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carlosejimenez
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wikipedia-20220301.en-block-size-1024

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"Ġmost", "Ġauthorities", "Ġexclude", "Ġall", "Ġpro", "k", "ary", "otes", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġdefinition", "Ġof", "Ġalgae", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "gae", "Ġconstitute", "Ġa", "Ġpoly", "phy", "let", "ic", "Ġgroup", "Ġsince", "Ġthey", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġinclude", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġancestor", ",", "Ġand", "Ġalthough", "Ġtheir", "Ġpl", "ast", "ids", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġorigin", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġcyan", "ob", "acteria", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġacquired", "Ġin", "Ġdifferent", "Ġways", ".", "ĠGreen", "Ġalgae", "Ġare", "Ġexamples", "Ġof", "Ġalgae", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġprimary", "Ġchlor", "opl", "asts", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġend", "os", "y", "mb", "iotic", "Ġcyan", "ob", "acteria", ".", "ĠD" ]
300
, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi Aberdeen Township, New Jersey Aberdeen, North Carolina Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, North Carolina) Aberdeen, Ohio Aberdeen, South Dakota Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, South Dakota) Aberdeen, Texas Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia) Aberdeen Gardens (Hampton, Virginia) Aberdeen, Washington Aberdeen Gardens, Washington Aberdeen, West Virginia Business Abrdn, formerly Standard Life Aberdeen Aberdeen Asset Management Education Aberdeen Business School Aberdeen College, formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College Aberdeen Grammar School, Aberdeen, Scotland Aberdeen Hall, a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada Aberdeen High School (disambiguation) King's College, Aberdeen University of Aberdeen, a public research university in the city of Aberdeen Entertainment Aberdeen (2000 film), a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey Aberdeen (2014 film), a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo Aberdeen (band), an American rock band Aberdeen (song), a song by Cage The Elephant Aberdeen City (band), Boston based indie/alternative rock band Other transportation Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation) Aberdeen Lock and Dam, one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway Rail Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina Aberdeen Corporation Tramways Aberdeen Line (disambiguation) Aberdeen station (disambiguation) Dundee and Perth and Aberdeen Junction Railway, a later name of the Dundee and Perth Railway Shipping Aberdeen Line, a British shipping company founded in 1825 , one of several ships by that name , a sloop of the British Royal Navy that served between 1936 and 1948 , a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS Altair Sports Aberdeen Dad Vail Regatta, the largest regular intercollegiate rowing event in the United States, named after its sponsor, Aberdeen Asset Management Aberdeen F.C. (disambiguation) Aberdeen GSFP RFC, an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen Aberdeen IronBirds, a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles Aberdeen L.F.C., a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C. See also Aberdeen Act Aberdeen Angus, a Scottish breed of small beef cattle Aberdeen Central (disambiguation) Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation) Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation) Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation) Aberdeen Quarry, a granite quarry in Colorado Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation) Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney, one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church Etymology of Aberdeen Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom <|endoftext|>Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts. No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae "have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells". Likewise, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae. Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. D
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301
iatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids of nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago. Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review, found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies. Etymology and study The singular is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English. The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin , 'be cold', no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is , 'binding, entwining'. The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was (), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, , meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical (), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue. Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name fucus appears in a number of taxa. Classifications The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are -phyta for division, -phyceae for class, -phycideae for subclass, -ales for order, -inales for suborder, -aceae for family, -oidease for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species. Algal characteristics basic to primary classification The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure. History of classification of algae Although Carolus Linnaeus (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae. Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, William Henry Harvey (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. J. G. Agardh (1849–1898) divided algae into
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six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, Adolf Engler and Karl A. E. Prantl (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows: Schizophyta Phytosarcodina Flagellata Dinoflagellata Bacillariophyta Conjugatae Chlorophyceae Charophyta Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae Eumycetes (Fungi) The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. Phylogeny based on plastid not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: Linnaeus, in Species Plantarum (1753), the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina, and a species of Acetabularia (as Madrepora), among the animals. In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves. W. H. Harvey (1811–1866) and Lamouroux (1813) were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae. At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals. Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group. Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes). With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in
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the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists). Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis, while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., Chlorochytrium), but later were seen as endophytic algae. Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae. Relationship to land plants The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago. Morphology A range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes. Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns. Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage Filamentous: a string of nonmotile cells connected together, sometimes branching Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes. Turfs The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed: Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported. Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species. Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm). Physiology Many algae, particularly members of the Characeae species, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation
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, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials. Phytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too. Symbiotic algae Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are: Lichens Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure". The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont. Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them. Coral reefs Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition. The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. Sea sponges Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species. Lifecycle Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae. Numbers The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding
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"Ġthese", "Ġalgae", "Ġmay", "Ġdisc", "olor", "Ġthe", "Ġwater", "Ġand", "Ġout", "comp", "ete", ",", "Ġpoison", ",", "Ġor", "Ġas", "phy", "x", "iate", "Ġother", "Ġlife", "Ġforms", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "gae", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġindicator", "Ġorganisms", "Ġto", "Ġmonitor", "Ġpollution", "Ġin", "Ġvarious", "Ġaquatic", "Ġsystems", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmany", "Ġcases", ",", "Ġal", "gal", "Ġmetabolism", "Ġis", "Ġsensitive", "Ġto", "Ġvarious", "Ġpollutants", ".", "ĠDue", "Ġto", "Ġthis", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġspecies", "Ġcomposition", "Ġof", "Ġal", "gal", "Ġpopulations", "Ġmay", "Ġshift", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġchemical", "Ġpollutants", ".", "ĠTo", "Ġdetect", "Ġthese", "Ġchanges", ",", "Ġalgae", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġsampled", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġenvironment", "Ġand", "Ġmaintained", "Ġin", "Ġlaboratories", "Ġwith", "Ġrelative", "Ġease", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "Ġbasis", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġhabitat", ",", "Ġalgae", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġcategorized", "Ġas", ":", "Ġaquatic", "Ġ(", "pl", "ank", 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305
the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..." Regional and group estimates have been made, as well: 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide "some 1,300 in Australian Seas" 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines. 669 marine species from California (US) 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide. Distribution The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands. The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers. However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them. Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces. To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and U. fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns." For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies." Ecology Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under deep; however, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of . A type of algae, Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, was found in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet. Same algae was found in the Italian Alps, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms. Algae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease. On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic), terrestrial, aerial (subaerial), lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont). Cultural associations In classical Chinese, the word is
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"-", "green", "Ġal", "ga", "\"),", "Ġcontains", "Ġ10", "%", "Ġmore", "Ġprotein", "Ġthan", "ĠCh", "lore", "lla", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġmore", "Ġth", "iam", "ine", "Ġand", "Ġcopper", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġoils", "Ġfrom", "Ġsome", "Ġalgae", "Ġhave", "Ġhigh", "Ġlevels", "Ġof", "Ġuns", "aturated", "Ġfatty", "Ġacids", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "ĠPar", "iet", "och", "lor", "is", "Ġinc", "isa", "Ġis", "Ġvery", "Ġhigh", "Ġin", "Ġar", "ach", "id", "onic", "Ġacid", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġit", "Ġreaches", "Ġup", "Ġto", "Ġ47", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtriglycer", "ide", "Ġpool", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġvarieties", "Ġof", "Ġalgae", "Ġfavored", "Ġby", "Ġvegetarian", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġvegan", "ism", "Ġcontain", "Ġthe", "Ġlong", "-", "chain", ",", "Ġessential", "Ġomega", "-", "3", "Ġfatty", "Ġacids", ",", "Ġdoc", "osa", "he", "xa", "eno", "ic", "Ġacid", "Ġ(", "D", "HA", ")", "Ġand", "Ġe", "ic", "os", "ap", "enta", "eno", "ic", "Ġacid", "Ġ(", "EPA", ").", "ĠFish", "Ġoil", "Ġcontains", "Ġthe", "Ġomega", "-", "3", 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used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for "literary talent". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". Cultivation Seaweed farming Bioreactors Uses Agar Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar. Alginates Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed. Energy source To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025. Fertilizer For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales: Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner. Nutrition Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as superfoods. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina, Chlorella and the vitamin-C supplement from Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as nori and aonori; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales, where it is known as ; in Korea, . It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Māori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland, and Iceland. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem. Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine: Chlorella: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains photosynthetic pigments in its chloroplast. It is high in iron, zinc, magnesium, vitamin B2 and Omega-3 Fatty acids. Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its own Spirulina: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a prokaryote, incorrectly referred to as a "blue-green alga"), contains 10% more protein than Chlorella as well as more thiamine and copper. The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long
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"Ġof", "Ġvariation", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġits", "Ġsimplest", "Ġform", ",", "ĠAN", "OVA", "Ġprovides", "Ġa", "Ġstatistical", "Ġtest", "Ġof", "Ġwhether", "Ġtwo", "Ġor", "Ġmore", "Ġpopulation", "Ġmeans", "Ġare", "Ġequal", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtherefore", "Ġgeneral", "izes", "Ġthe", "Ġt", "-", "test", "Ġbeyond", "Ġtwo", "Ġmeans", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "ĠWhile", "Ġthe", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġvariance", "Ġreached", "Ġfruition", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġante", "ced", "ents", "Ġextend", "Ġcenturies", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġpast", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "ĠSt", "ig", "ler", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThese", "Ġinclude", "Ġhypothesis", "Ġtesting", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġpartition", "ing", "Ġof", "Ġsums", "Ġof", "Ġsquares", ",", "Ġexperimental", "Ġtechniques", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġadditive", "Ġmodel", ".", "ĠLa", "place", "Ġwas", "Ġperforming", "Ġhypothesis", "Ġtesting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ17", "70", "s", ".", "ĠAround", "Ġ1800", ",", "Ġ", "ĠLa", "place", "Ġand", "ĠGa", "uss", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġthe", "Ġleast", "-", "squ", "ares", "Ġmethod", "Ġfor", "Ġcombining", "Ġobservations", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġimproved", "Ġupon", "Ġmethods", "Ġthen", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġastronomy", "Ġand", "Ġge", "odes", "y", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġalso", "Ġinitiated", "Ġmuch", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcontributions", "Ġto", "Ġsums", "Ġof", "Ġsquares", ".", "ĠLa", "place", "Ġknew", "Ġhow", "Ġto", "Ġestimate", "Ġa", "Ġvariance", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġresidual", "Ġ(", "rather", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġtotal", ")", "Ġsum", "Ġof", "Ġsquares", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġ18", "27", ",", "ĠLa", "place", "Ġwas", "Ġusing", "Ġleast", "Ġsquares", "Ġmethods", "Ġto", "Ġaddress", "ĠAN", "OVA", "Ġproblems", "Ġregarding", "Ġmeasurements", "Ġof", "Ġatmospheric", "Ġtides", ".", "ĠBefore", "Ġ1800", ",", "Ġastronomers", "Ġhad", "Ġisolated", "Ġobservational", "Ġerrors", "Ġresulting", "Ġ", "Ġfrom", "Ġreaction", "Ġtimes", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġ\"", "personal", "Ġequation", "\")" ]
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-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Pollution control Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber. Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds. Polymers Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene. Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops and in surf boards. Bioremediation The alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance. Pigments The natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents. The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly high-performance liquid chromatography, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples. Stabilizing substances Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products. Additional images See also AlgaeBase AlgaePARC Eutrophication Iron fertilization Marimo algae Microbiofuels Microphyte Photobioreactor Phycotechnology Plant Toxoid – anatoxin References Bibliography General . Regional Britain and Ireland Australia New Zealand Europe Arctic Greenland Faroe Islands . Canary Islands Morocco South Africa North America External links – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts EnAlgae Endosymbiotic events Polyphyletic groups <|endoftext|>Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models and their associated estimation procedures (such as the "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences among means. ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher. ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether two or more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test beyond two means. History While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler. These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. Laplace was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s. Around 1800, Laplace and Gauss developed the least-squares method for combining observations, which improved upon methods then used in astronomy and geodesy. It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares. By 1827, Laplace was using least squares methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides. Before 1800, astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting from reaction times (the "personal equation")
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and had developed methods of reducing the errors. The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added. An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was available in 1885. Ronald Fisher introduced the term variance and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance. His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921. Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by Jerzy Neyman in 1923. Example The analysis of variance can be used to describe otherwise complex relations among variables. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to explain the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). In the illustrations to the right, groups are identified as X1, X2, etc. In the first illustration, the dogs are divided according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (e.g., group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a relatively large variance, and since the means are very similar across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in doesn't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show. Thus, this grouping fails to explain the variation in the overall distribution (yellow-orange). An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as pet vs working breed and less athletic vs more athletic would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big, strong, working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot distinguish X1 and X2 reliably. Grouping dogs according to a coin flip might produce distributions that look similar. An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship. Classes of models There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here. Fixed-effects models The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the response variable values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. Random-effects models Random-effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model. Mixed-effects models A mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types. Example: Teaching experiments could be performed by a college or university department to find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a treatment.
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The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate texts. The random-effects model would determine whether important differences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The mixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to randomly selected alternatives. Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competing definitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire. Assumptions The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data. Textbook analysis using a normal distribution The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a linear model, which makes the following assumptions about the probability distribution of the responses: Independence of observations – this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis. Normality – the distributions of the residuals are normal. Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called homoscedasticity — the variance of data in groups should be the same. The separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the errors are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors () are independent and Randomization-based analysis In a randomized controlled experiment, the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of C. S. Peirce and Ronald Fisher. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by Francis J. Anscombe at Rothamsted Experimental Station and by Oscar Kempthorne at Iowa State University. Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of unit treatment additivity, which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and David R. Cox. Unit-treatment additivity In its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity states that the observed response from experimental unit when receiving treatment can be written as the sum of the unit's response and the treatment-effect , that is The assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment , the th treatment has exactly the same effect on every experiment unit. The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly falsified, according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many consequences of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by contraposition, a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant. The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population survey sampling. Derived linear model Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of unit treatment additivity to produce a derived linear model, very similar to the textbook model discussed previously. The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies. However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations. In the randomization-based analysis, there is no assumption of a normal distribution and certainly no assumption of independence. On the contrary, the observations are dependent! The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments. Statistical models for observational data However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or observational studies, model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization. For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use subjective models, as emphasized by Ronald Fisher and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, "statistical models" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public. Summary of assumptions The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality and homogeneity of variances of the residuals. The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. Both these analyses require homoscedasticity, as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-
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310
based analysis. However, studies of processes that change variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have been successfully conducted using ANOVA. There are no necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the F-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical limitations which are of continuing interest. Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance. Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses, which are believed to follow a multiplicative model. According to Cauchy's functional equation theorem, the logarithm is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition. Characteristics ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in which only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations to the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance. Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of data coding. Logic The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating a treatment effect is then trivial: "the effect of any treatment is estimated by taking the difference between the mean of the observations which receive the treatment and the general mean". Partitioning of the sum of squares ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional equation of sample variance is , where the divisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called the sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and the squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is based on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the result being multiplied by the number of observations in each treatment to account for the difference between the variance of observations and the variance of means. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares SS into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. The number of degrees of freedom DF can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a chi-squared distribution which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for "treatments" if there is no treatment effect. See also Lack-of-fit sum of squares. The F-test The F-test is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic where MS is mean square, is the number of treatments and is the total number of cases to the F-distribution with , degrees of freedom. Using the F-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled chi-squared distribution. The expected value of F is (where is the treatment sample size) which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls. There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result: The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ FCritical, the null hypothesis is rejected. The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability
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"Ġcannot", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġtechniques", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġwith", "Ġmultiple", "Ġfactor", "ĠAN", "OVA", "Ġto", "Ġreduce", "Ġexpense", ".", "ĠOne" ]
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is less than or equal to the significance level (α). The ANOVA F-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the F-test's p-values closely approximate the permutation test's p-values: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced. Such permutation tests characterize tests with maximum power against all alternative hypotheses, as observed by Rosenbaum. The ANOVA F-test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions. Extended logic ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to support other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more complex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the objective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the data. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but ANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients." "[W]e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring multilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool for summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences ..." For a single factor The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completely randomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experiments with a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include completely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants: Graeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share many of the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively complete discussion of the analysis (models, data summaries, ANOVA table) of the completely randomized experiment is available. There are some alternatives to conventional one-way analysis of variance, e.g.: Welch's heteroscedastic F test, Welch's heteroscedastic F test with trimmed means and Winsorized variances, Brown-Forsythe test, Alexander-Govern test, James second order test and Kruskal-Wallis test, available in onewaytests R It is useful to represent each data point in the following form, called a statistical model: where i = 1, 2, 3, …, R j = 1, 2, 3, …, C μ = overall average (mean) τj = differential effect (response) associated with the j level of X; this assumes that overall the values of τj add to zero (that is, ) εij = noise or error associated with the particular ij data value That is, we envision an additive model that says every data point can be represented by summing three quantities: the true mean, averaged over all factor levels being investigated, plus an incremental component associated with the particular column (factor level), plus a final component associated with everything else affecting that specific data value. For multiple factors ANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors. When the experiment includes observations at all combinations of levels of each factor, it is termed factorial. Factorial experiments are more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and the efficiency grows as the number of factors increases. Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used. The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for interactions (xy, xz, yz, xyz). All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare. The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple factor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but produces apparently inconsistent experimental results. Caution is advised when encountering interactions; Test interaction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if interactions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering an interaction. Interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. "A significant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects." Graphical methods are recommended to enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958). Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot. A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One
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technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of analytical trickery) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications. Associated analysis Some analysis is required in support of the design of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments. Preparatory analysis The number of experimental units In the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential. Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals. Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. "Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions." The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards. Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confidence interval. Power analysis Power analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true. Effect size Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable or the overall standardized difference of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes. Model confirmation Sometimes tests are conducted to determine whether the assumptions of ANOVA appear to be violated. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm homoscedasticity and gross normality. Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and modeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. Follow-up tests A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed by additional tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are "planned" (a priori) or "post hoc." Planned tests are determined before looking at the data, and post hoc tests are conceived only after looking at the data (though the term "post hoc" is inconsistently used). The follow-up tests may be "simple" pairwise comparisons of individual group means or may be "compound" comparisons (e.g., comparing the mean pooling across groups A, B and C to the mean of group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Often the follow-up tests incorporate a method of adjusting for the multiple comparisons problem. Study designs There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the design of the experiment, especially on the protocol that specifies the random assignment of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any blocking. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model. Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA: One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more independent groups (means), e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several different bacterial species, or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. However, should these groups not be independent, and there is an order in the groups (such as mild, moderate and severe disease), or in the dose of a drug (such as 5 mg/mL, 10 mg/mL, 20 mg/mL) given to the same group of patients, then a linear trend estimation should be used. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used
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to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a t-test. When there are only two means to compare, the t-test and the ANOVA F-test are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and t is given by . Factorial ANOVA is used when there is more than one factor. Repeated measures ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each factor (e.g., in a longitudinal study). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one response variable. Cautions Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor (one-way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. Consequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs." In the general case, "The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and F-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are considered." ANOVA is (in part) a test of statistical significance. The American Psychological Association (and many other organisations) holds the view that simply reporting statistical significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred. Generalizations ANOVA is considered to be a special case of linear regression which in turn is a special case of the general linear model. All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized. The Kruskal–Wallis test and the Friedman test are nonparametric tests, which do not rely on an assumption of normality. Connection to linear regression Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that -th observation is associated with a response and factors where denotes the different factors and is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA and in two-way ANOVA . Furthermore, we assume the -th factor has levels, namely . Now, we can one-hot encode the factors into the dimensional vector . The one-hot encoding function is defined such that the -th entry of is The vector is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all . Thus, . In order to obtain a fully general -way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be . With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response against the vector . However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use F-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors. Example We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels. Define if and if , i.e. is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and is the one-hot encoding of the second factor. With that, where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that Then, See also ANOVA on ranks ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) Analysis of rhythmic variance (ANORVA) Explained variation Linear trend estimation Mixed-design analysis of variance Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) Permutational analysis of variance Variance decomposition Expected mean squares Footnotes Notes References Pre-publication chapters are available on-line. Cohen, Jacob (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge Cox, David R. (1958). Planning of experiments. Reprinted as Freedman, David A.(2005). Statistical Models: Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press. Lehmann, E.L. (1959) Testing Statistical Hypotheses. John Wiley & Sons. Moore, David S. & McCabe, George P. (2003). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (4e). W H Freeman & Co.
