity by 2020, but no progress has been made toward this goal since, with most generation remaining heavy fuel oil and less than one fifth from wind power. Communications There are two telecommunications providers: government-based Setar, and privately owned Digicel. Digicel is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform. Places of interest Beaches Notable people Dave Benton, Aruban-Estonian musician Alfonso Boekhoudt, 4th Governor of Aruba Xander Bogaerts, shortstop in MLB Betico Croes, political activist Henny Eman, first Prime Minister of Aruba Mike Eman, 3rd Prime Minister of Aruba Bobby Farrell, musician Frans Figaroa, Lieutenant Governor of Aruba 1979-1982 Henry Habibe, poet Andrew Holleran, novelist Maria Irausquin-Wajcberg, first elected female politician in Aruba Olindo Koolman, 2nd Governor of Aruba Macuarima, first Aruban Amerindian Chief killed by colonist Hedwiges Maduro, footballer (or soccer player) in UEFA, La Liga and FIFA World Cup Jossy Mansur, editor of the Papiamento language newspaper, Diario Diederick Charles Mathew, politician John Merryweather (1932–2019), first Minister Plenipotentiary of Aruba Nelson Oduber, 2nd Prime Minister of Aruba Olga Orman, writer and poet Calvin Maduro, pitcher in MLB Sidney Ponson, pitcher in MLB Fredis Refunjol, 3rd Governor of Aruba Julia Renfro, newspaper editor and photographer Jeannette Richardson-Baars, Director of the Police Academy of Aruba Xiomara Ruiz-Maduro, Minister for Finance, Economic Affairs & Culture Chadwick Tromp, catcher in MLB Felipe Tromp, first Governor of Aruba Laura Wernet-Paskel, first female political candidate in Aruba Evelyn Wever-Croes, 4th Prime Minister of Aruba, first female Prime Minister See also Central Bank of Aruba Index of Aruba-related articles List of monuments of Aruba Military of Aruba Outline of Aruba Further reading Aymer, Paula L. - Uprooted Women: Migrant Domestics in the Caribbean. Brown, Enid - Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles: An Annotated English-Language Bibliography. Gerber, Stanford N. - The Family in the Caribbean: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on the Family in the Caribbean, Aruba, 1969. Green, Vera M. - Migrants in Aruba: Interethnic Integration. Hartert, Ernst - On the Birds of the Islands of Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire. Schoenhals, Kai, compiled - Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. References External links Official website of the government of Aruba Aruba.com – Official tourism website of Aruba Island countries 10th-century establishments in Aruba 1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire 1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire 1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire 1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire 1799 establishments in the British Empire 1802 disestablishments in the British Empire 1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire 1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire 1804 establishments in the British Empire 1816 disestablishments in the British Empire 1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire 1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles 1986 establishments in Aruba Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands Dutch-speaking countries and territories Former Dutch colonies Former Spanish colonies Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas Islands of the Netherlands Antilles Populated places established in the 10th century Small Island Developing States Special territories of the European Union States and territories established in 1986 Dependent territories in the Caribbean <|endoftext|>The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first frame of government. It was approved after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777) by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after ratification by all the states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve
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481
the independence and sovereignty of the states. The weak central government established by the Articles received only those powers which the former colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament. The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' "league of friendship" would be organized. During the ratification process, the Congress looked to the Articles for guidance as it conducted business, directing the war effort, conducting diplomacy with foreign states, addressing territorial issues and dealing with Native American relations. Little changed politically once the Articles of Confederation went into effect, as ratification did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but most Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same. As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays' Rebellion, some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly agreed that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers. The Articles of Confederation is considered one of the United States' four major founding documents, along with the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution. Background and context The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen; others would weaken, especially in the degree of loyalty (or lack thereof) owed the Crown. Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures, such as the passage of what the colonials referred to as the Intolerable Acts in the British Parliament, and armed skirmishes which resulted in dissidents being proclaimed rebels. These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists (Tories) among the colonials and, together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders, caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating for independence from the mother country. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government. It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution; a "rulebook" for how the new nation should function. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments. To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain, in particular, could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations." Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time, he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a model treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs. Drafting On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare
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482