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Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2002). Observational Studies (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. Further reading Cox, David R. & Reid, Nancy M. (2000). The theory of design of experiments. (Chapman & Hall/CRC). Freedman, David A.; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007) Statistics, 4th edition. W.W. Norton & Company Tabachnick, Barbara G. & Fidell, Linda S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson International Edition. External links SOCR ANOVA Activity Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R (University of Southampton) NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, section 7.4.3: "Are the means equal?" Analysis of variance: Introduction Design of experiments Statistical tests Parametric statistics <|endoftext|>In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical trivial name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula . The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of methane (), where n = 1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large and complex molecules, like pentacontane () or 6-ethyl-2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl) octane, an isomer of tetradecane (). The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines alkanes as "acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula , and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms". However, some sources use the term to denote any saturated hydrocarbon, including those that are either monocyclic (i.e. the cycloalkanes) or polycyclic, despite their having a distinct general formula (i.e. cycloalkanes are ). In an alkane, each carbon atom is sp3-hybridized with 4 sigma bonds (either C–C or C–H), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (in a C–H bond). The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be considered as the size of the alkane. One group of the higher alkanes are waxes, solids at standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP), for which the number of carbon atoms in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17. With their repeated – units, the alkanes constitute a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members differ in molecular mass by multiples of 14.03 u (the total mass of each such methylene-bridge unit, which comprises a single carbon atom of mass 12.01 u and two hydrogen atoms of mass ~1.01 u each). Methane is produced by methanogenic bacteria and some long-chain alkanes function as pheromones in certain animal species or as protective waxes in plants and fungi. Nevertheless, most alkanes do not have much biological activity. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more active/reactive functional groups of biological molecules. The alkanes have two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas. An alkyl group is an alkane-based molecular fragment that bears one open valence for bonding. They are generally abbreviated with the symbol for any organyl group, R, although Alk is sometimes used to specifically symbolize an alkyl group (as opposed to an alkenyl group or aryl group). Structure and classification Ordinarily the C-C single bond distance is . Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear, branched, or cyclic. The third group is sometimes called cycloalkanes. Very complicated structures are possible by combining linear, branch, cyclic alkanes. Isomerism Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in various ways, forming structural isomers. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the n-isomer (n for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However, the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible
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315
isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example, for acyclic alkanes: C1: methane only C2: ethane only C3: propane only C4: 2 isomers: butane and isobutane C5: 3 isomers: pentane, isopentane, and neopentane C6: 5 isomers: hexane, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, and 2,3-dimethylbutane C7: 9 isomers: heptane, methylhexane (2 isomers), dimethylpentane (4 isomers), 3-ethylpentane, 2,2,3-trimethylbutane C8: 18 isomers: octane, 2-methylheptane, 3-methylheptane, 2,3-dimethylhexane, 3,4-dimethylhexane, 2,3,4-trimethylpentane, 3,3-dimethylhexane, 2,2-trimethylpentane, 2,4-dimethylhexane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, 2,3,3-Trimethylpentane, 3,3,4-trimethyl-pentane, 3,4,4-trimethylpentane, 2,4,4-trimethylpentane, (5 isomers) C9: 35 isomers C10: 75 isomers C12: 355 isomers C32: 27,711,253,769 isomers C60: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable. Branched alkanes can be chiral. For example, 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. The above list only includes differences of connectivity, not stereochemistry. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more rings. Such compounds are called cycloalkanes, and are also excluded from the above list because changing the number of rings changes the molecular formula. For example, cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are isomers of each other (C4H8), but are not isomers of butane (C4H10). Nomenclature The IUPAC nomenclature (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane". In 1866, August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the hydrocarbons CnH2n+2, CnH2n, CnH2n−2, CnH2n−4, CnH2n−6. In modern nomenclature, the first three specifically name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; while "-one" now represents a ketone. Linear alkanes Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix "n-" or "n-"(for "normal") where a non-linear isomer exists. Although this is not strictly necessary and is not part of the IUPAC naming system, the usage is still common in cases where one wishes to emphasize or distinguish between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., "n-butane" rather than simply "butane" to differentiate it from isobutane. Alternative names for this group used in the petroleum industry are linear paraffins or n-paraffins. The first six members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: methane CH4 – one carbon and 4 hydrogen ethane C2H6 – two carbon and 6 hydrogen propane C3H8 – three carbon and 8 hydrogen butane C4H10 – four carbon and 10 hydrogen pentane C5H12 – five carbon and 12 hydrogen hexane C6H14 – six carbon and 14 hydrogen The first four names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel (-a or -o) from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C5H12;
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hexane, C6H14; heptane, C7H16; octane, C8H18; etc. The numeral prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example nonane, use the Latin prefix non-. For a more complete list, see list of straight-chain alkanes. Branched alkanes Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example n-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows: Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" Number the longest continuous chain in order to give the lowest possible numbers for the side-chains Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding "di-" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons Though technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the "cyclic alkanes." As their description implies, they contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones, e.g., cyclopentane (C5H10) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane (C5H12), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, propane and cyclopropane, butane and cyclobutane, etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes – the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules. Trivial/common names The trivial (non-systematic) name for alkanes is 'paraffins'. Together, alkanes are known as the 'paraffin series'. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. "Paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of isomers, i.e., compounds of the same chemical formula, e.g., pentane and isopentane. In IUPAC The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: isobutane for 2-methylpropane isopentane for 2-methylbutane neopentane for 2,2-dimethylpropane. Non-IUPAC Some non-IUPAC trivial names are occasionally used: cetane, for hexadecane cerane, for hexacosane Physical properties All alkanes are colorless. Alkanes with the lowest molecular weights are gasses, those of intermediate molecular weight are liquids, and the heaviest are waxy solids. Table of alkanes Boiling point Alkanes experience intermolecular van der Waals forces. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes. There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces: the number of electrons surrounding the molecule, which increases with the alkane's molecular weight the surface area of the molecule Under standard conditions, from CH4 to C4H10 alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12 to C17H36 they are liquids; and after C18H38 they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size (molecular weight) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series. A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alk
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"Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġcarbon", "Ġatoms", "Ġbut", "Ġremains", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠHence", ",", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġform", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "Ġlayer", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġalk", "ane", "âĢĵ", "water", "Ġmixture", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMolecular", "Ġgeometry", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġmolecular", "Ġstructure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġdirectly", "Ġaffects", "Ġtheir", "Ġphysical", "Ġand", "Ġchemical", "Ġcharacteristics", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġelectron", "Ġconfiguration", "Ġof", "Ġcarbon", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhas", "Ġfour", "Ġval", "ence", "Ġelectrons", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcarbon", "Ġatoms", "Ġin", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġare", "Ġdescribed", "Ġas", "Ġsp", "3", "Ġhybrids", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġto", "Ġsay", "Ġthat", ",", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġgood", "Ġapproximation", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġval", "ence", "Ġelectrons", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġorbit", "als", "Ġdirected", "Ġtowards", "Ġthe", "Ġcorners", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtet", "ra", "hed", "ron", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", 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ane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare isobutane (2-methylpropane) and n-butane (butane), which boil at −12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact. Melting points The melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart. For a visualization of the crystal structures see. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase. Conductivity and solubility Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way, nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field. For this reason, they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be hydrophobic as they are insoluble in water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively high, a property that is called lipophilicity. Alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture. Molecular geometry The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are described as sp3 hybrids, that is to say that, to a good approximation, the valence electrons are in orbitals directed towards the corners of a tetrahedron which are derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. Geometrically, the angle between the bonds are cos−1(−) ≈ 109.47°. This is exact for the case of methane, while larger alkanes containing a combination of C–H and C–C bonds generally have bonds that are within several degrees of this idealized value. Bond lengths and bond angles An alkane has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp3 orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp3 orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09 × 10−10 m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10−10 m for a C–C bond. The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp3 orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not accurately depict the geometry. Conformation The structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further degree of freedom for each carbon–carbon bond: the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation. Ethane forms the simplest case
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for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called Newman projection. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation. The two conformations differ in energy: the staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol (3.0 kcal/mol) lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the torsion energy, is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH3 group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10−11 seconds. The case of higher alkanes is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. Spectroscopic properties Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the absence of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a functional group like –OH, –CHO, –COOH etc. Infrared spectroscopy The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm−1, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm−1. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm−1. NMR spectroscopy The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at δH = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: δC = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH3), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH2–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time, and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. Mass spectrometry Alkanes have a high ionization energy, and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M − 15) is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH2 groups. Chemical properties Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds. The acid dissociation constant (pKa) values of all alkanes are estimated to range from 50 to 70, depending on the extrapolation method, hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases (see: carbon acids). They are also extremely weak bases, undergoing no observable protonation in pure sulfuric acid (H0 ~ −12), although superacids that are at least millions of times stronger have been known to protonate them to give hypercoordinate alkanium ions (see: methanium ion). Similarly, they only show reactivity with the strongest of electrophilic reagents (e.g., dioxiranes and salts
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319
containing the NF4+ cation). By virtue of their strongly C–H bonds (~100 kcal/mol) and C–C bonds (~90 kcal/mol, but usually less sterically accessible), they are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals, although many electron-deficient radicals will react with alkanes in the absence of other electron-rich bonds (see below). This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. Moreover, redox reactions of alkanes involving free radical intermediates, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced state; in the case of methane, carbon is in its lowest possible oxidation state (−4). Reaction with oxygen (if present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction stoichiometry) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing carbon dioxide and water. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of haloalkanes. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in C–H bond activation reactions. In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) to accommodate bulky groups. Such distortions introduce a tension in the molecule, known as steric hindrance or strain. Strain substantially increases reactivity. However, in general and perhaps surprisingly, when branching is not extensive enough to make highly disfavorable 1,2- and 1,3-alkyl–alkyl steric interactions (worth ~3.1 kcal/mol and ~3.7 kcal/mol in the case of the eclipsing conformations of butane and pentane, respectively) unavoidable, the branched alkanes are actually more thermodynamically stable than their linear (or less branched) isomers. For example, the highly branched 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane is about 1.9 kcal/mol more stable than its linear isomer, n-octane. Due to the subtlety of this effect, the exact reasons for this rule have been vigorously debated in the chemical literature and is yet unsettled. Several explanations, including stabilization of branched alkanes by electron correlation, destabilization of linear alkanes by steric repulsion, stabilization by neutral hyperconjugation, and/or electrostatic effects have been advanced as possibilities. The controversy is related to the question of whether the traditional explanation of hyperconjugation is the primary factor governing the stability of alkyl radicals. Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction) All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: CnH2n+2 + (n + ) O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n CO2 or CnH2n+2 + () O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n CO2 In the absence of sufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed, as shown below: CnH2n+2 + (n + ) O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n CO CnH2n+2 + (n + ) O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n C For example, methane: 2 CH4 + 3 O2 → 4 H2O + 2 CO CH4 + O2 → 2 H2O + C See the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data. The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ΔcH⊖, for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH2 group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of ΔcH⊖ than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. Reactions with halogens Alkanes react with halogens in a so-called free radical halogenation reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. Free radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly exothermic with halogen fluorine and can lead to an explosion. These reactions
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"Ġboth", "Ġreactions", "Ġrequire", "Ġspecial", "Ġconditions", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfermentation", "Ġof", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġto", "Ġcar", "box", "y", "lic", "Ġacids", "Ġis", "Ġof", "Ġsome", "Ġtechnical", "Ġimportance", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠReed", "Ġreaction", ",", "Ġsulfur", "Ġdioxide", ",", "Ġchlorine", "Ġand", "Ġlight", "Ġconvert", "Ġhydro", "car", "bons", "Ġto", "Ġsulf", "ony", "l", "Ġchlor", "ides", ".", "ĠN", "ucle", "oph", "ilic", "ĠAb", "st", "raction", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġseparate", "Ġan", "Ġalk", "ane", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġmetal", ".", "ĠAl", "ky", "l", "Ġgroups", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġtransferred", "Ġfrom", "Ġone", "Ġcompound", "Ġto", "Ġanother", "Ġby", "Ġtrans", "metal", "ation", "Ġreactions", ".", "ĠA", "Ġmixture", "Ġof", "Ġant", "imony", "Ġpent", "af", "lu", "or", "ide", "Ġ(", "S", "b", "F", "5", ")", "Ġand", "Ġfluor", "os", "ulf", "onic", "Ġacid", "Ġ(", "HS", "O", "3", "F", "),", "Ġcalled", "Ġmagic", "Ġacid", ",", "Ġcan", "Ġpro", "ton", "ate", "Ġalk", "anes", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOcc", "urrence", "Ġ", "ĠOcc", "urrence", "Ġof", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUniverse", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "k", "anes", "Ġform", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġportion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġatmosp", "heres", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġouter", "Ġgas", "Ġplanets", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠJupiter", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "1", "%", "Ġmethane", ",", "Ġ2", "Âł", "pp", "m", "Ġeth", "ane", "),", "ĠSaturn", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "2", "%", "Ġmethane", ",", "Ġ5", "Âł", "pp", "m", "Ġeth", "ane", "),", "ĠUran", "us", "Ġ(", "1", ".", "99", "%", "Ġmethane", ",", "Ġ2", ".", "5", "Âł", "pp", "m", "Ġeth", "ane", ")", "Ġand", "ĠNeptune", "Ġ(", "1", ".", "5", "%", "Ġmethane", ",", "Ġ1", ".", "5", "Âł", "pp", "m", "Ġeth", "ane", ").", "ĠTitan", "Ġ(", "1", ".", "6", "%", "Ġmethane", "),", "Ġa", "Ġsatellite", "Ġof", "ĠSaturn", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġexamined", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠH", "uy", "g", "ens", "Ġprobe", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġindicated", "Ġthat", "ĠTitan", "'s", "Ġatmosphere", "Ġperiodically", "Ġrains", "Ġliquid", "Ġmethane", "Ġonto", "Ġthe", "Ġmoon", "'s", "Ġsurface", ".", "ĠAlso", "Ġon", "ĠTitan", "Ġthe", "ĠCass", "ini", "Ġmission", "Ġhas", "Ġim", "aged", "Ġseasonal", "Ġmethane", "/", "eth", "ane", "Ġlakes", "Ġnear", "Ġthe", "Ġpolar", "Ġregions", "Ġof", "ĠTitan", ".", "ĠMeth", "ane", "Ġand", "Ġeth", "ane", "Ġhave", "Ġalso", "Ġbeen", "Ġdetected", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtail", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcomet", "ĠHy", "ak", "ut", "ake", ".", "ĠChemical", "Ġanalysis", "Ġshowed", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġabund", "ances", "Ġof", "Ġeth", "ane", "Ġand", "Ġmethane", "Ġwere", "Ġroughly", "Ġequal", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġimply", "Ġthat", "Ġits", "Ġ", "ices", "Ġformed", "Ġin", "Ġinterstellar", "Ġspace", ",", "Ġaway", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠSun", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġevapor", "ated", "Ġthese", "Ġvolatile", "Ġmolecules", ".", "ĠAl", "k", "anes", "Ġhave", "Ġalso", "Ġbeen", "Ġdetected", "Ġin", "Ġmeteor", "ites", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġcarbon", "aceous", "Ġch", "ond", "rites", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOcc", "urrence", "Ġof", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġon", "ĠEarth", "ĠTr", "aces", "Ġof", "Ġmethane", "Ġgas", "Ġ(", "about", "Ġ0", ".", "0002", "%", "Ġor", "Ġ17", "45", "Âł", "pp", "b", ")", "Ġoccur", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "'s", "Ġatmosphere", ",", "Ġproduced", "Ġprimarily", "Ġby", "Ġmet", "han", "ogenic", "Ġmicro", "organisms", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠArchae", "a", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġgut", "Ġof", "Ġr", "umin", "ants", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġmost", "Ġimportant", "Ġcommercial", "Ġsources", "Ġfor", "Ġalk", "anes", "Ġare", "Ġnatural", "Ġgas", "Ġand", "Ġoil", ".", "ĠNatural", "Ġgas", "Ġcontains", "Ġprimarily", "Ġmethane", "Ġand", "Ġeth", "ane", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġsome", "Ġprop", "ane" ]
320
are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: Initiation the halogen radicals form by homolysis. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. Chain reaction or Propagation then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. Chain termination where the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane: Cracking Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites), which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position beta (i.e., cracking) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. Isomerization and reformation Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight. In reformation, the alkanes become cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the octane number of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers. Other reactions Alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen. Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated, although both reactions require special conditions. The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance. In the Reed reaction, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides. Nucleophilic Abstraction can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by transmetalation reactions. A mixture of antimony pentafluoride (SbF5) and fluorosulfonic acid (HSO3F), called magic acid, can protonate alkanes. Occurrence Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe Alkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.1% methane, 2 ppm ethane), Saturn (0.2% methane, 5 ppm ethane), Uranus (1.99% methane, 2.5 ppm ethane) and Neptune (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). Titan (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the Huygens probe, which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface. Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites. Occurrence of alkanes on Earth Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms, such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants. The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some propane
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321
and butane: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: C6H12O6 → 3 CH4 + 3 CO2 These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial oil fields. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the energy crisis. Methane is also present in what is called biogas, produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible renewable energy source. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid methane clathrate (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels. Biological occurrence Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways. Bacteria and archaea Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. On the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidized organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen: CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O Methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands. The methane output of cattle and other herbivores, which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day, and of termites, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the carbon cycle, with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by photosynthesis. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way. Fungi and plants Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms: fungi, plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., Candida tropicale, Pichia sp., Rhodotorula sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus Amorphotheca resinae prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel, and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity. More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The Jeffrey pine is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of n-heptane in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one octane rating. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and n-nonane is a significant component in the scent of some roses. Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as ethane, pentane, and hexane by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution. Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction. Animals Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14
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322
% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C19H40). They are important as pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle Xylotrechus colonus, pentacosane (C25H52), 3-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans, the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C18H38), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C40H82), and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane. Ecological relations One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee (Andrena nigroaenea) and the early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of A. nigroaenea, the females emit a mixture of tricosane (C23H48), pentacosane (C25H52) and heptacosane (C27H56) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to other blooms. Production Petroleum refining As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many products. Fischer–Tropsch The Fischer–Tropsch process is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates. Laboratory preparation There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo functional group interconversions cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of n-butyllithium as a strong base gives the conjugate acid, n-butane as a side-product: C4H9Li + H2O → C4H10 + LiOH However, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality (alkyl group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an ethyl group is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a hydroxy group, it gives ethanol, which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes: RCH=CH2 + H2 → RCH2CH3(R = alkyl) Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction. The Barton–McCombie deoxygenation removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. and the Clemmensen reduction removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: Preparation from other organic compounds Alkanes can be prepared from a variety of organic compounds. These include alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids. From alkenes and alkynes Addition of molecular hydrogen across the π bond(s) of alkenes and alkynes give alkanes. This hydrogenation reaction is typically performed using a powdered metal catalyst, such as palladium, platinum, or
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nickel. The reaction is exothermic because the product alkane is more stable. This is an important process in several fields of industrial and research chemistry. From haloalkanes Several methods produce alkanes from haloalkanes. In the Wurtz reaction, a haloalkane is treated with sodium in dry ether to yield an alkane having double the number of carbon atoms. This reaction proceeds through a free radical intermediate and has the possibility of alkene formation in case of tertiary haloalkanes and vicinal dihalides. 2 R−X + 2 Na → R−R + 2 Na+X In Corey–House synthesis, a haloalkane is treated with dialkyl lithium cuprate, a Gilman reagent, to yield a higher alkane: Li+[R–Cu–R]– + R'–X → R–R' + R–Cu + Li+X Haloalkanes can be reduced to alkanes by reaction with hydride reagents such as lithium aluminium hydride. R−X + H– → R−H + X– Applications The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays. From pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking. Some synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains containing hundreds or thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. Environmental transformations Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility, alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms. There are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize n-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources. Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria. Hazards Methane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale; because it is a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane. Ethane is also extremely flammable, explosive, and dangerous to inhale. Both of them may cause suffocation
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324
. Propane, too, is flammable and explosive, and may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled. Butane presents the same hazards as propane. Alkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes. Methane is considered to be the greenhouse gas that is most dangerous to the environment, although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is relatively low. See also Alkene Alkyne Cycloalkane Higher alkanes References Further reading Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry A visualization of the crystal structures of alkanes up to nonan Hydrocarbons <|endoftext|>United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as de novo and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court. Access to appellant status A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called an "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. Ability to appeal An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the Supreme Court, review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari. In tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise,
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325
in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court. Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts. Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. Appellate review "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04–4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs. Direct appeal After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. Preservation issues An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt. State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal All States have a
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post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered. Habeas corpus Notice of appeal A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used. The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited. Appellate procedure Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent)
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can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense." In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given
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competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". Results The result of an appeal can be: Affirmed: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s). Reversed: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s), and overturns their decision. Vacated: Where the reviewing court overturns the lower courts' ruling(s) as invalid, without necessarily disagreeing with it/them, e.g. because the case was decided on the basis of a legal principle that no longer applies. Remanded: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court. There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'". Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than review improvidently granted. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of review improvidently granted is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. See also Appellate court Appellee Civil procedure Court of Appeals Courts-martial in the United States Criminal procedure Defendant En banc Interlocutory appeal List of legal topics List of wrongful convictions in the United States Petition for stay Plaintiff Pursuer Reversible error Supreme Court of the United States Writ of Certiorari Writ of habeas corpus Writ of mandamus References External links Legal procedure United States procedural law <|endoftext|>In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an optional "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment. The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question. Notes Common law Legal documents <|endoftext|>An appellate court, commonly called a court of appeal(s), appeal court, court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In much of the world, court systems are divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts, often on a discretionary basis. A particular court system's supreme court is its highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules. Under its standard of review, an appellate court decides the extent of
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329
the deference it would give to the lower court's decision, based on whether the appeal were one of fact or of law. In reviewing an issue of fact, an appellate court ordinarily gives deference to the trial court's findings. It is the duty of trial judges or juries to find facts, view the evidence firsthand, and observe witness testimony. When reviewing lower decisions on an issue of fact, courts of appeal generally look for clear error. The appellate court reviews issues of law de novo (anew, no deference) and may reverse or modify the lower court's decision if the appellate court believes the lower court misapplied the facts or the law. An appellate court may also review the lower judge's discretionary decisions, such as whether the judge properly granted a new trial or disallowed evidence. The lower court's decision is only changed in cases of an "abuse of discretion". This standard tends to be even more deferential than the "clear error" standard. Before hearing any case, the Court must have jurisdiction to consider the appeal. The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified. Depending on the type of case and the decision below, appellate review primarily consists of: an entirely new hearing (a non trial de novo); a hearing where the appellate court gives deference to factual findings of the lower court; or review of particular legal rulings made by the lower court (an appeal on the record). Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. In the United States, Alabama, Tennessee, and Oklahoma also have separate courts of criminal appeals. Texas and Oklahoma have the final determination of criminal cases vested in their respective courts of criminal appeals, while Alabama and Tennessee allow decisions of its court of criminal appeals to be finally appealed to the state supreme court. Courts of criminal appeals Civilian Court of Criminal Appeal (England and Wales), abolished 1966 Court of Criminal Appeal (Ireland), abolished 2014 U.S. States: Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals Tennessee Court of Criminal Appeals Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Military United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Courts of civil appeals Alabama Court of Civil Appeals Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals Appellate courts by country New Zealand The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court. Sri Lanka The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system. United Kingdom United States In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. Institutional titles Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a court of appeal or court of appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a court of errors (or court of errors and appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the
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330
New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts in those states. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. See also Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation) Court of Appeal (Hong Kong) High Court (Hong Kong) Court of Appeal (England and Wales) Court of cassation References Citations Sources Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591–604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012. Courts by type Appellate courts Jurisdiction <|endoftext|>Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant, to inform them of the charges against them. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the peremptory pleas (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of "nolo contendere" (no contest) and the "Alford plea" are allowed in some circumstances. Australia In Australia, arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. The judge will testify during the indictment process. Canada In every province in Canada, except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia, arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge. France In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime. The police need to have the consent of the prosecutor, the procureur. In the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent. Germany In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest. New Zealand In New Zealand law, at the first appearance of the accused, they are read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are: guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance. South Africa In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against them, the demanding of the accused whether they plead guilty or not guilty, and the entering of their plea. Their plea having been entered, they are said to stand arraigned. United Kingdom In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable. United States Under the United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, "arraignment shall [...] [consist of an] open [...] reading [of] the indictment [...] to the defendant [...] and call[] on [them] to plead thereto. [They] shall be given a copy of the indictment [...] before [they are] called upon to plead." In federal courts,
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331
arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the "initial arraignment" and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this stage, the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second stage, a post-indictment arraignment (PIA), the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours. In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays. Form of the arraignment The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles: The accused person (defendant) is addressed by name; The charge against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and, The accused person is asked formally how he or she pleads. Video arraignment Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the court to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. Guilty and not-guilty pleas If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence. If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today, in common law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence. Pre-trial release This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. See also Desk appearance ticket References Legal terminology Prosecution United States criminal procedure Criminal law of the United Kingdom Australian criminal law <|endoftext|>"America the Beautiful" is a patriotic American song. Its lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates and its music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey. The two never met. Bates wrote the words as a poem originally entitled "Pikes Peak". It was first published in the Fourth of July 1895 edition of the church periodical, The Congregationalist. It was at that time that the poem was first entitled "America". Ward had initially composed the song's melody in 1882 to accompany lyrics to "Materna", basis of the hymn, "O Mother dear, Jerusalem", though the hymn was not first published until 1892. The combination of Ward's melody and Bates's poem was first entitled "America the Beautiful" in 1910. The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs. History In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Pikes Peak. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in The Congregationalist to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. An amended version was published in 1904. The first known melody written for the song was sent in by
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"America", "Ġthe", "ĠBeautiful", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġsong", "Ġchart", "ed", "Ġat", "ĠNo", ".", "Ġ4", "Ġon", "ĠBillboard", "'s", "ĠClassical", "ĠDigital", "ĠSong", "Ġsales", "Ġchart", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAn", "Ġabbrevi", "ated", "Ġcover", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġ1911", "Ġlyrics", "Ġwas", "Ġperformed", "Ġby", "ĠGreg", "ĠJong", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġsoundtrack", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ2020", "Ġvideo", "Ġgame", "ĠWasteland", "Ġ3", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġplayed", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", "Ġhostile", "Ġencounters", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠDenver", "Ġsection", ".", "Ġ", "ĠJennifer", "ĠLopez", "Ġperformed", "Ġthe", "Ġsong", "Ġat", "ĠPresident", "ĠJoe", "ĠBiden", "'s", "Ġinauguration", "Ġon", "ĠJanuary", "Ġ20", ",", "Ġ2021", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġmed", "ley", "Ġwith", "Ġ\"", "This", "ĠLand", "ĠIs", "ĠYour", "ĠLand", "\"", "Ġby", "ĠWoody", "ĠGuth", "rie", ".", "Ġ", "ĠId", "i", "oms", "Ġ\"", "From", "Ġsea", "Ġto", "Ġshining", "Ġsea", "\"," ]
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Silas Pratt when the poem was published in The Congregationalist. By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A hymn tune composed in 1882 by Samuel A. Ward, the organist and choir director at Grace Church, Newark, was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home in New York City after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful". Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Bates was more fortunate, since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929. It is included in songbooks in many religious congregations in the United States. At various times in the more than one hundred years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery; others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans, and was even being considered before 1931 as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States. Lyrics Notable performances Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961). Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for The Concert Sinatra in February 1963, for a projected 45 single release. The 45 was not commercially issued however, but the song was later added as a bonus track to the enhanced 2012 CD release of The Concert Sinatra. In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B chart. His version was traditionally played on New Year's Eve in Times Square following the ball drop. Three different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of "America the Beautiful" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherrié Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks. Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the Late Show with David Letterman following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse. For Super Bowl XLVIII, The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI, the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and for patriotic holidays. On January 20, 2017, Jackie Evancho released Together We Stand, a disc containing three patriotic songs including "America the Beautiful". The song charted at No. 4 on Billboard's Classical Digital Song sales chart. An abbreviated cover with the 1911 lyrics was performed by Greg Jong for the soundtrack of the 2020 video game Wasteland 3, and is played during the final hostile encounters in the Denver section. Jennifer Lopez performed the song at President Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021 as the second half of a medley with "This Land Is Your Land" by Woody Guthrie. Idioms "From sea to shining sea",
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"Ġchance", "Ġto", "Ġ\"", "red", "uce", "Ġinstitutional", "Ġcosts", "Ġwithout", "Ġsignificantly", "Ġincreasing", "Ġhousehold", "Ġexpenses", ".\"", "ĠIn", "Ġschools", ",", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġcritical", "Ġin", "Ġallowing", "Ġstudents", "Ġwith", "Ġdisabilities", "Ġaccess", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġeducation", "Ġcurriculum", ".", "Ġ", "ĠStudents", "Ġwho", "Ġexperience", "Ġchallenges", "Ġwriting", "Ġor", "Ġkeyboard", "ing", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġcan", "Ġuse", "Ġvoice", "Ġrecognition", "Ġsoftware", "Ġinstead", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAdapt", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "ĠAdapt", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġand", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġare", "Ġdifferent", ".", "ĠAssist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġis", "Ġsomething", "Ġthat", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġhelp", "Ġdisabled", "Ġpeople", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġadaptive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġcovers", "Ġitems", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġspecifically", "Ġdesigned", "Ġfor", "Ġdisabled", "Ġpeople", "Ġand", "Ġwould", "Ġseldom", "Ġbe", "Ġused", 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"Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠOccup", "ational", "ĠTherapy", "ĠPractice", "ĠFramework", ":", "ĠDomain", "Ġand", "ĠProcess", "Ġ(", "3", "rd", "Ġed", ".;", "ĠA", "OTA", ",", "Ġ2014", "),", "Ġoccupations", "Ġinclude", "Ġareas", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġall", "Ġbasic", "Ġand", "Ġinstrumental", "Ġactivities", "Ġof", "Ġdaily", "Ġliving", "Ġ(", "AD", "L", "s", "),", "Ġrest", "Ġand", "Ġsleep", ",", "Ġeducation", ",", "Ġwork", ",", "Ġplay", ",", "Ġleisure", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "Ġparticipation", ".", "ĠOccup", "ational", "Ġtherapists", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġspecialized", "Ġskill", "Ġof", "Ġemploying", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġ(", "AT", ")", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġimprovement", "Ġand", "Ġmaintenance", "Ġof", "Ġoptimal", ",", "Ġfunctional", "Ġparticipation", "Ġin", "Ġoccupations", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġapplication", "Ġof", "ĠAT", "Ġenables", "Ġan", "Ġindividual", "Ġto", "Ġadapt", "Ġaspects", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġenvironment", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġmay", "Ġotherwise", "Ġbe", "Ġchallenging", ",", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġuser", "Ġin", 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originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase "" ("From sea to sea"), which is the official motto of Canada. "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which inspired Bates to write the poem. In 2003, Tori Amos appropriated the phrase "for amber waves of grain" to create a personification for her song "Amber Waves". Amos imagines Amber Waves as an exotic dancer, like the character of the same name portrayed by Julianne Moore in Boogie Nights. Books Lynn Sherr's 2001 book America the Beautiful discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates. Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea, draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. See also "God Bless America" Notes References External links MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress Words, sheet music & MIDI file at the Cyber Hymnal America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words. Archival collection of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s. Another free sheet music 1895 songs American Christian hymns American patriotic songs Pikes Peak History of Colorado Springs, Colorado Songs based on poems Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients <|endoftext|>Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and the elderly. People with disabilities often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing, grooming, and personal device care. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while assistive eating devices can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, people with disability have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation," "security and control," and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses." In schools, assistive technology can be critical in allowing students with disabilities access the general education curriculum. Students who experience challenges writing or keyboarding, for example, can use voice recognition software instead. Adaptive technology Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different. Assistive technology is something that is used to help disabled people, while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by a non-disabled person. In other words, assistive technology is any object or system that helps people with disabilities, while adaptive technology is specifically designed for disabled people. Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access. Occupational therapy Occupational therapy (OT) is a healthcare profession that specializes in maintaining or improving the quality of life for individuals that experience challenges when independently performing life's occupations. According to the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process (3rd ed.; AOTA, 2014), occupations include areas related to all basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs), rest and sleep, education, work, play, leisure and social participation. Occupational therapists have the specialized skill of employing assistive technology (AT) in the improvement and maintenance of optimal, functional participation in occupations. The application of AT enables an individual to adapt aspects of the environment, that may otherwise be challenging, to the user in order to optimize functional participation in those occupations. As a result, occupational therapists may educate, recommend, and promote the use of AT to improve the quality of life for their clients. Mobility impairments Wheelchairs Wheelchairs are
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devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, head switches or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. Newer advancements in wheelchair design enable wheelchairs to climb stairs, go off-road or propel using segway technology or additional add-ons like handbikes or power assists. Transfer devices Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are transfer benches, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), gait belts (or transfer belt) and a slider board (or transfer board), usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair or from a bed to an operating table. Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a patient lift (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. Walkers A walker or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front. Prosthesis A prosthesis, prosthetic, or prosthetic limb is a device that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with human muscular, musculoskeletal, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma, disease, or defect. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth (congenital) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include hearing aids, artificial eyes, palatal obturator, gastric bands, and dentures. Prostheses are specifically not orthoses, although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is not a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic component. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system  to the residual limb — usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Despite the technical difference, the terms are often used interchangeably. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. An Occupational Therapist's role in prosthetics include therapy, training and evaluations. Prosthetic training includes orientation to prosthetics components and terminology, donning and doffing, wearing schedule, and how to care for residual limb and the prosthesis. Exoskeletons A powered exoskeleton is a wearable mobile machine that is powered by a system of electric motors, pneumatics, levers, hydraulics, or a combination of technologies that allow for limb movement with increased strength and endurance. Its design aims
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to provide back support, sense the user's motion, and send a signal to motors which manage the gears. The exoskeleton supports the shoulder, waist and thigh, and assists movement for lifting and holding heavy items, while lowering back stress. Adaptive seating and positioning People with balance and motor function challenges often need specialized equipment to sit or stand safely and securely. This equipment is frequently specialized for specific settings such as in a classroom or nursing home.  Positioning is often important in seating arrangements to ensure that user's body pressure is distributed equally without inhibiting movement in a desired way. Positioning devices have been developed to aid in allowing people to stand and bear weight on their legs without risk of a fall.  These standers are generally grouped into two categories based on the position of the occupant.  Prone standers distribute the body weight to the front of the individual and usually have a tray in front of them.  This makes them good for users who are actively trying to carry out some task.  Supine standers distribute the body weight to the back and are good for cases where the user has more limited mobility or is recovering from injury. Visual impairments Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. Screen readers Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice (text-to-speech) or braille (refreshable braille displays) in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets. Some example of screen readers are Apple VoiceOver, Google TalkBack and Microsoft Narrator. This software is provided free of charge on all Apple devices. Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify the screen, control the keyboard, and provide verbal descriptions to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content, as well as web pages, E-mail messages, and word processing files. As mentioned above, screen readers may rely on the assistance of text-to-speech tools. To use the text-to-speech tools, the documents must in an electronic form, that is uploaded as the digital format. However, people usually will use the hard copy documents scanned into the computer, which cannot be recognized by the text-to-speech software. To solve this issue, people always use Optical Character Recognition technology accompanied with text-to-speech software. Braille and braille embossers Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. Refreshable braille display A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text. Desktop video magnifier Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. Screen magnification software A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. Large-print and tactile keyboards A large-print keyboard
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"Ġthe", "ĠC", "EN", "ĠEN", "Ġ13", "32", "-", "4", "ĠIdentification", "ĠCard", "ĠSystems", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠMan", "-", "Machine", "ĠInterface", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġstandard", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġsupported", "Ġin", "ĠEurope", "Ġby", "ĠSN", "API", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġsuccessfully", "Ġincorporated", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "ĠLas", "se", "o", "Ġspecifications", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwith", "Ġlimited", "Ġsuccess", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlack", "Ġof", "Ġinterest", "Ġfrom", "Ġpublic", "Ġcomputer", "Ġterminal", "Ġsuppliers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHearing", "Ġimpair", "ments", "Ġ", "ĠPeople", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġd", "/", "De", "af", "Ġand", "Ġhard", "Ġof", "Ġhearing", "Ġcommunity", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġdifficult", "Ġtime", "Ġreceiving", "Ġauditory", "Ġinformation", "Ġas", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġhearing", "Ġindividuals", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġindividuals", "Ġoften", "Ġrely", "Ġon", "Ġvisual", "Ġand", "Ġtactile", "Ġmedium", "s", "Ġfor", "Ġreceiving", "Ġand", "Ġcommunicating", "Ġinformation", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġand", "Ġdevices", "Ġprovides", "Ġthis", "Ġcommunity", "Ġwith", "Ġvarious", "Ġsolutions", "Ġto", "Ġauditory", "Ġcommunication", "Ġneeds", "Ġby", "Ġproviding", "Ġhigher", "Ġsound", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġthose", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġhard", "Ġof", "Ġhearing", "),", "Ġtactile", "Ġfeedback", ",", "Ġvisual", "Ġcues", "Ġand", "Ġimproved", "Ġtechnology", "Ġaccess", ".", "ĠIndividuals", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġdeaf", "Ġor", "Ġhard", "Ġof", "Ġhearing", "Ġutilize", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnologies", "Ġthat", "Ġprovide", "Ġthem", "Ġwith", "Ġdifferent", "Ġaccess", "Ġto", "Ġinformation", "Ġin", "Ġnumerous", "Ġenvironments", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġdevices", "Ġeither", "Ġprovide", "Ġamplified", "Ġsound", "Ġor", "Ġalternate", "Ġways", "Ġto", "Ġaccess", "Ġinformation", "Ġthrough", "Ġvision", "Ġand", "/", "or", "Ġvibration", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġtechnologies", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġgrouped", "Ġinto", "Ġthree", "Ġgeneral", "Ġcategories", ":", "ĠHearing", "ĠTechnology", ",", "Ġalert", "ing", "Ġdevices", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcommunication", "Ġsupport", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHearing", "Ġaids", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġhearing", "Ġaid", "Ġor", "Ġdeaf", "Ġaid", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġelectro", "-", "ac", "oustic", "Ġdevice", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġdesigned", "Ġto", "Ġamplify", "Ġsound", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġwearer", ",", "Ġusually", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġaim", "Ġof", "Ġmaking", "Ġspeech", "Ġmore", "Ġintellig", "ible", ",", "Ġand", "Ġto", "Ġcorrect", "Ġimpaired", "Ġhearing", "Ġas", "Ġmeasured", "Ġby", "Ġaudi", "ometry", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġtype", "Ġof", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġhelps", "Ġpeople", "Ġwith", "Ġhearing", "Ġloss", "Ġparticipate", "Ġmore", "Ġfully", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġhearing", "Ġcommunities", "Ġby", "Ġallowing", "Ġthem", "Ġto", "Ġhear", "Ġmore", "Ġclearly", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġamplify", "Ġany", "Ġand", "Ġall", "Ġsound", "Ġwaves", "Ġthrough", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġmicrophone", ",", "Ġamplifier", ",", "Ġand", "Ġspeaker", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġwide", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġhearing", "Ġaids", "Ġavailable", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġdigital", ",", "Ġin", "-", "the", "-", "ear", ",", "Ġin", "-", "the", "-", "can", "al", ",", "Ġbehind", "-", "the", "-", "ear", ",", "Ġand", "Ġon", "-", "the", "-", "body", "Ġaids", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAssist", "ive", "Ġlistening", "Ġdevices", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAssist", "ive", "Ġlistening", "Ġdevices", "Ġinclude", "ĠFM", ",", "Ġinfrared", ",", "Ġand", "Ġloop", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġlistening", "Ġdevices", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġtype", "Ġof", "Ġtechnology", "Ġallows", "Ġpeople", "Ġwith", "Ġhearing", "Ġdifficulties", "Ġto", "Ġfocus", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġspeaker", "Ġor", "Ġsubject", "Ġby", "Ġgetting", "Ġrid", "Ġof", "Ġextra", "Ġbackground", "Ġnoises", "Ġand", "Ġdistractions", ",", "Ġmaking", "Ġplaces", "Ġlike", "Ġauditor", "ium", "s", ",", "Ġclassrooms", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmeetings", "Ġmuch", "Ġeasier", "Ġto", "Ġparticipate", "Ġin", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġlistening", "Ġdevice", "Ġusually", "Ġuses", "Ġa", "Ġmicrophone", "Ġto", "Ġcapture", "Ġan", "Ġaudio", "Ġsource", "Ġnear", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġorigin", "Ġand", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġit", "Ġwire", "lessly", "Ġover", "Ġan", "ĠFM", "Ġ(", "F", "requency", "ĠMod", "ulation", ")", "Ġtransmission", ",", "ĠIR", "Ġ(", "Inf", "ra", "ĠRed", ")", "Ġtransmission", ",", "ĠIL", "Ġ(", "Ind", "uction", "ĠLoop", ")", "Ġtransmission", ",", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġtransmission", "Ġmethods", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġperson", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġlistening", "Ġmay", "Ġuse", "Ġan", "ĠFM", "/", "IR", "/", "IL", "ĠReceiver", "Ġto", "Ġtune", "Ġinto" ]
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has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way. Navigation assistance Assistive technology for navigation has exploded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what is in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination. Wearable technology Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices. Some wearable devices for visual impairment include: OrCam device eSight Brainport Personal emergency response systems Personal emergency response systems (PERS), or Telecare (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for hypothermia risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild dementia). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. Accessibility software In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include web accessibility guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems – Man-Machine Interface. This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by SNAPI and has been successfully incorporated into the Lasseo specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers. Hearing impairments People in the d/Deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: Hearing Technology, alerting devices, and communication support. Hearing aids A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro-acoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. Assistive listening devices Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into
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"Ġexists", "Ġto", "Ġdevelop", "Ġnew", "ĠA", "TC", ".", "ĠExamples", "Ġof", "ĠA", "TC", "Ġinclude", ":", "ĠNeuro", "Page", "Ġwhich", "Ġprompts", "Ġusers", "Ġabout", "Ġmeetings", ",", "ĠWak", "amaru", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġprovides", "Ġcompanions", "hip", "Ġand", "Ġreminds", "Ġusers", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġmedicine", "Ġand", "Ġcalls", "Ġfor", "Ġhelp", "Ġif", "Ġsomething", "Ġis", "Ġwrong", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtelephone", "ĠRe", "ass", "urance", "Ġsystems", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMemory", "Ġaids", "Ġ", "ĠMemory", "Ġaids", "Ġare", "Ġany", "Ġtype", "Ġof", "Ġassist", "ive", "Ġtechnology", "Ġthat", "Ġhelps", "Ġa", "Ġuser", "Ġlearn", "Ġand", "Ġremember", "Ġcertain", "Ġinformation", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġmemory", "Ġaids", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġcognitive", "Ġimpair", "ments", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġreading", ",", "Ġwriting", ",", "Ġor", "Ġorganizational", "Ġdifficulties", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġa", "ĠSmart", "pen", "Ġrecords", "Ġhandwritten", "Ġnotes", "Ġby", "Ġcreating", "Ġboth", "Ġa", "Ġdigital", "Ġcopy", "Ġand", 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the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. Amplified telephone equipment This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss. Augmentative and alternative communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced speech generating devices, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words. Cognitive impairments Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, emotion recognition and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include: NeuroPage which prompts users about meetings, Wakamaru, which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems. Memory aids Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time. Educational software Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. Eating impairments Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficulty using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function and enable them to eat independently. In sports Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in adaptive sports, where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-technology", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite Paralympic Games. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity". In education In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided
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a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device." Assistive technology listed is a student's IEP is not only recommended, it is required (Koch, 2017). These devices help students both with and without disabilities access the curriculum in a way they were previously unable to (Koch, 2017). Occupational therapists play an important role in educating students, parents and teachers about the assistive technology they may interact with (Koch, 2017). Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy. Dementia care Assistive technology for memory support A 2017 Cochrane Review highlighted the current lack of high-quality evidence to determine whether assistive technology effectively supports people with dementia to manage memory issues. Thus, it is not presently sure whether or not assistive technology is beneficial for memory problems. Computer accessibility One of the largest problems that affect disabled people is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics. Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys. Assistive technology devices have been created to enable disabled people to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the iPad, iPhone and iPod touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. Home automation The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door. Impacts Overall, assistive technology aims to allow disabled people to "participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment". It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers,
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"Ġtable", "Ġstre", "wn", "Ġwith", "Ġdust", "Ġdefinition", "Ġis", "Ġpopular", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġargue", "Ġevidence", "Ġis", "Ġinsufficient", "Ġfor", "Ġthat", "Ġconclusion", ".", "ĠGreek", "Ġ", "Ġprobably", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "ĠNorthwest", "ĠSem", "itic", "Ġlanguage", "Ġlike", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", ",", "Ġevidenced", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġcogn", "ate", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠHebrew", "Ġword", "Ġ", "Ê", "¾", "Äģ", "b", "Äģ", "q", "Ġ(),", "Ġor", "ĠâĢ", "ľ", "dust", "âĢ", "Ŀ", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġthe", "Ġpost", "-", "B", "iblical", "Ġsense", "Ġ\"", "sand", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġwriting", "Ġsurface", "\").", "Ġ", "ĠBoth", "Ġab", "ac", "uses", "Ġand", "Ġab", "aci", "Ġ(", "soft", "Ġor", "Ġhard", "Ġ\"", "c", "\")", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġplur", "als", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġuser", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġab", "acus", "Ġis", "Ġcalled", "Ġan", "Ġab", "acist", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "ĠMes", "opot", "amia", "ĠThe", "ĠSum", "er", "ian", "Ġab", "acus", "Ġappeared", "Ġbetween", "Ġ27", "00", "âĢĵ", "23", "00", "ĠBC", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġheld", "Ġa", "Ġtable", "Ġof", "Ġsuccessive", "Ġcolumns", "Ġwhich", "Ġdelim", "ited", "Ġthe", "Ġsuccessive", "Ġorders", "Ġof", "Ġmagnitude", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġsex", "ages", "imal", "Ġ(", "base", "Ġ60", ")", "Ġnumber", "Ġsystem", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSome", "Ġscholars", "Ġpoint", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġcharacter", "Ġin", "ĠBabylon", "ian", "Ġc", "une", "iform", "Ġthat", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġrepresentation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġab", "acus", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġbelief", "Ġof", "ĠOld", "ĠBabylon", "ian", "Ġscholars", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠE", "tt", "ore", "ĠCar", "ru", "cc", "io", ",", "Ġthat", "ĠOld", "ĠBabylon", "ians", "Ġ\"", "may", "Ġhave", "Ġused", "Ġthe", "Ġab", "acus", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġoperations", "Ġof", "Ġaddition", "Ġand", "Ġsubt", "raction", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġprimitive", "Ġdevice", "Ġproved", "Ġdifficult", "Ġto", "Ġuse", "Ġfor", "Ġmore", "Ġcomplex", "Ġcalculations" ]
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all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities". Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks. There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible. See also Accessibility Assisted Living Augmentative and alternative communication Braille technology Design for All (in ICT) Disability Flag Durable medical equipment Matching person and technology model OATS: Open Source Assistive Technology Software Occupational Therapy Transgenerational design Universal access to education References Bibliography Educational technology Web accessibility <|endoftext|>The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool which has been used since ancient times. It was used in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of the abacus has not yet emerged. It consists of rows of movable beads, or similar objects, strung on a wire. They represent digits. One of the two numbers is set up, and the beads are manipulated to perform an operation such as addition, or even a square or cubic root. In their earliest designs, the rows of beads could be loose on a flat surface or sliding in grooves. Later the beads were made to slide on rods and built into a frame, allowing faster manipulation. Abacuses are still made, often as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires. In the ancient world, particularly before the introduction of positional notation, abacuses were a practical calculating tool. The abacus is still used to teach the fundamentals of mathematics to some children, e.g., in post-Soviet states. Designs such as the Japanese soroban have been used for practical calculations of up to multi-digit numbers. Any particular abacus design supports multiple methods to perform calculations, including the four basic operations and square and cube roots. Some of these methods work with non-natural numbers (numbers such as and ). Although calculators and computers are commonly used today instead of abacuses, abacuses remain in everyday use in some countries. Merchants, traders, and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China, and Africa use abacuses. The abacus remains in common use as a scoring system in non-electronic table games. Others may use an abacus due to visual impairment that prevents the use of a calculator. Etymology The word abacus dates to at least AD 1387 when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin that described a sandboard abacus. The Latin word is derived from ancient Greek (abax) which means something without a base, and colloquially, any piece of rectangular material. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive form of the Greek word, (abakos). While the table strewn with dust definition is popular, some argue evidence is insufficient for that conclusion. Greek probably borrowed from a Northwest Semitic language like Phoenician, evidenced by a cognate with the Hebrew word ʾābāq (), or “dust” (in the post-Biblical sense "sand used as a writing surface"). Both abacuses and abaci (soft or hard "c") are used as plurals. The user of an abacus is called an abacist. History Mesopotamia The Sumerian abacus appeared between 2700–2300 BC. It held a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal (base 60) number system. Some scholars point to a character in Babylonian cuneiform that may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars, such as Ettore Carruccio, that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations
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". Egypt Greek historian Herodotus mentioned the abacus in Ancient Egypt. He wrote that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument are yet to be discovered. Persia At around 600 BC, Persians first began to use the abacus, during the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian, Sassanian, and Iranian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire- which is how the abacus may have been exported to other countries. Greece The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Demosthenes (384 BC–322 BC) complained that the need to use pebbles for calculations was too difficult. A play by Alexis from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both Diogenes and Polybius use the abacus as a metaphor for human behavior, stating "that men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less" like the pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome, and the Western Christian world until the French Revolution. A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD (the Salamis Tablet) dates to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble in length, wide, and thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the tablet's center is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame, the Darius Vase was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures, including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other. China The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC. The Chinese abacus, also known as the suanpan (算盤/算盘, lit. "calculating tray"), is typically tall and comes in various widths, depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom one. The beads are usually rounded and made of hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not. One of the top beads is 5, while one of the bottom beads is 1. Each rod has a number under it, showing the place value. The suanpan can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the Han Dynasty, and the beads are oval. The Song Dynasty and earlier used the 1:4 type or four-beads abacus similar to the modern abacus including the shape of the beads commonly known as Japanese-style abacus. In the early Ming Dynasty, the abacus began to appear in a 1:5 ratio. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads. In the late Ming Dynasty, the abacus styles appeared in a 2:5 ratio. The upper deck had two beads, and the bottom had five. Various calculation techniques were devised for Suanpan enabling efficient calculations. Some schools teach students how to use it. In the long scroll Along the River During the Qingming Festival painted by Zhang Zeduan during the Song dynasty (960–1297), a suanpan is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an apothecary's (Feibao). The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, given evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection has been demonstrated, and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where
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341
the Roman model (like most modern Korean and Japanese) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard suanpan has 5 plus 2. Incidentally, this allows use with a hexadecimal numeral system (or any base up to 18) which may have been used for traditional Chinese measures of weight. (Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the Roman model used grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower.) Another possible source of the suanpan is Chinese counting rods, which operated with a decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a placeholder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians. Rome The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (calculi) were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens, etc. as in the Roman numeral system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to Pope Sylvester II's reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in Europe again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster and was more easily moved. Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus. One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown nearby in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens, etc., essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, related to the Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions). India The Abhidharmakośabhāṣya of Vasubandhu (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher Vasumitra said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit vartikā) on the number one (ekāṅka) means it is a one while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the abacus. Hindu texts used the term śūnya (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus. Japan In Japan, the abacus is called soroban (, lit. "counting tray"). It was imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class adopted it, as the class structure obstructed such changes. The 1:4 abacus, which removes the seldom-used second and fifth bead became popular in the 1940s. Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus, introduced from China in the Muromachi era. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is similar to the Chinese or Korean abacus, and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as a one:four device. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called 天三算盤, which is now in the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in Yamagata City. Japan also used a 2:5 type abacus. The four-bead abacus spread, and became common around the world. Improvements to the Japanese abacus arose in various places. In China an aluminium frame plastic bead abacus was used. The file is next to the four beads, and pressing the "clearing" button put the upper bead in the upper position, and the lower bead in the lower position.
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The abacus is still manufactured in Japan even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics, primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery can complete a calculation as quickly as a physical instrument. Korea The Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans call it jupan (주판), supan (수판) or jusan (주산). The four-beads abacus (1:4) was introduced during the Goryeo Dynasty. The 5:1 abacus was introduced to Korea from China during the Ming Dynasty. Native America Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. The word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl, formed by the roots; Ne – personal -; pōhual or pōhualli – the account -; and tzintzin – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements. Its use was taught in the Calmecac to the temalpouhqueh , who were students dedicated to taking the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided into two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part were four beads. Beads in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and on the right side, three beads had values of 5, 10, and 15, respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding count in the first row. The device featured 13 rows with 7 beads, 91 in total. This was a basic number for this culture. It had a close relation to natural phenomena, the underworld, and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximated one year. When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to 18 in floating point, which precisely calculated large and small amounts, although round off was not allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his travels throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. Very old Nepōhualtzintzin are attributed to the Olmec culture, and some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. Sanchez wrote in Arithmetic in Maya that another base 5, base 4 abacus had been found in the Yucatán Peninsula that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2, and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. The quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 Italian mathematician De Pasquale proposed an explanation. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20, and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum. Russia The Russian abacus, the schoty (, plural from , counting), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically,
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with each wire running horizontally. The wires are usually bowed upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either side. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. The Russian abacus was in use in shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and its usage was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia; according to Yakov Perelman. Some businessmen attempting to import calculators into the Russian Empire were known to leave in despair after watching a skilled abacus operator. Likewise, the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce abacus use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of domestic microcalculators in 1974. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who had served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and algorismic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a coulba by the Turks and a choreb by the Armenians. School abacus Around the world, abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame is common (see image). The wireframe may be used either with positional notation like other abacuses (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. Teaching multiplication, e.g. 6 times 7, may be represented by shifting 7 beads on 6 wires. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its Dutch name rekenrek ("calculating frame"), is often used, either on a string of beads or on a rigid framework. Feynman vs the abacus Physicist Richard Feynman was noted for facility in mathematical calculations. He wrote about an encounter in Brazil with a Japanese abacus expert, who challenged him to speed contests between Feynman's pen and paper, and the abacus. The abacus was much faster for addition, somewhat faster for multiplication, but Feynman was faster at division. When the abacus was used for a really difficult challenge, i.e. cube roots, Feynman won easily. However, the number chosen at random was close to a number Feynman happened to know was an exact cube, allowing him to use approximate methods. Neurological analysis Learning how to calculate with the abacus may improve capacity for mental calculation. Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC), which was derived from the abacus, is the act of performing calculations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in the mind by manipulating an imagined abacus. It is a high-level cognitive skill that runs calculations with an effective algorithm. People doing long-term AMC training show higher numerical memory capacity and experience more effectively connected neural pathways. They are able to retrieve memory to deal with complex processes. AMC involves both visuospatial and visuomotor processing that generate the visual abacus and move the imaginary beads. Since it only requires that the final position of beads be remembered, it takes less memory and less computation time. Renaissance abacuses Binary abacus The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an "on" or "off" position. Visually
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"ĠConversely", ",", "Ġmany", "ĠLewis", "Ġacids", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "ĠAr", "r", "hen", "ius", "Ġor", "ĠBr", "ø", "n", "sted", "âĢĵ", "Low", "ry", "Ġacids", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmodern", "Ġterminology", ",", "Ġan", "Ġacid", "Ġis", "Ġimplicitly", "Ġa", "ĠBr", "ø", "n", "sted", "Ġacid", "Ġand", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "ĠLewis", "Ġacid", ",", "Ġsince", "Ġchem", "ists", "Ġalmost", "Ġalways", "Ġrefer", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠLewis", "Ġacid", "Ġexplicitly", "Ġas", "Ġa", "ĠLewis", "Ġacid", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDefinitions", "Ġand", "Ġconcepts", "Ġ", "ĠModern", "Ġdefinitions", "Ġare", "Ġconcerned", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġfundamental", "Ġchemical", "Ġreactions", "Ġcommon", "Ġto", "Ġall" ]
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impaired users An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, and called a Cranmer abacus is commonly used by visually impaired users. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads, keeping them in place while the users manipulate them. The device is then used to perform the mathematical functions of multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root, and cube root. Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is often taught to these students in early grades. Blind students can also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems are tedious. The abacus gives these students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a useful tool throughout life. See also Chinese Zhusuan Chisanbop Logical abacus Mental abacus Napier's bones Sand table Slide rule Soroban Suanpan Notes Footnotes References Reading External links Tutorials Min Multimedia Abacus curiosities Abacus in Various Number Systems at cut-the-knot Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci An atomic-scale abacus Examples of Abaci Aztex Abacus Indian Abacus Mathematical tools Chinese mathematics Egyptian mathematics Greek mathematics Indian mathematics Japanese mathematics Roman mathematics <|endoftext|>An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e., hydrogen ion, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid, or, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis acid. The first category of acids are the proton donors, or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+. Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre, meaning 'sour'. An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic. Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF3), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly or by releasing protons (H+) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted–Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Definitions and concepts Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all
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acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted–Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid–base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted–Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. Arrhenius acids In 1884, Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H+), later described as protons or hydrons. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion (H3O+) or other forms (H5O2+, H9O4+). Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as hydrogen chloride and acetic acid. An Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O molecules: H3O + OH ⇌ H2O(liq) + H2O(liq) Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7. Brønsted–Lowry acids While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923, chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid–base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted–Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted–Lowry base. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted–Lowry acid. Brønsted–Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: H3O + Cl + NH3 → Cl + NH(aq) + H2O HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s) HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s) As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in
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the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid. Lewis acids A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis, which includes reactions with acid–base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid–base chemistry: In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F−, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H+, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). This article deals mostly with Brønsted acids rather than Lewis acids. Dissociation and equilibrium Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form , where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as protolysis. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the free acid. Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as . In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of Ka is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+. The stronger of two acids will have a higher Ka than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for Ka spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pKa is more frequently used, where pKa = −log10 Ka. Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pKa at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. Nomenclature Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form hydrochloric acid. Classical naming system: In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, as an acid solution, the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride. Acid strength The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a pro
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ton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A−, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant, Ka and a more negative pKa than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations. While Ka measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's Ka. Lewis acid strength in non-aqueous solutions Lewis acids have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots. It has been shown that to define the order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago's quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent. Chemical characteristics Monoprotic acids Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA):      Ka Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH). Polyprotic acids Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid (two potential protons to donate), and triprotic (or tribasic) acid (three potential protons to donate). Some macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids can have a very large number of acidic protons. A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2.     Ka1       Ka2 The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second (i.e., Ka1 > Ka2). For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation
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makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3.      Ka1       Ka2      Ka3 An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO, then HPO, and finally PO, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, α (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H2A, HA−, and A2−. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H+]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given K1 and K2, is known as a Bjerrum plot. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times: where K0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid. Neutralization Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt (e.g., sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide). Weak acid–weak base equilibrium In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the pKa of the acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions. Titration To determine the concentration of an acid in an aqueous solution, an acid–base titration is commonly performed. A strong base solution with a known concentration, usually NaOH or KOH, is added to neutralize the acid solution according to the color change of the indicator with the amount of base added. The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes, with the base volume on the x-axis and the solution's pH value on the y-axis. The pH of the solution always goes up as the base is added to the solution. Example: Diprotic acid For each diprotic acid titration curve, from left to right, there are two midpoints, two equivalence points, and two buffer regions. Equivalence points Due to the successive dissociation processes, there are two equivalence points in the titration curve of a diprotic acid. The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydrogen ions from the first ionization are titrated. In other words, the amount of OH− added equals the original amount of H2A at the first equivalence point. The second equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen
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"ĠIn", "Ġhuman", "Ġbodies", "ĠAc", "ids", "Ġplay", "Ġimportant", "Ġroles", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġhydro", "chlor", "ic", "Ġacid", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstomach", "Ġaids", "Ġdigestion", "Ġby", "Ġbreaking", "Ġdown", "Ġlarge", "Ġand", "Ġcomplex", "Ġfood", "Ġmolecules", ".", "ĠAmin", "o", "Ġacids", "Ġare", "Ġrequired", "Ġfor", "Ġsynthesis", "Ġof", "Ġproteins", "Ġrequired", "Ġfor", "Ġgrowth", "Ġand", "Ġrepair", "Ġof", "Ġbody", "Ġtissues", ".", "ĠFat", "ty", "Ġacids", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġrequired", "Ġfor", "Ġgrowth", "Ġand", "Ġrepair", "Ġof", "Ġbody", "Ġtissues", ".", "ĠN", "ucle", "ic", "Ġacids", "Ġare", "Ġimportant", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġmanufacturing", "Ġof", "ĠDNA", "Ġand", "ĠRNA", "Ġand", "Ġtransmitting", "Ġof", "Ġtraits", "Ġto", "Ġoffspring", "Ġthrough", "Ġgenes", ".", "ĠCarbon", "ic", "Ġacid", "Ġis", "Ġimportant", "Ġfor", "Ġmaintenance", "Ġof", "ĠpH", "Ġequilibrium", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHuman", "Ġbodies", "Ġcontain", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", 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ions are titrated. Therefore, the amount of OH− added equals twice the amount of H2A at this time. For a weak diprotic acid titrated by a strong base, the second equivalence point must occur at pH above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution. At either equivalence point, adding a drop of base will cause the steepest rise of the pH value in the system. Buffer regions and midpoints A titration curve for a diprotic acid contains two midpoints where pH=pKa. Since there are two different Ka values, the first midpoint occurs at pH=pKa1 and the second one occurs at pH=pKa2. Each segment of the curve which contains a midpoint at its center is called the buffer region. Because the buffer regions consist of the acid and its conjugate base, it can resist pH changes when base is added until the next equivalent points. Applications of acids Acids exist universally in our lives. There are both numerous kinds of natural acid compounds with biological functions and massive synthesized acids which are used in many ways. In industry Acids are fundamental reagents in treating almost all processes in today's industry. Sulfuric acid, a diprotic acid, is the most widely used acid in industry, which is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world. It is mainly used in producing fertilizer, detergent, batteries and dyes, as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities. According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around 200 million tonnes in the world. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery. In food Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava. Many acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles. Carbonic acid is one of the most common acid additives that are widely added in soft drinks. During the manufacturing process, CO2 is usually pressurized to dissolve in these drinks to generate carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is very unstable and tends to decompose into water and CO2 at room temperature and pressure. Therefore, when bottles or cans of these kinds of soft drinks are opened, the soft drinks fizz and effervesce as CO2 bubbles come out. Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. In human bodies Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body. Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, among those dicarboxylic acids play an essential role in many biological behaviors. Many of those acids are amino acids which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins. Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from undergoing large scale changes which would be harmful to cells. The rest of the dicarboxylic acids also participate in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds
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in human bodies. Acid catalysis Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Some acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids, also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis. Biological occurrence Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids. An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO−) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid–base reactions. In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid. Acid–base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion. It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2. Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e., as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids
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. Common acids Mineral acids (inorganic acids) Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI) Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO2), chloric acid (HClO3), perchloric acid (HClO4), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine Hypofluorous acid (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO3F) Nitric acid (HNO3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6) Fluoroboric acid (HBF4) Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF6) Chromic acid (H2CrO4) Boric acid (H3BO3) Sulfonic acids A sulfonic acid has the general formula RS(=O)2–OH, where R is an organic radical. Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH3SO3H) Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH3CH2SO3H) Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C6H5SO3H) p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH3C6H4SO3H) Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF3SO3H) Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, [CH2CH(C6H4)SO3H]n) Carboxylic acids A carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a carbonyl group, C=O, and a hydroxyl group, O-H. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Citric acid (C6H8O7) Formic acid (HCOOH) Gluconic acid HOCH2-(CHOH)4-COOH Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH) Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH) Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH) Halogenated carboxylic acids Halogenation at alpha position increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid. Fluoroacetic acid Trifluoroacetic acid Chloroacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Vinylogous carboxylic acids Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups. Ascorbic acid Nucleic acids Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) References Listing of strengths of common acids and bases External links Curtipot: Acid–Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis – freeware Acid–base chemistry <|endoftext|>Asphalt, also known as bitumen (, ), is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The largest natural deposit of asphalt in the world, estimated to contain 10 million tons, is the Pitch Lake located in La Brea in southwest Trinidad (Antilles island located on the northeastern coast of Venezuela), within the Siparia Regional Corporation. The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs. In material sciences and engineering, the terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance, although there is regional variation as to which term is most common. Worldwide,
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"ĠGreek", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "ás", "phalt", "os", ",", "ĠÃ", "¡", "s", "phal", "ton", "),", "Ġa", "Ġword", "Ġmeaning", "Ġ\"", "as", "phalt", "/", "bit", "umen", "/", "p", "itch", "\",", "Ġwhich", "Ġperhaps", "Ġderives", "Ġfrom", "Ġ,", "Ġ\"", "not", ",", "Ġwithout", "\",", "Ġi", ".", "e", ".", "Ġthe", "Ġalpha", "Ġpriv", "ative", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "s", "ph", "alle", "in", "),", "Ġ\"", "to", "Ġcause", "Ġto", "Ġfall", ",", "Ġbaff", "le", ",", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġpassive", ")", "Ġerr", ",", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġpassive", ")", "Ġbe", "Ġbalk", "ed", "Ġof", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġfirst", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġasphalt", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġan", "cients", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnature", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġcement", "Ġfor", "Ġsecuring", "Ġor", "Ġjoining", "Ġtogether", "Ġvarious", "Ġobjects", ",", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġthus", "Ġseems", "Ġlikely", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġname", "Ġitself", "Ġwas", "Ġexpressive", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġapplication", ".", "ĠSpecifically", ",", "ĠHerod", "ot", "us", "Ġmentioned", "Ġthat", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġwas", 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"Ġor", "Ġ\"", "t", "armac", "\").", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠCanadian", "ĠEnglish", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġword", "Ġ\"", "bit", "umen", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġrefer", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġvast", "ĠCanadian", "Ġdeposits", "Ġof", "Ġextremely", "Ġheavy", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġ\"", "as", "phalt", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġoil", "Ġrefinery", "Ġproduct", ".", "ĠDil", "uted", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġ(", "d", "il", "uted", "Ġwith", "Ġn", "aph", "tha", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġit", "Ġflow", "Ġin", "Ġpipelines", ")", "Ġis", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "d", "il", "bit", "\"", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCanadian", "Ġpetroleum", "Ġindustry", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġ\"", "up", "graded", "\"", "Ġto", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", "Ġis", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "syn", "cr", "ude", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġsyn", "cr", "ude", "Ġblended", "Ġwith", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġis", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "syn", "bit", "\".", "Ġ", "Ġ\"", "Bit", "umen", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġthe", "Ġpreferred", "Ġgeological", "Ġterm", "Ġfor", 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352
geologists tend to favor the term "bitumen" for the naturally occurring material. For the manufactured material, which is a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils, "bitumen" is the prevalent term in much of the world; however, in American English, "asphalt" is more commonly used. To help avoid confusion, the phrases "liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or "asphalt cement" are used in the U.S. Colloquially, various forms of asphalt are sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits, although tar is a different material. Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural asphalt in the Athabasca oil sands, which cover , an area larger than England. Asphalt properties change with temperature, which means that there is a specific range where viscosity permits adequate compaction by providing lubrication between particles during the compaction process. Low temperature prevents aggregate particles from moving, and the required density is not possible to achieve. Computer simulations of simplified model systems are able to reproduce some of asphalt's characteristic properties. Terminology Etymology The word "asphalt" is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French asphalte, based on Late Latin asphalton, asphaltum, which is the latinisation of the Greek (ásphaltos, ásphalton), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch", which perhaps derives from , "not, without", i.e. the alpha privative, and (sphallein), "to cause to fall, baffle, (in passive) err, (in passive) be balked of". The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (asphalte) and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). In French, the term asphalte is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. The Latin source of the word "bitumen" is claimed by some to be originally gwitu-men (pertaining to pitch), and by others, pixtumens (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to bitumen, thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the Anglo-Saxon word cwidu (mastix), the German word Kitt (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word kvada. Modern terminology In British English, "bitumen" is used instead of "asphalt". The word "asphalt" is instead used to refer to asphalt concrete, a mixture of construction aggregate and asphalt itself (also called "tarmac" in common parlance). Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called "asphaltum", but the term is less commonly used today. In Australian English, the word "asphalt" is used to describe a mix of construction aggregate. "Bitumen" refers to the liquid derived from the heavy-residues from crude oil distillation. In American English, "asphalt" is equivalent to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt" is also commonly used as a shortened form of "asphalt concrete" (therefore equivalent to the British "asphalt" or "tarmac"). In Canadian English, the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with naphtha to make it flow in pipelines) is known as "dilbit" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "upgraded" to synthetic crude oil is known as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called "synbit". "Bitumen" is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. "Bituminous rock" is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The oil sands of Alberta, Canada are a similar material. Neither of the terms "asphalt" or "bitumen" should be confused with tar or coal tars. Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry distillation
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353
and pyrolysis of organic hydrocarbons primarily sourced from vegetation masses, whether fossilized as with coal, or freshly harvested. The majority of bitumen, on the other hand, was formed naturally when vast quantities of organic animal materials were deposited by water and buried hundreds of metres deep at the diagenetic point, where the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon molecules joined together in long chains in the absence of oxygen. Bitumen occurs as a solid or highly viscous liquid. It may even be mixed in with coal deposits. Bitumen, and coal using the Bergius process, can be refined into petrols such as gasoline, and bitumen may be distilled into tar, not the other way around. Composition Normal composition The components of asphalt include four main classes of compounds: Naphthene aromatics (naphthalene), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids produced by partial oxidation of the material Saturated hydrocarbons; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Most natural bitumens also contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found at <10 parts per million, as is typical of some petroleum. The substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase. "It is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large". Asphalt may be confused with coal tar, which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-20th century, when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to macadam roads led to the word "tarmac", which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. "Pitch" is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt, as in Pitch Lake. Additives, mixtures and contaminants For economic and other reasons, asphalt is sometimes sold combined with other materials, often without being labeled as anything other than simply "asphalt". Of particular note is the use of re-refined engine oil bottoms – "REOB" or "REOBs"the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically iron and copper). Some research has indicated a correlation between this adulteration of asphalt and poorer-performing pavement. Occurrence The majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These natural deposits of bitumen have been formed during the Carboniferous period, when giant swamp forests dominated many parts of the Earth. They were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum. Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits and in the Dead Sea. Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering , an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States. The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands,
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354
is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage. Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah, US. The Tar Sand Triangle deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen. Bitumen may occur in hydrothermal veins. An example of this is within the Uinta Basin of Utah, in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed Gilsonite. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the Green River Formation during burial and diagenesis. Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites. However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly algae, that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of . Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands. History Ancient times The use of natural bitumen for waterproofing, and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth millennium BC, with a crop storage basket discovered in Mehrgarh, of the Indus Valley Civilization, lined with it. By the 3rd millennium BC refined rock asphalt was in use in the region, and was used to waterproof the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro. In the ancient Middle East, the Sumerians used natural bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship caulking, and for waterproofing. The Greek historian Herodotus said hot bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of Babylon. The long Euphrates Tunnel beneath the river Euphrates at Babylon in the time of Queen Semiramis (c. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent. Bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. The Persian word for asphalt is moom, which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the Dead Sea, which the Romans knew as Palus Asphaltites (Asphalt Lake). In approximately 40 AD, Dioscorides described the Dead Sea material as Judaicum bitumen, and noted other places in the region where it could be found. The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at Hasbeya in Lebanon. Pliny also refers to bitumen being found in Epirus. Bitumen was a valuable strategic resource. It was the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit – between the Seleucids and the Nabateans in 312 BC. In the ancient Far East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, such as scabbards and other items. Statuettes of household deities were also cast with this type of material in Japan, and probably also in China. In North America, archaeological recovery has indicated that bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone projectile points to wooden shafts. In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the Athabasca and other rivers to waterproof birch bark canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off mosquitoes in the summer. Continental Europe In 1553, Pierre Belon described in his work Observations that pissasphalto, a mixture of pitch and bitumen, was used in the Republic of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia) for tarring of ships. An 1838 edition of Mechanics Magazine cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum)
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355
in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation". But the substance was generally neglected in France until the revolution of 1830. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann (Bas-Rhin), the Parc (Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix (Puy-de-Dôme)", although it could also be made artificially. One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the Place de la Concorde in 1835. United Kingdom Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's Polygraphice (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of mastic, and one ounce of asphaltum. By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources. The first British patent for the use of asphalt was "Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen" in 1834. Then on 25 November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement, having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)". Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851, extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge. Claridge's Patent Asphalte Companyformed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France","laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and Marc and Isambard Brunel as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry". "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production", with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in good order". The Bonnington Chemical Works manufactured asphalt using coal tar and by 1839 had installed it in Bonnington. In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s". In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce tar-bound macadam, with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd. Two products resulted, namely Clarmac, and Clarphalte, with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although Clarmac
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356
was more widely used. However, the First World War ruined the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915. The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up, ceasing operations in 1917, having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company. Bitumen was thought in 19th century Britain to contain chemicals with medicinal properties. Extracts from bitumen were used to treat catarrh and some forms of asthma and as a remedy against worms, especially the tapeworm. United States The first use of bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water. Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. In the horse-drawn era, US streets were mostly unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. Especially where mud or trenching often made streets difficult to pass, pavements were sometimes made of diverse materials including wooden planks, cobble stones or other stone blocks, or bricks. Unpaved roads produced uneven wear and hazards for pedestrians. In the late 19th century with the rise of the popular bicycle, bicycle clubs were important in pushing for more general pavement of streets. Advocacy for pavement increased in the early 20th century with the rise of the automobile. Asphalt gradually became an ever more common method of paving. St. Charles Avenue in New Orleans was paved its whole length with asphalt by 1889. In 1900, Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses, pulling streetcars, wagons, and carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets. Small towns continued to rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities wanted much better streets. They looked to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s. In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of streets were paved, chiefly with wooden blocks, which gave better traction than mud. Brick surfacing was a good compromise, but even better was asphalt paving, which was easy to install and to cut through to get at sewers. With London and Paris serving as models, Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882; it became the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick. The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers until they bought automobiles after 1945 and commuted from more distant suburbs in privacy and comfort on asphalt highways. Canada Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the Athabasca oil sands, and Canadian First Nations along the Athabasca River had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a Cree named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay Company, who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance." The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen was not. The nearest town, Fort McMurray, Alberta, was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet of
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357
road in Edmonton, Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic Site. Photography and art Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826, or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes. Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle. Modern use Global use The vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, asphalt is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is used as the binder in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse aggregates such as sand, gravel and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers (e.g., rubber tyres), may be added to the asphalt to modify its properties according to the application for which the asphalt is ultimately intended. A further 10% of global asphalt production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable. The remaining 5% of asphalt is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint. Asphalt is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as the following: Highways Airport runways Footways and pedestrian ways Car parks Racetracks Tennis courts Roofing Damp proofing Dams Reservoir and pool linings Soundproofing Pipe coatings Cable coatings Paints Building water proofing Tile underlying waterproofing Newspaper ink production and many other applications Rolled asphalt concrete The largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe. Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt and the aggregates, but warm-mix asphalt technologies allow producers to reduce the temperature required. The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the aggregate type, the asphalt, and the air void content. An average example in the United States is about 112 pounds per square yard,
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"Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠAlberta", ",", "Ġfive", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġupgr", "aders", "Ġproduce", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġother", "Ġproducts", ":", "ĠThe", "ĠSun", "cor", "ĠEnergy", "Ġupgr", "ader", "Ġnear", "ĠFort", "ĠMcM", "ur", "ray", ",", "ĠAlberta", "Ġproduces", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", "Ġplus", "Ġdiesel", "Ġfuel", ";", "Ġthe", "ĠSyn", "cr", "ude", "ĠCanada", ",", "ĠCanadian", "ĠNatural", "ĠResources", ",", "Ġand", "ĠNex", "en", "Ġupgr", "aders", "Ġnear", "ĠFort", "ĠMcM", "ur", "ray", "Ġproduce", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", ";", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠShell", "ĠScot", "ford", "ĠUp", "gr", "ader", "Ġnear", "ĠEdmonton", "Ġproduces", "Ġsynthetic", "Ġcrude", "Ġoil", "Ġplus", "Ġan", "Ġintermediate", "Ġfeed", "stock", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġnearby", "ĠShell", "ĠOil", "ĠRef", "inery", ".", "ĠA", "Ġsixth", "Ġupgr", "ader", ",", "Ġunder", "Ġconstruction", "Ġin", "Ġ2015", "Ġnear", "ĠRed", "water", ",", "ĠAlberta", ",", 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"Ġgasoline", ",", "Ġdiesel", "Ġfuel", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrefined", "Ġasphalt", "Ġwithout", "Ġany", "Ġpre", "processing", "." ]
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per inch of pavement thickness. When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments or stockpiled for future use. Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for runways. Mastic asphalt Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt concrete) in that it has a higher asphalt (binder) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about thick. Asphalt emulsion A number of technologies allow asphalt to be applied at mild temperatures. The viscosity can be lowered by emulsfying the asphalt by the addition of fatty amines. 2–25% is the content of these emulsifying agents. The cationic amines enhance the binding of the asphalt to the surface of the crushed rock. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal is a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements. Bitumen emulsion based techniques are known to be useful for all classes of roads, their use may also be possible in the following applications: 1. Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads (based on the use of polymer modified emulsions) 2. Warm emulsion based mixtures, to improve both their maturation time and mechanical properties 3. Half-warm technology, in which aggregates are heated up to 100 degrees, producing mixtures with similar properties to those of hot asphalts 4. High performance surface dressing. Synthetic crude oil Synthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100-ton capacity) power shovels and loaded into even larger (400-ton capacity) dump trucks for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by Dr. Karl Clark of the University of Alberta during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader which converts it into a light crude oil equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional oil pipelines and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States. In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants. Non-upgraded crude bitumen Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing.