a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 with one representative from each colony to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee was made up of the following individuals: John Dickinson (Pennsylvania, chairman of the committee) Samuel Adams (Massachusetts) Josiah Bartlett (New Hampshire) Button Gwinnett (Georgia) Joseph Hewes (North Carolina) Stephen Hopkins (Rhode Island) Robert R. Livingston (New York) Thomas McKean (Delaware) Thomas Nelson (Virginia) Edward Rutledge (South Carolina) Roger Sherman (Connecticut) Thomas Stone (Maryland) Francis Hopkinson (New Jersey, added to the committee last) The committee met frequently, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. Afterward, there were long debates on such issues as state sovereignty, the exact powers to be given to Congress, whether to have a judiciary, western land claims, and voting procedures. To further complicate work on the constitution, Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia twice, for Baltimore, Maryland, in the winter of 1776, and later for Lancaster then York, Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1777, to evade advancing British troops. Even so, the committee continued with its work. The final draft of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was completed on November 15, 1777. Consensus was achieved by: including language guaranteeing that each state retained its sovereignty, leaving the matter of western land claims in the hands of the individual states, including language stating that votes in Congress would be en bloc by state, and establishing a unicameral legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers. Ratification The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land. The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates: Article summaries The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state" and that "the Union shall be perpetual". Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles: Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'" Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated." Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever." Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures
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483
. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years. Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia. Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below. Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each. Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled. Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final. Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces. The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress. Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit. Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assenting. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months. When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by "The committee of the states, or any nine of them", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states in Congress to execute. If Canada [referring to the British Province of Quebec] accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted. No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states. Affirms that the Confederation will honor all bills of credit incurred, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by Congress before the existence of the Articles. Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures. Congress under the Articles Army Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote: Phelps wrote: The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote: As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution." Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the New
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484
burgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily. The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788, the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms. Foreign policy The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence. Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth." Furthermore, the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 after the federal Constitution came into force. Taxation and commerce Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions." Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity." He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith." The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them. Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention. Accomplishments Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty. The Land Ordinance
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485
of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states. No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved. Presidents of Congress Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as President of the United States in Congress Assembled—chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress. There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779. U.S. under the Articles The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary, and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government. The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each
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"Ġoriginal", "Ġdebates", "Ġwere", "Ġno", "Ġlonger", "Ġdelegates", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsign", "ers", "Ġhad", "Ġonly", "Ġrecently", "Ġarrived", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠArticles", "Ġof", "ĠConfederation", "Ġand", "ĠPer", "pet", "ual", "ĠUnion", "Ġwere", "Ġsigned", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġgroup", "Ġof", "Ġmen", "Ġwho", "Ġwere", "Ġnever", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCongress", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtime", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSign", "ers", "ĠThe", "Ġsign", "ers", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġstates", "Ġthey", "Ġrepresented", "Ġwere", ":", "ĠConnecticut", "Ġ", "ĠRoger", "ĠSherman", "Ġ", "ĠSamuel", "ĠHuntington", "Ġ", "ĠOliver", "ĠWol", "cott", "Ġ", "ĠTitus", "ĠHos", "mer", "Ġ", "ĠAndrew", "ĠAdams", "Ġ", "ĠDelaware", "Ġ", "ĠThomas", "ĠMc", "Ke", "an", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠDickinson", "Ġ", "ĠNicholas", "ĠVan", "ĠDy", "ke", "Ġ", "ĠGeorgia", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠWalton", "Ġ", "ĠEdward", "ĠT", "elf", "air", "Ġ", "ĠEdward", "ĠLang", "worthy", "Ġ", "ĠMaryland", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠHanson", "Ġ", "ĠDaniel", "ĠCarroll", "Ġ", "ĠMassachusetts", "ĠBay", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠHancock", "Ġ", "ĠSamuel", "ĠAdams", "Ġ", "ĠEl", "bridge", "ĠGerry", "Ġ", "ĠFrancis", "ĠDana", "Ġ", "ĠJames", "ĠLove", "ll", "Ġ", "ĠSamuel", "ĠHol", "ten", "Ġ", "ĠNew", "ĠHampshire", "Ġ", "ĠJos", "iah", "ĠBart", "lett", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠWent", "worth", "ĠJr", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNew", "ĠJersey" ]