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"ox", "Ġconditions", "Ġprevailing", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġhost", "Ġrock", "Ġby", "Ġestablishing", "Ġoxid", "izing", "Ġconditions", ",", "Ġpreventing", "Ġthe", "Ġreduction", "Ġof", "Ġred", "ox", "-", "sensitive", "Ġrad", "ion", "ucl", "ides", ".", "ĠUnder", "Ġtheir", "Ġhigher", "Ġval", "ences", ",", "Ġrad", "ion", "ucl", "ides", "Ġof", "Ġelements", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġse", "len", "ium", ",", "Ġtechn", "et", "ium", ",", "Ġuranium", ",", "Ġne", "pt", "un", "ium", "Ġand", "Ġplutonium", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġhigher", "Ġsol", "ub", "ility", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġoften", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġwater", "Ġas", "Ġnon", "-", "ret", "arded", "Ġan", "ions", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġmakes", "Ġthe", "Ġdisposal", "Ġof", "Ġmedium", "-", "level", "Ġbit", "umin", "ised", "Ġwaste", "Ġvery", "Ġchallenging", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDifferent", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġasphalt", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġused", ":", "Ġblown", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġ(", "part", "ly", "Ġoxid", "ized", "Ġwith", "Ġair", "Ġoxygen", "Ġat", "Ġhigh", "Ġtemperature", "Ġafter", "Ġdist", "illation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġharder", ")", "Ġand", "Ġdirect", "Ġdist", "illation", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġ(", "so", "fter", ").", "ĠBl", "own", "Ġbit", "um", "ens", "Ġlike", "ĠMex", "phal", "te", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġhigh", "Ġcontent", "Ġof", "Ġsaturated", "Ġhydro", "car", "bons", ",", "Ġare", "Ġmore", "Ġeasily", "Ġbi", "ode", "graded", "Ġby", "Ġmicro", "organisms", "Ġthan", "Ġdirect", "Ġdist", "illation", "Ġbit", "umen", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġlow", "Ġcontent", "Ġof", "Ġsaturated", "Ġhydro", "car", "bons", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġhigh", "Ġcontent", "Ġof", "Ġaromatic", "Ġhydro", "car", "bons", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCon", "crete", "Ġencaps", "ulation", "Ġof", "Ġrad", "w", "aste", "Ġis", "Ġpresently", "Ġconsidered", "Ġa", "Ġsafer", "Ġalternative", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġnuclear", "Ġindustry", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġwaste", "Ġmanagement", "Ġorganisations", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġuses", "ĠRoof", "ing", "Ġsh", "ing", "les", "Ġand", "Ġroll", "Ġroof", "ing", "Ġaccount", "Ġfor", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġremaining", 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"Ġobtained", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "heavy", "\"", "Ġ(", "i", ".", "e", ".,", "Ġdifficult", "Ġto", "Ġdist", "ill", ")", "Ġfraction", "." ]
359
This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States. Because of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with natural-gas condensate in a form called dilbit or with synthetic crude oil, called synbit. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as Western Canadian Select. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as Mexican Mayan or Arabian Dubai Crude. Radioactive waste encapsulation matrix Asphalt was used starting in the 1960s as a hydrophobic matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts (mainly soluble sodium nitrate and sodium sulfate) produced by the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels or radioactive sludges from sedimentation ponds. Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic elements from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in Japan) and long-term stability problems related to their geological disposal in deep rock formations. One of the main problems is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation and to water. Asphalt swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma radiolysis. A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the asphalt acting as a semi-permeable membrane. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the redox conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions, preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences, radionuclides of elements such as selenium, technetium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium have a higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded anions. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging. Different types of asphalt have been used: blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation, and harder) and direct distillation bitumen (softer). Blown bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons, are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen, with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons. Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the nuclear industry and the waste management organisations. Other uses Roofing shingles and roll roofing account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker. Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. Production About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984. It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction.
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"Ġin", "Ġroads", "Ġthat", "Ġneed", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġrep", "aved", "Ġmore", "Ġfrequently", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNon", "pet", "roleum", "-", "based", "Ġasphalt", "Ġbind", "ers", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġmade", "Ġlight", "-", "colored", ".", "ĠL", "ighter", "-", "colored", "Ġroads", "Ġabsorb", "Ġless", "Ġheat", "Ġfrom", "Ġsolar", "Ġradiation", ",", "Ġreducing", "Ġtheir", "Ġcontribution", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġurban", "Ġheat", "Ġisland", "Ġeffect", ".", "ĠParking", "Ġlots", "Ġthat", "Ġuse", "Ġasphalt", "Ġalternatives", "Ġare", "Ġcalled", "Ġgreen", "Ġparking", "Ġlots", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġdeposits", "ĠSel", "en", "izza", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġnaturally", "Ġoccurring", "Ġsolid", "Ġhydro", "carbon", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġnative", "Ġdeposits", "Ġin", "ĠSel", "en", "ice", ",", "Ġin", "ĠAlbania", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "ĠEuropean", "Ġasphalt", "Ġmine", "Ġstill", "Ġin", "Ġuse", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġveins", ",", "Ġfilling", "Ġcracks", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġor", "Ġless", "Ġhorizontal", "Ġdirection", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġcontent", "Ġvaries", "Ġfrom", "Ġ83", "%", "Ġto", "Ġ92", "%", "Ġ(", "sol", "uble", "Ġin", "Ġcarbon", "Ġdis", "ul", "ph", "ide", "),", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġpenetration", "Ġvalue", "Ġnear", "Ġto", "Ġzero", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġsoft", "ening", "Ġpoint", "Ġ(", "ring", "Ġand", "Ġball", ")", "Ġaround", "Ġ120", "Âł", "°", "C", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġinsol", "uble", "Ġmatter", ",", "Ġconsisting", "Ġmainly", "Ġof", "Ġsil", "ica", "Ġore", ",", "Ġranges", "Ġfrom", "Ġ8", "%", "Ġto", "Ġ17", "%.", "Ġ", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġextraction", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlong", "Ġhistory", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġpracticed", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġorganized", "Ġway", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠRomans", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġcenturies", "Ġof", "Ġsilence", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġmentions", "Ġof", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġappeared", "Ġonly", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "68", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġthe", "ĠFrenchman", "ĠCo", "qu", "and", "Ġpublished", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġgeological", "Ġdescription", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdeposits", "Ġof", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġbit", "umen", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ18", "75", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġexploitation", "Ġrights", "Ġwere", "Ġgranted", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠOttoman", "Ġgovernment", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġ1912", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġtransferred", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠItalian", "Ġcompany", "ĠSim", "sa", ".", "ĠSince", "Ġ1945", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmine", "Ġwas", "Ġexploited", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAlban", "ian", "Ġgovernment", "Ġand", "Ġfrom", "Ġ2001", "Ġto", "Ġdate", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmanagement", "Ġpassed", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠFrench", "Ġcompany", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġorganized", "Ġthe", "Ġmining", "Ġprocess", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġmanufacture", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnatural", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġon", "Ġan", "Ġindustrial", "Ġscale", ".", "Ġ", "ĠToday", "Ġthe", "Ġmine", "Ġis", "Ġpredominantly", "Ġexploited", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġopen", "Ġpit", "Ġquarry", "Ġbut", "Ġseveral", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmany", "Ġunderground", "Ġmines", "Ġ(", "deep", "Ġand", "Ġextending", "Ġover", "Ġseveral", "Ġkm", ")", "Ġstill", "Ġremain", "Ġviable", ".", "ĠSel", "en", "izza", "Ġis", "Ġproduced", "Ġprimarily", "Ġin", "Ġgran", "ular", "Ġform", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġmelting", "Ġthe", "Ġbit", "umen", "Ġpieces", "Ġselected", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmine", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSel", "en", "izza", "Ġis", "Ġmainly", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġadditive", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġroad", "Ġconstruction", "Ġsector", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġmixed", "Ġwith", "Ġtraditional", "Ġasphalt", "Ġto", "Ġimprove", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġvis", "co", "el", "astic", "Ġproperties", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġresistance", "Ġto", "Ġageing", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġblended", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġhot", "Ġasphalt", "Ġin", "Ġtanks", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġits", "Ġgran", "ular", "Ġform", "Ġallows", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġfed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmixer", "Ġor", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġrecycling", "Ġring", "Ġof", "Ġnormal", "Ġasphalt", "Ġplants", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġtypical", "Ġapplications", "Ġinclude", "Ġthe", "Ġproduction", "Ġof", "Ġm", "astic", "Ġas", "phal", "ts", "Ġfor", "Ġsidewalks", ",", "Ġbridges", ",", "Ġcar", "-", "par", "ks", "Ġand", "Ġurban", "Ġroads", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġdrilling", "Ġfluid", "Ġadditives", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġoil", "Ġand", "Ġgas", "Ġindustry", ".", "ĠSel", "en" ]
360
Material with a boiling point greater than around 500 °C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and diesel). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a de-asphalting unit, the crude asphalt is treated with either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This step makes the product harder and more viscous. Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around . Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to environmental concerns. Oil sands Naturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from "oil sands", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven oil reserves in the world. The Athabasca oil sands are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to surface mining, although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by in situ methods. Because of oil price increases after 2003, producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude bitumen production averaged about per day and was projected to rise to per day by 2020. The total amount of crude bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted is estimated to be about , which at a rate of would last about 200 years. Alternatives and bioasphalt Although uncompetitive economically, asphalt can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, molasses and rice, corn and potato starches. Asphalt can also be made from waste material by fractional distillation of used motor oil, which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently. Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the urban heat island effect. Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called green parking lots. Albanian deposits Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in Selenice, in Albania, the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring and ball) around 120 °C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%. Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale. Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine. Selenizza is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selen
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"Ġtar", ",", "Ġresin", "Ġor", "Ġasphalt", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "phalt", "Ġplant", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "phal", "ten", "e", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠBio", "as", "phalt", "Ġ", "ĠBit", "umen", "-", "based", "Ġfuel", "Ġ", "ĠBit", "umin", "ous", "Ġrocks", "Ġ", "ĠBlack", "top", "Ġ", "ĠCar", "iph", "al", "te", "Ġ", "ĠCooper", "ĠResearch", "ĠTechnology", "Ġ", "ĠD", "ux", "it", "Ġ", "ĠMac", "ad", "am", "Ġ", "ĠOil", "Ġsands", "Ġ", "ĠPitch", "Ġdrop", "Ġexperiment", "Ġ", "ĠPitch", "Ġ(", "res", "in", ")", "Ġ", "ĠRoad", "Ġsurface", "Ġ", "ĠTar", "Ġ", "ĠT", "armac", "Ġ", "ĠSeal", "coat", "Ġ", "ĠSt", "amped", "Ġasphalt", "Ġ", "ĠNotes", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠSources", "Ġ", "ĠBarth", ",", "ĠEdwin", "ĠJ", ".", "Ġ(", "19", "62", "),", "ĠAs", "phalt", ":", "ĠScience", "Ġand", "ĠTechnology", ",", "ĠGordon", "Ġand", "ĠBreach", ".", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠP", "avement", "ĠInteractive", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAs", "phalt", "Ġ", "ĠCS", "U", "ĠSacramento", ",", "ĠThe", "ĠWorld", "ĠFamous", "ĠAs", "phalt", "ĠMuseum", "!", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNational", "ĠInstitute", "Ġfor", "ĠOccup", "ational", "ĠSafety", "Ġand", "ĠHealth", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAs", "phalt", "ĠF", "umes", "ĠScientific", "ĠAmerican", ",", "Ġ\"", "As", "phalt", "\",", "Ġ20", "-", "Aug", "-", "18", "81", ",", "Ġpp", ".", "Âł", "121", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAm", "orph", "ous", "Ġsol", "ids", "ĠBuilding", "Ġmaterials", "ĠChemical", "Ġm", "ixtures", "ĠI", "ARC", "ĠGroup", "Ġ2", "B", "Ġcarcin", "ogens", "ĠP", "ave", "ments", "ĠPetroleum", "Ġproducts", "ĠRoad", "Ġconstruction", "Ġmaterials", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "The", "ĠAmerican", "ĠNational", "ĠStandards", "ĠInstitute", "Ġ(", "AN", "SI", "Ġ", "Ġ)", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġprivate", "Ġnon", "-", "profit", "Ġorganization", "Ġthat", "Ġoversees", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġvoluntary", "Ġconsensus" ]
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izza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags. A life-cycle assessment study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum asphalt has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission. Recycling Asphalt is a commonly recycled material in the construction industry. The two most common recycled materials that contain asphalt are reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS). RAP is recycled at a greater rate than any other material in the United States, and typically contains approximately 5 – 6% asphalt binder. Asphalt shingles typically contain 20 – 40% asphalt binder. Asphalt naturally becomes stiffer over time due to oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and physical hardening. For this reason, recycled asphalt is typically combined with virgin asphalt, softening agents, and/or rejuvenating additives to restore its physical and chemical properties. For information on the processing and performance of RAP and RAS, see Asphalt Concrete. For information on the different types of RAS and associated health and safety concerns, see Asphalt Shingles. For information on in-place recycling methods used to restore pavements and roadways, see Road Surface. Economics Although asphalt typically makes up only 4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement mixture, as the pavement's binder, it is also the most expensive part of the cost of the road-paving material. During asphalt's early use in modern paving, oil refiners gave it away. However, asphalt is a highly traded commodity today. Its prices increased substantially in the early 21st Century. A U.S. government report states: "In 2002, asphalt sold for approximately $160 per ton. By the end of 2006, the cost had doubled to approximately $320 per ton, and then it almost doubled again in 2012 to approximately $610 per ton." The report indicates that an "average" 1-mile (1.6-kilometer)-long, four-lane highway would include "300 tons of asphalt," which, "in 2002 would have cost around $48,000. By 2006 this would have increased to $96,000 and by 2012 to $183,000... an increase of about $135,000 for every mile of highway in just 10 years." Health and safety People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 over a 15-minute period. Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions. In particular, temperatures greater than 199 °C (390 °F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement. IARC has classified paving asphalt fumes as a Class 2B possible carcinogen, indicating inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. In 2020, scientists reported that asphalt currently is a significant and largely overlooked source of air pollution in urban areas, especially during hot and sunny periods. An asphalt-like substance found in the Himalayas and known as shilajit is sometimes used as an Ayurveda medicine, but is not in fact a tar, resin or asphalt. See also Asphalt plant Asphaltene Bioasphalt Bitumen-based fuel Bituminous rocks Blacktop Cariphalte Cooper Research Technology Duxit Macadam Oil sands Pitch drop experiment Pitch (resin) Road surface Tar Tarmac Sealcoat Stamped asphalt Notes References Sources Barth, Edwin J. (1962), Asphalt: Science and Technology, Gordon and Breach. . External links Pavement Interactive – Asphalt CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum! National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes Scientific American, "Asphalt", 20-Aug-1881, pp. 121 Amorphous solids Building materials Chemical mixtures IARC Group 2B carcinogens Pavements Petroleum products Road construction materials <|endoftext|>The American National Standards Institute (ANSI ) is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus
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standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI's operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. History ANSI was most likely originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, now IEEE) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers) American Society for Testing and Materials (now ASTM International) had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the Department of Defense or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards. Members ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide. Process Although ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties broad-based public review and comment on draft standards consideration of and response to comments incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process. International activities In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as a founding member, and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012. Standards panels The Institute administers nine standards panels: ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC) ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (
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ANSI-NSP) ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP) ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC) Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC) Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP) ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. American national standards The ASA (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934), became the basis for the ISO system (since 1974), currently used worldwide (ISO 6, ISO 2240, ISO 5800, ISO 12232). A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created ASCII seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code or EBCDIC). In Microsoft Windows, the phrase "ANSI" refers to the Windows ANSI code pages (even though they are not ANSI standards). Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for ideographic languages are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the ISO-8859 series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. The first computer programming language standard was "American Standard Fortran" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966. The programming language COBOL had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by ISO. The original standard implementation of the C programming language was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known ANSI C. The X3J13 committee was created in 1986 to formalize the ongoing consolidation of Common Lisp, culminating in 1994 with the publication of ANSI's first object-oriented programming standard. A popular Unified Thread Standard for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003. The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc. The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance. The ANSI/HI (Hydraulic Institute) standards used for pumps. The ANSI for eye protection is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear. The ANSI paper sizes (ANSI/ASME Y14.1). Other initiatives In 2008, ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, created the first dynamic, online web library for ISO 14000 standards. On June 23, 2009, ANSI announced a product and services agreement with Citation Technologies to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality. ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, AAMI, ASTM, and DIN, created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009. In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard ASTM E2659-09. In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP's product certification bodies. In 2006, ANSI launched www.StandardsPortal.org, an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for the United States, China, India, Korea, and Brazil, with additional countries and
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364
regions planned for future content. ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to "Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems", for example. See also Accredited Crane Operator Certification ANSI ASC X9 ANSI ASC X12 ANSI C Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM) ISO (to which ANSI is the official US representative) National Information Standards Organization (NISO) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Open standards References External links 1918 establishments in the United States 501(c)(3) organizations Charities based in Washington, D.C. ISO member bodies Organizations established in 1918 Technical specifications <|endoftext|>In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion. Argument may also refer to: Mathematics and computer science Argument (complex analysis), a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number Command-line argument, an item of information provided to a program when it is started Parameter (computer programming), a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine Argument principle, a theorem in complex analysis An argument of a function, also known as an independent variable Language and rhetoric Argument (literature), a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work Argument (linguistics), a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause Oral argument in the United States, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail Closing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case Other uses Musical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form Argument (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809 Das Argument, a German academic journal Argument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch A disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement Argument (horse) See also The Argument (disambiguation) <|endoftext|>Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagles ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." Background In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On
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".", "ĠThe", "ĠApollo", "Ġproject", "Ġwas", "Ġenabled", "Ġby", "ĠNASA", "'s", "Ġadoption", "Ġof", "Ġnew", "Ġadvances", "Ġin", "Ġsemic", "onductor", "Ġelectronic", "Ġtechnology", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġmetal", "-", "oxide", "-", "se", "mic", "onductor", "Ġfield", "-", "effect", "Ġtrans", "istors", "Ġ(", "M", "OS", "F", "ET", "s", ")", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠInter", "plan", "etary", "ĠMonitoring", "ĠPlatform", "Ġ(", "IM", "P", ")", "Ġand", "Ġsilicon", "Ġintegrated", "Ġcircuit", "Ġ(", "IC", ")", "Ġchips", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "ĠGuid", "ance", "ĠComputer", "Ġ(", "AG", "C", ").", "Ġ", "ĠProject", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġabruptly", "Ġhalted", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ1", "Ġfire", "Ġon", "ĠJanuary", "Ġ27", ",", "Ġ1967", ",", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġastronauts", "ĠGus", "ĠGr", "iss", "om", ",", "ĠEd", "ĠWhite", ",", "Ġand", "ĠRoger", "ĠB", ".", "ĠChaff", "ee", "Ġdied", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġsubsequent", "Ġinvestigation", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠOctober", "Ġ1968", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġ7", "Ġevaluated", "Ġthe", "Ġcommand", "Ġmodule", "Ġin", "ĠEarth", "Ġorbit", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "ĠDecember", "ĠApollo", "Ġ8", "Ġtested", "Ġit", "Ġin", "Ġlunar", "Ġorbit", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠMarch", "Ġ1969", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġ9", "Ġput", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġmodule", "Ġthrough", "Ġits", "Ġp", "aces", "Ġin", "ĠEarth", "Ġorbit", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "ĠMay", "ĠApollo", "Ġ10", "Ġconducted", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "dress", "Ġrehearsal", "\"", "Ġin", "Ġlunar", "Ġorbit", ".", "ĠBy", "ĠJuly", "Ġ1969", ",", "Ġall", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġreadiness", "Ġfor", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", "Ġstep", "Ġonto", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", "Ġappeared", "Ġ", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġwinning", "Ġthe", "ĠSpace", "ĠRace", "Ġby", "Ġbeating", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", "Ġto", "Ġfirst", "s", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġits", "Ġearly", "Ġlead", "Ġwas", "Ġovert", "aken", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", "ĠGemini", "Ġprogram", "Ġand", "ĠSoviet", "Ġfailure", "Ġto", "Ġdevelop", "Ġthe", "ĠN", "1", "Ġlauncher", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġcomparable", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠSaturn", "ĠV", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠSoviets", "Ġtried", "Ġto", "Ġbeat", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", "Ġto", "Ġreturn", "Ġlunar", "Ġmaterial", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "Ġby", "Ġmeans", "Ġof", "Ġunc", "rew", "ed", "Ġprobes", ".", "ĠOn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ13", ",", "Ġthree", "Ġdays", "Ġbefore", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "'s", "Ġlaunch", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", "Ġlaunched", "ĠLuna", "Ġ15", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġreached", "Ġlunar", "Ġorbit", "Ġbefore", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġdescent", ",", "Ġa", "Ġmalfunction", "Ġcaused", "ĠLuna", "Ġ15", "Ġto", "Ġcrash", "Ġin", "ĠMare", "ĠCris", "ium", "Ġabout", "Ġtwo", "Ġhours", "Ġbefore", "ĠArmstrong", "Ġand", "ĠAld", "rin", "Ġtook", "Ġoff", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "'s", "Ġsurface", "Ġto", "Ġbegin", "Ġtheir", "Ġvoyage", "Ġhome", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠN", "uff", "ield", "ĠRadio", "ĠAstron", "omy", "ĠLaboratories", "Ġradio", "Ġtelescope", "Ġin", "ĠEngland", "Ġrecorded", "Ġtransmissions", "Ġfrom", "ĠLuna", "Ġ15", "Ġduring", "Ġits", "Ġdescent", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthese", "Ġwere", "Ġreleased", "Ġin", "ĠJuly", "Ġ2009", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ40", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPersonnel", "Ġ", "ĠPrime", "Ġcrew", "Ġ" ]
365
October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic and technological superiority. This precipitated the Sputnik crisis, and triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and initiating Project Mercury, which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit. But on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy. Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: On September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston, Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "moondoggle" by Norbert Wiener, a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: Project Apollo. When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev, the Premier of the Soviet Union in June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew
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"Ġthem", ".", "ĠFor", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġsupport", "Ġcrew", "Ġconsisted", "Ġof", "ĠKen", "ĠMat", "ting", "ly", ",", "ĠRonald", "ĠEvans", "Ġand", "ĠBill", "ĠP", "ogue", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCaps", "ule", "Ġcommun", "icators", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcapsule", "Ġcommun", "icator", "Ġ(", "CAP", "COM", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġan", "Ġastronaut", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠMission", "ĠControl", "ĠCenter", "Ġin", "ĠHouston", ",", "ĠTexas", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġperson", "Ġwho", "Ġcommunicated", "Ġdirectly", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġflight", "Ġcrew", ".", "ĠFor", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCAP", "COM", "s", "Ġwere", ":", "ĠCharles", "ĠDuke", ",", "ĠRonald", "ĠEvans", ",", "ĠBruce", "ĠMcC", "and", "less", "ĠII", ",", "ĠJames", "ĠLove", "ll", ",", "ĠWilliam", "ĠAnders", ",", "ĠKen", "ĠMat", "ting", "ly", ",", "ĠFred", "ĠHa", "ise", ",", "ĠDon", "ĠL", ".", "ĠLind", ",", "ĠOwen", "ĠK", ".", "ĠGar", "riott", "Ġand", "ĠHarrison", "ĠSch", "mitt", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFlight", "Ġdirectors", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", 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The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo8 and Apollo9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was STS-26 in 1988. Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as "amiable strangers". Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said "... all the crews I was on worked very well together." Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly on Apollo 14 after backing up for Apollo 11. Later, Lovell's crew was forced to switch places with Alan Shepard's tentative Apollo 13 crew to give Shepard more training time. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them. For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Ronald Evans and Bill Pogue. Capsule communicators The capsule communicator (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: Charles Duke, Ronald Evans, Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind, Owen K. Garriott and Harrison Schmitt. Flight directors The flight directors for this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose the bald eagle, the national bird of the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested an olive branch in its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11", and they decided not to put their names on the patch,
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"Ġfeatured", "Ġprominently", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġmission", "Ġinsign", "ia", ".", "ĠAt", "ĠSche", "er", "'s", "Ġsuggestion", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCM", "Ġwas", "Ġnamed", "ĠColumbia", "Ġafter", "ĠColumb", "i", "ad", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgiant", "Ġcannon", "Ġthat", "Ġlaunched", "Ġa", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġ(", "also", "Ġfrom", "ĠFlorida", ")", "Ġin", "ĠJ", "ules", "ĠVer", "ne", "'s", "Ġ1865", "Ġnovel", "ĠFrom", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġalso", "Ġreferred", "Ġto", "ĠColumbia", ",", "Ġa", "Ġhistorical", "Ġname", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠCollins", "'", "Ġ1976", "Ġbook", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġsaid", "ĠColumbia", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġreference", "Ġto", "ĠChristopher", "ĠColumbus", ".", "Ġ", "ĠM", "ement", "os", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġhad", "Ġpersonal", "Ġpreference", "Ġkits", "Ġ(", "PP", "K", "s", "),", "Ġsmall", "Ġbags", "Ġcontaining", "Ġpersonal", "Ġitems", "Ġof", "Ġsignificance", "Ġthey", "Ġwanted", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġwith", "Ġthem", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġmission", ".", "ĠFive", "Ġ", "ĠPP", "K", "s", "Ġwere", "Ġcarried", "Ġon", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ":", "Ġthree", "Ġ(", "one", "Ġfor", "Ġeach", "Ġastronaut", ")", "Ġwere", "Ġst", "owed", "Ġon", "ĠColumbia", "Ġbefore", "Ġlaunch", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtwo", "Ġon", "ĠEagle", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNeil", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "ĠLM", "ĠPP", "K", "Ġcontained", "Ġa", "Ġpiece", "Ġof", "Ġwood", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠWright", "Ġbrothers", "'", "Ġ1903", "ĠWright", "ĠFlyers", "Ġleft", "Ġprope", "ller", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġpiece", "Ġof", "Ġfabric", "Ġfrom", "Ġits", "Ġwing", ",", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġdiamond", "-", "st", "udd", "ed", "Ġastronaut", "Ġpin", "Ġoriginally", "Ġgiven", "Ġto", "ĠSlay", "ton", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġwid", "ows", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "1", "Ġcrew", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġpin", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġintended", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġflown", "Ġon", "Ġthat", "Ġmission", "Ġand", "Ġgiven", "Ġto", "ĠSlay", "ton", "Ġafterwards", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġfollowing", "Ġthe", "Ġdisastrous", "Ġlaunch", "Ġpad", "Ġfire", "Ġand", "Ġsubsequent", "Ġfuner", "als", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġwid", "ows", "Ġgave", "Ġthe", "Ġpin", "Ġto", "ĠSlay", "ton", ".", "ĠArmstrong", "Ġtook", "Ġit", "Ġwith", "Ġhim", "Ġon", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSite", "Ġselection", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNASA", "'s", "ĠApollo", "ĠSite", "ĠSelection", "ĠBoard", "Ġannounced", "Ġfive", "Ġpotential", "Ġlanding", "Ġsites", "Ġon", "ĠFebruary", "Ġ8", ",", "Ġ1968", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "Ġresult", "Ġof", "Ġtwo", "Ġyears", "'", "Ġworth", "Ġof", "Ġstudies", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġhigh", "-", "resolution", "Ġphotography", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġsurface", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġfive", "Ġunc", "rew", "ed", "Ġprobes", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLunar", "ĠOrbit", "er", "Ġprogram", "Ġand", "Ġinformation", "Ġabout", "Ġsurface", "Ġconditions", "Ġprovided", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠSurvey", "or", "Ġprogram", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbest", "ĠEarth", "-", "bound", "Ġtelescopes", "Ġcould", "Ġnot", "Ġresolve", "Ġfeatures", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġresolution", "ĠProject", "ĠApollo", "Ġrequired", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlanding", "Ġsite", "Ġhad", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġequ", "ator", "Ġto", "Ġminimize", "Ġthe", "Ġamount", "Ġof", "Ġpropell", "ant", "Ġrequired", ",", "Ġclear", "Ġof", "Ġobstacles", "Ġto", "Ġminimize", "Ġmaneuver", "ing", ",", "Ġand", "Ġflat", "Ġto", "Ġsimplify", "Ġthe", "Ġtask", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlanding", "Ġradar", ".", "ĠScientific", "Ġvalue", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "Ġconsideration", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAreas", "Ġthat", "Ġappeared", "Ġpromising", "Ġon", "Ġphotographs", "Ġtaken", "Ġon", "ĠEarth", "Ġwere", "Ġoften", "Ġfound", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġtotally", "Ġunacceptable", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġrequirement", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġsite", "Ġbe", "Ġfree", "Ġof", "Ġcr", "aters", "Ġhad", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġrelaxed", ",", "Ġas", "Ġno", "Ġsuch", "Ġsite", "Ġwas", "Ġfound", ".", "ĠFive", "Ġsites", "Ġwere", "Ġconsidered", ":", "ĠSites", "1", "Ġand", "2", "Ġwere", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠSea", "Ġof", "ĠTr", "anqu", "ility", "Ġ(", "M", "are", "ĠTr", "anqu", "ill", "it", "atis", ");", "ĠSite", "3", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCentral", "ĠBay", "Ġ(", "S", "inus", "ĠMed", "ii", ");", "Ġand", "ĠSites", "4", "Ġand", "5", "Ġwere", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠOcean", "Ġof", "ĠStorm", "s", "Ġ(", "Ocean", "us", "ĠPro", "cell", "ar", "um", ").", "ĠThe", "Ġfinal", "Ġsite", "Ġselection", "Ġwas", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġseven", "Ġcriteria", ":", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġsite", "Ġneeded", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġsmooth", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġrelatively", "Ġfew", "Ġcr", "aters", ";", "Ġ", "Ġwith", "Ġapproach", "Ġpaths", "Ġfree", "Ġof", "Ġlarge", "Ġhills", ",", "Ġtall", "Ġcliffs", "Ġor", "Ġdeep", "Ġcr", "aters", "Ġthat", "Ġmight", "Ġconfuse", "Ġthe", "Ġlanding", "Ġradar", "Ġand", "Ġcause", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġissue", "Ġincorrect", "Ġreadings", ";", "Ġ", "Ġreach", "able", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġminimum", "Ġamount", "Ġof", "Ġpropell", "ant", ";", "Ġ", "Ġallowing", "Ġfor", "Ġdelays", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlaunch", "Ġcountdown", ";", "Ġ", "Ġproviding", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġfree", "-", "return", "Ġtrajectory", ",", "Ġone", "Ġthat", "Ġwould", "Ġallow", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġcoast", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġand", "Ġsafely", "Ġreturn", "Ġto", "ĠEarth", "Ġwithout", "Ġrequiring", "Ġany", "Ġengine", "Ġfir", "ings", "Ġshould", "Ġa", "Ġproblem", "Ġarise", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ";", "Ġ", "Ġwith", "Ġgood", "Ġvisibility", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġlanding", "Ġapproach", ",", "Ġmeaning", "Ġthe", "ĠSun", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġbetween", "Ġ7", "and", "Ġ20", "Ġdegrees", "Ġbehind", "Ġthe", "ĠLM", ";", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġa", "Ġgeneral", "Ġslope", "Ġof", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġtwo", "Ġdegrees", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlanding", "Ġarea", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġrequirement", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠSun", "Ġangle", "Ġwas", "Ġparticularly", "Ġrestrictive", ",", "Ġlimiting", "Ġthe", "Ġlaunch", "Ġdate", "Ġto", "Ġone", "Ġday", "Ġper", "Ġmonth", ".", "ĠA", "Ġlanding", "Ġjust", "Ġafter", "Ġdawn", "Ġwas", "Ġchosen", "Ġto", "Ġlimit", "Ġthe", "Ġtemperature", "Ġextremes", "Ġthe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġwould", "Ġexperience", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠApollo", "ĠSite", "ĠSelection", "ĠBoard", "Ġselected", "ĠSite", "2", ",", "Ġwith", "ĠSites", "Ġ3", "and", "5", "Ġas", "Ġbackups", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġevent", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlaunch", "Ġbeing", "Ġdelayed", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠMay", "Ġ1969", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġ10", "'s", "Ġlunar", "Ġmodule", "Ġflew", "Ġto", "Ġwithin", "Ġ", "Ġof", "ĠSite", "2", ",", "Ġand", "Ġreported", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġacceptable", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFirst", "-", "step", "Ġdecision", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġpress", "Ġconference", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġcrew", "Ġwas", "Ġannounced", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġquestion", "Ġwas", ",", "Ġ\"", "Which", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġyou", "Ġgentlemen", "Ġwill", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġman", "Ġto", "Ġstep", "Ġonto", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġsurface", "?\"", "ĠSlay", "ton", "Ġtold", "Ġthe", "Ġreporter", "Ġit", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġbeen", "Ġdecided", ",", "Ġand", "ĠArmstrong", "Ġadded", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġ\"", "not", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġindividual", "Ġdesire", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠOne", "Ġof" ]
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so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing". An illustrator at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval. The design was rejected. Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked "too warlike". After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy, assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The name Snowcone was used for the CM and Haystack was used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was named Eagle after the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named Columbia after Columbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. It also referred to Columbia, a historical name of the United States. In Collins' 1976 book, he said Columbia was in reference to Christopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts had personal preference kits (PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission. Five PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed on Columbia before launch, and two on Eagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the Wright brothers' 1903 Wright Flyers left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program. The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found. Five sites were considered: Sites1 and2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites4 and5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum). The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The site needed to be smooth, with relatively few craters; with approach paths free of large hills, tall cliffs or deep craters that might confuse the landing radar and cause it to issue incorrect readings; reachable with a minimum amount of propellant; allowing for delays in the launch countdown; providing the Apollo spacecraft with a free-return trajectory, one that would allow it to coast around the Moon and safely return to Earth without requiring any engine firings should a problem arise on the way to the Moon; with good visibility during the landing approach, meaning the Sun would be between 7and 20 degrees behind the LM; and a general slope of less than two degrees in the landing area. The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month. A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience. The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site2, with Sites 3and5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within of Site2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?" Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was "not based on individual desire". One of
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"land", ",", "Ġfour" ]
368
the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions, where the commander had never performed the spacewalk. Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate Administrator George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring. Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that's the way to do it." The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first. Chris Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage of LM-5 Eagle arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and CSM-107 Columbia on January 23. There were several differences between Eagle and Apollo 10's LM-4 Snoopy; Eagle had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from the Operations and Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building on April 14. The S-IVB third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by the S-II second stage on February 6, S-IC first stage on February 20, and the Saturn V Instrument Unit on February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the crawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of Launch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service structure back to its parking area. In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with liquid hydrogen. Fueling was completed by three hours before launch. Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in the ATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39. Haise entered Columbia about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch. Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the firing room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General William Westmoreland, four
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369
cabinet members, 19 state governors, 40 mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200 congressmen. Vice President Spiro Agnew viewed the launch with former president Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird Johnson. Around 3,500 media representatives were present. About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White House with his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronaut Frank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00 EDT). At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began to roll into its flight azimuth of 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9minutes and 8seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered a near-circular Earth orbit at an altitude of by , twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed. This involved separating Columbia from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with Eagle still attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon. This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. A slingshot effect from passing around the Moon threw it into an orbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about southwest of the crater Sabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about southeast of the Surveyor5 landing site, and southwest of Ranger8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 Eagle separated from Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed. Armstrong exclaimed: "The Eagle has wings!" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. Eagle was traveling too fast. The problem could have been mascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains a gravitational anomaly, potentially altering Eagle'''s trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel. Or it could have been the result of Eagles pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and above the surface of the Moon, the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineer Jack Garman told Guidance Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them. Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the MIT Charles Stark Draper Laboratory later recalled: During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time. Software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in Apollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical ph
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"ĠMoon", "Ġbegan", "Ġat", "Ġ23", ":", "43", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġtook", "Ġlonger", "Ġthan", "Ġexpected" ]
370
asing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious cycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a crater (later determined to be West crater), so he took semi-automatic control. Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting Eagle. Now above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the probes hanging from Eagle footpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: "Contact light!" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later, Eagle landed and Armstrong shut the engine down. Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA—out of detent." Armstrong acknowledged: "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin continued: "Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in." ACA was the Attitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command the reaction control system (RCS) jets to fire. "Out of Detent" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. LGC address 413 contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed.Eagle landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe, but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds. Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellant sloshing more than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with "Engine arm is off", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot." Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: He then took communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20. The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to walk on the Moon began at 23:43. These took longer than expected
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"-", "six", "th", "Ġof", "ĠEarth", "'s", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġ\"", "even", "Ġperhaps", "Ġeasier", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġsimulations", "Âł", "...", "ĠIt", "'s", "Ġabsolutely", "Ġno", "Ġtrouble", "Ġto", "Ġwalk", "Ġaround", ".\"", "ĠAld", "rin", "Ġjoined", "Ġhim", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġand", "Ġtested", "Ġmethods", "Ġfor", "Ġmoving", "Ġaround", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġtwo", "-", "footed", "Ġk", "ang", "aroo", "Ġhops", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠPL", "SS", "Ġbackpack", "Ġcreated", "Ġa", "Ġtendency", "Ġto", "Ġtip", "Ġbackward", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġneither", "Ġastronaut", "Ġhad", "Ġserious", "Ġproblems", "Ġmaintaining", "Ġbalance", ".", "ĠL", "oping", "Ġbecame", "Ġthe", "Ġpreferred", "Ġmethod", "Ġof", "Ġmovement", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġreported", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġneeded", "Ġto", "Ġplan", "Ġtheir", "Ġmovements", "Ġsix", "Ġor", "Ġseven", "Ġsteps", "Ġahead", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfine", "Ġsoil", "Ġwas", "Ġquite", "Ġslippery", ".", "ĠAld", "rin", "Ġremarked", "Ġthat", "Ġmoving", "Ġfrom", "Ġsunlight", "Ġinto", "ĠEagle", "Ġshadow", "Ġproduced", "Ġno", "Ġtemperature", "Ġchange", "Ġinside", "Ġthe", "Ġsuit", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġhelmet", "Ġwas", "Ġwarmer", "Ġin", "Ġsunlight", ",", "Ġso", "Ġhe", "Ġfelt", "Ġcooler", "Ġin", "Ġshadow", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠM", "ESA", "Ġfailed", "Ġto", "Ġprovide", "Ġa", "Ġstable", "Ġwork", "Ġplatform", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġshadow", ",", "Ġslowing", "Ġwork", "Ġsomewhat", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġthey", "Ġworked", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmoon", "walk", "ers", "Ġkicked", "Ġup", "Ġgray", "Ġdust", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġso", "iled", "Ġthe", "Ġouter", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġsuits", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġplanted", "Ġthe", "ĠLunar", "ĠFlag", "ĠAssembly", "Ġcontaining", "Ġa", "Ġflag", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġsurface", ",", "Ġin", "Ġclear", "Ġview", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠTV", "Ġcamera", ".", "ĠAld", "rin", "Ġremembered", ",", "Ġ\"", "Of", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġjobs", "ĠI", "Ġhad", "Ġto", "Ġdo", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġthe", "Ġone", "ĠI", "Ġwanted", "Ġto", "Ġgo", "Ġthe", "Ġsmoot", "hest", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġflag", "Ġraising", ".\"", "ĠBut", "Ġthe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġstruggled", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġtelesc" ]
371
; three and a half hours instead of two. During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools. Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, and Eagle was depressurized.Eagles hatch was opened at 02:39:33. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his portable life support system (PLSS). Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle side and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 used slow-scan television (TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States, but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station near Canberra in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, but recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as "very fine-grained" and "almost like a powder", at 02:56:15, six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped off Eagle footpad and declared: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "a" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as "face-saving fabrication", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM. Twelve minutes after the sample was collected, he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with a Hasselblad camera that could be operated hand held or mounted on Armstrong's Apollo space suit. Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: "Magnificent desolation." Armstrong said moving in the lunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around." Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow. The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag of the United States on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, "Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising." But the astronauts struggled with the telesc
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"Ġmedals", "Ġof", "ĠSoviet", "Ġcos", "mon", "auts" ]
372
oping rod and could only jam the pole about into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers. But he gave "a crisp West Point salute". Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House." Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismic experiment package used to measure moonquakes and a retroreflector array used for the lunar laser ranging experiment. Then Armstrong walked from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core samples. He used the geologist's hammer to pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled of soil into the box of rocks in order to pack them in tightly. Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples: basalt and breccia. Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: At the behest of the Nixon administration to add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands for Anno Domini, "in the year of our Lord" (although it should have been placed before the year, not after). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension. In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin entered Eagle first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writer William Safire had prepared an In Event of Moon Disaster announcement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke's First World War poem, "The Soldier". While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. A felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. After more than hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: an Apollo 1 mission patch in memory of astronauts Roger Chaffee, Gus Grissom, and Edward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts
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373
Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, they lifted off in Eagle ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit. Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over." Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbia in lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said "not since Adam has any human known such solitude", Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: "this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two". In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth while Columbia passed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather "awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by the fuel cells and preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts of Columbia might freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. When Columbia came back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called for Eagle to meet up with Columbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would fly Columbia down to meet Eagle. Return Eagle rendezvoused with Columbia at 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35. Eagles ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41. Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface. In 2021, however, some calculations show that lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: Aldrin added: Armstrong concluded: On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine The aircraft carrier , under the command of Captain Carl J. Seiberlich, was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the LPH , which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26. Hornet was then at her home port of Long Beach, California. On reaching Pearl Harbor on July 5, Hornet embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of HS-4, a unit which specialized
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374
in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers of UDT Detachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most of Hornets air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including a boilerplate command module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, Hornet departed Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific, in the vicinity of . A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of State William P. Rogers and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger flew to Johnston Atoll on Air Force One, then to the command ship USS Arlington in Marine One. After a night on board, they would fly to Hornet in Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboard Hornet, the party was greeted by the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC), Admiral John S. McCain Jr., and NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine, who flew to Hornet from Pago Pago in one of Hornets carrier onboard delivery aircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force Captain Hank Brandli had access to top-secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which "would have ripped their parachutes to shreds" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation, Rear Admiral Donald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67. The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to ; the second, to . Before dawn on July 24, Hornet launched four Sea King helicopters and three Grumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as "air boss" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon. At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time) Columbias drogue parachutes were deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes later Columbia struck the water forcefully east of Wake Island, south of Johnston Atoll, and from Hornet, at . with seas and winds at from the east were reported under broken clouds at with visibility of at the recovery site. Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. During splashdown, Columbia landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to prevent it from drifting. More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and Columbia wiped with Povidone-iodine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board Hornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown on Hornet at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the to the Mobile quarantine facility (MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped. Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: "[A]s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before." After Nixon departed, Hornet was brought alongside the Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship
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375
's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed. Hornet returned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at 10:00 UTC on July 28. Columbia was taken to Ford Island for deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to Hickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in a Douglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on Hornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project engineer John Hirasaki), and on Columbia itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, Chief Justice of the United States Warren E. Burger and his predecessor, Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon. The flag of American Samoa on Apollo 11 is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with the leaders of many countries. The crew toured from September 29 to November 5. Many nations honored the first human Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words "TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969". The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority; and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won the Space Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. "If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?" became a common saying following Apollo 11. Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led by Ralph Abernathy outside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched. NASA Administrator Thomas Paine met with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US. Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at the launch, and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle, prayed for the astronauts. Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem by Gil Scott-Heron called "Whitey on the Moon" (1970) illustrated the racial inequality in the United States that was highlighted by the Space Race. The poem starts with: Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time. While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation. One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished. A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did the Gallup Poll
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"ĠSpirit", "Ġof", "ĠSt", ".", "ĠLouis", ",", "ĠBell", "ĠX", "-", "1", ",", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerican", "ĠX", "-", "15", "Ġand", "ĠFriendship", "Ġ7", ".", "Columb", "ia", "Ġwas", "Ġmoved", "Ġin", "Ġ2017", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠNAS", "M", "ĠMary", "ĠBaker", "ĠEng", "en", "ĠRestoration", "ĠHang", "ar", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠSteven", "ĠF", ".", "ĠUd", "var", "-", "H", "azy", "ĠCenter", "Ġin", "ĠCh", "ant", "illy", ",", "ĠVirginia", ",", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġread", "ied", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġfour", "-", "city", "Ġtour", "Ġtitled", "ĠDestination", "ĠMoon", ":", "ĠThe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "ĠMission", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġincluded", "ĠSpace", "ĠCenter", "ĠHouston", "Ġfrom", "ĠOctober", "Ġ14", ",", "Ġ2017", ",", "Ġto", "ĠMarch", "Ġ18", ",", "Ġ2018", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSaint", "ĠLouis", "ĠScience", "ĠCenter", "Ġfrom", "ĠApril", "Ġ14", "Ġto", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ3", ",", "Ġ2018", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSenator", "ĠJohn", "ĠHein", "z", "ĠHistory", "ĠCenter", "Ġin", "ĠPittsburgh", "Ġfrom", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ29", ",", "Ġ2018", ",", "Ġto", "ĠFebruary", "Ġ18", ",", "Ġ2019", ",", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġlast", "Ġlocation", "Ġat", "ĠMuseum", "Ġof", "ĠFlight", "Ġin", "ĠSeattle", "Ġfrom", "ĠMarch", "Ġ16", "Ġto", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ2", ",", "Ġ2019", ".", "ĠContinued", "Ġrenovations", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠSmithsonian", "Ġallowed", "Ġtime", "Ġfor", "Ġan", "Ġadditional", "Ġstop", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġcapsule", ",", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġmoved", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠCincinnati", "ĠMuseum", "ĠCenter", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġribbon", "Ġcutting", "Ġceremony", "Ġwas", "Ġon", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ29", ",", "Ġ2019", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "Ġ40", "Ġyears", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "Ġand", "ĠAld", "rin", "'s", "Ġspace", "Ġsuits", "Ġwere", "Ġdisplayed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmuseum", "'s", "ĠApollo", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġexhibit", ",", "Ġuntil", "Ġit", "Ġpermanently", "Ġclosed", "Ġon", "ĠDecember", "Ġ3", ",", "Ġ2018", ",", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġreplaced", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġnew", "Ġgallery", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġscheduled", "Ġto", "Ġopen", "Ġin", "Ġ2022", ".", "ĠA", "Ġspecial", "Ġdisplay", "Ġof", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "Ġsuit", "Ġwas", "Ġunveiled", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ50", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġin", "ĠJuly", "Ġ2019", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġquarantine", "Ġtrailer", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfl", "otation", "Ġcollar", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġfl", "otation", "Ġbags", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠSmithsonian", "'s", "ĠSteven", "ĠF", ".", "ĠUd", "var", "-", "H", "azy", "ĠCenter", "Ġannex", "Ġnear", "ĠWashington", "ĠDull", "es", "ĠInternational", "ĠAirport", "Ġin", "ĠCh", "ant", "illy", ",", "ĠVirginia", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġon", "Ġdisplay", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġtest", "Ġlunar", "Ġmodule", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġdescent", "Ġstage", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLM", "ĠEagle", "Ġremains", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ2009", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠLunar", "ĠRec", "onnaissance", "ĠOrbit", "er", "Ġ(", "L", "RO", ")", "Ġim", "aged", "Ġthe", "Ġvarious", "ĠApollo", "Ġlanding", "Ġsites", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", "Ġwith", "Ġsufficient", "Ġresolution", "Ġto", "Ġsee", "Ġthe", "Ġdescent", "Ġstages", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġmodules", ",", "Ġscientific", "Ġinstruments", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfoot", "Ġtrails", "Ġmade", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġastronauts", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġremains", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġascent", "Ġstage", "Ġlie", "Ġat", "Ġan", "Ġunknown", "Ġlocation", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġsurface", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġbeing", "Ġabandoned", "Ġand", "Ġimpacting", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlocation", "Ġis", "Ġuncertain", "Ġbecause", "ĠEagle", "Ġascent", "Ġstage", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġtracked", "Ġafter", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġj", "ett", "ison", "ed", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġgravity", "Ġfield", "Ġis", "Ġsufficiently", "Ġnon", "-", "un", "iform", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġthe", "Ġorbit", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġunpredictable", "Ġafter", "Ġa", "Ġshort", "Ġtime", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠMarch", "Ġ2012", "Ġa", "Ġteam", "Ġof", "Ġspecialists", "Ġfinanced", "Ġby", "ĠAmazon", "Ġfounder", "ĠJeff", "ĠBezos", "Ġlocated", "Ġthe", "ĠF", "-", "1", "Ġengines", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠS", "-", "IC", "Ġstage", "Ġthat", "Ġlaunched", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġinto", "Ġspace", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġwere", "Ġfound", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠAtlantic", "Ġse", "ab", "ed", "Ġusing", "Ġadvanced", "Ġson", "ar", "Ġscanning", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġteam", "Ġbrought", "Ġparts", "Ġof", "Ġtwo", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfive", "Ġengines", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ2013", ",", "Ġa", "Ġconserv", "ator", "Ġdiscovered", "Ġa", "Ġserial", "Ġnumber", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġrust", "Ġon", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġengines", "Ġraised", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠAtlantic", ",", "Ġwhich", "ĠNASA", "Ġconfirmed", "Ġwas", "Ġfrom", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠS", "-", "IV", "B", "Ġthird", "Ġstage", "Ġwhich", "Ġperformed", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "'s", "Ġtrans", "-", "l", "un", "ar", "Ġinjection", "Ġremains", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġsolar", "Ġorbit", "Ġnear", "Ġto", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "ĠEarth", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠMoon", "Ġrocks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġmain", "Ġrepository", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "ĠMoon" ]
376
indicate that a majority of Americans favored "doing more" in space as opposed to "doing less". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era of détente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warned Caspar Weinberger, the deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget, might send a signal that "our best years are behind us". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt. Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969, "We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems." It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties. The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs "Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins" by The Byrds on the 1969 album Ballad of Easy Rider and "Coon on the Moon" by Howlin' Wolf on the 1973 album The Back Door Wolf. Spacecraft The command module Columbia went on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, the District of Columbia, and Anchorage, Alaska. In 1971, it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and was displayed at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, DC. It was in the central Milestones of Flight exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the Wright Flyer, Spirit of St. Louis, Bell X-1, North American X-15 and Friendship 7.Columbia was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titled Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, the Saint Louis Science Center from April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh from September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location at Museum of Flight in Seattle from March 16 to September 2, 2019. Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to the Cincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's Apollo to the Moon exhibit, until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent stage of the LM Eagle remains on the Moon. In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface, after being abandoned and impacting the Moon. The location is uncertain because Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11. The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon
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"Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠExperiment", "Ġresults", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠPassive", "ĠSe", "ism", "ic", "ĠExperiment", "Ġran", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġcommand", "Ġupl", "ink", "Ġfailed", "Ġon", "ĠAugust", "Ġ25", ",", "Ġ1969", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġdown", "link", "Ġfailed", "Ġon", "ĠDecember", "Ġ14", ",", "Ġ1969", ".", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "ĠLunar", "ĠLaser", "ĠR", "anging", "Ġexperiment", "Ġremains", "Ġoperational", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "Ġcamera", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "ĠHas", "sel", "bl", "ad", "Ġcamera", "Ġwas", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġlost", "Ġor", "Ġleft", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġsurface", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠLM", "Ġmemor", "abilia", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2015", ",", "Ġafter", "ĠArmstrong", "Ġdied", "Ġin", "Ġ2012", ",", "Ġhis", "Ġwidow", "Ġcontacted", "Ġthe", "ĠNational", "ĠAir", "Ġand", "ĠSpace", "ĠMuseum", "Ġto", "Ġinform", "Ġthem", "Ġshe", "Ġhad", "Ġfound", "Ġa", "Ġwhite", "Ġcloth", "Ġbag", "Ġin", "Ġone", "Ġof", "ĠArmstrong", "'s", "Ġclos", "ets", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbag", "Ġcontained", "Ġvarious", "Ġitems", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġshould", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġleft", "Ġbehind", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġmodule", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġ16", "mm", "ĠData", "ĠAcquisition", "ĠCamera", "Ġthat", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġcapture", "Ġimages", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠMoon", "Ġlanding", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcamera", "Ġis", "Ġcurrently", "Ġon", "Ġdisplay", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠNational", "ĠAir", "Ġand", "ĠSpace", "ĠMuseum", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAnniversary", "Ġevents", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ40", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ15", ",", "Ġ2009", ",", "ĠLife", ".", "com", "Ġreleased", "Ġa", "Ġphoto", "Ġgallery", "Ġof", "Ġpreviously", "Ġunpublished", "Ġphotos", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġtaken", "Ġby", "ĠLife", "Ġphotographer", "ĠRalph", "ĠMorse", "Ġprior", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġlaunch", ".", "ĠFrom", "ĠJuly", "Ġ16", "Ġto", "Ġ24", ",", "Ġ2009", ",", "ĠNASA", "Ġstreamed", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġmission", "Ġaudio", "Ġon", "Ġits", "Ġwebsite", "Ġin", "Ġreal", "Ġtime", "Ġ40", "Ġyears", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġminute", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġevents", "Ġoccurred", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprocess", "Ġof", "Ġrestoring", "Ġthe", "Ġvideo", "Ġfootage", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġreleased", "Ġa", "Ġpreview", "Ġof", "Ġkey", "Ġmoments", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ2010", ",", "Ġair", "-", "to", "-", "ground", "Ġvoice", "Ġrecordings", "Ġand", "Ġfilm", "Ġfootage", "Ġshot", "Ġin", "ĠMission", "ĠControl", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġpowered", "Ġdescent", "Ġand", "Ġlanding", "Ġwas", "Ġre", "-", "syn", "chron", "ized", "Ġand", "Ġreleased", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠJohn", "ĠF", ".", "ĠKennedy", "ĠPresidential", "ĠLibrary", "Ġand", "ĠMuseum", "Ġset", "Ġup", "Ġan", "ĠAdobe", "ĠFlash", "Ġwebsite", "Ġthat", "Ġreb", "road", "casts", "Ġthe", "Ġtransmissions", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġfrom", "Ġlaunch", "Ġto", "Ġlanding", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠJuly", "Ġ20", ",", "Ġ2009", ",", "ĠArmstrong", ",", "ĠAld", "rin", ",", "Ġand", "ĠCollins", "Ġmet", "Ġwith", "ĠUS", "ĠPresident", "ĠBarack", "ĠObama", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠWhite", "ĠHouse", ".", "Ġ\"", "We", "Ġexpect", "Ġthat", "Ġthere", "Ġis", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwe", "Ġspeak", ",", "Ġanother", "Ġgeneration", "Ġof", "Ġkids", "Ġout", "Ġthere", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġlooking", "Ġup", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġsky", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġgoing", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġnext", "ĠArmstrong", ",", "ĠCollins", ",", "Ġand", "ĠAld", "rin", "\",", "ĠObama", "Ġsaid", ".", "Ġ\"", "We", "Ġwant", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġsure", "Ġthat", "ĠNASA", "Ġis", "Ġgoing", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthere", "Ġfor", "Ġthem", "Ġwhen", "Ġthey", "Ġwant", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġtheir", "Ġjourney", ".\"", "ĠOn", "ĠAugust", "Ġ7", ",", "Ġ2009", ",", "Ġan", "Ġact", "Ġof", "ĠCongress", "Ġawarded", "Ġthe", "Ġthree", "Ġastronauts", "Ġa", "ĠCongressional", "ĠGold", "ĠMedal", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġcivilian", "Ġaward", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbill", "Ġwas", "Ġsponsored", "Ġby", "ĠFlorida", "ĠSenator", "ĠBill", "ĠNelson", "Ġand", "ĠFlorida", "ĠRepresentative", "ĠAlan", "ĠGrayson", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġgroup", "Ġof", "ĠBritish", "Ġscientists", "Ġinterviewed", "Ġas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġanniversary", "Ġevents", "Ġreflected", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsignificance", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġlanding", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ50", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠJune", "Ġ10", ",", "Ġ2015", ",", "ĠCongressman", "ĠBill", "ĠPose", "y", "Ġintroduced", "Ġresolution", "ĠH", ".", "R", ".", "Ġ27", "26", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġ114", "th", "Ġsession", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "ĠHouse", "Ġof", "ĠRepresentatives", "Ġdirecting", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "ĠMint", "Ġto", "Ġdesign", "Ġand", "Ġsell", "Ġcommemor", "ative", "Ġcoins", "Ġin", "Ġgold", ",", "Ġsilver", "Ġand", "Ġclad", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ50", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "Ġmission", ".", "ĠOn", "ĠJanuary", "Ġ24", ",", "Ġ2019", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMint", "Ġreleased", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "Ġ11", "ĠF", "ift", "ieth", 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"Ġwere", "Ġthree", "Ġshows", "Ġper", "Ġnight", "Ġon", "ĠJuly", "Ġ19", "âĢĵ", "20", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġlast" ]
377
rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored at White Sands Test Facility near Las Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories around the world conduct studies of the samples, and approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentation Apollo 11 lunar sample displays for 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as a United States half dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. The Apollo 11 lunar sample displays were given out as goodwill gifts by Nixon in 1970.Earth magazine, March 2011, pp. 42–51 Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969. , the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment remains operational. Armstrong's camera Armstrong's Hasselblad camera was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. LM memorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in the lunar module, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing. The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009, Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch. From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments. In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up an Adobe Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with US President Barack Obama at the White House. "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey." On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator Bill Nelson and Florida Representative Alan Grayson. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of the United States House of Representatives directing the United States Mint to design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released the Apollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coins to the public on its website. A documentary film, Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered in IMAX on March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival" on the National Mall in Washington DC. The three day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such as Adam Savage and NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the tall Saturn V rocket was displayed on the east face of the tall Washington Monument from July 16 through the 20th from 9:30pm until 11:30pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of the Saturn V rocket. The projection was joined by a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last
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378
show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, the Google Doodle paid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronaut Michael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by President Donald Trump in the Oval Office. Films and documentaries Footprints on the Moon, a 1969 documentary film by Bill Gibson and Barry Coe, about the Apollo 11 mission Moonwalk One, a 1971 documentary film by Theo Kamecke Apollo 11: As it Happened, a 1994 six-hour documentary on ABC News' coverage of the event Apollo 11, a 2019 documentary film by Todd Douglas Miller with restored footage of the 1969 event Chasing the Moon, a July 2019 PBS three-night six-hour documentary, directed by Robert Stone, examined the events leading up to the Apollo 11 mission. An accompanying book of the same name was also released. 8 Days: To the Moon and Back, a PBS and BBC Studios 2019 documentary film by Anthony Philipson re-enacting major portions of the Apollo 11 mission using mission audio recordings, new studio footage, NASA and news archives, and computer-generated imagery. See also Moon landing conspiracy theories References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the format hours:minutes:seconds (e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET), based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC (000:00:00 GET). Sources External links "Apollo 11 transcripts" at Spacelog Apollo 11 in real time Multimedia —Remastered videos of the original landing. Dynamic timeline of lunar excursion. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera Apollo 11 Restored EVA Part 1 (1h of restored footage) Apollo 11: As They Photographed It (Augmented Reality) The New York Times'', Interactive, July 18, 2019 "Coverage of the Flight of Apollo 11" provided by Todd Kosovich for RadioTapes.com. Radio station recordings (airchecks) covering the flight of Apollo 11. Buzz Aldrin Neil Armstrong Michael Collins (astronaut) Apollo program missions 1969 on the Moon Soft landings on the Moon Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets Articles containing video clips Crewed missions to the Moon <|endoftext|>Apollo 8 (December 21–27, 1968) was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit, and also the first human spaceflight to reach another astronomical object, namely the Moon, which the crew orbited without landing, and then departed safely back to Earth. These three astronauts—Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders—were the first humans to witness and photograph an Earthrise. Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968, and was the second crewed spaceflight mission flown in the United States Apollo space program after Apollo7, which stayed in Earth orbit. Apollo8 was the third flight and the first crewed launch of the Saturn V rocket, and was the first human spaceflight from the Kennedy Space Center, located adjacent to Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida. Originally planned as the second crewed Apollo Lunar Module and command module test, to be flown in an elliptical medium Earth orbit in early 1969, the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious command-module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December, as the lunar module was not yet ready to make its first flight. Astronaut Jim McDivitt's crew, who were training to fly the first lunar module flight in low Earth orbit, became the crew for the Apollo9 mission, and Borman's crew were moved to the Apollo8 mission. This left Borman's crew with two to three months' less training and preparation time than originally planned, and replaced the planned lunar module training with translunar navigation training. Apollo 8 took 68 hours (almost three days) to travel the distance to the Moon. The crew orbited the Moon ten times over the course of twenty hours, during which they made a Christmas Eve television broadcast in which they read the first ten verses from the Book of Genesis. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo11 to fulfill U.S. president John
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F. Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the northern Pacific Ocean. The crew members were named Time magazine's "Men of the Year" for 1968 upon their return. Background In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations around the world. It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority. The launch precipitated the Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race. President John F. Kennedy believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, but that the perception of American power was at least as important as the actuality. It was therefore intolerable to him for the Soviet Union to be more advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the United States should compete, and sought a challenge that maximized its chances of winning. The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting carrier rockets, which meant Kennedy needed to choose a goal that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, one where the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality—something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic, or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project: to land a man on the Moon and return him to the Earth. This project already had a name: Project Apollo. An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous, under which a specialized spacecraft would land on the lunar surface. The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that would return to Earth; a service module (SM) to provide the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a two-stage lunar module (LM), which comprised a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to return the astronauts to lunar orbit. This configuration could be launched by the Saturn V rocket that was then under development. Framework Prime crew The initial crew assignment of Frank Borman as Commander, Michael Collins as Command Module Pilot (CMP) and William Anders as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Collins was replaced by Jim Lovell in July 1968, after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair. This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew: Lovell had flown twice before, on Gemini VII and Gemini XII. This would also be the first case of a commander of a previous mission (Lovell, Gemini XII) flying as a non-commander. This was also the first mission to reunite crewmates from a previous mission (Lovell and Borman, Gemini VII). As of 2021, all three Apollo 8 astronauts remain alive. Backup crew The backup crew assignment of Neil Armstrong as Commander, Lovell as CMP, and Buzz Aldrin as LMP for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced at the same time as the prime crew. When Lovell was reassigned to the prime crew, Aldrin was moved to CMP, and Fred Haise was brought in as backup LMP. Armstrong would later command Apollo11, with Aldrin as LMP and Collins as CMP. Haise served on the backup crew of Apollo11 as LMP and flew on Apollo13 as LMP. Support personnel During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists, and mission ground rules, and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised of any changes. The support crew developed procedures in the simulators, especially those for emergency situations, so that the prime and backup crews could practice and master them in their simulator training. For Apollo8, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Vance Brand, and Gerald Carr. The capsule communicator (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo8, the CAPCOMs were Michael Collins, Gerald Carr, Ken Mattingly, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Vance Brand, and Fred Haise. The mission control teams rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo8 were Clifford E. Charlesworth (Green team
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380
), Glynn Lunney (Black team), and Milton Windler (Maroon team). Mission insignia and callsign The triangular shape of the insignia refers to the shape of the Apollo CM. It shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth and Moon to reflect both the mission number and the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the bottom of the8 are the names of the three astronauts. The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell, who reportedly sketched it while riding in the back seat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston shortly after learning of Apollo8's re-designation as a lunar-orbital mission. The crew wanted to name their spacecraft, but NASA did not allow it. The crew would have likely chosen Columbiad, the name of the giant cannon that launches a space vehicle in Jules Verne's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Apollo11 CM was named Columbia in part for that reason. Preparations Mission schedule On September 20, 1967, NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions, with the final step being a Moon landing. Apollo4 and Apollo6 were "A" missions, tests of the SaturnV launch vehicle using an uncrewed Block I production model of the command and service module (CSM) in Earth orbit. Apollo5 was a "B" mission, a test of the LM in Earth orbit. Apollo7, scheduled for October 1968, would be a "C" mission, a crewed Earth-orbit flight of the CSM. Further missions depended on the readiness of the LM. It had been decided as early as May 1967 that there would be at least four additional missions. Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission, a test of the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart, while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo9, in early 1969. The "F" Mission would test the CSM and LM in lunar orbit, and the "G" mission would be the finale, the Moon landing. Production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo8's LM-3 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in June 1968, more than a hundred significant defects were discovered, leading Bob Gilruth, the director of the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), and others to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in 1968. Indeed, it was possible that delivery would slip to February or March 1969. Following the original seven-step plan would have meant delaying the "D" and subsequent missions, and endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969. George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August 1968 to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the next CSM (designated as "CSM-103") would be ready three months before LM-3, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit and returning to Earth. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have had to wait until Apollo10, the scheduled "F" mission. This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the "D" mission had to be delayed, and the plan for lunar landing in mid-1969 could remain on timeline. On August 9, 1968, Low discussed the idea with Gilruth, Flight Director Chris Kraft, and the Director of Flight Crew Operations, Donald Slayton. They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama, where they met with KSC Director Kurt Debus, Apollo Program Director Samuel C. Phillips, Rocco Petrone, and Wernher von Braun. Kraft considered the proposal feasible from a flight control standpoint; Debus and Petrone agreed that the next Saturn V, AS-503, could be made ready by December 1; and von Braun was confident the pogo oscillation problems that had afflicted Apollo6 had been fixed. Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing confidence in both the hardware and the personnel, along with the potential for a circumlunar flight providing a significant morale boost. The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. Backed by the full support of his agency, Webb authorized the mission. Apollo8 was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" lunar-orbit mission. With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Slayton asked McDivitt if he still
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"Ġa", "Ġtransl", "un", "ar" ]
381
wanted to fly it. McDivitt turned it down; his crew had spent a great deal of time preparing to test the LM, and that was what he still wanted to do. Slayton then decided to swap the prime and backup crews of the Dand Emissions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104, since CM-104 could not be made ready by December. David Scott was not happy about giving up CM-103, the testing of which he had closely supervised, for CM-104, although the two were almost identical, and Anders was less than enthusiastic about being an LMP on a flight with no LM. Instead, in order that the spacecraft would have the correct weight and balance, Apollo8 would carry LM test article, a boilerplate model of LM-3. Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union's Zond5 mission, which flew some living creatures, including Russian tortoises, in a cislunar loop around the Moon and returned them to Earth on September 21. There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch cosmonauts on a similar circumlunar mission before the end of 1968. The Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, the night before the launch. They talked about how, before his 1927 flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total he had carried was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo8 from a nearby dune. Saturn V redesign The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo8 was designated AS-503, or the "03rd" model of the SaturnV ("5") Rocket to be used in the Apollo-Saturn ("AS") program. When it was erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an uncrewed Earth-orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate command and service module. Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage, two second-stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a crewed mission until additional uncrewed test flights proved the Saturn V was ready. Teams from the MSFC went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system that used helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed. Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it had accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches. The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the MSFC. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems had been solved, they gave their approval for a crewed mission using AS-503. The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21, and the rocket made the slow journey to the launch pad on October9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, three days before the scheduled launch. Mission Parameter summary As the first crewed spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar
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382
injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of , with an inclination of 32.51° to the Equator, and an orbital period of 88.19 minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by over the 2hours, 44 minutes, and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit. This was followed by a trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds, accelerating the command and service module and LM test article from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled. This speed was slightly less than the Earth's escape velocity of , but put Apollo8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, close enough to the Moon to be captured by the Moon's gravity. The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune of and an apolune of , at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at , with an orbital period of 128.7 minutes. The effect of lunar mass concentrations ("mascons") on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the ten lunar orbits lasting twenty hours, the orbital distance was perturbated to . Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of . Launch and trans-lunar injection Apollo 8 was launched at 12:51:00 UTC (07:51:00 Eastern Standard Time) on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn V's three stages to achieve Earth orbit. The S-IC first stage landed in the Atlantic Ocean at , and the S-II second stage landed at . The S-IVB third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit and remained attached to perform the TLI burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. Once the vehicle reached Earth orbit, both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial, and in the last uncrewed test, it had failed to reignite for this burn. Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty, and at 2hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch he radioed, "Apollo8. You are Go for TLI." This communication meant that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo8 to go to the Moon. The S-IVB engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly. Over the next five minutes, the spacecraft's speed increased from . After the S-IVB had placed the mission on course for the Moon, the command and service modules (CSM), the remaining Apollo8 spacecraft, separated from it. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it—this marked the first time humans had viewed the whole Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the small reaction control system (RCS) thrusters on the service module (SM) to add to their velocity away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in the Earth direction to increase speed, but at instead. The time needed to prepare and perform the additional burn put the crew an hour behind their onboard tasks. Five hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB to vent its remaining fuel, changing its trajectory. The S-IVB, with the test article attached, posed no further hazard to Apollo8, passing the orbit of the Moon and going into a solar orbit with an inclination of 23.47° from the plane of the ecliptic, and an orbital period of 340.80 days. It became a derelict object, and will continue to orbit the Sun for many years, if not retrieved. The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray, or 1milligray (mGy; during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2to 3mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member
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383
wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth, as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew members experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy. Lunar trajectory Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as navigator. Although Mission Control normally performed all the actual navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member adept at navigation so that the crew could return to Earth in case communication with Mission Control was lost. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) horizon. This task was made difficult by a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft, which made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven hours into the mission, the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also called "barbecue roll", in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, parts of the spacecraft's outer surface could be heated to over , while the parts in shadow would be . These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger. The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight. The crew had been awake for more than 16 hours. Before launch, NASA had decided at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises. Testing on the ground had shown that the service propulsion system (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was "coated" first by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about velocity prograde (in the direction of travel). This change was less than the planned , because of a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines, which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled because the Apollo8 trajectory was found to be perfect. About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman obtained permission from ground control to take a Seconal sleeping pill. The pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep, and then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as well as they could. Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments". The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston, on the second and third floors, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft (Mercury and Gemini), because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo command module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo9. The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens. During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space
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"Ġshaft", "s", "Ġof", "Ġsunlight", "Ġob", "lique", "ly", "Ġilluminating", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġsurface", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠLO", "I", "Ġburn", "Ġwas", "Ġonly", "Ġtwo", "Ġminutes", "Ġaway", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", "Ġhad", "Ġlittle", "Ġtime", "Ġto", "Ġappreciate", "Ġthe", "Ġview", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLunar", "Ġorbit", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠS", "PS", "Ġwas", "Ġignited", "Ġat", "Ġ69", "Ġhours", ",", "Ġ8", "min", "utes", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ16", "Ġseconds", "Ġafter", "Ġlaunch", "Ġand", "Ġburned", "Ġfor", "Ġ4", "min", "utes", "Ġand", "Ġ7", "seconds", ",", "Ġplacing", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "8", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġin", "Ġorbit", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcrew", "Ġdescribed", "Ġthe", "Ġburn", "Ġas", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġlongest", "Ġfour", "Ġminutes", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġlives", ".", "ĠIf", "Ġthe", "Ġburn", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġlasted", "Ġexactly", "Ġthe", "Ġcorrect", "Ġamount", "Ġof", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġcould", "Ġhave", "Ġended", "Ġup", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġhighly", "Ġellipt", "ical", "Ġlunar", "Ġorbit", "Ġor", "Ġeven", "Ġbeen", "Ġflung", "Ġoff", "Ġinto", "Ġspace", ".", "ĠIf", "Ġit", "Ġhad", "Ġlasted", "Ġtoo", "Ġlong", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġcould", "Ġhave", "Ġstruck", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠAfter", "Ġmaking", "Ġsure", "Ġthe", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġwas", "Ġworking", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġfinally", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġchance", "Ġto", "Ġlook", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġthey", "Ġwould", "Ġorbit", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġnext", "Ġ20", "Ġhours", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠEarth", ",", "ĠMission", "ĠControl", "Ġcontinued", "Ġto", "Ġwait", ".", "ĠIf", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġburned", "Ġthe", "Ġengine", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġburn", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġlasted", "Ġthe", "Ġplanned", "Ġlength", "Ġof", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġappeared", "Ġearly", "Ġfrom", "Ġbehind", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠExactly", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġcalculated", "Ġmoment", "Ġthe", "Ġsignal", "Ġwas", "Ġreceived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġspacecraft", ",", "Ġindicating", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġ", "Ġorbit" ]
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. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, without proper filters, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday. By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours into the flight – three-and-a-half hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill. The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the silicone sealant, and the attitude required for passive thermal control. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time. Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth, what was visible, and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23 minutes. Lunar sphere of influence At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, and 13 hours before entering lunar orbit, the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. In other words, the effect of the Moon's gravitational force on Apollo8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo8 was from the Moon and had a speed of relative to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew, since they were still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) was a second mid-course correction. It was in retrograde (against the direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by , effectively reducing the closest distance at which the spacecraft would pass the Moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass from the lunar surface. At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a "go/no go" decision, the crew was told at 68 hours that they were Go and "riding the best bird we can find". Lovell replied, "We'll see you on the other side", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth. With ten minutes remaining before LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in its correct position. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view. Lunar orbit The SPS was ignited at 69 hours, 8minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4minutes and 7seconds, placing the Apollo8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even been flung off into space. If it had lasted too long, they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours. On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine, or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would have appeared early from behind the Moon. Exactly at the calculated moment the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a orbit
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"Ġsmall", "Ġprayer", "Ġfor", "Ġhis", "Ġchurch", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġscheduled", "Ġto", "Ġparticipate", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġservice", "Ġat", "ĠSt", ".", "ĠChristopher", "'s", "ĠEpiscopal", "ĠChurch", "Ġnear", "ĠSe", "ab", "ro", "ok", ",", "ĠTexas", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠApollo", "8", "Ġflight", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġunable", "Ġto", "Ġattend", ".", "ĠA", "Ġfellow", "Ġparish", "ion", "er", "Ġand", "Ġengineer", "Ġat", "ĠMission", "ĠControl", ",", "ĠRod", "ĠRose", ",", "Ġsuggested", "Ġthat", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġread", "Ġthe", "Ġprayer", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġcould", "Ġbe", "Ġrecorded", "Ġand", "Ġthen", "Ġre", "played", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġservice", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEarth", "rise", "Ġ", "ĠWhen", "Ġthe", "Ġspacecraft", "Ġcame", "Ġout", "Ġfrom", "Ġbehind", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġfourth", "Ġpass", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "Ġfront", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", "Ġwitnessed", "Ġan", "Ġ\"", "Earth", "rise", "\"", "Ġin", "Ġperson", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", "Ġin", "Ġhuman", "Ġhistory", ".", "ĠNASA", "'s", "ĠLunar", "ĠOrbit", "er", "Ġ1", "Ġhad", "Ġtaken", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġpicture", "Ġof", "Ġan", "ĠEarth", "rise", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġvicinity", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ",", "Ġon", "ĠAugust", "Ġ23", ",", "Ġ1966", ".", "ĠAnders", "Ġsaw", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "Ġemerging", "Ġfrom", "Ġbehind", "Ġthe", "Ġlunar", "Ġhorizon", "Ġand", "Ġcalled", "Ġin", "Ġexcitement", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġothers", ",", "Ġtaking", "Ġa", "Ġblack", "-", "and", "-", "white", "Ġphotograph", "Ġas", "Ġhe", "Ġdid", "Ġso", ".", "ĠAnders", "Ġasked", "ĠLove", "ll", "Ġfor", "Ġcolor", "Ġfilm", "Ġand", "Ġthen", "Ġtook", "ĠEarth", "rise", ",", "Ġa", "Ġnow", "Ġfamous", "Ġcolor", "Ġphoto", ",", "Ġlater", "Ġpicked", "Ġby", "ĠLife", "Ġmagazine", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġhundred", "Ġphotos", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcentury", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsynchron", "ous", "Ġrotation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", ",", "ĠEarth", "rise", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġgenerally", "Ġvisible", 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",", "Ġbut", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġwould", "Ġnot", "Ġbe", "Ġswayed", ".", "ĠAnders", "Ġfinally", "Ġagreed", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġcondition", "Ġthat", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġwould", "Ġset", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġcamera", "Ġto", "Ġcontinue", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġautomatic", "Ġpictures", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", ".", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġalso", "Ġremembered", "Ġthat", "Ġthere", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġsecond", "Ġtelevision", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġplanned", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwith", "Ġso", "Ġmany", "Ġpeople", "Ġexpected", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġwatching", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwanted", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġalert", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġthe", "Ġnext", "Ġtwo", "Ġorbits", ",", "ĠAnders", "Ġand", "ĠLove", "ll", "Ġslept", "Ġwhile", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġsat", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġhelm", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġthey", "Ġrounded", "Ġthe", "ĠMoon", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġninth", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġastronauts", "Ġbegan", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġtelevision", "Ġtransmission", ".", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġintroduced", "Ġthe", "Ġcrew", ",", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "Ġeach", "Ġman", 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"Ġpoint", "Ġin", "Ġlunar", "Ġorbit", ".", "ĠB", "orman", "Ġsaid", "," ]
385
around the Moon. After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that was planned as the Apollo11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record one frame per second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission, the crew had taken over eight hundred 70 mm still photographs and of 16 mm movie film. Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit. As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit, they performed an 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to . Throughout the next two orbits, the crew continued to check the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's Episcopal Church near Seabrook, Texas, but due to the Apollo8 flight, he was unable to attend. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer, which could be recorded and then replayed during the service. Earthrise When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed an "Earthrise" in person for the first time in human history. NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 had taken the first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon, on August 23, 1966. Anders saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. Anders asked Lovell for color film and then took Earthrise, a now famous color photo, later picked by Life magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century. Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. This is because, as seen from any one place on the Moon's surface, Earth remains in approximately the same position in the lunar sky, either above or below the horizon. Earthrise is generally visible only while orbiting the Moon, and at selected surface locations near the Moon's limb, where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so that Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and had to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. Anders initially protested, saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. Anders finally agreed under the condition that Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic pictures of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching, he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits, Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the astronauts began the second television transmission. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being "a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing". Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board read a section from the Biblical creation story from the Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said,
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"man", "Ġfrom" ]
386
"And from the crew of Apollo8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you—all of you on the good Earth." The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the trans-Earth injection (TEI), which was scheduled for hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a Santa Claus", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know." The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, Christmas Day. Unplanned manual realignment Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. He accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measurement unit (IMU) to contain data indicating that the module was in the same relative orientation it had been in before lift-off; the IMU then fired the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude. Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized that they would have to reenter data to tell the computer the module's actual orientation. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned, and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later, during the Apollo13 mission, Lovell would have to perform a similar manual realignment under more critical conditions after the module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. Cruise back to Earth and reentry The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-a-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack given to the troops in Vietnam. Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles of brandy, which Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight. There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth, during a four-minute broadcast. After two uneventful days, the crew prepared for reentry. The computer would control the reentry, and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, with the blunt end forward. In the event of computer failure, Borman was ready to take over. Separation from the service module prepared the command module for reentry by exposing the heat shield and shedding unneeded mass. The service module would burn up in the atmosphere as planned. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been calculated by the trajectory specialists. As the module hit the thin outer atmosphere, the crew noticed that it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down, and the deceleration peaked at . With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft, Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At , the drogue parachute deployed, stabilizing the spacecraft, followed at by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as in the North Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii at 15:51:42 UTC on December 27, 1968. When the spacecraft hit the water, the parachutes dragged it over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable2 position. As they were buffeted by a swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft. About six minutes after splashdown, the command module was righted into a normal apex-up (Stable 1) orientation by its inflatable bag uprighting system. The first frogman from
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"ĠPBS", "'", "ĠNova", "Ġin", "ĠDecember", "Ġ2018", ",", "Ġmarking", "Ġthe", "Ġflight", "'s", "Ġ50", "th", "Ġanniversary" ]
387
aircraft carrier arrived 43 minutes after splashdown. Forty-five minutes later, the crew was safe on the flight deck of the Yorktown. Legacy Historical importance Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world. Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the Prague Spring, Time magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 as its Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo8 was summed up in a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that stated simply, "Thank you Apollo8. You saved 1968." One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that the crew took as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera, and it has been credited as one of the inspirations of the first Earth Day in 1970. It was selected as the first of Life magazine's 100 Photographs That Changed the World. Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, "Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost"; while space historian Robert K. Poole saw Apollo8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions. The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, Mercury-Atlas 6 by John Glenn, in 1962. There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission, with the BBC's coverage broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper Pravda featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet Interkosmos program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology". It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo8 broadcasts won an Emmy Award, the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist, later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis. O'Hair wanted the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States, apparently for lack of jurisdiction in outer space, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo11, self-communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the Moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and referred to it only obliquely at the time. In 1969, the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp (Scott catalogue #1371) commemorating the Apollo8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God...", the first words of the book of Genesis. In January 1969, just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they appeared in the Super Bowl III pre-game show, reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, before the national anthem was performed by trumpeter Lloyd Geisler of the Washington National Symphony Orchestra. Spacecraft location In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka, Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at Expo '70. It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the space suit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's Glenn Research Center. Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the Science Museum in London, United Kingdom. In popular culture Apollo 8's historic mission has been depicted and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo8 were compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary Debrief: Apollo8, hosted by Burgess Meredith. In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission, including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight. Other documentaries include "Race to the Moon" (2005) as part of season 18 of American Experience and In the Shadow of the Moon (2007). Apollo's Daring Mission aired on PBS' Nova in December 2018, marking the flight's 50th anniversary
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388
. Parts of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "1968". The S-IVB stage of Apollo8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 UFO episode "Conflict". Apollo8's lunar orbit insertion was chronicled with actual recordings in the song "The Other Side", on the 2015 album The Race for Space, by the band Public Service Broadcasting. In the credits of the animated film Free Birds (2013) a newspaper front page about the Apollo 8 mission is doctored to read: "As one of the most turbulent, tragic years in American history drew to a close, millions around the world were watching and listening as the Apollo 8 astronauts – Frank Gobbler, Jim Snood, and Bill Wattles – became the first turkeys to orbit another world." A documentary film, First to the Moon: The Journey of Apollo 8 was released in 2018. The choral music piece Earthrise by Luke Byrne commemorates the mission. The piece was premièred on January 19, 2020, by Sydney Philharmonia Choirs at the Sydney Opera House. Notes References Bibliography External links "Apollo 8" at Encyclopedia Astronautica Article about the 40th anniversary of Apollo8 Multimedia Apollo 8: Go for TLI 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive Debrief: Apollo 8 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive "Apollo 07 and 08 16mm Onboard Film (1968)" raw footage taken from Apollos 7and8 at the Internet Archive Apollo 8 Around the Moon and Back 2018 YouTube video Apollo 08 Crewed missions to the Moon Spacecraft launched in 1968 1968 in the United States Spacecraft which reentered in 1968 December 1968 events Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets Jim Lovell William Anders Frank Borman <|endoftext|>An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'star', and (), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists. "Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality or allegiance; however, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek) in order to distinguish them from American or otherwise NATO-oriented space travellers. Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (, meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff"). Since 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space. Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut. Definition The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line, at an altitude of . In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of are awarded astronaut wings. , 552 people from 36 countries have reached or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon. Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice. , under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded in altitude, only one, Joseph A. Walker, exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62.1 miles) and he did it two times, becoming the first person in space twice. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks. , the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space
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389
. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days. Terminology In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader cosmos, while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term. When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut". Astronaut A professional space traveler is called an astronaut. The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'Infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps. Cosmonaut By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its Soviet predecessor) is called a cosmonaut in English texts. The word is an Anglicization of kosmonavt ( ). Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the (although Polish also uses , and the two words are considered synonyms). Coinage of the term has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974). The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Russians, with German Titov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, and Grigoriy Nelyubov, who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961. Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963. On 14 March 1995, Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut". Taikonaut In Chinese, the term (, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general, while (, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, (, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase (, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China. The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih () from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups. Parastronaut For its 2022 Astronaut Group, ESA envisions recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight. The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg
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length difference, or a short stature (less than ). Other terms With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led Interkosmos program. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut () is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word for "space"; the Malay term (deriving from angkasa meaning 'space') was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program (note its similarity with the Indonesian term antariksawan). Plans of the Indian Space Research Organisation to launch its crewed Gaganyaan spacecraft have spurred at times public discussion if another term than astronaut should be used for the crew members, suggesting vyomanaut (from the Sanskrit word / meaning 'sky' or 'space') or gagannaut (from the Sanskrit word for 'sky'). In Finland, the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, a Finnish American, has sometimes been referred to as , from the Finnish word . Across Germanic languages, "astronaut" is used in conjunction with locally derived words like German's Raumfahrer, Dutch's ruimtevaarder, Swedish's rymdfarare and Norwegian's romfarer. As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency: one who flies in a vehicle above for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier) one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant one who flies above in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above is a space tourist (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" in order to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson. Space travel milestones The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days. Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard Freedom 7. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on 18 June 1983. In 1992, Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47. Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission. The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13, respectively. An example is Czechoslovak Vlad
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imír Remek, the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket. Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard Soyuz T-11, on 2 April 1984. On 23 July 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry (France), in 1985. In 1985, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space. In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station. With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of eight Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010). In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space. In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident. On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. On 30 May 2020, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft, Crew Dragon. Age milestones The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen, who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight lasting 7 minutes on July 20, 2021. Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard, broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit; he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space, twice. On the same flight as Daemen was 82 year, 6-month-old Wally Funk, one of the women dubbed the Mercury 13, and now the oldest person in space. She is the first of the Mercury 13 to reach space, although the group was trained concurrently with the all-male Mercury 7, who would all engage in space travel. The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn, one of the Mercury 7, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. For suborbital age records, see . Duration and distance milestones 438 days is the longest time spent in space, by Russian Valeri Polyakov. As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was , when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency. Civilian and non-government milestones The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1. The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission,
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which affected his productivity. The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001. Self-funded travelers The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist. Seven others have paid the Russian Space Agency to fly into space: Dennis Tito (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001 (ISS) Mark Shuttleworth (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002 (ISS) Gregory Olsen (American): 1–11 October 2005 (ISS) Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006 (ISS) Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007 (ISS), 26 March – 8 April 2009 (ISS) Richard Garriott (British / American): 12–24 October 2008 (ISS) Guy Laliberté (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009 (ISS) Jared Isaacman (American): 15–18 September 2021 (Free Flier) Yusaku Maezawa (Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021 (ISS) Training The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959. Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of weightlessness (microgravity) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet," the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights. Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from Edwards Air Force Base. Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle and, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there. NASA candidacy requirements The candidate must be a citizen of the United States. The candidate must complete a master's degree in a STEM field, including engineering, biological science, physical science, computer science or mathematics. The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft. The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical. The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications. The master's degree requirement can also be met by: Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field. A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree. Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program. Mission Specialist Educator Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired. Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger. Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist. The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s. Health risks of space travel Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among
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these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars. Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS). On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes. Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts. In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts. A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities. A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions, including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills (dexterity), but also slightly weaker vision, both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization. Food and drink An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about packaging mass per meal). Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about per day. Insignia In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed in altitude. Deaths , eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have
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lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli. , eleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service. The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant. See also Notes References External links NASA: How to become an astronaut 101 List of International partnership organizations Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar spacefacts Spacefacts.de Manned astronautics: facts and figures Astronaut Candidate Brochure online Science occupations 1959 introductions <|endoftext|>A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the Publick, commonly referred to as A Modest Proposal, is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729. The essay suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food to rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical hyperbole mocked heartless attitudes towards the poor, predominantly Irish Catholic (i.e., "Papists") as well as British policy toward the Irish in general. In English writing, the phrase "a modest proposal" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire. Synopsis Swift's essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states: "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout." Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential William Petty and the social engineering popular among followers of Francis Bacon. These lampoons include appealing to the authority of "a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London" and "the famous Psalmanazar, a native of the island Formosa" (who had already confessed to not being from Formosa in 1706). In the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by paralipsis: Population solutions George Wittkowsky argued that Swift's main target in A Modest Proposal was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills. Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution. A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company". In response, Swift's Modest Proposal was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor" that were in vogue during the early 18th century. A Modest Proposal also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities". In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician" to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defence of crime (arrogated to Marx) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population". Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that "spr
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395
ings from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake". Rhetoric Author Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap" to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class. Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create "two opposing points of view" that "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way." Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry" to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound". Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument from Swift's time (which was derived from the Latin rhetorician Quintilian). The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan". Influences Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote A Modest Proposal. Tertullian's Apology James William Johnson argues that A Modest Proposal was largely influenced and inspired by Tertullian's Apology: a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity. Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations. Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works A Modest Proposal and Apology. In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human". Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language. In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes the uncanny way that both authors imply an ironic "justification by ownership" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor. Defoe's The Generous Projector It has also been argued that A Modest Proposal was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children by Swift's rival Daniel Defoe. Mandeville's Modest Defence of Publick Stews Bernard Mandeville's Modest Defence of Publick Stews asked to introduce public and state controlled bordellos. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests andwhile not being a completely satirical texthas also been discussed as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title. Mandeville had by 1705 already become famous for the Fable of The Bees and deliberations on private vices and public benefits. John Locke's First Treatise of Government John Locke commented: "Be it then as Sir Robert says, that Anciently, it was usual for Men to sell and Castrate their Children. Let it be, that they exposed them; Add to it, if you please, for this is still greater Power, that they begat them for their Tables to fat and eat them: If this proves a right to do so, we may, by the same Argument, justifie Adultery, Incest and Sodomy, for there are examples of these too, both Ancient and Modern; Sins, which I suppose, have the Principle Aggravation from this, that they cross the main intention of Nature, which willeth the increase of Mankind, and the continuation of the Species in the highest perfection, and the distinction of Families, with the Security of the Marriage Bed, as necessary thereunto". (First Treatise, sec. 59). Economic themes Robert Phiddian's article "Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal" focuses on two aspects of A Modest Proposal: the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Ph
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iddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satirical voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that "there is a gap between the narrator's meaning and the text's, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody". While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of "Swift's Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet", argues that to understand the piece fully it is important to understand the economics of Swift's time. Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have taken the time to focus directly on the mercantilism and theories of labour in 18th century England. "If one regards the Modest Proposal simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact". "People are the riches of a nation" At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less. Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity". Louis A. Landa composed a conducive analysis when he noted that it would have been healthier for the Irish economy to more appropriately utilize their human assets by giving the people an opportunity to "become a source of wealth to the nation" or else they "must turn to begging and thievery". This opportunity may have included giving the farmers more coin to work for, diversifying their professions, or even consider enslaving their people to lower coin usage and build up financial stock in Ireland. Landa wrote that, "Swift is maintaining that the maxim—people are the riches of a nation—applies to Ireland only if Ireland is permitted slavery or cannibalism" Landa presents Swift's A Modest Proposal as a critique of the popular and unjustified maxim of mercantilism in the 18th century that "people are the riches of a nation". Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that mere population itself, in Ireland's case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy. The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer. Swift also recognises the implications of this fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens. Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticising economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanising them by viewing them as a mere commodity. The public's reaction Swift's essay created a backlash within the community after its publication. The work was aimed at the aristocracy, and they responded in turn. Several members of society wrote to Swift regarding the work. Lord Bathurst's letter intimated that he certainly understood the message, and interpreted it as a work of comedy: 12 February 1729–30: Modern usage A Modest Proposal is included in many literature courses as an example of early modern western satire. It also serves as an introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language, lending itself to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies, A Modest Proposal is included in many comparative and global literature and history courses, as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts, humanities, and even the social sciences. The essay's approach has been copied many times. In his book A Modest Proposal (1984), the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer emulated Swift's work in a social conservative polemic against abortion and euthanasia, imagining a future dystopia that advocates recycling of aborted embryos, fetuses, and some disabled infants with compound intellectual, physical and physiological difficulties. (Such Baby Doe Rules cases were then a major concern of the US anti-abortion movement of the early 1980s, which viewed selective treatment of those infants as disability discrimination.) In his book A Modest Proposal for America (2013), statistician Howard Friedman opens with a satirical reflection of the extreme drive to fiscal stability by ultra-conservatives. In the 1998 edition of The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood there is a quote from A Modest Proposal before the introduction. A Modest Video Game Proposal is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney Jack Thompson on 10 October 2005. He proposed that someone should "create, manufacture, distribute, and sell a video game" that would allow players to act out a scenario in which the game character kills video game developers. Hunter S. Thompson's Fear
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and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist includes a letter in which he uses Swift's approach in connection with the Vietnam War. Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he is going to use napalm to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. The letter protests against the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas. The 2013 horror film Butcher Boys, written by the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre scribe Kim Henkel, is said to be an updating of Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal. Henkel imagined the descendants of folks who actually took Swift up on his proposal. The film opens with a quote from J. Swift. On 30 November 2017, Jonathan Swift's 350th birthday, The Washington Post published a column entitled "Why Alabamians should consider eating Democrats' babies", by Alexandra Petri. In July 2019, E. Jean Carroll published a book titled What Do We Need Men For?: A Modest Proposal, discussing problematic behaviour of male humans. On 3 October 2019, a satirist spoke up at an event for Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, claiming that a solution to the climate crisis was "we need to eat the babies". The individual also wore a T-shirt saying "Save The Planet, Eat The Children". This stunt was understood by many as a modern application of A Modest Proposal. On 16 January 2022, San Francisco Chronicle published an editorial by Joe Matthews titled "Opinion: Want true equity? I propose, modestly, forcing California parents to swap children" in which the author makes "a modest proposal" recommending that rich people give their children to poor people and poor people give their children to rich people as a way of achieving class equity. Notes References (subscription needed) External links A Modest Proposal (CELT) A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg) A Modest Proposal – Annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards A Modest Proposal BBC Radio 4 In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg 'A modest proposal For preventing the children of poor people From being a Burthen to their Parents or the Country, And for making them Beneficial to the publick. The Third Edition, Dublin, Printed: And Reprinted at London, for Weaver Bickerton, in Devereux-Court near the Middle-Temple, 1730. Proposal to eat the children a short movie based upon Swift's novel. Essays by Jonathan Swift Satirical essays Pamphlets 18th-century essays Works published anonymously British satire 1729 in Great Britain Cannibalism in fiction 1729 books <|endoftext|>The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). Together with hydrogen they constitute group 1, which lies in the s-block of the periodic table. All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised homologous behaviour. This family of elements is also known as the lithium family after its leading element. The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen (and in the case of lithium, nitrogen). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of abundance, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity; francium occurs only in minute traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group; none was successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal,
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398
it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp, which emits light very efficiently. Table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an anode in lithium batteries. Sodium and potassium are also essential elements, having major biological roles as electrolytes, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. History Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt (sodium chloride) has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word salary, referring to salarium, money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789. Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance caustic soda (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different. Petalite (Li Al Si4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist José Bonifácio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore. This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium". Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1850 as having similar properties. Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope, invented in 1859 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff. The next year, they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra: a bright red line for rubidium (from the Latin word rubidus, meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word caesius, meaning sky-blue). Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens. After 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic
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399
table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the boron group. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of group IB, and once as part of a "group VIII" encompassing today's groups 8 to 11. After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the d-block, while alkali metals were left in group IA. Later the group's name was changed to group 1 in 1988. The trivial name "alkali metals" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong alkalis when dissolved in water. There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium-227, which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%. The next element below francium (eka-francium) in the periodic table would be ununennium (Uue), element 119. The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of einsteinium-254 with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 nb. + → * → no atoms It is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254, which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms, to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table, it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan. Currently, none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to drip instabilities, that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make. Occurrence In the Solar System The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, f