486
State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports. By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population. The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis. Signatures The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress. The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne, French Minister to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780, when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed" Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related. On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. Signers The signers and the states they represented were: Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington Oliver Wolcott Titus Hosmer Andrew Adams Delaware Thomas McKean John Dickinson Nicholas Van Dyke Georgia John Walton Edward Telfair Edward Langworthy Maryland John Hanson Daniel Carroll Massachusetts Bay John Hancock Samuel Adams Elbridge Gerry Francis Dana James Lovell Samuel Holten New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett John Wentworth Jr. New Jersey
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John Witherspoon Nathaniel Scudder New York James Duane Francis Lewis William Duer Gouverneur Morris North Carolina John Penn Cornelius Harnett John Williams Pennsylvania Robert Morris Daniel Roberdeau Jonathan Bayard Smith William Clingan Joseph Reed Rhode Island and Providence Plantations William Ellery Henry Marchant John Collins South Carolina Henry Laurens William Henry Drayton John Mathews Richard Hutson Thomas Heyward Jr. Virginia Richard Henry Lee John Banister Thomas Adams John Harvie Francis Lightfoot Lee Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution). Parchment pages Original parchment pages of the Articles of Confederation, National Archives and Records Administration. Revision and replacement In September 1786, delegates from five states met at what became known as the Annapolis Convention to discuss the need for reversing the protectionist interstate trade barriers that each state had erected. At its conclusion, delegates voted to invite all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation". Although the states' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, delegates held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new frame of government gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, described the change this way: In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts. Historian Ralph Ketcham commented on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution: Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines. Rakove identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace." The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power. When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government. Legitimacy of closing down Two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations
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were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges." According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: [T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity: The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection… has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is a historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding. Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule". In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it. Final months On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution". By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote for a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day "for commencing proceedings" under the new Constitution. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital. See also Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture Founding Fathers of the United States History of the United States (1776–1789) Libertarianism Perpetual Union Vetocracy References Further reading (Collection published 1995.) External links Text version of the Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union Articles of Confederation and related resources, Library of Congress Today in History: November 15, Library of Congress United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio Mobile friendly version of the Articles of Confederation 1777 in the United States 1781 in law 1781 in the United States Defunct constitutions Documents of the American Revolution Federalism in the United States History of York County, Pennsylvania Legal history of the United States Ordinances of the Continental Congress Pennsylvania in the American Revolution Political charters United States documents York, Pennsylvania 1777 in Pennsylvania <|endoftext|>Asia Minor is an alternative name for Anatolia, the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. Asia Minor may also refer to: Asia Minor (album), an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece "Asia Minor
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489
" (instrumental), a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo) See also Asia Major (disambiguation) <|endoftext|>The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the "Old World" of Africa, Europe and Asia from the "New World" of the Americas in the European perception of the World. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The Atlantic Ocean is divided in two parts, by the Equatorial Counter Current, with the North(ern) Atlantic Ocean and the South(ern) Atlantic Ocean at about 8°N. Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the Challenger expedition, the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office. Etymology The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211): (Greek: ; English: 'the Atlantic sea'; etym. 'Sea of Atlas') and in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): (Greek: ; English: 'Sea of Atlas' or 'the Atlantic sea') where the name refers to "the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles" which is said to be part of the sea that surrounds all land. In these uses, the name refers to Atlas, the Titan in Greek mythology, who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases. On the other hand, to early Greek sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, this all-encompassing ocean was instead known as Oceanus, the gigantic river that encircled the world; in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to the Greeks: the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In contrast, the term "Atlantic" originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of millions of years ago. The term "Aethiopian Ocean", derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. During the Age of Discovery, the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the Great Western Ocean. The pond is a term often used by British and American speakers in reference to the Northern Atlantic Ocean, as a form of meiosis, or ironic understatement. It is used mostly when referring to events or circumstances "on this side of the pond" or "on the other side of the pond", rather than to discuss the ocean itself. The term dates to 1640, first appearing in print in pamphlet released during the reign of Charles I, and reproduced in 1869 in Nehemiah Wallington's Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I, where "great Pond" is used in reference to the Atlantic Ocean by Francis Windebank, Charles I's Secretary of State. Extent and data The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953, but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the CIA World Factbook. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas vary. The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea—one of its marginal seas—and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean
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490
Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures compared to for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of or 23.5% of the global ocean and has a volume of or 23.3% of the total volume of the earth's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers and has a volume of . The North Atlantic covers (11.5%) and the South Atlantic (11.1%). The average depth is and the maximum depth, the Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench, is . Biggest seas in Atlantic Ocean Top large seas: Sargasso Sea - 3.5 million km2 Caribbean Sea - 2.754 million km2 Mediterranean Sea - 2.510 million km2 Gulf of Guinea - 2.35 million km2 Gulf of Mexico - 1.550 million km2 Norwegian Sea - 1.383 million km2 Hudson Bay - 1.23 million km2 Greenland Sea - 1.205 million km2 Argentine Sea - 1 million km2 Labrador Sea - 841,000 km2 Irminger Sea - 780,000 km2 Baffin Bay - 689,000 km2 North Sea - 575,000 km2 Black Sea - 436,000 km2 Baltic Sea - 377,000 km2 Libyan Sea - 350,000 km2 Levantine Sea - 320,000 km2 Celtic Sea - 300,000 km2 Tyrrhenian Sea - 275,000 km2 Gulf of Saint Lawrence - 226,000 km2 Bay of Biscay - 223,000 km2 Aegean Sea - 214,000 km2 Ionian Sea - 169,000 km2 Balearic Sea - 150,000 km2 Adriatic Sea - 138,000 km2 Gulf of Bothnia - 116,300 km2 Sea of Crete - 95,000 km2 Gulf of Maine - 93,000 km2 Ligurian Sea - 80,000 km2 English Channel - 75,000 km2 James Bay - 68,300 km2 Bothnian Sea - 66,000 km2 Gulf of Sidra - 57,000 km2 Sea of the Hebrides - 47,000 km2 Irish Sea - 46,000 km2 Sea of Azov - 39,000 km2 Bothnian Bay - 36,800 km2 Gulf of Venezuela - 17,840 km2 Bay of Campeche - 16,000 km2 Gulf of Lion - 15,000 km2 Sea of Marmara - 11,350 km2 Wadden Sea - 10,000 km2 Archipelago Sea - 8,300 km2 Bathymetry The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). It runs from 87°N or south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 54°S. Mid-Atlantic Ridge The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above along most of its length, but is interrupted by larger transform faults at two places: the Romanche Trench near the Equator and the Gibbs Fracture Zone at 53°N. The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other. The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and its rift valley is the divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates in the North Atlantic and the South American and African plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault, the boundary between the Nubian and Eurasian plates, intersects the MAR at the Azores Triple Junction, on either side of the Azores microplate, near the 40°N. A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the North American and South American plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone
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",", "Ġthe", "Ġlowest", "Ġvalues", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġhigh", "Ġlat", "itudes", "Ġand", "Ġalong", "Ġcoasts", "Ġwhere", "Ġlarge", "Ġrivers", "Ġenter", ".", "ĠMaximum", "Ġsal", "inity", "Ġvalues", "Ġoccur", "Ġat", "Ġabout", "Ġ25", "°", "Ġnorth", "Ġand", "Ġsouth", ",", "Ġin", "Ġsubt", "rop", "ical", "Ġregions", "Ġwith", "Ġlow", "Ġrainfall", "Ġand", "Ġhigh", "Ġev", "ap", "oration", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġhigh", "Ġsurface", "Ġsal", "inity", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġon", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġtherm", "oh", "aline", "Ġcirculation", "Ġis", "Ġdependent", ",", "Ġis", "Ġmaintained", "Ġby", "Ġtwo", "Ġprocesses", ":", "Ġthe", "ĠAg", "ul", "has", "ĠLe", "ak", "age", "/", "R", "ings", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġbrings", "Ġsalty", "ĠIndian", "ĠOcean", "Ġwaters", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠSouth", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "At", "mosp", "heric", "ĠBridge", "\",", "Ġwhich", "Ġevapor", "ates", "Ġsubt", "rop", "ical", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġwaters", "Ġand", "Ġexports", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠPacific", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWater", "Ġmasses", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠOcean", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġfour", "Ġmajor", ",", "Ġupper", "Ġwater", "Ġmasses", "Ġwith", "Ġdistinct", "Ġtemperature", "Ġand", "Ġsal", "inity", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠSub", "ar", "ctic", "ĠUpper", "ĠWater", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "most", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġsource", "Ġfor", "ĠSub", "ar", "ctic", "ĠIntermediate", "ĠWater", "Ġand", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠIntermediate", "ĠWater", ".", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠCentral", "ĠWater", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠEastern", "Ġand", "ĠWestern", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġcentral", "ĠWater", "Ġsince", "Ġthe", "Ġwestern", "Ġpart", "Ġis", "Ġstrongly", "Ġaffected", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠGulf", "ĠStream", "Ġand", "Ġtherefore", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "Ġlayer", "Ġis", "Ġcloser", "Ġto", "Ġunderlying", "Ġfres", "her", "Ġsubp", "olar", "Ġintermediate", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġeastern", "Ġwater", "Ġis", "Ġsalt", "ier", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġproximity", "Ġto", "ĠMediterranean", "ĠWater", ".", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠCentral" ]
491
, approximately at 16°N. In the 1870s, the Challenger expedition discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or: The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the German Meteor expedition using echo-sounding equipment. The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. While nine of these have collectively been nominated a World Heritage Site for their geological value, four of them are considered of "Outstanding Universal Value" based on their cultural and natural criteria: Þingvellir, Iceland; Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture, Portugal; Gough and Inaccessible Islands, United Kingdom; and Brazilian Atlantic Islands: Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas Reserves, Brazil. Ocean floor Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southernmost South America, and north-eastern Europe. In the western Atlantic carbonate platforms dominate large areas, for example, the Blake Plateau and Bermuda Rise. The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins except at a few locations where active margins form deep trenches: the Puerto Rico Trench ( maximum depth) in the western Atlantic and South Sandwich Trench () in the South Atlantic. There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America, western Europe, and north-western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep-sea channels. In 1922, a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. The USS Stewart used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to draw a continuous map across the bed of the Atlantic. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straightforward with pulses being sent from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then return to the vessel. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. The mean depth between 60°N and 60°S is , or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between . In the South Atlantic the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise form barriers to ocean currents. The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada. Water characteristics Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below to over . Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by . From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea. The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur every 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40° North some east–west oscillation, known as the North Atlantic oscillation, occurs. Salinity On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3–3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general, the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation. The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic thermohaline circulation is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the Agulhas Leakage/Rings, which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the "Atmospheric Bridge", which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific. Water masses The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central
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"water", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠGy", "re", "Ġoccupies", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcounter", "-", "clock", "wise", "Ġwarm", "-", "water", "ĠSouth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠGy", "re", "Ġappears", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsouthern", "ĠAtlantic", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġsurface", "Ġcirculation", "Ġis", "Ġdominated", "Ġby", "Ġthree", "Ġinter", "-", "connected", "Ġcurrents", ":", "Ġthe", "ĠGulf", "ĠStream", "Ġwhich", "Ġflows", "Ġnorth", "-", "east", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerican", "Ġcoast", "Ġat", "ĠCape", "ĠH", "atter", "as", ";", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠCurrent", ",", "Ġa", "Ġbranch", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGulf", "ĠStream", "Ġwhich", "Ġflows", "Ġnorth", "ward", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠGrand", "ĠBanks", ";", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠSub", "p", "olar", "ĠFront", ",", "Ġan", "Ġextension", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠCurrent", ",", "Ġa", "Ġwide", ",", "Ġvaguely", "Ġdefined", "Ġregion", "Ġseparating", "Ġthe", "Ġsubt", "rop", "ical", "Ġgy", "re", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġsubp", "olar", "Ġgy", "re", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġsystem", "Ġof", "Ġcurrents", "Ġtransport", "Ġwarm", "Ġwater", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġwithout", "Ġwhich", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġand", "ĠEurope", "Ġwould", "Ġplunge", "Ġdramatically", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNorth", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠGy", "re", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcycl", "onic", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠSub", "p", "olar", "ĠGy", "re", "Ġplays", "Ġa", "Ġkey", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġclimate", "Ġvariability", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġgoverned", "Ġby", "Ġocean", "Ġcurrents", "Ġfrom", "Ġmarginal", "Ġseas", "Ġand", "Ġregional", "Ġtop", "ography", ",", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġbeing", "Ġsteered", "Ġby", "Ġwind", ",", "Ġboth", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdeep", "Ġocean", "Ġand", "Ġat", "Ġsea", "Ġlevel", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsubp", "olar", "Ġgy", "re", "Ġforms", "Ġan", "Ġimportant", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġglobal", "Ġtherm", "oh", "aline", "Ġcirculation", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġeastern", 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"Ġtwo", "Ġspecies", "Ġof", "ĠS", "arg", "ass", "um", "Ġ(", "S", ".", "Ġfl", "uit", "ans", "Ġand", "Ġnat", "ans", ")", "Ġfloat", ",", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġ", "Ġwide", "Ġand", "Ġenc", "ir", "cled", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠGulf", "ĠStream", ",", "ĠNorth", "ĠAtlantic", "ĠDrift", ",", "Ġand", "ĠNorth", "ĠEqu", "atorial", "ĠCurrent", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġpopulation", "Ġof", "Ġseaw", "eed", "Ġprobably", "Ġoriginated", "Ġfrom", "ĠT", "ert", "iary", "Ġancestors", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠEuropean", "Ġshores", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", "ĠT", "eth", "ys", "ĠOcean", "Ġand", "Ġhas", ",", "Ġif", "Ġso", ",", "Ġmaintained", "Ġitself", "Ġby", "Ġveget", "ative", "Ġgrowth", ",", "Ġfloating", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġocean", "Ġfor", "Ġmillions", "Ġof", "Ġyears", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġspecies", "Ġendemic", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠS", "arg", "asso", "ĠSea", "Ġinclude", "Ġthe", "Ġs", "arg", "ass", "um", "Ġfish", ",", "Ġa", "Ġpredator", "Ġwith", "Ġalgae", "-", "like", "Ġappend", "ages", "Ġwhich", "Ġho", "vers", "Ġmotion" ]
492
Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at 15°N. There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water. The North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a complex of four water masses, two that form by deep convection in the open ocean — Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water — and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses, especially Antarctic Bottom Water and Mediterranean Overflow Water. The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon tests in the 1960s and CFCs. Gyres The clockwise warm-water North Atlantic Gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water South Atlantic Gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the Gulf Stream which flows north-east from the North American coast at Cape Hatteras; the North Atlantic Current, a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the Grand Banks; and the Subpolar Front, an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically. North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level. The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation. Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40–50 Sv) current which flows around the continental margins of the Labrador Sea. A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The NADW, in its turn, feeds the meridional overturning circulation (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the North Atlantic oscillation, are especially pronounced in Labrador Sea Water, the upper layers of the MOC. The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The South Atlantic Central Water originates in this gyre, while Antarctic Intermediate Water originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the Drake Passage and the Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic Angola Gyre lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced Ekman layer. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years. North Atlantic Deep Water flows southward below the thermocline of the subtropical gyre. Sargasso Sea The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of Sargassum (S. fluitans and natans) float, an area wide and encircled by the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift, and North Equatorial Current. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former Tethys Ocean and has, if so, maintained itself by vegetative growth, floating in the ocean for millions of years. Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the sargassum fish, a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motion
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less among the Sargassum. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the Carpathian region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage", finally showed that this assemblage originated in the Carpathian Basin from where it migrated over Sicily to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea. The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than and the latter . Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use Earth's magnetic field to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults. Climate Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. Natural hazards Every winter, the Icelandic Low produces frequent storms. Icebergs are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The ice season is longer in the polar regions, but there is little shipping in those areas. Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. Geology and plate tectonics The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense mafic oceanic crust made up of basalt and gabbro and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain. The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness felsic continental rock that is often much older than that of the seafloor. The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to 145 million years and situated off the west coast of Africa and east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic. In many places, the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance, on the North American side of the ocean, large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas, while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the Georges Bank. Coarse sand, boulders, and rocks were transported into some areas, such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the Gulf of Maine during the Pleistocene ice ages. Central Atlantic The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea
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494
, both of which were initiated by the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous large igneous provinces in Earth's history associated with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, one of Earth's major extinction events. Theoliitic dikes, sills, and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to of which covered what is now northern and central Brazil. The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the Great American Interchange, but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct. Geologically, the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the Iapetus Ocean, and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages: Iberia–Newfoundland, Porcupine–North America, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the Iceland hotspot. Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and formations of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between 105 and 84 million years ago although along the rift failed along with one leading into the Bay of Biscay. Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around 61 million years ago, continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred. Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of basalt erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland, with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift of continental crust along the coast. For instance, in spite of 7 km thick basalt, Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island, elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base, similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland. The North Atlantic Ocean contains about 810 seamounts, most of them situated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The OSPAR database (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) mentions 104 seamounts: 74 within the national Exclusive economic zone. Of these seamounts, 46 are located close to the Iberian Peninsula. South Atlantic West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates. Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche Fracture Zone (RFZ); Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ. In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133–130 Ma) intensive magmatism of the Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and in Africa. Dyke swarms in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as
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".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġlatest", "Ġgl", "acial", "Ġstages", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġnow", "-", "sub", "mer", "ged", "Ġplains", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAg", "ul", "has", "ĠBank", "Ġwere", "Ġexposed", "Ġabove", "Ġsea", "Ġlevel", ",", "Ġextending", "Ġthe", "ĠSouth", "ĠAfrican", "Ġcoastline", "Ġfarther", "Ġsouth", "Ġby", "Ġhundreds", "Ġof", "Ġkilometers", ".", "ĠA", "Ġsmall", "Ġpopulation", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "Ġhumans", "Âł", "âĢĶ", "Ġprobably", "Ġfewer", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġthousand", "Ġreprodu", "cing", "Ġindividuals", "Âł", "âĢĶ", "Ġsurvived", "Ġgl", "acial", "Ġmax", "ima", "Ġby", "Ġexploring", "Ġthe", "Ġhigh", "Ġdiversity", "Ġoffered", "Ġby", "Ġthese", "ĠPal", "ae", "o", "-", "Ag", "ul", "has", "Ġplains", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠGC", "FR", "Ġis", "Ġdelim", "ited", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorth", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠCape", "ĠFold", "ĠBelt", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġlimited", "Ġspace", "Ġsouth", "Ġof", "Ġit", "Ġresulted", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġsocial", "Ġnetworks", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġcomplex", "ĠStone", 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495
far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49 Ma with two peaks between 143 and 121 Ma and 90–60 Ma. In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190 Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7 Ma). Around 150 Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130 Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise. In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the Benue Trough around 118 Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the Cretaceous Normal Superchron (also known as the Cretaceous quiet period), a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment. The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period 120–96 Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa. About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34–30 Ma a deeper seaway developed, followed by an Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration and the growth of the Antarctic ice sheet. Closure of the Atlantic An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the Scotia Arc and Caribbean Plate in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic Wilson cycle. History Human origin Humans evolved in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 mya; then developing stone tools around 2.6 mya; to finally evolve as modern humans around 200 kya. The earliest evidence for the complex behavior associated with this behavioral modernity has been found in the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR) along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages, the now-submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans — probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals — survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic Benguela Upwelling and Indian Ocean Agulhas Current meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources. The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years-old engravings from Blombos Cave, South Africa. Old World Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid MIS 5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse out of Africa into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption, the inundation of Doggerland (now the North Sea), and the formation of the Baltic Sea. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago. This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 kya-old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Yster
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"Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠPlague", "Ġand", "ĠBarb", "ary", "Ġpirates", "Ġharvested", "Ġits", "Ġvictims", "Ġon", "ĠIceland", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ15", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠIceland", "Ġwas", "Ġinitially", "Ġsettled", "Ġ8", "65", "âĢĵ", "930", "Âł", "CE", "Ġfollowing", "Ġa", "Ġwarm", "Ġperiod", "Ġwhen", "Ġwinter", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġh", "overed", "Ġaround", "Ġ", "Ġwhich", "Ġmade", "Ġfarming", "Ġfavorable", "Ġat", "Ġhigh", "Ġlat", "itudes", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġlast", ",", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġquickly", "Ġdropped", ";", "Ġat", "Ġ1080", "Âł", "CE", "Ġsummer", "Ġtemperatures", "Ġhad", "Ġreached", "Ġa", "Ġmaximum", "Ġof", "Ġ.", "ĠThe", "ĠLand", "n", "á", "m", "ab", "ó", "k", "Ġ(", "Book", "Ġof", "ĠSettlement", ")", "Ġrecords", "Ġdisastrous", "Ġfam", "ines", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġcentury", "Ġof", "Ġsettlement", "Âł", "âĢĶ", "Ġ\"", "men", "Ġate", "Ġfox", "es", "Ġand", "Ġraven", "s", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġold", "Ġand", "Ġhelpless", "Ġwere", "Ġkilled", 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496
fontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 kya-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa. The same development can be seen in Europe. In La Riera Cave (23–13 kya) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya. In contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The Ertebølle middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies — such as boats, harpoons, and fish-hooks — because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland. New World During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America while Beringia connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973, late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey." Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over the Bering Land Bridge. These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the settlement of the Americas, a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg" nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast. Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the Solutrean hypothesis and some of the Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories. The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on Greenland was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early Little Ice Age. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local Inuit resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the Great Plague and Barbary pirates harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century. Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of . The Landnámabók (Book of Settlement) records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement — "men ate foxes and ravens" and "the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs" — and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as barley. Atlantic World Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492 under Spanish flag. Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre. Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly conquered
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497
and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable. In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, smallpox and others diseases, and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population of the Americas to the extent that the Atlantic slave trade had to be introduced to replace them — a trade that became the norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when Brazil became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire and the United States in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the United States in 1865 after the Civil War. From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution Trans-Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in absolutist monarchies, such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies. Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic, urbanization grew from 8% in 1300, 10.1% in 1500, to 24.5% in 1850; in other European countries from 10% in 1300, 11.4% in 1500, to 17% in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade. The Atlantic Ocean became the scene of one of the longest continuous naval military camapaigns throughout World War II, from 1939 to 1945. Economy The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves. The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and precious stones. Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however, the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea. Fisheries The shelves of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest fishing resources. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Scotian Shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Fundy, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, "continuously increasing trend since 1950", is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered
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to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished. In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including Greenland halibut, yellowtail flounder, Atlantic halibut, haddock, spiny dogfish, while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, witch flounder, and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic. In 1497, John Cabot became the first Western European since the Vikings to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of Atlantic cod off Newfoundland. Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency" this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit haddock, mackerel, and lobster. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and the number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as redfish, Greenland halibut, witch flounder, and grenadiers. Overfishing in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on international waters, it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s, this finally resulted in the collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including American plaice, redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier. In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010. In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden, reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels. In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep-water hake and shallow-water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in 2013. In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid, which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella, with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead's round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished. The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished. Environmental issues Endangered species Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes. Waste and pollution Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest
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culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Marine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The North Atlantic garbage patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size. Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. A USAF C-124 aircraft from Dover Air Force Base, Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered. Climate change North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) or to anthropogenic climate change. A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities. The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to sea level rise. 21st-century global warming will probably result in an equilibrium sea-level rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice-sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea-level rise of 3–6 m over a millennium. See also List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean List of rivers of the Americas by coastline#Atlantic Ocean coast Seven Seas Gulf Stream shutdown Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean Atlantic hurricanes Atlantic history Piracy in the Atlantic World Transatlantic crossing Atlantic Revolutions Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc References Sources map Further reading External links Atlantic Ocean. Cartage.org.lb. "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida" from 1639 via the Library of Congress Oceans Articles containing video clips Oceans surrounding Antarctica‎ <|endoftext|>Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the product of a blind noumenal will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. He was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as asceticism, denial of the self, and the notion of the world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on aesthetics, morality, and psychology have influenced many thinkers and artists. Those who have cited his influence include philosophers Emil Cioran, Friedrich Nietzsche and Ludwig Wittgenstein, scientists Erwin Schrödinger and Albert Einstein, psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, writers Leo Tolstoy, Herman Melville, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Machado de Assis, Jorge Luis Borges, Marcel Proust and Samuel Beckett, and composers Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms,