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4757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestiary | Bestiary | A bestiary (from bestiarum vocabulum) is a compendium of beasts. Originating in the ancient world, bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals and even rocks. The natural history and illustration of each beast was usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This reflected the belief that the world itself was the Word of God and that every living thing had its own special meaning. For example, the pelican, which was believed to tear open its breast to bring its young to life with its own blood, was a living representation of Jesus. Thus the bestiary is also a reference to the symbolic language of animals in Western Christian art and literature.
History
The bestiary — the medieval book of beasts — was among the most popular illuminated texts in northern Europe during the Middle Ages (about 500–1500). Medieval Christians understood every element of the world as a manifestation of God, and bestiaries largely focused on each animal's religious meaning. Much of what is in the bestiary came from the ancient Greeks and their philosophers. The earliest bestiary in the form in which it was later popularized was an anonymous 2nd-century Greek volume called the Physiologus, which itself summarized ancient knowledge and wisdom about animals in the writings of classical authors such as Aristotle's Historia Animalium and various works by Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Solinus, Aelian and other naturalists.
Following the Physiologus, Saint Isidore of Seville (Book XII of the Etymologiae) and Saint Ambrose expanded the religious message with reference to passages from the Bible and the Septuagint. They and other authors freely expanded or modified pre-existing models, constantly refining the moral content without interest or access to much more detail regarding the factual content. Nevertheless, the often fanciful accounts of these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true. A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the migration of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era.
Medieval bestiaries are remarkably similar in sequence of the animals of which they treat. Bestiaries were particularly popular in England and France around the 12th century and were mainly compilations of earlier texts. The Aberdeen Bestiary is one of the best known of over 50 manuscript bestiaries surviving today.
Much influence comes from the Renaissance era and the general Middle Ages, as well as modern times. The Renaissance has been said to have started around the 14th century in Italy. Bestiaries influenced early heraldry in the Middle Ages, giving ideas for charges and also for the artistic form. Bestiaries continue to give inspiration to coats of arms created in our time.
Two illuminated Psalters, the Queen Mary Psalter (British Library Ms. Royal 2B, vii) and the Isabella Psalter (State Library, Munich), contain full Bestiary cycles. The bestiary in the Queen Mary Psalter is found in the "marginal" decorations that occupy about the bottom quarter of the page, and are unusually extensive and coherent in this work. In fact the bestiary has been expanded beyond the source in the Norman bestiary of Guillaume le Clerc to ninety animals. Some are placed in the text to make correspondences with the psalm they are illustrating.
Many decide to make their own bestiary with their own observations including knowledge from previous ones. These observations can be made in text form, as well as illustrated out. The Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci also made his own bestiary.
A volucrary is a similar collection of the symbols of birds that is sometimes found in conjunction with bestiaries. The most widely known volucrary in the Renaissance was Johannes de Cuba's Gart der Gesundheit which describes 122 birds and which was printed in 1485.
Bestiary content
The contents of medieval bestiaries were often obtained and created from combining older textual sources and accounts of animals, such as the Physiologus.
Medieval bestiaries contained detailed descriptions and illustrations of species native to Western Europe, exotic animals and what in modern times are considered to be imaginary animals. Descriptions of the animals included the physical characteristics associated with the creature, although these were often physiologically incorrect, along with the Christian morals that the animal represented. The description was then often accompanied by an artistic illustration of the animal as described in the bestiary. For example, in one bestiary the eagle is depicted in an illustration and is said to be the “king of birds.”
Bestiaries were organized in different ways based upon the sources they drew upon. The descriptions could be organized by animal groupings, such as terrestrial and marine creatures, or presented in an alphabetical manner. However, the texts gave no distinction between existing and imaginary animals. Descriptions of creatures such as dragons, unicorns, basilisk, griffin and caladrius were common in such works and found intermingled amongst accounts of bears, boars, deer, lions, and elephants. In one source, the author explains how fables and bestiaries are closely linked to one another as “each chapter of a bestiary, each fable in a collection, has a text and has a meaning.
This lack of separation has often been associated with the assumption that people during this time believed in what the modern period classifies as nonexistent or "imaginary creatures". However, this assumption is currently under debate, with various explanations being offered. Some scholars, such as Pamela Gravestock, have written on the theory that medieval people did not actually think such creatures existed but instead focused on the belief in the importance of the Christian morals these creatures represented, and that the importance of the moral did not change regardless if the animal existed or not. The historian of science David C. Lindberg pointed out that medieval bestiaries were rich in symbolism and allegory, so as to teach moral lessons and entertain, rather than to convey knowledge of the natural world.
Religious significance
The significance shown between animals and religion started much before bestiaries came into play. In many ancient civilizations there are references to animals and their meaning within that specific religion or mythology that we know of today. These civilizations included Egypt and their gods with the faces of animals or Greece which had symbolic animals for their godly beings, an example being Zeus and the eagle. With animals being a part of religion before bestiaries and their lessons came out, they were influenced by past observations of meaning as well as older civilizations and their interpretations.
As most of the students who read these bestiaries were monks and clerics, it is not impossible to say that there is a major religious significance within them. The bestiary was used to educate young men on the correct morals they should display. All of the animals presented in the bestiaries show some sort of lesson or meaning when presented. Much of the symbolism shown of animals. Much of what is proposed by the bestiaries mentions much of paganism because of the religious significance and time period of the medieval ages.
One of the main 'animals' mentioned in some of the bestiaries is dragons, which hold much significance in terms of religion and meaning. The unnatural part of dragon's history shows how important the church can be during this time. Much of what is covered in the article talks about how the dragon that is mentioned in some of the bestiaries shows a glimpse of the religious significance in many of these tales.
These bestiaries held much content in terms of religious significance. In almost every animal there is some way to connect it to a lesson from the church or a familiar religious story. With animals holding significance since ancient times, it is fair to say that bestiaries and their contents gave fuel to the context behind the animals, whether real or myth, and their meanings.
Modern bestiaries
In modern times, artists such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Saul Steinberg have produced their own bestiaries. Jorge Luis Borges wrote a contemporary bestiary of sorts, the Book of Imaginary Beings, which collects imaginary beasts from bestiaries and fiction. Nicholas Christopher wrote a literary novel called "The Bestiary" (Dial, 2007) that describes a lonely young man's efforts to track down the world's most complete bestiary. John Henry Fleming's Fearsome Creatures of Florida (Pocol Press, 2009) borrows from the medieval bestiary tradition to impart moral lessons about the environment. Caspar Henderson's The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (Granta 2012, University of Chicago Press 2013), subtitled "A 21st Century Bestiary", explores how humans imagine animals in a time of rapid environmental change. In July 2014, Jonathan Scott wrote The Blessed Book of Beasts, Eastern Christian Publications, featuring 101 animals from the various translations of the Bible, in keeping with the tradition of the bestiary found in the writings of the Saints, including Saint John Chrysostom. In today’s world there is a discipline called cryptozoology which is the study of unknown species. This discipline can be linked to medieval bestiaries because in many cases the unknown animals can be the same, as well as having meaning or significance behind them.
The lists of monsters to be found in computer games (for example NetHack, Monster Hunter and Pokémon) are often termed bestiaries.
See also
Allegory in the Middle Ages
List of medieval bestiaries
Marine counterparts of land creatures
References
“Animal Symbolism (Illustrated).” OpenSIUC, https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2505&context=ocj. Accessed 5 March 2022.
Morrison, Elizabeth, and Larisa Grollemond. “An Introduction to the Bestiary, Book of Beasts in the Medieval World (article).” Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/beginners-guide-to-medieval-europe/manuscripts/a/an-introduction-to-the-bestiary-book-of-beasts-in-the-medieval-world. Accessed 2 March 2022.
Morrison, Elizabeth. “Beastly tales from the medieval bestiary.” The British Library, https://www.bl.uk/medieval-english-french-manuscripts/articles/beastly-tales-from-the-medieval-bestiary. Accessed 2 March 2022.
“The Renaissance | Boundless World History.” Lumen Learning, LumenCandela, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-renaissance/. Accessed 5 March 2022.
"The Medieval Bestiary", by James Grout, part of the Encyclopædia Romana.
McCulloch, Florence. (1962) Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries.
Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn. eds. (1989) Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages. The Bestiary and its Legacy.
Payne, Ann. (1990) "Mediaeval Beasts. George, Wilma and Brunsdon Yapp. (1991) The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary.
Benton, Janetta Rebold. (1992) The Medieval Menagerie: Animals in the Art of the Middle Ages.
Lindberg, David C. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science. The European Tradition in Philosophhical, Religious and Institutional Context, 600 B. C. to A. D. 1450 Flores, Nona C. (1993) "The Mirror of Nature Distorted: The Medieval Artist's Dilemma in Depicting Animals".
Hassig, Debra (1995) Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology. Gravestock, Pamela. (1999) "Did Imaginary Animals Exist?"
Hassig, Debra, ed. (1999) The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature.
Notes
External links
The Bestiary: The Book of Beasts, T.H. White's translation of a medieval bestiary in the Cambridge University library; digitized by the University of Wisconsin–Madison libraries.
The Medieval Bestiary online, edited by David Badke.
The Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaon at the National Library of Denmark.
The Bestiary of Anne Walshe at the National Library of Denmark.
The Aberdeen Bestiary'' at the University of Aberdeen.
Exhibition (in English, but French version is fuller) at the Bibliothèque nationale de France
Christian Symbology Animals and their meanings in Christian texts.
Bestiairy - Monsters & Fabulous Creatures of Greek Myth & Legend with pictures
Types of illuminated manuscript
Medieval European legendary creatures
Medieval literature
Zoology |
50661374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franconian%20War | Franconian War | The Franconian War () was waged in 1523 when the Swabian League attacked several robber baron castles in Franconia, whose nobles were supporters of Hans Thomas of Absberg in the Absberg Feud.
Definitions
Franconian War
By comparison with other wars and battles the Franconian War was limited in extent and restricted to the region of Franconia. In a narrow sense, the term 'Franconian War' refers to the campaign by the Swabian League against 23 castles in June and July 1523. When the term first arose is still unclear, but reports of the conflict from the period immediately after 1523 were already speaking of 'acts of war'. In the 19th century the term was given a note of romance. Today's historians use the term mainly because it conveys the sense that two opponents with conflicting interests were involved in the fighting and the situation was more complex than one might think, if it were simply seen as a retaliation against the robber barons. Around the same time, similar causes also led to the Palatine Knights' War.
Absberg Feud
Long before the year 1523, Thomas of Absberg had started to kidnap merchants and imperial diplomats from Nuremberg and Augsburg as they travelled. Although these raids often took place in present-day Lower Franconia, he concealed the whereabouts of those he abducted, hiding them in different castles and changing their locations. He had allies far into Bohemian territory, so he could hide his own whereabouts and elude pursuit. He continued his raids even after 1523, but was eventually murdered in 1531 by a follower. The raids of Hans Thomas Absberg during the period 1519-1530 were documented and fought by the Nuremberg War Office (Kriegsstube).
Feuding at that time was a legitimate means of enforcing one's interests. For the Franconian Imperial Knights, whose importance was waning, it was also a means to combat the power of the emerging territorial states, such as the Bishopric of Bamberg and Burgraviate of Nuremberg, as well their margraviates, Kulmbach and Ansbach. However, the robber barons often misused this means of dispute, because a feud had inter alia to be properly announced and needed a reasonable justification. This misuse spelt the end of feuding as a legitimate arm of policy. It was replaced by an even more effective peace under the Landfrieden.
Course of the war
Starting position of the Swabian League
The Swabian League, which can be viewed as a first attempt at a peacekeeping force, was asked for help by the Imperial City of Nuremberg. The alliance had been created in order to assist its members in the preservation of the Landfriede. The Swabian League, which as its name suggests, had its roots in Swabia was made up of Swabian and Franconian Imperial Circles, as well as various Franconian Imperial Cities and territorial lords, for example, the Bishopric of Würzburg. Under the leadership of Nuremberg, the League began to raise a powerful army comprising contingents of its member states. The list of castles that Nuremberg wanted to have destroyed was long - in negotiations among the members of the League, agreement was finally reached in 1522 on the castles that were then to be attacked.
According to Roth von Schreckenstein, members of the Swabian League included the following Bavarian, Franconian and Swabian noble families: Seckendorff, Stain, Reischach, Wellwart, Schwendi, Echter, Torringer, Seibolstorff, Nothaft, Preysing, Nußberg, Hundt, Freiberg, Auer, Löffelholz, Ehingen, Hürnheim, Sotzingen, Thumb, Gültlingen, Rieringen, Ow zu Wachendorf, and Knöringen. In addition they were joined by various counts of Oettingen. An exact contemporary listing is found in the Bamburg Castle Book.
Starting position of the robber barons around Hans Thomas Absberg
Various factors led to the steady decline of the knighthood, for example, the decline in their importance compared with the territorial states or cities with thriving trade relations and even the loss of their function in raising troops for war. Noble families who had successfully dealt with this structural change usually presented themselves for service to territorial princes or the Emperor and were given important posts such as Hofmeister or Amtmann. Nevertheless, Hans Thomas Absberg had strong backing among the Franconian knights; his closest followers came from prominent families, like the Rosenbergs, Thüngens, Guttenbergs, Wirsbergs, Sparnecks, and Aufseßes. Many of the small estates into which the Franconian region was politically divided benefited from his raids. Besides In addition to imperially free estates, the borders of the bishoprics of Bamberg and Würzburg, Brandenburg-Kulmbach and the road to Bohemia and Saxony all lay close together.
Wider political context
The Swabian League not only took its duty seriously to provide assistance for the city of Nuremberg as a member of the League, but also had a cause for concern because of a connection between the banned Ulrich of Württemberg and the rebel knight, Franz von Sickingen. Von Sickingen's raids extended as far as Trier and he had strong support in the central German knighthood. Even when Von Sickingen died in May 1523 of his war wounds, the Palatine Knights' War and German Peasants' War erupted a few years later, causing widespread unrest that endangered the growing power of the principalities.
Destruction by the Swabian League in 1523
Before the army of the Swabian League marched, the knights who had broken the Landfrieden were given the opportunity to repent and swear an oath of purgation (Reinigungseid). Some of them took the oath and were thus released from further punishment, others were not permitted to take the oath, still others ignored the offer. Woodcarver and "war correspondent" captured the events of 1523 in 23 carvings. At the end of the campaign, some families were able to reconcile with the Swabian League and their estates were restored in return for a sum of gold and the promise that they would respect the peace. Other knights continued their rampaging in the company of Thomas of Absberg, so that, even in 1527, various communities established mounted patrols in order to guard against the raids.
Aftermath
Horst Carl sees in the events of 1523 a defining moment for Franconia and Swabia. The picture of "Franconian troublemakers and Swabian law enforcers" (fränkischen Unruhestiftern und schwäbischen Ordnungshütern) has had lasting influence on both regions in terms of their self-portrayal and their view of the other region.
See also
History of Franconia
References
Literature
Modern specialist literature
Horst Carl: Der Schwäbische Bund 1488–1534. Landfrieden und Genossenschaft im Übergang vom Spätmittelalter zur Reformation (= Schriften zur südwestdeutschen Landeskunde. Bd. 24). DRW-Verlag, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 2000, , pp. 472–480, (also: Tübingen, University, Habilitations-Schrift, 1998).
Horst Carl: Fränkische Unruhestifter und schwäbische Ordnungshüter? - Schwäbisches und fränkisches Regionalbewusstsein im Kontext frühneuzeitlicher Politik. In: Thomas Kühne, Cornelia Rauh-Kühne (Hrsg.): Raum und Geschichte. Regionale Traditionen und föderative Ordnungen von der Frühen Neuzeit bis zur Gegenwart (= Schriften zur südwestdeutschen Landeskunde. Bd. 40). DRW-Verlag, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 2001, , pp. 24–37.
Karl Heinz Kalb: Zum Wesen der Kriegsführung am Beginn der Neuzeit. Ihre Auswirkungen am oberen Main (= Amtlicher Schulanzeiger für den Regierungsbezirk Oberfranken. Heimatbeilage. Nr. 58, ). Regierung von Oberfranken, Bayreuth, 1977.
Peter Ritzmann: „Plackerey in teutschen Landen“. Untersuchungen zur Fehdetätigkeit des fränkischen Adels im frühen 16. Jahrhundert und ihrer Bekämpfung durch den Schwäbischen Bund und die Reichsstadt Nürnberg, insbesondere am Beispiel des Hans Thomas von Absberg und seiner Auseinandersetzung mit den Grafen von Oettingen (1520–31). Dissertations-Verlag NG-Kopierladen GmbH., Munich, 1995, (also: Munich, university, Dissertation, 1994).
Reinhardt Schmalz: Der Fränkische Krieg 1523 und die Schuld der Sparnecker. In: Archiv für Geschichte von Oberfranken. Vol. 85, 2005, pp. 151–158.
Thomas Steinmetz: Conterfei etlicher Kriegshandlungen von 1523 bis in das 1527 Jar – Zu Burgendarstellungen über die "Absberger Fehde" oder den "Fränkischen Krieg". In: Beiträge zur Erforschung des Odenwaldes und seiner Randlandschaften. Vol. 4, 1986, , pp. 365–386.
Classical specialist literature
Joseph Baader: Die Fehde des Hans Thomas von Absberg wider den schwäbischen Bund. Ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts. Kellerer, Munich, 1880.
Joseph Baader (ed.): Verhandlungen über Thomas von Absberg und seine Fehde gegen den Schwäbischen Bund 1519 bis 1530 (= Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart. Jg. 27, Publication 1 = Publication 114, ). Auf Kosten des Litterarischen Vereins, Tübingen, 1873, digitalised.
Johann Heilmann: Kriegsgeschichte von Bayern, Franken, Pfalz und Schwaben von 1506 bis 1651. Band 1: Kriegsgeschichte und Kriegswesen von 1506–1598. Literarisch-artistische Anstalt der G. J. Cotta'schen Buchhandlung, Munich, 1868, pp. 29–36.
Karl Freiherr von Reitzenstein: Der Schwäbische Bund in Ober-Franken oder des Hauses Sparneck Fall 1523. Akten zur fränkischen Geschichte. Kühn, Weimar, 1859, digitalised.
Karl Heinrich Freiherr Roth von Schreckenstein: Geschichte der ehemaligen freien Reichsritterschaft in Schwaben, Franken und am Rheinstrome, nach Quellen bearbeitet. Band 2: Vom Jahre 1437 bis zur Aufhebung der Reichsritterschaft. Laupp, Tübingen, 1862, pp. 249–253.
External links
Warfare of the early modern period
1520s conflicts
Feuds in Germany
1520s in the Holy Roman Empire
History of Franconia
House of Absberg
Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen |
1909222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivator | Cultivator | A cultivator is a piece of agricultural equipment used for secondary tillage. One sense of the name refers to frames with teeth (also called shanks) that pierce the soil as they are dragged through it linearly. It also refers to machines that use the rotary motion of disks or teeth to accomplish a similar result. The rotary tiller is a principal example.
Cultivators stir and pulverize the soil, either before planting (to aerate the soil and prepare a smooth, loose seedbed) or after the crop has begun growing (to kill weeds—controlled disturbance of the topsoil close to the crop plants kills the surrounding weeds by uprooting them, burying their leaves to disrupt their photosynthesis or a combination of both). Unlike a harrow, which disturbs the entire surface of the soil, cultivators are designed to disturb the soil in careful patterns, sparing the crop plants but disrupting the weeds.
Cultivators of the toothed type are often similar in form to chisel plows, but their goals are different. Cultivator's teeth work near the surface, usually for weed control, whereas chisel plow shanks work deep beneath the surface, breaking up the hardened layer on top.
Small toothed cultivators pushed or pulled by a single person are used as garden tools for small-scale gardening, such as for the household's own use or for small market gardens. Similarly sized rotary tillers combine the functions of a harrow and cultivator into one multipurpose machine.
Cultivators are usually either self-propelled or drawn as an attachment behind either a two-wheel tractor or four-wheel tractor. For two-wheel tractors, they are usually rigidly fixed and powered via couplings to the tractors' transmission. For four-wheel tractors they are usually attached by means of a three-point hitch and driven by a power take-off . Drawbar hookup is also still commonly used worldwide. Draft-animal power is sometimes still used today, being somewhat common in developing nations although rare in more industrialized economies.
History
The basic idea of soil scratching for weed control is ancient and was done with hoes or plough for millennia before any larger or more complex equipment was developed to reduce the manual labour and to speed the work. The notion of ganging several hoes together and applying draft animal power to drag them led to harrows, which while newer than the hoe are still quite ancient. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the Industrial Revolution developed, a proliferation of cultivator designs proceeded. These new cultivators were drawn by draft animals (such as horses, mules, or oxen) or were pushed or drawn by people, depending on the need and expense.
The powered rotary hoe was invented by Arthur Clifford Howard who, in 1912, began experimenting with rotary tillage on his father's farm at Gilgandra, New South Wales, Australia. Initially using his father's steam tractor engine as a power source, he found that ground could be mechanically tilled without soil-packing occurring, as was the case with normal ploughing. His earliest designs threw the tilled soil sideways, until he improved his invention by designing an L-shaped blade mounted on widely spaced flanges fixed to a small-diameter rotor. With fellow apprentice Everard McCleary, he established a company to make his machine, but plans were interrupted by World War I. In 1919 Howard returned to Australia and resumed his design work, patenting a design with 5 rotary hoe cultivator blades and an internal combustion engine in 1920.
In March 1922, Howard formed the company Austral Auto Cultivators Pty Ltd, which later became known as Howard Auto Cultivators. It was based in Northmead, a suburb of Sydney, from 1927.
Meanwhile, in North America during the 1910s, tractors were evolving away from traction engine–sized monsters toward smaller, lighter, more affordable machines. The Fordson tractor especially had made tractors affordable and practical for small and medium family farms for the first time in history. Cultivating was somewhat of an afterthought in the Fordson's design, which reflected the fact that even just bringing practical motorized tractive power alone to this market segment was in itself a milestone. This left an opportunity for others to pursue better motorized cultivating. Between 1915 and 1920, various inventors and farm implement companies experimented with a class of machines referred to as motor cultivators, which were simply modified horse-drawn shank-type cultivators with motors added for self-propulsion. This class of machines found limited market success. But by 1921 International Harvester had combined motorized cultivating with the other tasks of tractors (tractive power and belt work) to create the Farmall, the general-purpose tractor tailored to cultivating that basically invented the category of row-crop tractors.
In Australia, by the 1930s, Howard was finding it increasingly difficult to meet a growing worldwide demand for exports of his machines. He travelled to the United Kingdom, founding the company Rotary Hoes Ltd in East Horndon, Essex, in July 1938. Branches of this new company subsequently opened in the United States of America, South Africa, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Brazil, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand. It later became the holding company for Howard Rotavator Co. Ltd. The Howard Group of companies was acquired by the Danish Thrige Agro Group in 1985, and in December 2000 the Howard Group became a member of Kongskilde Industries of Soroe, Denmark.
In modern commercial agriculture, the amount of cultivating done for weed control has been greatly reduced via use of herbicides instead. However, herbicides are not always desirable—for example, in organic farming. When herbicidal weed control was first widely commercialized in the 1950s and 1960s, it played into that era's optimistic worldview in which sciences such as chemistry would usher in a new age of modernity that would leave old-fashioned practices (such as weed control via cultivators) in the dustbin of history. Thus, herbicidal weed control was adopted very widely, and in some cases too heavily and hastily. In subsequent decades, people overcame this initial imbalance and came to realize that herbicidal weed control has limitations and externalities, and it must be managed intelligently. It is still widely used, and probably will continue to be indispensable to affordable food production worldwide for the foreseeable future; but its wise management includes seeking alternate methods, such as the traditional standby of mechanical cultivation, where practical.
Industrial use
To the extent that cultivating is done commercially today (such as in truck farming), it is usually powered by tractors, especially row-crop tractors. Industrial cultivators can vary greatly in size and shape, from to wide. Many are equipped with hydraulic wings that fold up to make road travel easier and safer. Different types are used for preparation of fields before planting, and for the control of weeds between row crops. The cultivator may be an implement trailed after the tractor via a drawbar; mounted on the three-point hitch; or mounted on a frame beneath the tractor. Active cultivator implements are driven by a power take-off shaft. While most cultivator are considered a secondary tillage implement, active cultivators are commonly used for primary tillage in lighter soils instead of plowing. The largest versions available are about wide, and require a tractor with an excess of (PTO) to drive them.
Field cultivators are used to complete tillage operations in many types of arable crop fields. The main function of the field cultivator is to prepare a proper seedbed for the crop to be planted into, to bury crop residue in the soil (helping to warm the soil before planting), to control weeds, and to mix and incorporate the soil to ensure the growing crop has enough water and nutrients to grow well during the growing season. The implement has many shanks mounted on the underside of a metal frame, and small narrow rods at the rear of the machine that smooth out the soil surface for easier travel later when planting. In most field cultivators, one-to-many hydraulic cylinders raise and lower the implement and control its depth.
Row crop cultivators
The main function of the row crop cultivator is weed control between the rows of an established crop. Row crop cultivators are usually raised and lowered by a three-point hitch and the depth is controlled by gauge wheels.
Sometimes referred to as sweep cultivators, these commonly have two center blades that cut weeds from the roots near the base of the crop and turn over soil, while two rear sweeps further outward than the center blades deal with the center of the row, and can be anywhere from 1 to 36 rows wide.
Garden cultivators
Small tilling equipment, used in small gardens such as household gardens and small commercial gardens, can provide both primary and secondary tillage. For example, a rotary tiller does both the "plowing" and the "harrowing", preparing a smooth, loose seedbed. It does not provide the row-wise weed control that cultivator teeth would. For that task, there are single-person-pushable toothed cultivators.
Variants and trademarks
Rotary tillers are a type of cultivator. They are popular with home gardeners who want large vegetable gardens. The garden may be tilled a few times before planting each crop. Rotary tillers may be rented from tool rental centers for single-use applications, such as when planting grass.
A small rotary hoe for domestic gardens was known by the trademark Rototiller and another, made by the Howard Group, who produced a range of rotary tillers, was known as the Rotavator.
Rototiller The small rototiller is typically propelled by a petrol engine rotating the tines, some have powered wheels, though they may have small transport/level control wheel(s). To keep the machine from moving forward too fast, an adjustable tine is usually fixed just behind the blades so that through friction with deeper un-tilled soil, it acts as a brake, slowing the machine and allowing it to pulverize the soils. The slower a rototiller moves forward, the more soil tilth can be obtained. The operator can control the amount of friction/braking action by raising and lowering the handlebars of the tiller. Rototillers often do not have a reverse as such backwards movement towards the operator could cause serious injury. While operating, the rototiller can be pulled backwards to go over areas that were not pulverized enough, but care must be taken to ensure that the operator does not stumble and pull the rototiller on top of themselves. Rototilling is much faster than manual tilling, but notoriously difficult to handle and exhausting work, especially in the heavier and higher power models. If the rototiller's blades catch on unseen subsurface objects, such as tree roots and buried garbage, it can cause the rototiller to abruptly and violently move in an unexpected direction.
Rotavator Unlike the Rototiller, the self-propelled Howard Rotavator is equipped with a gearbox and driven forward, or held back, by its wheels. The gearbox enables the forward speed to be adjusted while the rotational speed of the tines remains constant which enables the operator to easily regulate the extent to which soil is engaged. For a two-wheel tractor rotavator this greatly reduces the workload of the operator as compared to a rototiller. These rotavators are generally more heavy duty, come in versions with either a petrol or diesel engine and can cover larger areas. The trademarked word "Rotavator" is one of the longest single-word palindromes in the English language.
Mini tiller Mini tillers are a new type of small agricultural tillers or cultivators, used by farmers or homeowners. These are also known as power tillers or garden tillers. Compact, powerful and, most importantly, inexpensive, these agricultural rotary tillers are providing alternatives to four-wheel tractors and in the small farmers' fields in developing countries are more economical than four-wheel tractors.
Two-wheel tractor The higher power "riding" rotavators cross out of the home garden category into farming category, especially in Europe, capable of preparing 1 hectare of land in 8–10 hours. These are also known as walk-behind tractors or walking tractors. Years ago they were considered only useful for rice growing areas, where they were fitted with steel cage-wheels for traction, but now the same are being used in both wetland and dryland farming all over the world. They have multiple functions with related tools for dryland or paddys, pumping, transportation, threshing, ditching, spraying pesticide. They can be used on hills, mountains, in greenhouses and orchards.
See also
Cultivator No. 6
Pubert SAS
References
External links
Terminology and Definitions for Agricultural Tillage Implements
Agricultural Machinery Management Data
Field cultivator patent
Agricultural machinery
Australian inventions
Gardening tools
Tractors |
968948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiniti%20M | Infiniti M | The Infiniti M is a line of mid-size luxury (executive) cars from the Infiniti luxury division of Nissan. From 2013 (model year 2014) on it has been marketed as the Infiniti Q70, reflecting the company's new naming scheme.
The first iteration was the M30 Coupé/Convertible, which were rebadged JDM Nissan Leopard. After a long hiatus, the M nameplate was used for Infiniti's mid-luxury sedans (executive cars). First was the short-lived M45 sedan, a rebadged version of the Japanese-spec Nissan Gloria. The next generations, the M35/45 and M37/56/35h/30d, became the flagship of the Infiniti brand and are based on the JDM Nissan Fuga.
First generation (1989–1992)
The Infiniti M30 was a 2-door coupé based on the Japanese market Nissan Leopard (chassis code F31). It was launched in 1989 for the 1990 model year as a less-expensive alternative to the Infiniti Q45, and was intended as a stopgap until the Infiniti J30 sedan was launched for the 1992 model year.
Unlike its competitors that were designed with the American market in mind and were launched as brand-new models, the M30 was based on a somewhat dated platform that was originally designed for the Japanese market; when it came to America, few changes were made to the platform aside from cosmetic differences, and the M30's angular design and on-road performance were rather outdated, especially considering a redesigned Acura Legend coupe was launched in 1991. The interior, in particular, came in for criticism for its angular design and outdated ergonomics. While the Japanese-market Leopard had received a new dashboard along with the 1988 facelift, economics precluded making a left-hand-drive version of the new dashboard and the M30 was instead fitted with the LHD version of the R31 Skyline's rectilinear dashboard, first presented in 1985.
The M30 made up for these deficiencies in its somewhat lower price; whereas the 1990 Acura Legend coupe started at $27,325 before options and the 1990 BMW 325i started at $24,650 before options, the M30 started at $23,500, and had no factory options, per Infiniti's pricing structure used at the time. Dealerships offered an in-car cellular telephone and in-dash CD player as optional accessories, amongst other items.
Overview
Standard equipment on the M30 included a driver's side airbag, anti-lock brakes, an anti-theft security system with an engine immobilizer, Nissan Sonar Suspension II, and leather upholstery. Other standard equipment included a 4 speaker Nissan-Bose audio system with satellite radio controls, a cassette player and an electric mast antenna, automatic climate control, cruise control, a power moonroof, power windows, power locks, and power mirrors.
For the 1991 model year, the cable-type speedometer became electric, instrument cluster typeface changed to match that of the Q45, and fuel and coolant temperature gauges were switched. An illuminated entry feature was added that would light the driver's and passenger's door keyhole and the interior dome light upon pulling the outer door handle. Selective door lock logic was added that allowed unlocking of the passenger door from the driver's keyhole by turning the key twice.
A convertible was introduced for the 1991 model year. All convertibles originated as coupe models, and were shipped to California and converted by American Sunroof Corporation (ASC). The electric canvas top featured fully automatic push-button operation, similar to the redesigned 1990 Mercedes-Benz SL, although the SL used a hydraulic system, while the M30 used an electric system. Unlike the coupe, the M30 convertibles utilized manual climate controls, and a standard Active Sound audio system. As the convertible top used a plastic rear window, the rear window defrost feature used on the coupe was removed, and buttons to raise and lower the convertible top were put in place of the rear window defrost switch. The convertible model was never officially sold in Japan, and was exclusive to the US market, although convertibles have been imported to Japan in the last few years by collectors.
All 1992 models gained the addition of a central locking switch next to the Sonar Suspension II selector, and the intake plenum cover was revised and displayed the Infiniti logo, rather than the Nissan logo and the "V6 3000" script on 1990 and 1991 cars.
The M30 was discontinued after the 1992 model year following a production run of approximately 17,000 cars. It was replaced in the Infiniti lineup by the J30 sedan, which was based on the F31 Nissan Leopard's successor, the Nissan Leopard J. Ferie (chassis code Y32).
Technical
Power came from Nissan's VG30E V6, which produced at 6000 rpm, and of torque at 3500 rpm. All M30s were equipped with a Jatco RE4R01A 4-speed automatic transmission. The differential was a Nissan open R200 unit. Although most Nissan Leopards were equipped with a DOHC V6, offered in 2-liter, 3-liter, naturally aspirated, and turbocharged forms, the M30 was only offered with the SOHC VG30E. Although it was a smooth powertrain, which Infiniti touted in its brochures for the M30, the coupe and 3,523 lb (1,598 kg) convertible were generally received as overweight and underpowered, with a quoted 0–60 time of 9.4 and 9.7 seconds, respectively. Infiniti marketed the car as a luxury sports coupe, and its relatively low power output, combined with the absence of a manual transmission, hampered its performance and sporting image.
Like the Nissan Maxima, the M30 was equipped with Nissan's Sonar Suspension II. Using a sonar sensor mounted underneath the front bumper that scanned the road surface ahead of the vehicle, it would instantly change damping based on varying road surfaces, using individual actuators on each shock absorber. A center console-mounted switch allowed drivers to choose between Comfort (soft) and Sport (firm) suspension modes.
Second generation (2002–2004)
Infiniti M45 was designed in 2000 at the Nissan Technical Center (NTC) in Atsugi, Japan; was manufactured in Tochigi, Japan; and is based on eleventh generation, Y34-series Nissan Gloria. In contrast to the Japanese models, which were available only with 6-cylinder engines, the M45 was powered by Nissan's VK45DE V8, producing and of torque, which it shared with the Infiniti's flagship Q45.
In addition to the difference in powertrain with the Y34 Cedric/Gloria, the Y34 M45 uses a different instrument panel design, similar to the F50 Q45 as well as a different rear multi-link suspension design. The Y34 Cedric/Gloria's rear multi-link suspension design is similar to Z32 300ZX, and S14/S15 Silvia/200SX/240SX where the rear spring is mounted on the strut. The rear suspension design on the Y34 M45 is much like the rear suspension design on the Z33 350Z, where the spring is mounted independent of the shock/strut, and sits directly on the lower arm, in a spring cup.
The front suspension design carries over from the Y33 Q45, with a one-piece strut/upright. In place of the stamped steel front lower arm, the Y34 M45 has a cast aluminum lower A-arm.
The M45 broadened Nissan's use of the 4.5L V8 that had been exclusive to the Q45, allowing the company to better amortize the engine's development cost.
Third generation (2005–2010)
Infiniti released a redesigned M for the 2006 model year, released in February 2005, and marketed in Japan as the Nissan Fuga. All-wheel-drive models, marketed as the M35x and M45x, use a system (ATTESA-ETS) to send all power to the rear wheels until slip is detected. As the Q45 was no longer exported from Japan after model year 2006, the M45 became Infiniti's flagship.
The M used a more rigid version of the Nissan FM platform shared with the G35/350Z/FX — and was available with the VQ-series 3.5 L V6 in the M35, or the Q45's 4.5 L V8 in the M45.
While shorter than the last Q45 at , the M offered greater interior space, performance, a rear multilink suspension and front double wishbone, and improved ergonomics as well as a longer wheelbase.
Reception
The automotive press the Y50 Infiniti M several praised the M35 and M45's driving involvement and handling dynamics vs the GS and E-Class while having superior ergonomics to the 5 Series; furthermore the M was equipped and priced competitively against its German rivals, while the M35 also received strong reviews. Despite entering a very crowded, competitive segment in which almost every member has been recently redesigned, the M managed to claim several key distinctions. The M is near or at the top of its class of every interior dimension, actually breaking into the United States Environmental Protection Agency "large" category depending on which option packages are selected.
The M35x won Consumer Reports top luxury car pick for 2006, taking the top spot from the 2005 Lexus LS 430.
The Infiniti M did not gain a significant share in the mid-luxury market. The Infiniti G37 sedan and coupe, competing in the entry-level luxury sport category, accounted for half of the marque's sales as of 2009. Out of that year's 81000 Infiniti cars sold, only 10000 were of the M nameplate. Furthermore, the 2009 update left M35 and M45 in awkward positions of the Infiniti lineup, as though they were the flagships of the marque, they were out-powered by the VQ37VHR engines fitted in the 2009 G37 coupe and sedan. For that model year while the G Series received 7-speed automatic transmissions across the lineup, only the M35 RWD was upgraded to a 7-speed automatic while the rest of the nameplate retained the aging 5-speed automatic.
2008/2009 Mid-generational refresh
For the 2008 model year, the Infiniti M received a facelift, receiving optional all wheel drive (M45x), revised front and rear fascias, revised tail lights, and redesigned blue-highlted gauges, previously orange. Infiniti also offered an S type version for the M45/M45x similar to the previous Sport model. Other new features on the 2008 model include touch screen hard drive based navigation, iPod integration, and a music hard drive.
For 2009, the M35 received a new V6 engine producing and of torque and a 7-speed automatic transmission. The 2009 M35x, M45, and M45x retained the five-speed automatic.
Fourth generation (2010–2019)
The Y51, designed by Hideo Komuro during 2006 and 2008 under the supervision of Shiro Nakamura, took on a more fluid look, recalling the coke bottle styling of a 1960s and 1970s.
The 2011 Infiniti M debuted at the 59th Annual Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, and at a media event in Beverly Hills, California in December 2009, to coincide with the LA Auto Show in Los Angeles. The production version went on sale globally starting in the spring of 2010, as a 2011 model — and in the US on March 1, 2010. It was launched in Europe at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show.
A driving mode selector was included on all models, situated below the transmission gear lever and between the heated and ventilated front seat controls, providing four selections labeled "Standard", "Sport", "Eco", and "Snow", allowing the 7-speed transmission, engine and various systems to optimize driving in varying conditions. To minimize intrusion of exhaust noise in the passenger compartment, the M included a noise cancelling system marketed as Active Noise Control. Double-piston shock absorbers, developed by Kayaba Industry Company, have replaced those previously supplied by Hitachi.
The 5.6L V8 VK56VD in the Infiniti M56 was competitive with other V8 mid-luxury (executive) cars such as the BMW 550i and Mercedes-Benz E550. The 5.6L V8 is not shared with its Japanese domestic market counterpart, the Nissan Fuga, as Nissan opted instead to have the hybrid version as the performance option. The extended length version of the Fuga, known as the Cima, is offered as the Infiniti Q70L beginning from model year 2015.
The M37 and M56 will have all-wheel drive optional, badged as M37x and M56x, respectively.
Safety technology included Lane Departure Prevention, which uses a small camera mounted above the rearview mirror to gauge distance from the lane markers, and would lightly deploy selected brakes to help ease the car into the correct lane. It allowed for unimpeded lane changes when the turn signal is used and yields control to the driver at all times. Blind Spot Intervention System used sensors to provide a visual warning in the side view mirror. If the car sensed movement toward an obstacle, it provided an audible warning and applied opposite side brakes to guide the vehicle to the correct lane.
Safety
The third generation Infiniti M models were given a "Top Safety Pick" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) by earning a "Good" score for all four IIHS crash tests while also featuring standard stability control to help avoid accidents altogether.
Engines
M35h (Hybrid version) (2011–2019)
The Infiniti M Hybrid, sold as the Nissan Fuga Hybrid in Japan where it was the top performance trim, introduced Nissan's first in-house developed electric hybrid technology, and the carmaker claimed it doubles the fuel economy of its gasoline-powered version. Nissan also announced that the Nissan Infiniti/Fuga Hybrid, together with the Nissan Leaf, included its new Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians system to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence when the hybrid is operating at low speeds in all-electric mode.
The hybrid includes one electric motor and two clutches to allow the 3.5L V6 ( and ) gas engine and electric motor to drive the rear wheels simultaneously. The lithium-ion battery pack comes from the Infiniti Essence. The VQ35HR 3.5 L V6 Hybrid utilizes the Atkinson cycle. The electric motor, installed in parallel between the engine and the transmission, produces from 1.3kWh lithium-ion batteries that are expected to have a service life of 10 years. The batteries are installed upright behind the rear seats. The main sacrifices are that the luggage compartment space is reduced, the hybrid's rear seats are fixed in place and cannot fold down, and all-wheel drive is not available. One benefit of the battery placement though, is that it leaves the hybrid with a 51/49 front to rear weight distribution.
The combined power output of the M35H's hybrid power-train is at 6500 rpm, and an estimated of torque at 2000 rpm.
Reviewers have considered the 2012 Infiniti M35h, along with the 2011 Porsche Panamera S Hybrid which also debuted in the same calendar year, as among the best executed hybrid performance luxury cars. The M35h and Panamera S Hybrid are the first hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles with an automatic transmission to return frugal fuel economy figures and retain the acceleration/handling characteristics of its gasoline-only counterparts. Earlier hybrids such as the Lexus 2007 GS 450h used a CVT for fuel economy at the cost of driving dynamics, while the 2010 BMW ActiveHybrid 7 which has an automatic transmission did not feature significantly improved mileage over its gasoline counterpart. The M35h's fuel economy is superior to the M37, and it is almost as fast as the M56 while providing a more balanced, near 50/50, front/rear weight distribution.
On August 23, 2011, the Infiniti M35h set an official Guinness world record for the world's fastest accelerating production full hybrid. The feat took place at the United Kingdom's Santa Pod Raceway, where CAR magazine journalist Tim Pollard drove the vehicle down the quarter-mile dragstrip in 13.896 seconds. The M35h averaged 13.9031 seconds for all runs, reaching speeds over . Guinness adjudicators were present to witness the run and certify the record. The official claimed 0– time for the Infiniti M35h is 5.5 seconds.
M30d (Diesel version) (2010–2014)
In 2010, at the Geneva Motor Show, the Infiniti M was introduced with a diesel engine for the first time. It was sold across Europe starting in September 2010. The V9X diesel engine produces and of torque at 2,500 rpm. In western Europe, this V6 performance diesel was offered as a high performance option in lieu of the M56 V8. The M30d was not sold in the US or Canada.
Discontinuation
In 2019, Nissan confirmed that the Infiniti Q70, Q70L, Q30, and QX30 models will be discontinued after the 2019 model year due to poor sales as buyers in the United States, Canada, and Mexico preferred crossovers and SUVs instead of sedans, hatchbacks, wagons, convertibles, and coupes. Another reason for the discontinuation was Nissan's plans to withdraw the Infiniti brand from the Australian, New Zealand, South Korean, Hong Kong, Macau, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Malaysian, and West European markets by the end of 2020, with Nissan already withdrawing the Infiniti brand from the South African market in 2017 due to losses and poor sales. Nissan has no plans of abandoning sedans entirely and plans on possibly introducing an Infiniti EV vehicle in 2021 for the 2022 model year based from QS Inspiration concept.
Awards and recognition
2010 Ward's Auto Interior of the Year
2011 Popular Mechanics Automotive Excellence Award- "Top 10 Cars of 2011" (Top Luxury Pick).
2011 Infiniti M received Insurance Institute for Highway Safety Top Safety Pick.
2011 Infiniti M35h sets official Guinness record for world's fastest production hybrid (certified by the 2013 Guinness Book of Records edition)
Sales by calendar year
See also
Infiniti
References
External links
Official Infiniti USA site
Official Canadian site
M45
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1989
Cars of Japan
Convertibles
Coupés
Executive cars
Flagship vehicles
Hybrid electric vehicles
Luxury vehicles
Mid-size cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sports sedans
Vehicles with four-wheel steering |
337921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic%20dress | Academic dress | Academic dress is a traditional form of clothing for academic settings, mainly tertiary (and sometimes secondary) education, worn mainly by those who have obtained a university degree (or similar), or hold a status that entitles them to assume them (e.g., undergraduate students at certain old universities). It is also known as academical dress, academicals, and, in the United States, as academic regalia.
Contemporarily, it is commonly seen only at graduation ceremonies, but formerly academic dress was, and to a lesser degree in many ancient universities still is, worn daily. Today, the ensembles are distinctive in some way to each institution, and generally consist of a gown (also known as a robe) with a separate hood, and usually a cap (generally either a square academic cap, a tam, or a bonnet). Academic dress is also worn by members of certain learned societies and institutions as official dress.
Overview and history
The academic dress found in most universities in the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States is derived from that of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which was a development of academic and clerical dress common throughout the medieval universities of Europe. This overgarment had the practical purpose of keeping a scholar warm while they were sitting, immobile, studying.
Formal or sober clothing is typically worn beneath the gown so, for example, men would often wear a dark suit with a white shirt and a tie, or clerical clothing, military or civil uniform, or national dress, and women would wear equivalent attire. Some older universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, have a prescribed set of dress (known as subfusc) to be worn under the gown. Although some universities are relaxed about what people wear under their gowns, it is nevertheless considered bad form to be in casual wear or the like during graduation ceremonies, and a number of universities may bar finishing students from joining the procession or the ceremony itself if not appropriately dressed (though this sometimes refers only to requiring the proper wear of academic dress and not what is worn beneath it, if unseen). In the Commonwealth, gowns are worn open, while in the United States, with a few exceptions, it has become common for gowns to close at the front, as did the original roba.
Materials
In general, the materials used for academic dress are heavily influenced by the climate where the academic institution is located, or the climate where the graduate will usually be wearing the costume (as a faculty member at another institution, for example). In either case, the American Council of Education (ACE) allows for the comfort of the wearer, and concedes that lighter materials be used in tropical climates, and heavier materials elsewhere. In addition, it acknowledges cotton poplin, broadcloth, rayon, or silk as appropriate.
The materials used for academic dress vary and range from the extremely economical to the very expensive. In the United States, most Bachelor and master's degree candidates are often only presented the "souvenir" version of regalia by their institutions or authorized vendor, which are generally intended for very few wearings and are comparatively very inexpensive. For some doctoral graduates, commencement will be the only time they wear academic regalia, and so they rent their gowns instead of buying them. These rented (or hired) gowns are often made of inexpensive polyester or other human-made synthetic fibre. In Britain, rented gowns are almost always polyester while Russell cord, silk, or artificial silk gowns are only available when bought. Undergraduate gowns are usually made from cotton or cotton and polyester mix and are relatively inexpensive to encourage students to own them.
People who choose to buy their dress may opt for finer fabrics, such as poplin, grosgrain, percale, cotton, wool, cassimere, broadcloth, Russell cord, or corded/ribbed material. For silk, there are a range of types including artificial silk/rayon, Ottoman (i.e. ribbed or corded silk), taffeta, satin, alpaca, true silk, shot silk, or a mixture. Pure Ottoman silk is rarely used except for official gowns, as it is very expensive. Some gowns may be trimmed with gimp lace, cords, buttons, or other forms of decoration.
In the past, fur has been used to line certain hoods (especially those of the UK) which range from rabbit to ermine. In the past, sheepskin was widely used. Most now use imitation fur, instead, mainly because of cost and animal rights concerns. Some robe makers use fur if the customer requests and pays for it, as some feel that the quality and feel of artificial fur has yet to match that of real fur.
Doctor's robes usually use wool flannel, panama (worsted), superfine cloth, damask, or brocade, and are brightly coloured (or black, but faced with a bright colour) to distinguish them from lower degrees. They tend to be the most expensive because they must be dyed in a specific colour and/or be trimmed in coloured silks. Many doctoral gowns have a special undress version so adding to the cost of a full set.
A full set may cost about US$360 (£180) for cheap materials to as much as $5800 (£2900) for high-quality materials. Usually, ex-hire gowns are available for purchase at cheaper prices, though the quality may be lower.
Many institutions whose dress includes gowns of varying lengths prescribe the appropriate length of each gown with reference to parts of the wearer's body (undergraduate gowns at Cambridge, for example, must not reach the knees, whereas BA gowns should reach just beyond them, according to the university's statutes). As such, suppliers of academic dress produce gowns in many different sizes to fit persons of different heights.
By country or district
Canada
In Canada, academic regalia are worn by university officials, faculty, students, and honoured guests during Graduation exercises (commonly referred to as Convocation), installations of their presiding officers, and special convocations, such as the inauguration of newly endowed professorial chairs and inductions to some of the honour and professional societies with university chapters. Academic regalia typically consist of a headgear (mortarboard, Tudor bonnet, or John Knox cap), robe, and hood. Until the 1930s, Canadian universities customarily prescribed academic robes for its professors and students at classes and lectures. At the University of Trinity College at the University of Toronto, academic gowns are still required for all students and faculty at Wednesday dinners, most college meetings, debates, and certain special college events.
Most Canadian universities follow or adopted either the British University academic dress at Oxford or Cambridge universities, or the Intercollegiate Code of Academic Costume ratified by most American universities in the late 1890s. Other universities contain elements of the British and American patterns for some or all of their academic costumes. A classic example is the academic dress of McGill University, whose British origins are evident in the regalia of its degree holders. The distinctive ceremonial regalia of McGill University officials, though, are closer to the American pattern for the master's robe with above-the-elbow, square, slit-cut sleeves. The scarlet, doctor of philosophy (PhD) regalia of McGill can now be worn closed-front, unlike the open-front only gown of the University of Cambridge higher doctoral full dress, from which it evolved. Gold strand tassels used in American doctoral regalia are wrapped around McGill's otherwise Tudor-style bonnet or tam.
France
In France, academic dress, also called the toge (from the word toga, an ancient Roman garment), is similar to French judges' court dress, except for its colour, which depends on the academic field in which the wearer graduated. It is nowadays little worn, except by doctors during the opening of the university year or the ceremony for a doctorate honoris causa. For doctors, it consists of:
A long gown (a bit similar to a cassock) with a long row of buttons (traditionally, 33, but nowadays usually fewer) in front and a train at the back (which in the current costume is not visible but attached with a button in the inner side of the gown). The gown is in two colours: black and the standard colour of the academic field in which the wearer graduated (see below), with simars (two vertical bands in the front of the gown).
An épitoge (epitoga): A piece of cloth with white fur stripes (three for doctors) attached by a button on the left shoulder, with a rectangular, long, thin tail in the front and a triangular, shorter, broad tail in the back (both tails carry the fur stripes); its colour is that of the relevant academic field. The epitoga has evolved from the academic hood, which explains why the French academic dress does not include a hood.
A long, wide belt or sash, either black or of the colour of the relevant academic field, ended by fringes (which may be golden or of the same colour as the belt), and attached with a broad, ornamental knot.
A white rabat (jabot), over which a white tie may be worn for ceremonial occasions: It is made of lace for the dean of the faculty, the president of the university, and a few other officials, of plain cotton for others.
Traditionally only for men, a mortarboard of the colour of the relevant academic field with a golden stripe, which is usually not worn but carried (since the academic dress in France is rarely worn outdoors, and men are not supposed to wear hats indoors), and often even omitted. Nowadays the practice is more relaxed, and the mortarboard is sometimes seen worn by women or worn indoor by men.
In principle, a white bow tie (for men only ; quite rarely seen) and white gloves (nowadays never used).
Professors who served 20 years are sometimes presented with a sword (identical model to that of French police commissars).
The colours of the various academic fields are daffodil (yellow) for literature and arts, amaranth (purplish red) for science, redcurrant (reddish pink) for medicine, scarlet red for law, and violet (purple) for theology. University rectors, chancellors or presidents wear also specific costumes, which are violet regardless of the academic field in which they graduated.
The dress exists in two versions: the petit costume ("small costume") and the grand costume ("great costume"). Both are identical in form, and differ only in the presence or absence of the mortarboard and the repartition of colours on the gown and sash (the other elements of the dress, especially the epitoga, being identical for both):
for the petit costume, the gown is all black, except the simarras which are of the colour of the academic field; the buttons are black; the sash and its fringes moiré black; the mortarboard is usually not worn;
for the grand costume, the gown is black between the simarras, which are moiré black, and of the colour of the academic field on the sides and on the sleeves, except their turn-ups, which are black; the buttons are of the colour of the academic field; the sash is of the colour of the academic field, its fringes may be either the same colour or gold.
In formal occasions, the grand costume is equivalent to white tie, whereas the petit costume is equivalent to black tie.
Germany
German academic dress generally consists of gown and cap. Nowadays, if in use at all, it is only found at special occasions, such as public processions, inaugurations of rectors, and graduation ceremonies. Historically, only the rectors, deans, professors, and lecturers wore academic dress—not students or graduates. Each German university had its own system of colours and drapings to signify faculty membership and position in the university hierarchy.
The gown of the German academic dress is called "Talar" (with the accent on the second "a": talár; from Latin talare which means to the ankles). It can be traced back to the every day clothes of the scholars in the Middle Ages. The same word Talar is also used for the robes of Protestant (Lutheran) pastors and rabbis (not for judges or lawyers, their gowns are called "Robe"), although these gowns often differ more or less in cut, length, drapings, and sometimes even in colour (the gowns of the German Supreme Court are, e.g., completely dark red).
The professorial Talar can be described as a long black gown with wide sleeves, often with lapels in faculty colour, while deans wear a Talar completely in faculty colour. Rectors typically have a distinguished, more elaborate Talar, e.g., made of velvet, coloured in red, or with gold embroidery. At some universities, the rector additionally wears a chain of office and, at some occasions, carries a scepter. The cap that accompanies the Talar is called Barett. As is the case with the Talar, which type of cap is used varies by university as well. Historically, caps made of soft materials rather than the square academic cap are common. The colour of the Barett matches the Talar.
After the German student movement, following the years of 1967 all West German universities dropped their academic dress because they were identified with right-winged conservatism and reactionism by the partly socialist influenced students at that time: The famous slogan "Unter den Talaren – Muff von 1000 Jahren" (beneath the gowns the fug of 1000 years) refers not to the old traditions of the Middle Ages, but especially to the Nazi regime and their self-declared "empire of 1000 years". In East Germany, which was a communist one-party state, Talare were abolished by law at about the same time. After East Germany began to dissolve in 1989, several universities, particularly University of Rostock, University of Greifswald, University of Jena, and University of Halle-Wittenberg, resurrected lost traditions including the Talar for officials. Some traditional universities in West German states have since followed, such as University of Heidelberg.
Since 2005, some universities introduced centrally organized graduation ceremonies for students of all faculties where academic dress is worn, most notably University of Bonn, Chemnitz University of Technology, and RWTH Aachen (only cap and stole). The graduates' dress usually consists of a simple black gown, a square academic cap, and possibly a stole in faculty colour. At most other universities, faculties are responsible for organizing graduation ceremonies individually. Some faculties have decided for wearing academic dress at their ceremonies as well, e.g., the Faculty of Law at University of Marburg and the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration at Goethe University Frankfurt. This practice is commonly understood as following Anglo-American examples rather than reviving old traditions.
India
Indian universities followed United Kingdom robe and gown system until 2013 when Banaras Hindu University replaced it with Indian traditional dress of Kurta, Dhoti, Pyajama for men and Saree for women, which led to students at other universities demanding similar dresses. Slowly Indian universities started replacing the robes & gowns with traditional dresses. In 2019, India's University Grants Commission formally issued a circular to all public & private universities to opt for Indian traditional dress made of Indian handloom.
Indian universities today prescribe Kurta, Pyajama for male students and Saree or Salwar Suit for women.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, academic regalia, also called a toga is only worn in graduation ceremonies. An Indonesian toga generally comes in three pieces of clothing: a gown, a cape or a hood, and a cap with tassel (pentagon-shaped mortarboard/bonnet). Other items are also worn during graduation ceremony such as a medallion, tippet or academic stole.
There are four elements in Indonesian academic regalia:
Gown – Indonesian academic gowns commonly come in black with a different color of trimming according to the field of study/faculty. In general they are long gowns with bell sleeves. There are some distinctive differences for each academic degree: for example, the length of undergraduate gown is usually below knee; for master's degrees, the gown is longer than undergraduate; and for doctoral degrees, the gown has a velvet panel (or velour for fabric substitution) on the front and sleeve.
Cape or Hood – In most universities capes are commonly used for undergraduates/bachelor's degree students, meanwhile hoods are commonly used for graduate students (master/doctoral) and academic staff. A cape/hood is also colour-coded according to the field of study/faculty.
Cap – For undergraduate and master's degrees a mortarboard is worn. Unlike most academic caps, which are square in shape, the Indonesian cap is usually pentagonal. Another type of cap like Tudor bonnet is generally worn by doctoral students, although in some universities like Padjadjaran University the bonnet is worn for all academic degrees.
Tassel – In most universities, before the commencement ceremony, undergraduates' tassel are placed on the left position, and during the graduation procession students receive their degree scroll/diploma and then move their tassel to the right. Tassels are also color-coded.
Italy
In Italy there are several differences among the typical academic dress (gowns, academic caps, etc.) of the different universities, due to the great number of ancient universities in the country (for example the University of Bologna, University of Pavia, University of Padua, University of Pisa, University of Siena, University of Florence, University of Rome, etc.). Usually gowns are worn only by professors during ceremonies and, in some faculties, during graduations. After the student protests of 1968 many professors in many universities had stopped wearing academical gowns also in the formal occasions but since the 1990s people have started to use them again, mostly in humanities faculties. Furthermore, also students have started to wear gowns and cap in graduation ceremonies (usually for PhD) in some universities. Gowns are traditionally all hemmed with the colours of faculty, which have some variations following the tradition of each atheneum. However the most widely used table of colours is the following
Malaysia
In Malaysia, most public university academic gowns incorporate Songket motifs.
Netherlands
At Dutch universities, academic dress does not come with a degree but with the incumbency of a professorial chair: only full, chaired professors wear the toga with bib and beret. The beret is usually a soft cap, square or round and made of velvet; the gown (ankle-length, open in the front), is made of wool trimmed with velvet or silk It is traditionally black, as in the robes of early-modern humanists; some universities have gowns with wide slashed sleeves edged in faculty-specific colours, others have a decorated sleeve but without specific faculty colours. Recently established universities may show a greater variety of colours.
Academic dress is only worn on ceremonial occasions: the university anniversary or dies natalis, inaugural lectures, and the public defence of a doctoral thesis. On such occasions, the assembled professors line up as a cortège headed by the university beadle, who also wears an academic gown and carries the university's mace. Male professors remove their beret when sitting down and put it on when standing up (e.g. to lecture or to address a doctoral candidate during the thesis defence). Female professors may keep the beret on at all times.
Academic dress may be completed by a chain of office (for the presiding Rector or Dean) or the insignia of honorary doctorates or royal orders (only worn at the dies natalis).
New Zealand
University graduates in New Zealand wear an academic gown identical to those of the University of Cambridge and either a hood or scarf, depending on whether the graduate is receiving a degree or diploma. If the graduate is receiving a degree, a hood will be worn throughout the ceremony. If a diploma is received, the graduate will wear a diploma scarf.
The hood, like the gown, is identical to that of the hood for the Cambridge Master of Arts. A Bachelor's degree hood is lined with coloured satin and bordered with white fur (the exception to this are Canterbury and Waikato University which do not line their hoods with fur). The bachelor's degree with Honours hood is lined with coloured satin and bordered with white satin. The master's degree hood has no edging. A doctoral degree recipient wears the same as a graduate receiving a master's degree, except the gown is completely silk, either black or scarlet, with the option to wear a cloth gown. A Doctoral hood is completely silk and the headdress is a black Tudor bonnet, in place of the flat-topped mortarboard worn with bachelor's and master's gowns.
Academic dress is rarely worn in New Zealand other than at formal academic events, such as by graduates and faculty at graduation ceremonies and teaching faculty at school prizegivings. Some traditional boys' high schools retain the tradition of the headmaster wearing a gown while leading assemblies. Undergraduates who live at College House at the University of Canterbury must wear academic dress to dinner.
It is common for graduands to wear clothing or adornments significant to their culture at their graduation ceremony. For example, it is common to see Māori students wearing a traditional cloak known as korowai or kakahu huruhuru or Pasifika students wearing lavalava, ta'ovala and elaborate lei.
Below is a list of the general hood colours of graduates:
Philippines
Most colleges and universities in the Philippines follow the traditional mortarboard, hood and gown during graduation.
In some schools of the country, the colour of the gown corresponds to the school colour (Blue for Colegio de San Juan de Letran and Ateneo de Manila University, Green for Far Eastern University, and Red for San Beda University).
Some schools, like the University of Santo Tomas, due to their Spanish heritage, follow Spanish academic attire such as the academic biretta and mozetta. The biretta and mozetta are worn by those from the Graduate School and the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery. Graduates of the Bachelors' programs wear the traditional mortarboard, hood and gown. The professors of the university wear their academic regalia during the Missa de Apertura or the Opening Mass of the Academic Year aside from Solemn Investitures (graduation ceremonies) and other academic activities. The academic colours are unique to this university as these depend on the official color of the faculty or college a student or an academe belongs into.
A unique graduation garb worn at member universities of the University of the Philippines System is the use of the Sablay. The Sablay was inspired from the Malong of Muslim Mindanao, giving it a Filipiniana look. It features the indigenous baybayin characters for "U" and "P". During the commencement ceremony, graduates wear the Sablay at the right shoulder, it is then moved to the left shoulder after the President of the university confers their degree, "similar to the moving of the tassel of the academic cap." The Sablay is worn over traditional Filipino attire – Barong Tagalog for men and Filipiniana dress for women. The garb was first worn at the University of the Philippines Diliman. Other UP campuses followed suit.
Elementary and high school students also wear a certain kind of academic dress upon their graduation, usually a white gown and mortarboard for public schools. For private schools, the gown and mortarboard's color is at the discretion of the administration. There are several schools which make use of a hood-like design on top of their gowns which bears the school colors.
Poland
The wearing of traditional academic dress is an important feature of Polish educational ceremonies.
Portugal
Academic dress varies from university to university. In some situations, such as in doctoral exams, the hat is not used.
In Portugal, following an ancient tradition, university regular students also use a specific dressing. The "traje académico", as it is known in Portuguese, is recognized by its almost totally black color and cape. But other student dresses did exist, including the unique blue attire of the students of the University of Algarve (UAlg) in use until at least to the 2010s.
Singapore
South Africa
Academic dress in South Africa varies from one institution to another, but generally follow UK patterns. A common distinction is for graduands in all degrees up to and including the master's degree to have black gowns, while the PhD candidate wears a scarlet gown. These days, academic dress is only used at graduation ceremonies. The wearing of traditional African attire, or modern clothes inspired by traditional attire, beneath the academic dress has been a distinct trend in recent years.
Spain
The typical Spanish academic dress has Latin origin. It has been regulated since 1850, when Queen Isabella II established several rules about academic dress, according to the centuries-old Spanish custom. The typical Spanish academic dress for doctors is composed by:
A black long gown (toga) with a long row of buttons, made of satin and wool. It is worn over a black suit.
A mozzetta (muceta), whose colour depends on the academic field.
Long cuffs (puñetas) of the same fabric and color than the mozetta, covered by white cotton lace. Those of the Rector (University president) are bright red or pink, and the lace is usually silken. The buttons are made of gold for the Rector and made of silver for the Deans.
An octagonal, tasseled biretta (birrete), whose colour depends on the academic field. Tassels of doctors holding more than one degree in separate fields alternate the corresponding colors.
White gloves.
A ring is usually worn by doctors.
A staff or scepter (bastón) made of American reed is carried by the university rector.
Medallions are often worn by postgraduates, doctors, professors, deans and the university rector.
However, this academic dress is only used for the opening of the academic year and for PhD graduations or for doctorates honoris causa. It is worn only by doctors, deans and the University Rector. For other graduates, the academic dress is often composed by a mortarboard and a mozzetta (muceta) or a sash over the shoulder (beca) with the shield of the university and/or faculty. The colour of the mozzetta or the sash depends on the academic field.
The colours used in Spain for the various academic fields are:
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the academic dress consists of gown, hood (post-graduate) and a garland (on graduation day). Universities that were affiliated to the former University of Ceylon issue black gowns for graduates and post graduates; red gowns for masters and Phd graduates; crimson gowns for chancellors with a different colour gowns for senior academic faculty. These universities only issue garland on the graduation day to new graduates and only issue mortar boards to chancellor, vice chancellor and registrars. Private universities issue mortar boards to graduates along with a hood in place of garland.
Sweden and Finland
Finland and Sweden have similar traditions when it comes to academic clothing. For important academic ceremonies white tie is usually worn, however, often with traditional headwear and gowns. Gowns are not generally used except by the rector as a symbol of office, if anyone.
The regular student cap (Finnish: ylioppilaslakki, Swedish: studentmössa) usually has a white velvet crown, a black band and a black beak. The cap can be worn by anyone who has passed the matriculation examination and is acceptable wear for both formal and informal academic celebrations. Technology students wear a special kind of student cap called a teekkarilakki (Finnish) or teknologmössa (Swedish). It is similar to the traditional student cap, but features a tuft and a distinctive cockade to show which university the wearer is attending. Technology students generally wear their caps more frequently, and thus the tuft often symbolizes university engineering students. Although universities have different rules regarding the use of the cap, caps are generally not awarded to students until the completion of the first year of studies. The technology student's hat may also be seen on informal occasions, being worn with the student overall at many universities.
In both countries many universities have doctoral hats for persons who have completed a PhD or similar degree. These usually resemble top hats and must be worn with white tie. Like other hats, they are not generally worn indoors, but they may be presented on a table. Events where the hat and white tie are worn include thesis defences, post-doctoral parties, ceremonial conferments of degrees, opening ceremonies and other formal ceremonies related to the university. At some universities, a doctoral ring is awarded together with the hat. In the Ingmar Bergman film Wild Strawberries, one scene shows the conferral of a Jubilee doctor degree on the main character at the University of Lund, which includes the presentation of such a hat and ring. At the University of Helsinki a cape and a sword are commonly worn with the doctoral hat. Students of the student organization "Limes" may also be seen wearing a black cape.
Taiwan
Academic dress varies from university to university in Taiwan, generally consisting of cap and gown. Its use is limited to such special occasions as graduation ceremonies.
Thailand
In Thailand, there are five different styles of academic dress: (1) traditional Thai, (2) traditional American, (3) French (Paris), (4) modified American, and (5) modified British.
Some universities prefer a traditional robe originated in the royal court, known as suea khrui. Traditionally, the robe is a one-piece open-fronted garment made with a mesh, faced and bordered with a velvet or felt band. Since the conception of Chulalongkorn University, the traditional suea khrui was adopted for their graduates. Influenced by the colour of gowns used at Oxford, bachelor's' and master's gown are faced and bordered with a black felt band. Meanwhile, a scarlet felt band is reserved for doctors. There are patterns upon the felt band to denote different degrees and faculties. Other universities that utilise the traditional robe might, instead of a mesh, use another kind of fabric for their dress.
Other universities in Thailand that use a traditional robe include
Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai;
Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Nonthaburi;
Khon Kaen University;
Naresuan University, Phitsanulok;
Mahachulalongkorn Buddhist University, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya;
Mahamakut Buddhist University, Nakhon Pathom;
All King Mongkut's Universities of Technology;
Most Rajabhat Universities and all Rajamangala universities of technology.
As a note, Mahachulalongkorn and Mahamakut Buddhist universities do not prescribe an academic dress for monks, nuns and clergymen. It is also customary that monks and ministers of religion do not wear a dress, when they are being admitted to the degree at other Thai universities.
Other universities employs academic dress of the modified American pattern, with the exception at Thammasat University and Kasetsart University. Thammasat University employs a plain black gown with different epitoge, a strip of cloth worn over the left shoulder, for distinct degrees. The number of fur bands upon the epitoge indicates the degree (i.e. 3 for doctors, 2 for masters and 1 for bachelors). The hat is not worn. Kasetsart University, on the other hand, retains the original American academic dress style. For bachelors, the dress comprises a plain sleeve gown with a coloured cord around the neck. This is different from many American universities, at which a scarf is used instead of a cord. Masters' gown exactly follows the American design. The sleeve is sewn shut at the end, with a slit to free the arm. Doctors' gown also follows the American tradition. The sleeve has three velvet bars to denote the seniority. The hat is included.
Since most Thai universities do not fully understand the original American tradition, they usually use an American doctoral gown for their doctoral degree. By reducing the number of velvet bars on the sleeve, it is possible to get gowns for masters (2 bars) and bachelors (1 bar or none). Notable examples of this deviation include Ramkhamhaeng University, Burapha University, Mahidol University and the University of Phayao. Some universities even incorporate the hood into a pattern on the gown, including Suranaree University of Technology and Walailak University. This eliminates the need of additional hood.
Prince of Songkhla University uses a gown which is heavily deviated from the original British style. Gowns for bachelors and masters are made of black stuff. Doctoral gowns are made from scarlet cloth. Instead of being open-fronted like ones in the United Kingdom and Australia, all gowns are close-fronted, probably due to the robemakers. The neckband is curved instead of being a chevron. Silpakorn University mixes a modified American gown (i.e. a close-fronted black gown with different number of bars on the sleeve) with an altered version of Oxford simple hood.
Tunisia
In Tunisia, University of Ez-Zitouna graduates wear an academic gown. Doctoral graduates in Islamic Sciences wear a jebba. In other Tunisian universities, like the medical university, doctoral graduates wear an academic dress.
United Kingdom and Ireland
There is a distinction between different types of academical dress. Most recently, gowns, hoods and caps are categorised into their shape and patterns by the Groves classification system, which is based on Nicholas Groves' document, Hood and Gown Patterns. This lists the various styles or patterns of academic dress and assigns them a code or a Groves Classification Number. For example, the Cambridge BA style gown is designated [b2] and a hood in the Cambridge full-shape is designated [f1], etc. Because the universities are free to design their own academicals using a wide range of available gown, hood and cap patterns, colours and materials at their and the robemaker's disposal, the academicals of two given universities rarely clash with each other.
The Burgon Society was founded in 2000 to promote the study of academic dress. Its publications and activities examine the history and current use of academic dress. In 2011 it published the third edition of Shaw's reference book on British and Irish academical dress. The Society hosts a conference each spring at which recent research is presented.
The modern gown is derived from the roba worn under the cappa clausa, a garment resembling a long black cape. In early medieval times, all students at the universities were in at least minor orders, and were required to wear the cappa or other clerical dress, and restricted to clothes of black or other dark colour. The gowns most commonly worn, that of the clerical type gowns of bachelor's degrees (BA and BS) and master's degrees (MA and MS), are substantially the same throughout the English-speaking world. All are traditionally made of black cloth, (although occasionally the gown is dyed in one of the university's colours) and the material at the back of the gown is gathered into a yoke. The Bachelor's gown has bell-shaped sleeves, while the Master's gown has long sleeves closed at the end, with the arm passing through a slit above the elbow.
There are two distinctive shapes used in the UK for doctor's gowns; the Oxford doctor's shape and the Cambridge doctor's shape. The former has bell-shaped sleeves, the latter has long open sleeves. Another rarer form is the Cambridge Doctor of Music dress gown which is a pattern between the two. The other form of doctor's gown is the undress gown. This is a black gown worn for less formal occasions such as lectures. This type of gown is rarely seen or worn nowadays as many wear the dress gown instead; however, the undress gown still plays a part in the older universities where academic dress is usually worn.
Undergraduates at many older universities also wear gowns; the most common essentially a smaller knee-length version of the Bachelor's gown, or the Oxford Commoners gown which is a sleeveless lay type gown and has two streamers at the back at Oxford. At Cambridge, most colleges have their own distinctive design of gown. Undergraduates at St Andrews, with the exception of theology students, commonly wear scarlet woollen gowns with velvet collars. Undergraduate gowns are seldom worn (even in institutions that prescribe them) nowadays except in the older universities.
Another form of dress, now rarely seen, is the habit, which is worn over a black gown. Only Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and Newcastle use habits and mainly reserve their use for very formal ceremonial occasions and to a specific group of academics or officials.
The hood was originally a functional garment, worn to shield the head from the elements. In the English tradition, it has developed to an often bright and decorative garment worn only on special occasions. Hoods comprise two basic patterns: full shape or simple shape. The traditional full-shape hood consists of a cape, cowl, and liripipe, as is used at Cambridge. At Oxford, the bachelors' and masters' hoods use simple hoods that have lost their cape and retain only the cowl and liripipe. The colour and lining of hoods in academic dress represents the rank and/or faculty of the wearer. In many Commonwealth universities bachelors wear hoods edged or lined with white rabbit fur, while masters wear hoods lined with coloured silk (originally ermine or other expensive fur). Doctors' hoods are normally made of scarlet cloth and lined with coloured silk. Faculty colours were introduced by the University of London and many universities followed suit.
The academic cap or square, commonly known as the mortarboard, has come to be symbolic of academia. In some universities it can be worn by graduates and undergraduates alike. It is a hat consisting of a skullcap surmounted by a flat square of stiffened cloth, the board; a tassel is fixed to a button in the centre of the board. The mortarboard may also be referred to as a trencher cap (or simply trencher). The tassel is composed of a cluster of silk threads which are wrapped together with a cord which is attached to the button affixed to the centre of the headpiece. The loose strands are allowed to fall freely over the board edge, typically falling over the left front side of the cap. Often the strands are plaited together to form a cord with the end threads left untied. In many universities, holders of doctorates wear a soft-crowned, round-brimmed headpiece known as a Tudor bonnet or tam, rather than a trencher. Other types of hats used, especially in some universities in the UK, are the John Knox cap (mostly at Scottish universities), the Bishop Andrewes cap (a reinvention of the ancient form of the mortarboard, worn by Cambridge Doctors of Divinity DD's) and the pileus (at Sussex). In some universities, such as Oxford, women may wear an Oxford ladies' cap.
Officers of the universities generally wear distinctive and more elaborate dress. The Chancellor and the Vice-Chancellor may wear a black damask lay type gown (sometimes with a long train) trimmed with gold or silver lace and frogs. They wear a velvet mortarboard, similarly trimmed with gold braid and tassel. Other than this gown, they may have other distinct forms of dress, such as the scarlet cappa clausa or cope worn in certain circumstances by the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge or his/her deputy and by higher doctors presenting candidates for degrees, which was once worn by Doctors of Divinity. In the past, Chancellors may also wear full court dress with breeches and court shoes like that of the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain.
At degree ceremonies, graduands often dress in the academic dress of the degree they are about to be admitted to prior to the actual graduation ceremony. This is not the case at several of the older universities in the UK, most notably, Oxford, Cambridge and St Andrews which have their own distinct traditions.
In addition to universities and colleges, a number of British professional bodies, such as the Institute of Biology and the Institute of Physics grant academic dress to their members.
United States
Academic regalia in the United States has been influenced by the academic dress traditions of Europe. There is an Inter-Collegiate code which sets out a detailed uniform scheme of academic regalia followed by most, though some institutions do not adhere to it entirely, and fewer still ignore it. Generally, academic regalia in the United States consists of a mortarboard cap affixed with a tassel, and gown worn over other clothing. The ensemble can also be adorned with an academic stole - a vestment used by various organizations to denote academic achievement.
The practice of wearing academic regalia in the United States dates to the Colonial Colleges period, and was heavily influenced by European practices and styles. Students of most colonial colleges were required to wear the "college habit" at most times – a practice that lasted until the eve of the American Civil War in many institutions of higher learning. In some rare instances the practice has persisted, such as at Sewanee, where members of the student honor society, along with most professors, continue to wear the gown to class. After the Civil War, academic regalia was generally only worn at ceremonies or when representing the institution. There was not, however, any standardization among the meanings behind the various costumes. In 1893, an Intercollegiate Commission made up of representatives from leading institutions and chaired by President of Columbia Seth Low was created, to establish an acceptable system of academic dress. The commission met at Columbia University in 1895 and adopted a code of academic regalia, which prescribed the cut and style and materials of the gowns, as well as determined the colors which were to represent the different fields of learning. These rules were soon adopted by Columbia's peer institutions, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. In 1932 the American Council on Education (ACE) authorized the appointment of a committee to determine whether revision and completion of the academic code adopted by the conference of the colleges and universities in 1895 is desirable at this time, and, if so, to draft a revised code and present a plan for submitting the code to the consideration of the institutional members of the council.
The committee reviewed the situation and approved a code for academic costumes that has been in effect since that year. A Committee on Academic Costumes and Ceremonies, appointed by the American Council on Education in 1959, again reviewed the academic dress code and made several changes.
Although academic dress is now rarely worn outside commencement ceremonies or other academic rituals such as encaenia in the U.S. graduation ceremonies have gained popularity and have expanded from high school graduations to middle school, elementary school and kindergarten graduation ceremonies.
Bachelors' and master's gowns in the United States are similar to their counterparts in the United Kingdom, though bachelor's gowns are now designed to be worn closed, and all are at least mid-calf length to ankle-length. The masters' gown sleeve is oblong and, though the base of the sleeve hangs down in the typical manner, it is square cut at the rear part of the oblong shape. The front part has an arc cut away, and there is a slit for the wrist opening, but the rest of the arc is closed. The shape is evocative of the square-cut liripipe incorporated into many academic hoods (see, below). The master's gown is designed to be worn open or closed.
Doctoral robes are typically black, although some schools use robes in the school's colours. The Code calls for the outside shell of the hood (see, below) to remain black in that case, however. In general, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by bachelor's graduates, with the addition of three velvet bands on the sleeves and velvet facing running down the front of the gown. The Code calls for the gown trim to be either black or the colour designated for the field of study in which the doctorate was earned (see Inter-Collegiate colors). However, in the case of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), although it is awarded for study in any number of fields, the dark blue velvet of philosophy is always used regardless of the particular field studied. For example, if not choosing black trim, a PhD in theology would wear velvet gown trim in dark blue, while a Doctor of Theology (Th.D.) would wear scarlet trim, if not choosing black. The robes have full sleeves, instead of the bell sleeves of the bachelor's gown. Some gowns expose a necktie or cravat when closed, while others take an almost cape-like form. It is designed to be worn open or closed in the front.
The Code calls for the shell material of the hood to match the robe, and for the colour to be black regardless of the colour of the robe being worn. The interior lining – generally silk – displays the colours of the institution from which the wearer received the degree, in a pattern prescribed by it (usually, if more than one colour is used, chevrons or equal divisions). The opening of the hood is trimmed in velvet or velveteen. In most American colleges and universities, the colour of the velvet hood trimming is distinctive of the academic field – or as closely related as possible – to which the degree earned pertains (see Inter-Collegiate colors). Many institutions, particularly larger ones, have dispensed with the bachelor's hood at commencement ceremonies altogether, though a graduate is still entitled to wear one once the degree is conferred.
Headwear is an important component of cap-and-gown, and the academic costume is not complete without it. The headwear will vary with the level of academic achievement and, to some extent, on the individual academic institution's specifications. For caps, the mortarboard is recommended in the Code, and the material required to match the gown. The exception—velvet—is reserved for the doctor's degree only, seen in the form of a multiple-sided (4, 6, or 8) tam, but the four-sided mortarboard-shaped tam in velvet is what the Code seems to recommend here. The only colour called for is black, in all cases. The tassel worn on the mortarboard or a tam seems to provide, by tradition, the greatest opportunity for latitude in American academic dress. It has been black, or represented the university's colours, or the colours of the specific college, or the discipline. The tassel has also been used to indicate membership in national honour societies or other awards. There is at some colleges and universities a practice of moving the tassel from one side to the other on graduating, but this is a modern innovation that would be impractical out of doors due to the vagaries of the wind. For doctoral and masters students, the tassel commonly begins and remains on the left.
The colours allocated to the various fields of learning have been largely standardized in the United States by the Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume, and accepted by the American Council on Education in its Academic Costume Code. Some of the more common colours seen are that liberal arts is represented by white, science by golden yellow, medicine by green, law by purple, theology by scarlet, and philosophy (including all PhD degrees) by dark blue. A distinction is made in the code, which calls for a graduate to display the colour of the subject of the degree obtained, not the degree itself. For example, if a graduate is awarded a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree specifically in business the trimming should be drab, representing commerce/accountancy/business, rather than white, representing the broader arts/letters/humanities; the same method is true of master's degrees and doctorates. However, in 1986, the American Council on Education updated the Code and added the following sentence clarifying the use of the colour dark blue for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, which is awarded in any number of fields: "In the case of the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree, the dark blue colour is used to represent the mastery of the discipline of learning and scholarship in any field that is attested to by the awarding of the degree, and it is not intended to represent the field of philosophy."
A number of other items such as cords, stoles, aiguillettes, etc. representing various academic achievements or other honours are also worn at the discretion of some degree-granting institutions. Technically, however, the ACE code does not allow their use on or over academic regalia.
Pontifical universities
Academic dress for pontifical universities tends to vary by the host country. Traditionally, for doctors of a pontifical university or faculty "the principal mark of a Doctor's dignity is the four horned biretta." Under the old Code of Canon Law, in commencement ceremonies and other academic settings, doctors from pontifical faculties and universities had a canonical right to wear the doctoral biretta, as stated in can. 1378, and explained in commentary 262 of the Commentarium Codicis Iuris Canonici as follows:
{{Verse translation|lang=la|262. Doctoratus ac Scentiae effectus canonici sic recensentur can. 1378...doctoribus seu gradum academicum in una ex quatuor supradictis facultatibus <<vide 261: philosophia, theologia, ius canonicum, Sacra Scriptura>> supremum obtinentibus, rite creatis, seu promotis regulariter post examen, iuxta « statuta a Sede Apostolica probata » (can. 1376, § 2) saltem quoad usum validum « facultatis ab eadem Aplca. Sede concessae » (can. 1377, § 1), deferendi, extra sacras functiones, (quarum nomine ad hunc eflectum non-venit ex usu sacra praedicatio), nisi aliunde amplietur eis hoc ius quoad a) annulum etiam cum gemma « ipsis a iure huius canonis concessum » (can. 136, § 2), b) et biretum doctorale, (idest: cum quatuor apicibus) utpote insigne huius gradus ac diverso colore ornatum pro Facultate.:|262. The canonical effects of the doctorate and of the science are listed in can. 1378...doctors or an academic diegree in one of the four above-mentioned faculties <<See 261: philosophy, theology, canon law, Sacred Scripture>> have the highest rank, duly created, or promoted regularly after the examination, according to "appointed statutes approved by the Apostolic See" (c. 1376 §2). Granted see" (c. 1377 §1), for deferring outside sacred functions (the name of which does not come from the use of sacred preaching for this effect), unless this right may be extended to them from other sources as far as: a) a ring with a jewel "to them by the right granted under this canon" (c. 136, § 2), b) and a doctoral hat (that is, with four tips) as a badge of this degree and adorned in different colors for the Faculty. }}
There is no equivalent canon in the current Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1983, but the tradition remains.
The Sartoria Gammerelli offers, in line with the updated stipulations of the Pontifical Gregorian University, birettas lined with the following assorted piping and tufts depending on which faculty one is graduated from: Green for Canon Law, Red for Sacred Theology, Blue for Philosophy, and Orange for Social Sciences. Three-horned birettas are to be used by Licentiates, four-horned for Doctors.
Academic dress for the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum graduates consists of a black toga or academic gown with trim to follow the color of the faculty, and an academic ring. For the doctoral degree a four corned biretta is to be worn, and for the Licentiate degree a three corned biretta is to be worn. See:Academic regalia of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas. The 'traditional' biretta at the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum, is white, to correspond to the white Dominican habit. Also, the academic senate of the Angelicum in its May 2011 meeting indicated that the black biretta may be used with trim and pom in the color of the particular faculty.
A three-peaked black biretta with appropriately colored piping may be similarly used by those receiving the licentiate degree (S.T.L., Ph.L.).
See also
Academic procession
Academic stole
Burgon Society
Chinese academic dress
Ede & Ravenscroft
Encaenia
Graduation
Groves classification system
The Central Institute London
Academic dress details for the following universities are available via these links:
Canada
Academic dress of McGill University
United Kingdom and Ireland
Academic dress of the University of Bristol
Academic dress of the University of Cambridge
Academic dress of Durham University
Academic dress of the University of Edinburgh
Academic dress of the University of Exeter
Academic dress of the University of Hertfordshire
Academic dress of Imperial College London
Academic dress of the University of Kent
Academic dress of King's College London
Academic dress of the University of Leeds
Academic dress of Liverpool John Moores University
Academic dress of the University of London
Academic dress of the University of Manchester
Academic dress of the University of Nottingham
Academic dress of the University of Oxford
Academic dress of the University of St Andrews
Academic dress of the University of Wales
Academic dress of the University of Wales, Lampeter
Academic dress of the University of Warwick
Academic dress of the University of Dublin
Undergraduate gowns in Scotland
Lambeth degree academic dress protocol
Others
Academic dress of La Trobe University
Academic dress of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Academic dress of Columbia University
Academic dress of Harvard University
Academic dress of Stanford University
Academic dress of universities in Queensland, Australia
Academic dress of University of Melbourne
Bibliography
Books
Christianson, Bruce (2006), "Academic Dress in the University of Hertfordshire". Hertfordshire, England: University of Hertfordshire.
Fowler, J. T. (1904), Durham University: earlier foundations and present colleges. London: F. E. Robinson & Co.
Goff, Philip (1999), University of London Academic Dress. London: University of London Press.
Shaw, George W. (1966, 1995), Academical Dress of British and Irish Universities. Chichlester: Philmore & Co. Ltd.
Groves, Nicholas (2011), Shaw's Academical Dress of Great Britain and Ireland, 3rd ed. London: Burgon Society.
Groves, Nicholas (2002, 2003, 2008, 2010), Key to the Identification of Academic Hoods of the British Isles. London: Burgon Society.
Groves, Nicholas; Kersey, John (2002), Academical Dress of Music Colleges and Societies of Musicians in the United Kingdom. Norfolk: Burgon Society.
Hargreaves-Mawdsley, W.N. (1963), A History of Academical Dress in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Venables, J. (2009), Academic Dress of the University of Oxford, 9th ed. Oxford: Shepherd & Woodward.
Cox, Noel, Academical Dress in New Zealand: A Study (V.D.M. Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. K.G., Saarbrücken, 2010; )
Journals
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2004), The Burgon Society Annual 2003.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2005), The Burgon Society Annual 2004.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2006), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 5.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2008), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 6.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2008), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 7.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2009), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 8.
Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2012), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 10.
Powell, Michael (ed.) et al. (2002), The Burgon Society Annual 2001.
Powell, Michael (ed.) et al. (2003), The Burgon Society Annual 2002.
Wolgast, Stephen L., Kerr, Alex (eds) et al. (2011), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 9 – Special North American issue.
Wolgast, Stephen L. (ed.) et al. (2012), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 11.
Wolgast, Stephen L. (ed.) et al. (2013), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 12.
Wolgast, Stephen L. (ed.) et al. (2014), Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 13.
Electronic
Sullivan, Eugene (ed.) An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide, American Council on Education. Reprinted with permission from American Universities and Colleges, 15th Edition (1997). Walter de Gruyter, Inc.
Smagorinsky, Margaret. The REGALIA of Princeton University: Pomp, Circumstance, and Accountrements of Academia. The Trustees of Princeton University (Printed by Office of Printing and Mailing), 1994. Accessed 26 September 2008.
Further reading
American Council on Education staff (1997). American Universities and Colleges, 15th Edition. Walter de Gruyter, Inc.
Belting, Natalia Maree (1956), The History of Caps and Gowns, New York : Collegiate Cap & Gown Co. via Internet Archive
Franklyn, C.A.H. (1970), Academical Dress from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Including Lambeth Degrees. Lewes: WE Baxter.
Haycraft, F.W. (1948), 4th ed. rev. Stringer, E.W Scobie, The Degrees and Hoods of the World's Universities and Colleges. Cheshunt Press.
Rashdall, H. (1895, 1936), The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Rogers, F.R.S., Franklyn, C.A.H., Shaw, G.W., Boyd, H.A. (1972), The Degrees and Hoods of the World's Universities and Colleges. Lewes: WE Baxter.
Smith, H.H., Sheard, K. (1970), Academic Dress and Insignia of the World. Cape Town: A.A. Balkema.
Wood, T.W. (1882), The Degrees, Gowns and Hoods of the British, Colonial, Indian and American Universities and Colleges. London: Thomas Pratt & Sons.
References
External links
"Academic Dress" mini portal – A list of internet resources compiled by The New York Times Academic Costume Code and Ceremony Guide from American Universities and Colleges, 15th Edition,'' by Eugene Sullivan. |
64173517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart%20Nature%20District | Hobart Nature District | The Hobart Nature District is located in the City of Hobart, Indiana and includes over of scenic parks, wetlands and floodplains, winding rivers, peaceful lakes, open prairies, oak savannas, old-growth forests, and undulating ravines.
The name of the Hobart Nature District was officially established by resolution of the Common Council of the City of Hobart, Indiana on July 19, 2017, but the natural areas within the district have been in various states of accessibility and restoration for decades. The resolution by the City Council affirmed the phrase "Hobart Nature District" was the best way to refer to all of the areas contained within the Hobart Marsh Plan which was established by the city in 2013.
The concept behind the Hobart Marsh Plan, which contains the areas now referred to as the Hobart Nature District, has been to capitalize on the extensive areas of native prairie, wetlands and woodlands creating a unique attraction for passive recreation enabling visitors the opportunity to experience local flora and fauna. The Hobart Marsh Plan has sought to connect numerous conservation lands managed by various local partner organizations. It also builds upon the growing regional bike trail network with the potential to become an eco-tourism destination, providing access to many other natural and cultural attractions in the region.
The Hobart Marsh area has been cited as a critical habitat for nine state threatened or rare plant species, Blanding's turtle (state endangered), over 40 state endangered, threatened and rare insect species, four state endangered bird species, and five high quality natural communities.
While the phrasing "Hobart Nature District" only became official as of 2017, following the amendment of the Comprehensive Plan for the City of Hobart to include the Hobart Marsh Plan in 2013, conservation efforts and the early steps toward establishment of natural areas within the district date back to as early as 1989 when official support first began to formulate for the preservation of these special places. That initial support led to the establishment of the "Hobart Prairie Grove" that was added to the National Park System as part of a 1992 expansion of Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (renamed the Indiana Dunes National Park in 2019).
History
1980s
1988
In 1988 Tom Post, with the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR), Division of Nature Preserve, visited a property that would later in1996 be officially named McCloskey Burr Oak Savanna. Prior to the visit by Tom Post of the Indiana DNR, Terry McCloskey found out that there was going to be a timber harvest at the property and along with his father, Raymond McCloskey, purchased the properly to keep it from being logged. After visiting the property Mr. Tom Post began the process of recommending the property be purchased by the Indiana DNR and dedicated as a nature preserve to protect the mesic savanna natural community.
1989
Hobart Mayor Margaret Kuchta testified in support of adding the Hobart Prairie Grove as a part of the National Park system during hearings on a bill submitted by Congressman Pete Visclosky in 1989. The Hobart City Council also passed a resolution endorsing the proposal.
David Canright of the Sierra Club Hoosier Chapter presented written testimony dated September 27, 1989 to the Senate Subcommittee on Public Lands, National Parks, and Forests in support of S.2882, a Bill to Enhance The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, that cites the importance of including Hobart Prairie Grove in the expansion.
1990s
1990
Hobart Mayor Margaret Kuchta sent a letter to Senator Dale Bumpers, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Public Lands and signed a proclamation on September 5, 1990, from the Office of the Mayor in support of the Hobart Prairie Grove. The proclamation phrasing noted the Hobart Prairie Grove as a "unique area containing rare and threatened or endangered species" and "preservation of this beautiful natural area will add an important cultural resource to enhance the strength and value of the Hobart community." It further noted, "members of the City Council of Hobart, Indiana are in favor of including the Hobart Prairie Grove in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore" and proclaimed the City of Hobart's "support of the Hobart Prairie Grove in the Dunes National Lakeshore expansion bill."
Senator Dan Coats spoke and submitted a prepared statement in the United States Senate during the second session of the 101st Congress where he noted the significance of the Hobart Prairie Grove as one of the "few remaining unspoiled prairie forests in the midwest" containing rare plants and wildlife.
A letter of support was written by local ecologist Sandy O'Brien to be included as part of the record of testimony on S 2882, the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore Access and Enhancement Act. The letter was addressed to the Honorable Dale Bumpers, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Public Lands, National Parks and Forests as part of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. The letter provided detailed information relating the geological relationship to the dunes, the ecological quality, and plant diversity found at the Hobart Prairie Grove.
A letter of support was written by Kim Klimek, president of the Deep River Nature Society, to be included as part of the record of testimony on S 2882, the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore Access and Enhancement Act. In the letter she noted the Hobart Prairie Grove was of National Park Service quality, having been surveyed by several botanists including Dr. Gerould Wilhelm who had done major botanical surveys of all the Lakeshore units and John Bacone, Director of Indiana's Department of Natural Resources. The Hobart Prairie Grove was noted as being the largest and best tallgrass savanna remnant in Indiana and the last chance to preserve the natural heritage according to experts. It letter also noted adjacent wetlands were evaluated by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources and rated in the 1979 Technical Report No. 303 as #1 priority for acquisition in the Lake Michigan watershed.
In November 1990, the property now known as the McCloskey Burr Oak Savanna was purchased by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources from the McCloskey family. The property would later take its official name officially be dedicated as a State of Indiana nature preserve later in December 1996.
1991
Legislation sponsored by Congressman Pete Visclosky was approved by the U.S. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs that would expand the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. The legislation would direct the National Park Service to purchase 11 tracts of land in Lake, Laporte, and Porter counties, including the acres known as Hobart Prairie in Hobart.
Indiana Senators Richard Lugar and Dan Coats introduce a bill to expand the Indiana National Lakeshore which include the Hobart Prairie Grove.
An Indiana Dunes Coalition newsletter described the Hobart Prairie Grove as tallgrass savanna that was once common to the area but now so rare it was thought to be extinct.
1992
Congress passed Public Law 102-430 adding Hobart Prairie Grove to the National Park System as part of a 1992 expansion of Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (renamed the Indiana Dunes National Park in 2019).
1996
On December 19, 1996, the property purchased by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources from the McCloskey family in November 1990 was officially named the McCloskely's Burr Oak Savanna Nature Preserve and dedicated as a State of Indiana nature preserve. The articles of dedication were signed by Michael J. Kiley, chairman of the State of Indiana Natural Resources Commission and Patrick R. Ralson, director of the Indiana Department of Natural Rresources.
1997
On January 27, 1997, Indiana Governor Frank O'Bannon signed the Articles of Dedication for the McCloskey's Burr Oak Savanna Nature Preserve.
On February 27, 1997, a Master Plan for the McCloskey's Burr Oak Savanna Nature Preserve was filed with the Lake County Auditor. The plan provides details about the management of the property and explains how the property should be used, aligned with the purposes in the Natural Preserves Act of the State of Indiana.
The General Management Plan published by the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore indicates the Hobart Prairie Grove is primarily a black soil savanna with significant acreage of prairie and wetlands. It also notes a section of abandoned Elgin Joliet and Eastern Railroad right-of-way is being developed as a hike/bike trail by the Lake County Parks Department that could provide access to the site with minimal impact.
1999
Restoration work began at Spangler Fen, later renamed Greiner Nature Preserve by the Shirley Heinze Land Trust, in 1999 with removal of glossy buckthorn. Subsequent work focused on control of additional invasive species such as multiflora rose, bush honeysuckle, reed canary grass, and cattails.
2000s
2000
Shirley Heinze Land Trust began managing their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve located on the east side of Liverpool Road, north of Crabapple Lane in Hobart, IN. The initial management largely focused on control of invasive shrubs until 2008, when a large-scale savanna restoration project would begin.
2001
In June 2001 Shirley Heinze Land Trust began managing their Hidden Prairie property located west of I-65 at the corner of 41st Avenue and Missouri Street in Hobart. Management involved the removal of bush honeysuckle, multiflora rose and dogwood shrubs to expand a small prairie opening.
2002
Controlled burns were conducted in the fall of 2002 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve located on the east side of Liverpool Road, north of Crabapple Lane in Hobart, IN.
In 2002 Shirley Heinze received a $2,000 Environmental Challenge Grant from NIPSCO for an upland prairie restoration project at their Spangler Fen property (later renamed Greiner Nature Preserve). Work focused on removal of non-native species and native prairie seed mix planting in a two-acre parcel at the north entrance to the fen.
2003
Controlled burns were conducted in the spring of 2003 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Hidden Prairie property located west of I-65 at the corner of 41st Avenue and Missouri Street in Hobart.
2004
The Trust for Public Land, a national nonprofit conservation organization, announced that 219 acres of farmland would be restored to its condition prior to the arrival of the first settlers in Northwest Indiana. This includes 46 acres next to the Hobart Prairie Grove and 173 acres of adjoining farmland and burr oak groves that add to the existing public land in and around the Hobart Marsh region.
2005
The Trust for Public Land announced their multi-year project to protect and save nearly 400 acres in and around Hobart was complete. The area known as Hobart Marsh was a result of a long-term cooperative effort that involved Congressman Pete Visclosky, the Trust for Public Land, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Indiana Department of national Resources, the Little Calumet River Basin Development Commission, local officials and local conservation leaders.
Parts of the Hobart Prairie Grove located within the Hobart Marsh area were described as an overgrown oak savanna and as an early successional mesic forest containing maple hickory and oak by publication detailing the Fire Management Plan for the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.
2006
Field notes from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service note that some tracts within the area known as the Hobart Marsh contain trees that may date back 200 years.
2007
Controlled burns were conducted in the spring of 2007 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Hidden Prairie property located west of I-65 at the corner of 41st Avenue and Missouri Street in Hobart.
2008
Controlled burns were conducted in the spring of 2009 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Spangler Fen property (later renamed Greiner Nature Preserve).
Shirley Heinze Land Trust began a large-scale savanna restoration project in their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve located on the east side of Liverpool Road, north of Crabapple Lane in Hobart, IN. The project was funded by grants from Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO), USFWS and Chicago Wilderness. The project utilized a large brushhog to mechanically clear brush and undesirable trees. This was followed by herbicide treatments of resprouts, a controlled burn, and planting of a native seed mix.
2009
Controlled burns were conducted in the spring of 2009 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve located on the east side of Liverpool Road, north of Crabapple Lane in Hobart and at their Hidden Prairie property located west of I-65 at the corner of 41st Avenue and Missouri Street in Hobart.
Shirley Heinze Land Trust secured grant funding in 2009 from the Arcelor Mittal Sustain Our Great Lakes Program to expand the project to restore approximately 45 acres of overgrown bur oak savanna in their in their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve located on the east side of Liverpool Road, north of Crabapple Lane in Hobart, IN.
Shirley Heinze Land Trust (SHLT) received a $25,000 grant from USFWS in 2009 that allowed SHLT to return an additional 14 acres of former cropland in the southern end of the Spangler Fen property (later renamed Greiner Nature Preserve) to prairie.
Robinson Lake Park, owned by the City of Hobart and located near the center of the Hobart Marsh Area, became the focus of public attention when a private developer sought to acquire the Robinson Lake Park property from the city. A grassroots efforts among community members opposing any sale of the park property formed a non-profit group known as The Friends of Robinson Lake with the mission is to preserve the natural beauty of the park, protect it as a public park, and promote awareness of park activities. The developer ultimately did not seek further action with regard to acquiring the park from the city citing negative response from city officials and also cited influence by the citizens group the Friends of Robinson Lake for their continued protest to the private ownership of Robinson Lake.
A September 2009 National Park Service Vegetation Inventory Program of the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore included descriptions of the Hobart Prairie Grove which is located with the Hobart Marsh area of Hobart, Indiana. The report noted Hobart Prairie Grove provides a small remnant bluff prairie, and mostly a mosaic of oak savanna, woodland, and forest.
On October 2, 2009, the nature preserve known as Spangler Fen, located southwest of the intersection of Liverpool Road and Old Ridge Road in Hobart, south of Ridgeview Elementary School, was renamed Greiner Nature Preserve by the Shirley Heinze Land Trust in honor Gordon and Faith Greiner at a ceremony where some 60 supporters gathered for the group's annual donor appreciation hike.
2010s
2011
Controlled burns were conducted in the spring of 2011 by Shirley Heinze Land Trust at their Greiner and Hidden Prairie properties within the Hobart Nature District.
The City of Hobart identified a need to develop a plan for the area on the west side of the city where numerous organizations including the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, City of Hobart, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, NIPSCO, and Shirley Heinze Land Trust, own and manage conservation lands. With the need established the city was able to secure a grant from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources Lake Michigan Coastal Program to create a comprehensive plan and implementation strategy that would be known as the Hobart Marsh Area Plan. The project cost for development of the plan was $22,920 ($11460 Lake Michigan Coastal Grant/$11,460 Local Match).
The City of Hobart Parks and Recreation Department published their Master Plan in 2011 and mentioned Robinson Lake Park and its importance in relation to hundreds of acres owned by the Indiana Department of National Resources within the area that had commonly been referred to as the Hobart Marsh. The Master Plan noted, "Robinson Lake is in the epicenter of 355 acres of DNR property. The property will be commencing wetland remediation in 2011 forward. The Planning Department is in the process of securing a grant that will study and formalize a plan for this sub-area of the city, with Robinson Lake being the focus." The Master Plan further noted among long-range plan relating to the assessment of needs for City of Hobart Parks and Recreation through the year 2020 should include, "Consider purchasing additional property north of Robinson Lake for future development."
The Long-range Interpretive Plan published by the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore in March 2011 indicated the Hobart Prairie Grove, located within the Hobart Marsh area, was one of several sites with almost no visitor amenities and little interpretation. The report targeted mid-term 2014-2016 goal tasks to include enhancing interpretive signage at Hobart Prairie Grove to include restoration progress with other interpretive content.
2012
The Hobart Prairie Grove, located in the Hobart Marsh area, was included in a study by the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore with details published in the Final White-Tailed Deer Management Plan / Environmental Impact Statement.
The City of Hobart Parks Department entered into an agreement in 2012 with the Indiana Department of Natural Resources to manage the fish population in Robinson Lake located at Robinson Lake Park which is centrally located within the area known as Hobart Marsh. The state agency does periodic stocking and makes recommendations concerning the lake at no cost to the city.
Fifth grade students from Ridge View Elementary School in Hobart, Indiana work with Shirley Heinze Land Trust at the Greiner Nature Preserve within the Hobart Marsh Area as part of the Might Acorns Program to collect seeds from native species for future planting.
2013
Shirley Heinze Land Trust organized a volunteer work day at their Bur Oak Woods nature preserve within the Hobart Marsh Area as part of ongoing efforts for more than five years of restoration work at the site. The 84-acre remnant bur oak savana is noted as being one of the rarest habitat types found in Indiana. Some of the trees are more than four feet in diameter and among some of the only remaining old growth trees in Lake County, Indiana.
The final version Hobart Marsh Plan was presented to the Common Council of the City of Hobart, Indiana for consideration. Among the intentions noted were for it to contain hiking and biking trails, trail heads and gateways. The Hobart Marsh Plan project was funded in part by a grant from the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and was administered by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Lake Michigan Coastal Program.
The Comprehensive Plan of the City of Hobart was amended to include the Hobart Marsh Plan by resolution of the Common Council of the City of Hobart, Indiana.
Natural areas within the Hobart Marsh Neighborhood Groups were studied and published in the "Hobart Sustainable Neighborhoods: Environmental / Ecological Sub Plan" which was made possible in part by grant funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Lake Michigan Coastal Program. The publication focused solely on the ecology portion of sustainability and sought to identify and set benchmarks for environmental considerations within Hobart. The report summarized tree canopy coverage, impervious surfaces, land coverage and open spaces, and managed lands, parks, trails, and recreational facilities were among topics that are found throughout the City of Hobart, including areas within the Hobart Marsh Plan.
2014
The non-profit group Friends of Robinson Lake host their 3rd annual paddling event with cooperation from the Northwest Indiana Paddling Association providing beginning paddlers an opportunity to experience canoeing and kayaking with loaner boats available at Robinson Lake, centrally located within the Hobart Marsh area.
The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore hosted a Hobart Prairie Bike Program, a 2-hour guided bike ride on the trail within the Hobart Marsh area hosted by a National Park Service park ranger.
2015
Members of the City of Hobart Plan Commission participating in a panel discussion sponsored by the Legacy Foundation's Neighborhood Spotlight program noted that a large area in the Northwest part of the city is wetland and poised to become a center of recreational activity under the Hobart Marsh Plan.
Approximately 400 catfish ranging in size from 11 to 14 inches were released into the 16-acre Robinson Lake by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources.
The Legacy Foundation's Neighborhood Spotlight program presented initial findings in a Kickoff Report that included numerous positive references to the abundance of natural areas that exist in and around the northwest areas of Hobart that include many of the natural areas within the Hobart Marsh Plan. The comments from the community were collected from 189 one-on-one interviews and 7 group interviews as part of a community SWOT analysis of Hobart's northwest side.
The Neighborhood Spotlight program in Hobart, sponsored by the Legacy Foundation, awarded grant money to help brand the area's nature preserves. Four grants for $370 each purchased signs and posts to identify three nature preserves in the Spotlight area that are also within the Hobart Marsh Plan. The recipients awarded for the signs were Woodland Savanna Land Conservancy for its Levan Wetland Nature Preserve, Shirley Heinze Land Trust (2 signs) for its Greiner Nature Preserve, and Save the Dunes Conservation Fund for its 11-acre Prairie Nature Preserve.
Save the Dunes acquired nearly 100 acres in the City of Hobart, Indiana and is significant because 35 acres of the property lie inside the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore official boundary, a piece that is within their Hobart Prairie Grove Unit. With the land acquired by Save the Dunes, it will be donated to the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore in the future.
2016
City of Hobart hosts the Hobart Marsh Summit at the Festival Park Community Center in Hobart. Representatives from various conservation and government groups met to share updates on the work they have been doing on the properties they manage within the Hobart Marsh area. The National Park Service shared information relating to a walking trail they would be installing and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers noted their plans with natural area remediation would be starting soon, saying, "It's Imminent."
The National Park Service and its partners hosted a ribbon-cutting ceremony on the newest trail in the park named the "Hobart Woodland Trail" at Hobart Prairie Grove. The Hobart Woodland Trail brought the total trail network mileage to 50 for trails managed by the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore as the lakeshore celebrated its 50th anniversary. Hikes and other activities were available also to celebrate National Trails Day.
Funding awarded to Save the Dunes from the Chi-Cal Rivers Fund for restoration and public use enhancement on the Peddicord property in Hobart Marsh.
2017
The City of Hobart Public Works authorized the placement of the first wayfinding boulders marking the "Hobart Nature District" with the initial two boulders being purchased through grants from the Legacy Foundation. The Legacy Foundation also funded the Neighborhood Spotlight program, which identified increasing tourism and promoting natural areas in Hobart among several goals identified to revitalize the city's northwest area. The findings of the Neighborhood Spotlight program included the installation of signage included among action steps associated within the nature district.
Groundbreaking ceremony for the Hobart Marsh Wetland Mitigation Project took place in April with mitigation efforts beginning earlier in January with restoration and enhancement of savanna and woodland types, restoration of emergent wetland, sedge meadows, and wet-mesic and mesic prairie. It was noted the project was 26 years in the making and the mitigation will take 5 years to complete. The project satisfies wetland mitigation obligations impacted by the Little Calumet River Flood Risk Management Project. Among those attending the groundbreaking ceremony included U.S. Rep. Pete Visclosky, Col. Christopher Drew, commander of the Chicago District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Bruno Pigott, commissioner of the Indiana Department of Environmental Management, Cameron Clark, Director of the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, and Hobart Mayor Brian Snedecor.
The "Hobart Nature District" was officially established by resolution of the Common Council of the City of Hobart, Indiana on July 19, 2017. This resolution determined the phrase "Hobart Nature District" was the best way to refer to the areas of the Hobart Marsh Plan which was established by the city in 2013.
The City of Hobart placed the fourth wayfinding boulder marking the "Hobart Nature District" adjacent to the Izaak Walton League's Spring Lake property within the Hobart Nature District. Members of Izaak Walton's Spring Lake shared updates about their recent preservation efforts on that property that is home to about 200 native species of plants.
2018
The 4th Annual Hobart Marsh Summit took place with conservation groups and landowners within the 1,000-acre Hobart Nature District sharing information regarding brush and invasive species removal, native seedlings and plantings, erosion control, and other enhancements within the district.
On June 9, 2018, Shirley Heinze Land Trust hosted an educational bus tour of its nature preserves. During the ride, staff, board members and guest speakers, including IUN Geosciences Professor Dr. Erin Argyilan, provided insights on land conservation and the ecology, geology, and history of northwestern Indiana. The bus tour traveled through the Hobart Marsh conservation area and passed by nature preserves located near I-65, including Hidden Prairie/Ivory Wetlands on the west, and Brinson/Bock Higgins prairies to the east. The bus tour also stopped for a short hike at Bur Oak Woods where participants visited the rare bur oak savanna natural community, with trees that are several hundred years old.
2019
The City of Hobart and the Northwest Indiana Regional Planning Committee initiated a planning process to begin the creation of zoning standards to guide the design and use of sites within local conservation areas. The geographic focus of the initiative was on areas outlined in the Hobart Marsh Plan and now commonly referred to as the Hobart Nature District. Information presented included details about Hobart's partners in conservation, animals and plants unique to Hobart, and sought to clarify facts involving conservation development.
In December 2019, appraisals were done on the property within the Hobart Nature District currently owned by the GEO Group and formerly owned by the St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church in an effort led by the Lake County Parks and Recreation to add the 40 acre parcel to the property owned and maintained by Lake County Parks and open to the public for recreation purposes.
2020s
2020
On May 26, 2020, it was announced that Lake County Parks and Recreation was officially in talks with GEO Group to acquire the 40 acre wooded parcel formerly owned by St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church with plans to add it to the inventory of properties owned by Lake County Parks with the intention of opening the land to the public for recreation.
2021
On January 6, 2021, a motion carried with a 7–0 vote in the Hobart City Council authorizing the Mayor to issue a letter, supporting the Lake County Parks acquisition of the property (40 acres owned by the GEO Group and formerly the site of the St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church) and encouraging the Little Cal River Basin Development Commission to contribute the funds to facilitate the purchase of the property to keep this as a natural area under the control of Lake County Parks.
On February 17, 2021, the Lake County Parks and Recreation presented a proposal to the Little Calumet River Basin Development Commission requesting funding to contribute funding to facilitate the purchase of the 40 acres owned by the GEO Group within the Hobart Nature District that was formerly the site of the St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church.
In April 2021 Craig Zandstra, superintendent of planning and natural resources for Lake County Parks, confirmed the purchase of the property from GEO Group within the Hobart Nature District (once the site of St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church). Zandstra noted Lake County Parks intends to enhance and restore native plant communities on the site, as well as constructing non-motorized trails to connect natural areas in the city. The Little Calumet River Basin Development Commission, the Friends of Robinson Lake, the Shirley Heinze Land Trust, Lake County Parks, Indiana Department of Natural Resources and the Lake Heritage Park Foundation contributed funding for the local match to the federal grants.
On December 2, 2021, staff from the Great Lakes Fire Management Zone based at Indiana Dunes National Park, conducted a Prescribed Fire on the 181 acre Hobart Prairie Grove. The area burned included property on the west side of Lake George, south of 48th Ave, east of Liverpool Road, and north of 61st Ave.
2022
On March 2, 2022, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Nature Preserves, implemented a prescribed fire across 19 acres at Hobart Marsh Conservation Area.
On March 16, 2022, the Indiana Department of Nature Resources, Division of Nature Preserves, implemented a prescribed fire across 25 acres at McCloskey's Burr Oak Savanna.
Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR) travels across the state each year filling urban lakes and ponds with channel catfish and rainbow trout. Between March 16 and 22 the DNR stocked Robinson Lake in Hobart received 300 catfish. Another 275 catfish will be added to Robinson Lake between May 9 and 13 and 150 more between May 31 and June 3.
On July 15, 2022, the City of Hobart Parks and Recreation began the refurbishment of Robinson Lake's old parking lot. The grassy sod was scraped off and millings were trucked in. New playground equipment will be installed when the parking area is complete.
Local partners
Many local partners work together to protect, restore, and promote the natural areas within the Hobart Nature District. These partners work together to secure resources for restoration projects and recreation improvements.
City of Hobart
Indiana Department of Natural Resources
Izaak Walton League
Lake County Parks
Indiana Dunes National Park / National Park Service
Save the Dunes
Shirley Heinze Land Trust
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Woodland Savanna Land Conservancy
Natural Area Features and Access
The Hobart Nature District features 13 distinct natural areas within the boundaries of the district. A 14th distinct natural area within the boundaries of the Hobart Nature District was added in April 2021 with property adjacent to Robinson Lake Park that was acquired by Lake County Parks and Recreation.
Brinson & Bock / Higgins
25 acres owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Burr oak savanna restoration
No trails
Access from Oak Savanna Trail
Burr Oak Woods
84 acres owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Bur oak savanna
2-mile trail
Parking lot on Liverpool Road
Cressmoor Prairie
41 acres owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Tallgrass prairie
0.75-mile trail
Parking lot on North Lake Park Road
Eleven Acre Prairie
11 acres owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Remnant prairie
No parking lot or trails
Gordon & Faith Greiner Nature Preserve
73 acres owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Wetlands, wet prairie and woodlands
0.08-mile trail
Parking lot on Liverpool Road
Hidden Prairie & Ivory Wetlands
61 acres - Restricted - Access by special permission only - owned by Shirley Heinze Land Trust
Wet prairie, swamp, marsh, and open water
Hobart Prairie Grove
300 acres owned by National Park Service
1.1 mile trail
Contains 343 native plants and an abundance of wildlife with forested ravines, overlook of Lake George
Park at 5250 South Liverpool Road
Levan Wetland
17 acres owned by Woodland Savanna Land Conservancy
Sandy woods and fen-like wetlands
No parking lot or trails
McCloskey's Burr Oak Savanna
55 acres owned by Indiana Department of Natural Resources
1-mile trail
Burr oak savanna and tallgrass prairie; The burr oak savanna is a natural community type and currently one of the rarest communities in the state
Parking lot on north side of 49th Avenue, east of solar farm.
Oak Savannah Trail
8+ miles owned by National Park Service
East Trailhead: 4 North Hobart Road, Hobart
West Trailhead: 301 South Colfax Street, Griffith
Peddicord
91 acres owned by Save the Dunes
Opened in the summer of 2018
1-mile trail
Undulating ravines and overlook of Lake George
Parking lot on west side of Arizona Street
Robinson Lake Park
30 acres owned by City of Hobart
17-acre lake open to the public for fishing and paddling, picnic shelters and restrooms
Parking lot 5250 Liverpool Road
Spring Lake
50 acres owned by Izaak Walton League
21-acre man-made lake, 6-acre black soil prairie
Access restricted to Izaak Walton League members and public events
4700 West 49th Avenue
References
External links
Hobart Marsh Plan - City of Hobart, Indiana
Nature conservation in the United States
Nature reserves in Indiana
Protected areas of Lake County, Indiana
Tourist attractions in Lake County, Indiana |
5759277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningishzida | Ningishzida | Ningishzida (Sumerian: DNIN-G̃IŠ-ZID-DA, possible meaning "Lord [of the] Good Tree") was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part of the year in the land of the dead. He also shared many of his functions with his father Ninazu.
In myths he usually appears in an underworld setting, though in the myth of Adapa he is instead described as one of the doorkeepers of the sky god Anu.
Name
Thorkild Jacobsen proposed that the Sumerian name Ningishzida can be explained as "lord of the good tree." This translation is still accepted by other Assyriologists today. Various syllabic spellings are known, including dNi-gi-si-da, dNin-nigi-si-da, dNin-ki-zi-da and dNin-gi-iz-zi-da.
While "nin" can be translated as "lady" in some contexts, it was grammatically neutral in Sumerian and can be found in the names of many deities, both male (Ningishzida, Ninazu, Ninurta, etc.) and female (Ninlil, Ninkasi etc.).
Ningishzida could also be called Gishbanda ("little tree").
Functions
Ningishzida's titles connect him to plants and agriculture. He was frequently mentioned in connection with grass, which he was believed to provide for domestic animals. The death of vegetation was associated with his annual travel to the underworld. The "tree" in his name might be vine according to some Assyriologists, including Wilfred G. Lambert, and an association between him and alcoholic beverages (specifically wine) is well attested, for example one text mentions him alongside the beer goddess Ninkasi, while one of his titles was "lord of the innkeepers."
Like his father Ninazu, he was also associated with snakes, including the mythical mushussu, ushumgal and bashmu and in one case Nirah. He was also an underworld god, and in this role was known as the "chair bearer (or chamberlain) of the underworld." Frans Wiggermann on the basis of these similarities considers him and his father to be members of the group of "Transtigridian snake gods," who according to him shared a connection with the underworld, justice, vegetation and snakes. A further similarity between Ningishzida and his father was his occasional role as a warrior god, associated with victory (and as a result with the goddess Irnina, the personification of it). However, not all of their functions overlapped, as unlike Ninazu, Ningishzida never appears in the role of a divine healer.
According to Frans Wiggermann, Ningishzida's diverse functions can be considered different aspects of his perception as a "reliable god," well attested in Mesopotamian texts.
The constellation Hydra could serve as his symbol, though it was also associated with Ishtaran and Ereshkigal.
Worship
The worship of Ningishzida is attested for the first time in the Early Dynastic III period. His main cult center was Gishbanda, likely a rural settlement located somewhere between Lagash and Ur. His main temple was known simply as E-Gishbanda, "house of Gishbanda," and it was commonly listed alongside the main temple of his father Ninazu, E-Gidda.
He also had a temple in Lagash, the E-badbarra, "house, outer wall." Yet another one was built in Girsu by Gudea, though its name is unknown. This ruler considered him to be his personal god. In one of his inscriptions, Ningishzida is named a participant in a festival celebrating the marriage between Ningirsu and Bau. In another, he is credited with helping Gudea with building new temples. In a later incantation which served as a part of temple renovation rituals, referred to as The First Brick by Wilfred G. Lambert, Ningishzida is mentioned in a similar context alongside many other deities, such as Lisin, Gukishbanda, Kulla, Lahar and Ninshar.
In Ur he was worshiped in the temple E-niggina, "house of truth," known from an inscription of Sin-Iqisham stating it was rebuilt during his reign. He is attested in offering lists from that city from the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods, sometimes alongside Ningubalaga. In later sources, up to the reign of the Persian emperor Darius I, he sometimes appears in theophoric names, likely due to association with Ninazu, who retained a degree of relevance in the local pantheon. Much like in the case of his father, some of them used the dialectical Emesal form of his name, Umun-muzida. It is presumed that the cause of this was the role lamentation priests, who traditionally memorized Emesal compositions, played in the preservation of cults of underworld gods in Ur.
As early as in the Ur III period Ningishzida was introduced to Uruk. He was also present in Kamada, possibly located nearby, as attested in documents from the reign of Sin-kashid. During the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I he was worshiped in a chapel in the Eanna complex, originally built during the reign of Old Babylonian king Anam.
He continued to appear in theophoric names from neo-Assyrian, neo-Babylonian and Hellenistic Uruk, though only uncommonly.
Ningishzida was also worshiped in Isin, which was primarily the cult center of the medicine goddess Ninisina, but had multiple houses of worship dedicated to underworld deities as well, with the other examples being Nergal, Ugur, and an otherwise unknown most likely chthonic goddess Lakupittu who according to Andrew R. George was likely the tutelary deity of Lagaba near Kutha.
Further locations where he was worshiped include Umma, Larsa, Kuara, Nippur, Babylon, Eshnunna and Kisurra. From most of them evidence is only available from the Ur III or Old Babylonian periods, though in Babylon he still had a small cult site in Esagil in the neo-Babylonian period. A single object inscribed with a dedication to Ningishzida is also known from Susa, though it might have been brought there as booty from some Mesopotamian polity.
Associations with other deities
Ningishzida was the son of Ninazu and his wife Ningiridda. One of the only references to goddesses breastfeeding in Mesopotamian literature is a description of Ningirida and her son. His sisters were Amashilama and Labarshilama.
References to Ningishzida as a "scion" of Anu are probably meant to indicate the belief in a line consisting out of Anu, Enlil, Ninazu and finally Ningishzida, rather than the existence of an alternate tradition where he was the son of the sky god.
Multiple traditions existed regarding the identity of Ningishzida's wife, with the god list An = Anum listing two, Azimua (elsewhere also called Ninazimua) and Ekurritum (not attested in such a role anywhere else), while other sources favor Geshtinanna, identified with Belet-Seri. However, Azimua shared Gesthinanna's role as an underworld scribe,and her name could also function as a title of Geshtinanna, attested in contexts where she was identified as Ningishzida's wife. At the same time, Belet-Seri could also function as an epithet of Ashratum, the wife of Amurru, or of her Sumerian counterpart Gubarra, in at least one case leading to conflation of Amurru and Ningishzida and to an association between the former and Azimua and Ekurritum. In one case Ekurritum was simply identified as an alternate name of Ashratum as well. The tradition in which Gesthinanna was Ningishzida's wife had its origin in Lagash, and in seals from that city she is sometimes depicted alongside a mushussu, symbol of her husband, to indicate they're a couple. One inscription of Gudea refers to her as Ningishzida's "beloved wife."
Ningishzida's sukkal was Alla, a minor underworld god, depicted as a bald beardess man, without the horned crown associated with divinity. Wilfred G. Lambert notes that he was most likely another Dumuzi-like deity whose temporary death was described in laments. He is also attested in lists of so-called "seven conquered Enlils," deities associated with Enmesharra. Another deity also identified as Ningishzida's sukkal was Ipahum or Ippu, a viper god, also known as the sukkal of his father Ninazu. Other deities who belonged to his court include Gishbandagirizal, Lugalsaparku, Lugalshude, Namengarshudu, Usheg and Irnina.
Ningishzida could be associated with Dumuzi, on account of their shared character as dying gods of vegetation. A lamentation text known as "In the Desert by the Early Grass" lists both of them among the mourned deities. The absence of both of them was believed to take place each year between mid-summer and mid-winter. The association is also present in astrological treatises. Some lamentations go as far as regarding Ningishzida and Dumuzi as one and the same. As dwellers of the underworld, both of them could be on occasion associated with Gilgamesh as well.
Another temporarily dying god Ningishzida could be associated with was Damu.
In some inscriptions of Gudea, Ningishzida was associated with Ningirsu, with one of them mentioning that he was tasked with delivering gifts for the latter's wife Bau. Such a role was customarily associated with trusted associates and close friends in ancient Mesopotamian culture, indicating that despite originally being unrelated, these two gods were envisioned as close to each other by Gudea.
Mythology
In the Middle Babylonian myth of Adapa, Ningishzida is one of the two doorkeepers of Anu's celestial palace, alongside Dumuzi. This myth appears to indicate that these two gods are present in heaven rather than underworld when they are dead, even though other Sumerian and Akkadian myths describe Ningishzida's journey to the underworld. Little is known about the circumstances of his annual return, though one text indicates an unidentified son of Ereshkigal was responsible for ordering it.
A reference to Ningishzida is present in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The eponymous hero's mother Ninsun mentions to Shamash that she is aware her son is destined to "dwell in the land of no return" with him. In another Gilgamesh myth, Death of Gilgamesh, the hero is promised a position in the underworld equal to that of Ningishzida.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
External links
Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Ningišzida (god)
ETCSLsubcorpus: balbales and hymns to Ninĝišzida
Mesopotamian gods
Nature gods
Snake gods
Underworld gods |
41578701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martavis%20Bryant | Martavis Bryant | Martavis Alexander Bryant (born December 20, 1991) is an American football wide receiver for the Vegas Vipers of the XFL. He played college football at Clemson, and was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the fourth round of the 2014 NFL Draft.
High school career
Bryant was born in Calhoun Falls, South Carolina. In high school, Bryant was a standout football player for two schools. He attended Calhoun Falls High School in South Carolina and transferred to T. L. Hanna High School in Anderson, South Carolina prior to his senior year because Calhoun Falls High was shut down due to low student numbers from a small town. He was named first-team all-state as a senior recording 70 receptions for 722 yards and 11 touchdowns. He had 44 catches for 776 yards and six touchdowns as a junior.
Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, he was rated the 10th best wide receiver prospect in the nation. After high school, he spent one year at Hargrave Military Academy in Chatham, Virginia to pass NCAA initial eligibility standards
As a standout sprinter, Bryant ran for the T. L. Hanna track team. He finished 2nd in the 100 meters at the Regional Class 1 AAAA championships, with a time of 10.85 seconds. He also won the 200 meters at the 2010 Region 1-4A Meet, recording a personal-best time of 21.46 seconds.
College career
Freshman season
Bryant began attending Clemson University in 2011. Coming into Clemson, he had to compete with future NFL players, Sammy Watkins, DeAndre Hopkins, and Jaron Brown. His first reception was for 54 yards against Troy on September 3. The next week, he had his first career touchdown, a 42-yard reception while playing Wofford. His first career start was against No. 10 Virginia Tech on October 1, 2011. He also played in his first bowl game, against No. 22 West Virginia in the Orange Bowl. In that game, he caught two passes for 20 yards. He completed his first season with two starts in 14 games. He finished 2011 with nine receptions, 220 receiving yards, and two touchdowns.
Sophomore season
After his first season, Bryant's production increased. Against Ball State, he would have a 22-yard touchdown catch, a 17-yard carry, and three kickoff returns for 69 yards. He would finish this game leading the Tigers with 108 all purpose yards. For the season, he would show little improvement, having career highs with 10 receptions, 305 receiving yards, and 4 touchdown catches. He would lead the entire FBS with 30.5 yards per a reception.
Junior season
His junior season marked the best year in his college career. While playing against No. 5 Georgia, he recovered the game winning onside kick. Against North Carolina State, he had 6 receptions for 73 yards. On November 14, against Georgia Tech, he had a career-high 176 receiving yards, on five catches, for one touchdown. In his second Orange Bowl against No. 6 Ohio State he had three catches, 28 receiving yards, and two touchdowns, marking a career-high. He finished 2013 with 42 receptions, 828 receiving yards, and seven touchdown receptions making his career totals, 61 receptions, 1,354 receiving yards, and 13 touchdowns.
Bryant announced on January 5, 2014, that he would forgo his senior season and enter the 2014 NFL Draft.
Professional career
Coming out of Clemson, Bryant was projected to be drafted anywhere from the second to fourth round by the majority of NFL analysts and scouts. Bryant received an invitation to the NFL Combine and completed all the required combine drills and positional drills for team representatives and scouts. On March 6, 2014, he participated at Clemson's Pro Day and chose to only perform positional drills. He was ranked as the 14th best wide receiver prospect available in the draft by NFLDraftScout.com and was ranked the 13th best wide receiver by NFL analyst Mike Mayock.
Pittsburgh Steelers
The Pittsburgh Steelers selected Bryant in the fourth round (118th overall) of the 2014 NFL Draft. He was the 19th wide receiver selected in the 2014 NFL Draft. On June 9, 2014, he signed a four-year contract with the team worth $2.659 million with $439,220 guaranteed and a $439,220 signing bonus.
2014 season: Rookie year
Bryant spent the first six weeks of the season inactive due to a shaky training camp and preseason in addition to suffering a mild A/C sprain in the last preseason game. Head coach Mike Tomlin told Bryant he wanted to see him dominate the scout team in practice before he would activate him for a game. Bryant was finally activated for a Week 7 matchup against the Houston Texans. His first NFL reception went for a 35-yard touchdown and he finished the game with two catches for 40 yards. On October 26, 2014, he hauled in a season-high five catches for 83 yards and two touchdowns in a 51–34 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. On November 2, 2014, Bryant received his first career start against the Baltimore Ravens and ended the game with three receptions, 44 receiving yards, and two touchdown receptions. His five touchdown receptions set an NFL record for a player in their first three games. During a Week 10 contest at the New York Jets, he had four receptions for a season-high 143-yards and had an 80-yard touchdown catch. This marked his sixth touchdown in first four games and again set an NFL record, which was later tied by Calvin Ridley.
On December 28, 2014, Bryant caught a 21-yard touchdown reception in a 27–17 win over the Cincinnati Bengals. He played in his first NFL postseason game on January 3, 2015, against the Baltimore Ravens. He finished the 17–30 loss with five receptions for 61 yards and a touchdown.
Bryant finished his rookie year with 26 receptions for 549 receiving yards and eight touchdowns in ten games and three starts. Bryant's 21.1 yards per reception ranked first among NFL wide receivers in 2014.
2015 season
On August 27, 2015, Bryant was suspended the first four games due to violating the league's substance abuse policy. During his suspension, he spent time at a rehabilitation center in Houston, Texas and worked with ex-NBA coach John Lucas. Although he was available to return for Week 5, he missed the game due to a knee injury, so he made his 2015 debut on October 18, 2015. In a 25–13 victory over the Arizona Cardinals, he caught six passes for 137 yards and two touchdowns including an 88-yard touchdown. His first start of the season was on October 25, 2015, at the Kansas City Chiefs, and in his second game he caught three receptions for 45 yards and a touchdown. During a Week 10 matchup against the Cleveland Browns, Bryant had a season-high 178 receiving yards on six catches while also scoring a 64-yard touchdown. On December 13, 2015, he caught a season-high seven receptions for 49 yards in a 33–20 victory over the Bengals. In Week 15, he made a season-high ten catches for 87 yards in a 34–27 win over the Denver Broncos, making it the first time he caught over nine passes in his career.
On January 9, 2016, against the Cincinnati Bengals in the Wild Card Round, while in the red zone, quarterback Ben Roethlisberger threw a pass into the corner of the endzone intended for Bryant. During the process of the catch, he did a front flip and maintained control of the ball while holding it on the back of his leg throughout the flip. The NFL VP of officiating later deemed this should not have been ruled a catch. This score gave the Steelers a 15–0 lead en route to winning the game by a score of 18–16. In the Divisional Round against the Broncos, Bryant had nine receptions for 154 yards and also rushed for 40 yards in the 23–16 defeat.
2016 season
On March 14, 2016, the NFL announced it had suspended Bryant for the entire 2016 NFL season for violating the league's substance abuse policy.
2017 season
On April 25, 2017, Bryant was conditionally reinstated by the NFL. He entered the regular season as the starting wide receiver alongside Antonio Brown. In the Steelers' season-opening victory against the Cleveland Browns, Bryant caught two passes for 14 yards. The following week, he caught three passes for 91 receiving yards and his first touchdown of the season on a 27-yard pass from Ben Roethlisberger as the Steelers defeated the Minnesota Vikings 26–9. However, following the Week 7 game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Bryant vented frustration about his lack of role in the offense on social media, and then skipped mandatory team meetings the following Monday. Bryant then publicly told ESPN he would like to be traded; however, coach Mike Tomlin said the team had no plans to trade Bryant. On October 25, 2017, prior to that week's game against the Detroit Lions, the Steelers demoted Bryant to the scout team and replaced him with JuJu Smith-Schuster after deactivating him for the game. As of November 1, 2017, Bryant was promoted back onto the first-team for the following game against the Indianapolis Colts.
Bryant finished the 2017 season with 50 receptions for 603 yards and three touchdowns. The Steelers made the playoffs and faced off against the Jacksonville Jaguars in the Divisional Round. In the 45–42 loss, he had two receptions for 78 yards and a touchdown.
Oakland Raiders
On April 26, 2018, the Steelers traded Bryant to the Oakland Raiders for Oakland's third round pick previously acquired from the Arizona Cardinals (79th overall) in the 2018 NFL Draft.
On September 1, 2018, Bryant was released by the Raiders. Despite facing a possible year-long suspension by the NFL for a violation of the league's drug policy during the off-season, the Raiders re-signed him to a one-year deal ten days later. He played in eight games, recording 19 catches for 266 yards and no touchdowns, before being placed on injured reserve on December 5, 2018, with a knee injury. On December 14, 2018, the NFL suspended Bryant indefinitely for violating the terms of his conditional reinstatement. Bryant applied for reinstatement in 2019.
Toronto Argonauts
On January 25, 2021, Bryant signed with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League. He was placed on the suspended list on July 10, 2021, after failing to report for training camp. Bryant never played for the Argos and after the season he was released on December 23, 2021.
Edmonton Elks
The Edmonton Elks announced that they had signed Bryant on February 28, 2022. Bryant was released by the Elks on May 3, 2022, before training camp began.
FCF
On April 29, The FCF Beasts recruited Bryant to the team.
Vegas Vipers
With the 5th pick in the 2023 XFL Skill Players Draft, Bryant was selected by the Vegas Vipers.
Career statistics
Personal life
Clemson began recruiting Bryant when he was a freshman in high school. He verbally committed to them during his second year of high school. He also has amassed many tattoos including the NFL shield logo on his abdomen to remind him he was drafted in the fourth round and to keep himself motivated. His cousin is former Clemson quarterback and former Toronto Argonauts teammate Kelly Bryant.
References
External links
1991 births
Living people
People from Calhoun Falls, South Carolina
Players of American football from South Carolina
African-American players of American football
American football wide receivers
Clemson Tigers football players
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Oakland Raiders players
Doping cases in American football
Toronto Argonauts players
Edmonton Elks players
Fan Controlled Football players
Vegas Vipers players
21st-century African-American sportspeople |
53010245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20in%20comics | 2017 in comics | This is a list of comics-related events in 2017. It includes any relevant comics-related events, deaths of notable comics-related people, conventions and first issues by title.
Events and publications
March
March 4–5: During the Stripdagen, comics writer Willem Ritstier receives the Stripschapprijs, while Frits Jonker wins the P. Hans Frankfurtherprijs. The Bulletje en Boonestaakschaal is awarded to Albert van Beek.
March 24: The Dutch comics series Claire by The Wirojas ends it 29 years of publication in the Belgian women's magazine Flair.
31 March to 2 April: WonderCon (Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California).
April
April 9: In Antwerp, Belgium, next to the Central Station the theme park Comics Station is officially opened, which puts a spotlight on various Belgian comics characters.
April 15: The final issue of the Belgian satirical comics and cartoons magazine Pan is published.
April 21: Canadian comics artist Gisèle Lagacé makes headlines when she is denied entry near the U.S.-Canadian border for a couple of hours for no particular reason.
May
May 8:
Ken Bald makes the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest active comics artist in the world. He broke this record before on 4 March 2015.
American web comics artist Matt Furie decides to kill off his character Pepe the Frog after it became associated with white nationalism, against his will. The event makes headlines all over the Internet.
May 11: Hollywood actress Goldie Hawn reveals that , at age 19, she was sexually intimidated by comics artist Al Capp (who died in 1978). According to her he tried inviting her to his casting couch, which she refused, much to his anger. She'd had told this anecdote before in a 1985 interview with Playboy, but only now it receives more media attention.
May 13: In Kansas City comics store owner James Dale, "Jim", Cavanaugh (Clint's Comics) tries to stop a shoplifter, but is thrown to the ground, hitting his head. He is brought to the hospital, where he dies. He was 66 or 67 years old.
July
July 12: The first posthumous The Adventures of Nero story, De Zeven Vloeken, starts serialisation in Knack, eight months after the death of Marc Sleen. The artist of this homage comic is Kim Duchateau.
July 20–23: San Diego Comic-Con, (San Diego Convention Center, San Diego, California).
August
August 21: Nero receives a comics mural in Middelkerke, Belgium, as part of the local Comic Book Route.
September
September 23: The first Ringo Awards are handed out, voted by comics professionals and fans.
September 26: Jean-Marc van Tol, John Reid and Bastiaan Geleijnse win the Inktspotprijs for Best Political Cartoon.
October
October 12: Margreet de Heer is elected as first Dutch Stripmaker des Vaderlands (Comics Laureate of the Netherlands) for a period of three years.
October 13: Tubbs Fire: during a fire in Santa Rosa, California, the house of late Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz burns down to the ground. His widow is saved.
November
November 2–3: Second annual WES Feminist Comic Con held in Pakistan.
November 10–12: Rhode Island Comic Con (Rhode Island Convention Center, Providence, Rhode Island)
December
December 17: Iranian cartoonist Ali Dorani, better known as Eaten Fish, is finally released from his detention in a refugee camp in Manus Island, where he spent five years. By making comics and cartoons about his imprisonment, which were smuggled out the camp, he was able to bring international attention to his case, which led to sympathy campaigns that eventually solidified his release.
December 18: Geneviève Gautier publishes her comic book Les Aventures du Pingouin Alfred. The event receives a lot of media attention since, at age 95, she is the oldest person to ever publish a comic book.
Deaths
January
January 1: Alfonso Wong, Chinese comics artist and animator (Old Master Q), dies at the age of 93.
January 12: Gerry Gersten, American caricaturist and comics artist (Mad Magazine), dies at age 89.
January 15: Jean-Luc Vernal, Belgian comics writer (Jugurtha, Ian Kaledine, Tetfol, Brelan de dames, Cranach de Morganloup) and chief editor of Tintin magazine (1977-1988), dies at the age of 72.
January 17: Pascal Garray, Belgian comics artist (worked for Studio Peyo on new albums by The Smurfs and Benoît Brisefer), dies at age 51.
January 17: Pascal J. Zanon, Belgian comics artist (Harry Dickson), dies at age 73.
January 18: Raoul Giordan, French comics artist and half of the Giordan Brothers (Franck Nevil, Tom Tempest, the space family Les Francis, Bob Corton, Vigor and Thierry), dies at age 90.
January 19: Jan Kruis, Dutch comics artist (Jan, Jans en de Kinderen (Jack, Jacky and the Juniors), dies at the age of 83.
January 21: John Watkiss, British comics artist (The Sandman, Deadman, Conan the Barbarian), dies of cancer at the age of 55.
January 25: Jack Mendelsohn, American comics writer, artist (Jacky's Diary) and TV script writer, dies at the age of 90 from lung cancer.
January 21: Alessandro Biffignandi, Italian illustrator, comics, magazine cover and film poster artist (Rombo Bill, Flambo, Antonin, Agent Special K3, Sergeant Fury), dies at the age of 81.
January 28: Dan Spiegle, American comics artist (Dell Comics, DC Comics, Marvel Comics), dies at age 96.
January 28: Joop Wiggers, Dutch comics artist, lay-out designer, entrepreneur and publisher (business associate of Jan Kruis), dies at age 82.
February
February 11: Jiro Taniguchi, Japanese manga artist (A Distant Neighborhood), dies at age 69.
February 15: Fabrizio Busticchi, Italian comics artist (Allan Quatermain comics series, Mister No), dies at the age of 63.
February 16: Dick Bruna, Dutch children's novelist and illustrator (Miffy), died at age 89.
February 18: Giacomo Pueroni, Italian comics artist (Jonathan Steele, Harry Moon, Nathan Never, Anjce), dies at age 53.
March
March 5: Dave Hunt, American comics artist (DC Comics, Marvel Comics, Disney comics, Hanna-Barbera), dies from cancer at age 74.
March 5: Jay Lynch, American underground comix artist and writer (Nard n' Pat, Phoebe and the Pigeon People, Bazooka Joe) and editor of the magazine Bijou Funnies, dies at age 72.
March 12: Murray Ball, New Zealand cartoonist and comics artist (Stanley the Palaeolithic Hero, Footrot Flats), dies at age 78.
March 12: Stavro Jabra, Lebanese political cartoonist and comics artist, dies at age 70.
March 16: Skip Williamson, American underground comix artist (Snappy Sammy Smoot), dies at the age of 72.
March 17: Joost Rietveld, Dutch illustrator and comics artist (comics for the children's magazines Olidin and Okki), dies at age 85.
March 18: Bernie Wrightson, American comics artist (Bernie Wrightson's Frankenstein, House of Mystery, House of Secrets, co-creator of Swamp Thing), dies at age 68.
March 21: Gerard Wiegel, Dutch comics artist, illustrator and cartoonist (Professor Cumulus, Flossie, Conny, Tiep, Professor Vliegop, Kimo), dies at the age of 89.
March 26: Chen Uen, Taiwanese comics artist, dies at age 58.
March 27: Leone Cimpellin, Italian comics artist (Jonny Logan, Maxmagnus, Plutos, Red Carson, Papero grosso e Fiorello, Gibernetta, Carletto Sprint, Tribunzio, Gigi Bizz, Gianni & Rob-8, Gelsomino, Tam Tam, Nero Fumo, Tom Patapom, Tchak), dies at the age of 91.
March 29: Knut Westad, Norwegian comic artist (Tåkehauk, Tigalo, worked on The Phantom), dies at age 61.
April
April 9: Carolyn Kelly, American comics artist, animator and book designer (continued Pogo), dies.
April 10: Chris Roodbeen, Dutch comics artist, illustrator, cartoonist and courtroom artist (Ahmed, De Roemrijke Avonturen van Papom), dies at the age of 87.
April 15: Martin Greim, American comics writer and artist (Thunderbunny), dies from heart failure at age 74.
April 23: Leo Baxendale, British comics artist (Little Plum, Minnie the Minx, The Bash Street Kids, The Three Bears, Grimly Feendish, Sweeny Toddler, Willy the Kid), dies at the age of 86.
April 27: Peter Spier, Dutch writer and illustrator, dies at age 89.
April 30: Jidéhem, Belgian comics artist (Sophie), dies at the age of 81.
Specific date unknown: Norberto Firpo, aka Ácido Nítrico, Argentine journalist and cartoonist (Olegario, Furgon de Cola), dies at age 85.
May
May 2: Jay Disbrow, American comics artist, writer, illustrator and lecturer (Blue Bolt Weird Tales of Terror, Spook, Ghostly Weird Stories, Daring Adventures, Eerie Tales, The Flames of Gyro, Aroc of Zenith), dies at the age of 91.
May 13: James Dale Cavanaugh, American comics store owner (owned Clint's Comics in Kansas City since 1975), dies at age 66 or 67 after being killed trying to stop a shoplifter.
May 18: Oscar González Guerrero, Mexican comics artist (co-creator of Zor y Los Invencibles and Hermelinda Linda), dies at age 95.
May 19: Rich Buckler, American comics artist (Deathlok the Demolisher, All-Star Squadron), dies from cancer at the age of 68.
May 21: Larry Wright, American comics artist (Kit 'N' Carlyle, Wright Angles, Uncle Milton, Motley), dies at age 77.
May 24: Pierre Seron, Belgian comics artist (Les Petits Hommes), dies at age 75.
May 25: Marcello Albano, Italian comics artist, writer and musician, dies at age 65.
June
June 1: Vic Lockman, American comics artist (Disney comics, Looney Tunes comics, Hanna-Barbera comics, Christian comics), dies at age 89.
June 4: Rob Gorter, Dutch comics artist, caricaturist and illustrator (Japie, Chris Crack, co-creator of Toon en Toos Brodeloos, Buro Moeilijke Zaken), dies at 71.
June 5: James Vance, American comics writer (Kings in Disguise), dies of cancer at age 64.
June 10: Malang Santos, Philippine painter, cartoonist and comics artist (Kosme the Cop, Chain Gang Charlie, Beelzebub), dies at age 89.
June 18: Carlos Prunés, Spanish comics artist (Fleetway Comics), dies at age 79.
June 19: Gordon Livingstone, British comics artist (worked for Commando), dies at age 82.
June 30: Barry Norman, British film critic and comics writer (wrote some scripts for Flook), dies at age 83.
July
July 6: Juan Carlos Colombres, aka Landru, Argentine comics artist and cartoonist, dies at age 94.
July 6: Galip Tekin, Turkish comics artist (Tuhaf Öyküler, Pı'ya Mektuplar), dies at age 59.
July 8: Bob Lubbers, American comics artist (Long Sam, Robin Malone, made a comic strip based on The Saint, assisted/continued Tarzan, Secret Agent X-9, Li'l Abner), dies at age 95.
July 10: Mangesh Tendulkar, Indian cartoonist dies at age 83 from bladder cancer.
July 12: Sam Glanzman, American comics artist (Hercules, The Lonely War of Willy Schultz, U.S.S. Stevens), dies at the age of 92.
July 15: Martin Landau, American film and TV actor and cartoonist (continued The Gumps), dies at age 89.
July 23: Flo Steinberg, American underground comics publisher (Big Apple Comix) and secretary of Stan Lee, dies at age 78 from a brain aneurysm and metastatic lung cancer.
July 27: Stan Hart, American comics writer and TV comedy script writer (Mad Magazine), dies.
August
August 3: , Czech cartoonist, illustrator and natural scientist, professor of physics, dies at age 75.
August 6: Dick Locher, American comics artist and cartoonist (continued Dick Tracy), dies at the age of 88.
August 8: Rius, Mexican comics artist (Los Supermachos, Los Agachados, Marx for Beginners, Cuba for Beginners), dies at the age of 83.
August 11: Lengkuas, Malaysian cartoonist, dies at age 53.
August 14: Álvaro de Moya, Brazilian comics artist, journalist, TV producer, professor and comics scholar, dies at age 86 or 87.
August 18: Alfonso Azpiri, Spanish comics artist (Lorna, Mot), dies at age 70.
August 18: Sergio Zaniboni, Italian comics artist (Diabolik, Speedy Car), dies at age 80.
August 21: Michel Plessix, French comics artist (Julien Boisvert, Le Vent dans les Saules, Le Vent dans les Sables), dies from a heart attack at age 57.
August 28: Bert Bus, Dutch comics artist (Olaf Noord, Theban de Eerste Wereldreiziger, Cliff Rendall, Stef Ardoba, Malorix, Russ Bender), dies at age 86.
August 30: Roger Subirachs y Burgaya, aka Roger, Spanish comics artist (Vaselín Piula, Emili Piula, Destino Gris, Roberto Ruina), dies at age 60.
August 31: Jan Romare, Swedish diplomat and comics artist (Ur Igelkotten Huberts Dagbok, Gorilla Gusten, Mullvalden Malte, Ugglan Urban, Pyton, Himlens änglar), dies at age 81.
September
September 1: Barry Liebmann, American comedy and comics writer (Mad Magazine, Looney Tunes comics), dies at age 63.
September 10: Len Wein, American comics writer (co-creator of Wolverine and Swamp Thing), dies at age 69.
September 12: Bob Moyer, American painter and comics artist (continued Ticklers and Mac), passed away at age 93.
September 27: Hugh Hefner, American magazine publisher, chief editor and cartoonist (Playboy, Trump), dies at age 91.
October
October 12: Erwin Moser, Austrian illustrator, novelist and comics artist (Manuel & Didi), dies at age 63.
October 25: Patrick Jusseaume, French comics artist (Chronique de la Maison le Quéant, Tramp), dies at age 65.
November
November 5: Renzo Calegari, Italian comics artist (Storia del West), dies at age 84.
November 22: Irvin Shope, American painter and comic artist (Rusty Rawlins, Cowboy), dies at age 77.
November 27: Bob van den Born, Dutch comics artist and cartoonist (Professor Pi), dies at age 90.
November 29: Fran Hopper, American comics artist (worked for Fiction House), dies at age 95.
December
December 5; Carlos Casalla, Argentinian comic artist (El Cabo Savino), dies at age 90.
December 6:
Yves Ker Ambrun, French comics artist (Gaspard le Lézard, Schecksnyder), dies at age 63.
Jim Watson, British comic artist (drew war comics for Battle Picture Weekly and Commando), dies at age 85.
December 7: Alain d'Orange, French comic artist (Marc Leloup, various biographical-historical comics), dies at age 94.
December 19: Lona Rietschel, German comics artist (Abrafaxe), dies at age 84.
December 20: Annie Goetzinger, French comics artist and illustrator (Félina, Aurore, La Demoiselle de la Légion d'honneur, Agence Hardy), dies at age 66.
December 29: Jim Baikie, British comics artist (Judge Dredd, Skizz, Jinty), dies at age 77.
Exhibitions
October 27–November 12: "Contar o Mundo: Reportagem em Banda Desenhada" (“Tell the World: Comics Reportage“) (Fórum Luís de Camões, Amadora, Portugal) — comics journalism exhibition featuring the work of Joe Sacco, Josh Neufeld, and Ted Rall, among others; part of Amadora BD
Conventions
March 11–12: Big Apple Comic Con (Penn Plaza Pavilion, New York City) — comics guests: Jim Lee, Neal Adams, Jon Bernthal, Guy Dorian, Jason David Frank, Kathy Garver, Michael Golden, Neil Kaplan, Frank Miller, Arthur Suydam, Mark Texeira, Billy Tucci, Spencer Wilding, Renée Witterstaetter; Stan Lee cancelled due to illness
March 25–26: Small Press and Alternative Comics Expo (S.P.A.C.E.) (Northland Performing Arts Center, Columbus, Ohio)
April 1–2: MoCCA Festival (Metropolitan West, New York City)
April 29: FLUKE Mini-Comics & Zine Festival (40 Watt, Athens, Georgia)
May 20: East Coast Black Age of Comics Convention (ECBACC) (TECH Freire Charter School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
June 10–11: Chicago Alternative Comics Expo [CAKE] (Center on Halsted, Chicago, Illinois) — special guests: Gabrielle Bell, Gary Panter, Ron Regé Jr., Kevin Budnik, Emil Ferris, Jesse Jacobs, Ben Passmore, C. Spike Trotman, Jessi Zabarsky
September 9–10: STAPLE! (Millennium Youth Entertainment Complex, Austin, Texas)
September 16–17: Small Press Expo (SPX) (Bethesda North Marriott Hotel & Conference Center, North Bethesda, Maryland)
September 28–October 1: Cartoon Crossroads Columbus (Columbus, Ohio) – special guests Derf Backderf, Kat Fajardo, Laura Park, Kelly Sue DeConnick, Nilah Magruder, Ann Nocenti
November 11: Comic Arts Brooklyn (CAB) (Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York) — special guests Alexis Beauclair, Charles Burns, DDOOGG, Jules Feiffer, Emil Ferris, Sophie Goldstein, Bill Griffith, Paul Karasik, Peter Kuper, Miss Lasko-Gross, Jane Mai, Mark Newgarden, Patrick Kyle, Richie Pope, Nicole Rifkin, Simon Hanselmann, Adrian Tomine, Chris Ware, Lale Westvind, Eric Kostiuk Williams, Ron Wimberly, Kelsey Wroten, Gina Wynbrandt
December 9–10: Comic Arts Los Angeles (Homenetmen Ararat, Glendale, California) — special guest: Michael DeForge
First issues by title
Batman: The Dark Prince Charming
Released November by DC Comics. Writer & Artist: Enrico Marini
Lazarus X+66
Released July by Image Comics. Writer: Greg Rucka Artist: Steve Lieber
Sleepless
Released November by Image Comics. Writer: Sarah Vaughn Artist: Leila del Duca
Spencer & Locke
Released April by Action Lab Comics. Writer: David Pepose Artist: Jorge Santiago, Jr.
Tomb Raider: Survivor's Crusade
Released November by Dark Horse Comics. Writers: Collin Kelly and Jackson Lanzing Artist: Ashley A. Woods
X-Men Blue
Released April by Marvel Comics. Writer: Cullen Bunn Artist: Jorge Molina
X-Men Gold
Released April by Marvel Comics. Writer: Marc Guggenheim Artist: Ardian Syaf
References
Comics |
17323283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372%20New%20York%20Rangers%20season | 1971–72 New York Rangers season | The 1971–72 New York Rangers season was the franchise's 46th season. Jean Ratelle, Vic Hadfield, and Rod Gilbert ranked third, fourth and fifth overall in league scoring. The Rangers qualified for the postseason for the sixth consecutive season. The club made its first appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals since 1950 but lost in six games to the Boston Bruins.
Regular season
Final standings
Record vs. opponents
Schedule and results
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 1 || 9 || @ Montreal Canadiens || 4–4 || 0–0–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 2 || 10 || @ Boston Bruins || 4–1 || 1–0–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 3 || 13 || Boston Bruins || 6–1 || 1–1–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 4 || 16 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs || 5–3 || 2–1–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 5 || 17 || Montreal Canadiens || 8–4 || 3–1–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 6 || 20 || Chicago Black Hawks || 3–1 || 4–1–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 7 || 23 || @ St. Louis Blues || 4–3 || 5–1–1
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 8 || 24 || Pittsburgh Penguins || 1–1 || 5–1–2
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 9 || 27 || Detroit Red Wings || 7–4 || 6–1–2
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 10 || 30 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins || 1–1 || 6–1–3
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 11 || 31 || Toronto Maple Leafs || 3–3 || 6–1–4
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 12 || 3 || @ Los Angeles Kings || 7–1 || 7–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 13 || 5 || @ California Golden Seals || 8–1 || 8–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 14 || 6 || @ Vancouver Canucks || 3–1 || 9–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 15 || 10 || Los Angeles Kings || 7–1 || 10–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 16 || 13 || Buffalo Sabres || 5–2 || 11–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 17 || 14 || Vancouver Canucks || 6–1 || 12–1–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 18 || 20 || @ Minnesota North Stars || 4–1 || 12–2–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 19 || 21 || California Golden Seals || 12–1 || 13–2–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 20 || 24 || St. Louis Blues || 8–3 || 14–2–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 21 || 27 || @ Detroit Red Wings || 3–1 || 14–3–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 22 || 28 || @ Philadelphia Flyers || 4–2 || 15–3–4
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 23 || 1 || Buffalo Sabres || 7–2 || 16–3–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 24 || 4 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins || 4–2 || 16–4–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 25 || 5 || Vancouver Canucks || 6–3 || 17–4–4
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 26 || 8 || @ Chicago Black Hawks || 2–2 || 17–4–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 27 || 9 || @ Philadelphia Flyers || 5–0 || 18–4–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 28 || 12 || Pittsburgh Penguins || 6–1 || 19–4–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 29 || 15 || Philadelphia Flyers || 6–2 || 20–4–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 30 || 16 || @ Boston Bruins || 8–1 || 20–5–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 31 || 18 || @ St. Louis Blues || 5–2 || 21–5–5
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 32 || 19 || Minnesota North Stars || 1–1 || 21–5–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 33 || 22 || Pittsburgh Penguins || 4–2 || 22–5–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 34 || 25 || @ Minnesota North Stars || 2–1 || 23–5–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 35 || 26 || Montreal Canadiens || 5–1 || 24–5–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 36 || 29 || Philadelphia Flyers || 5–1 || 25–5–6
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 37 || 2 || Boston Bruins || 4–1 || 25–6–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 38 || 5 || St. Louis Blues || 9–1 || 26–6–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 39 || 9 || Los Angeles Kings || 8–0 || 27–6–6
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 40 || 12 || @ Chicago Black Hawks || 5–5 || 27–6–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 41 || 13 || @ Buffalo Sabres || 5–2 || 28–6–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 42 || 15 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs || 4–3 || 28–7–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 43 || 19 || @ Los Angeles Kings || 5–1 || 29–7–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 44 || 21 || @ California Golden Seals || 5–0 || 30–7–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 45 || 22 || @ Vancouver Canucks || 5–2 || 30–8–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 46 || 26 || Buffalo Sabres || 5–1 || 31–8–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 47 || 29 || @ Minnesota North Stars || 4–2 || 31–9–7
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 48 || 30 || Minnesota North Stars || 1–1 || 31–9–8
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 49 || 2 || Boston Bruins || 2–0 || 31–10–8
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 50 || 3 || @ Buffalo Sabres || 4–2 || 32–10–8
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 51 || 5 || @ St. Louis Blues || 6–5 || 32–11–8
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 52 || 6 || Toronto Maple Leafs || 2–2 || 32–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 53 || 9 || Chicago Black Hawks || 4–1 || 33–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 54 || 12 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins || 8–3 || 34–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 55 || 13 || Los Angeles Kings || 4–2 || 35–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 56 || 15 || @ Vancouver Canucks || 5–1 || 36–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 57 || 17 || @ Los Angeles Kings || 6–4 || 37–11–9
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 58 || 18 || @ California Golden Seals || 2–2 || 37–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 59 || 20 || Detroit Red Wings || 4–3 || 38–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 60 || 22 || @ Montreal Canadiens || 7–3 || 39–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 61 || 23 || Philadelphia Flyers || 4–3 || 40–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 62 || 27 || St. Louis Blues || 2–0 || 41–11–10
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 63 || 1 || California Golden Seals || 4–1 || 42–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 64 || 2 || @ Buffalo Sabres || 4–3 || 43–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 65 || 5 || Vancouver Canucks || 6–1 || 44–11–10
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 66 || 8 || Chicago Black Hawks || 3–3 || 44–11–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 67 || 11 || @ Detroit Red Wings || 4–2 || 45–11–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 68 || 12 || California Golden Seals || 7–3 || 45–12–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 69 || 15 || @ Chicago Black Hawks || 3–1 || 45–13–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 70 || 16 || @ Detroit Red Wings || 2–1 || 46–13–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 71 || 18 || @ Philadelphia Flyers || 5–3 || 47–13–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 72 || 19 || Toronto Maple Leafs || 5–3 || 48–13–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 73 || 23 || @ Boston Bruins || 4–1 || 48–14–11
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 74 || 25 || @ Montreal Canadiens || 3–3 || 48–14–12
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 75 || 26 || Minnesota North Stars || 5–0 || 48–15–12
|- align="center" bgcolor="white"
| 76 || 29 || Detroit Red Wings || 2–2 || 48–15–13
|-
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 77 || 1 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs || 2–1 || 48–16–13
|- align="center" bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 78 || 2 || Montreal Canadiens || 6–5 || 48–17–13
|-
Playoffs
Key: Win Loss
Player statistics
Skaters
Goaltenders
†Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Rangers. Stats reflect time with Rangers only.
‡Traded mid-season. Stats reflect time with Rangers only.
Awards and records
Draft picks
New York's picks at the 1971 NHL Amateur Draft in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
References
External links
Rangers on Hockey Database
New York Rangers seasons
New York Rangers
New York Rangers
New York Rangers
New York Rangers
1970s in Manhattan
Madison Square Garden |
60454712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Menu%20%282022%20film%29 | The Menu (2022 film) | The Menu is a 2022 American comedy horror film directed by Mark Mylod, written by Seth Reiss and Will Tracy, based on an original story created by Tracy, produced by Adam McKay, Betsy Koch and Will Ferrell. The film stars Ralph Fiennes as a celebrity chef with Hong Chau playing his assistant and Anya Taylor-Joy, Nicholas Hoult, Janet McTeer, Reed Birney, Judith Light, Aimee Carrero, and John Leguizamo playing diners who attend his exclusive restaurant.
The Menu had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2022, and was released in the United States on November 18, 2022, by Searchlight Pictures. The film grossed over $79 million worldwide and received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Foodie Tyler Ledford and his date, Margot Mills, travel by boat to Hawthorn, an exclusive restaurant on a private island owned by celebrity chef Julian Slowik. The other guests are food critic Lillian Bloom; her editor Ted; wealthy regulars Richard and Anne Leibrandt; washed-up movie star George Diaz and his personal assistant Felicity Lynn; business partners Soren, Dave, and Bryce; and Slowik's alcoholic mother Linda. The group is given an island tour by the maître d' Elsa, who notes that Margot is not Tyler's designated guest.
Dinner begins and Slowik introduces a series of courses, during which he delivers increasingly unsettling monologues. For the third course, uncomfortable truths about each guest are exposed via images laser-printed on tortillas. During the fourth course, sous-chef Jeremy kills himself. When Richard tries to leave, the staff cuts off his left ring finger as a warning to stay. Hawthorn's angel investor Doug Verrick, to whom Slowik relinquished ownership during the COVID-19 pandemic, is drowned in front of the guests. The fifth course commences with Slowik allowing himself to be stabbed by Katherine, an employee whom he had sexually harassed. The female guests dine with Katherine while the men are given the chance to escape the island via a game of cat-and-mouse, but Slowik's staff catches them all. When Lillian attempts to gain Katherine's favor by offering assistance in starting her own restaurant, Katherine reveals that she was the one who suggested Slowik kill the guests and staff.
Slowik explains that each guest was invited because they contributed to him losing his passion for his craft or because they make a living by exploiting the work of food artisans like him. He announces that everyone will be dead by the end of the night. Since Margot's presence was unplanned, Slowik privately gives her the choice of dying with the staff or the guests. When she hesitates, he chooses the staff. Margot is unmasked as an escort named Erin, whose clients included Richard, whom she stopped meeting because he hired her to pretend to be his daughter. Slowik reveals that Tyler was informed the guests would be killed. Despite this, he was so zealous to participate in Slowik's craft that he kept it secret and hired Margot to replace his ex-girlfriend because Hawthorn does not seat lone diners. Slowik invites Tyler to cook, and his performance in the kitchen fails to live up to his pretensions. Slowik humiliates him by detailing his culinary mistakes, then whispers in his ear, and a deflated Tyler leaves the kitchen.
Slowik asks Margot to go to the smokehouse and collect a barrel needed for dessert. As she leaves the kitchen, she discovers that Tyler has hanged himself in a closet. En route, Margot sneaks into Slowik's house, where she is attacked by a jealous Elsa. After a scuffle, Margot fatally stabs her. After seeing a framed employee of the month award showing Slowik as a young and happy cook preparing hamburgers at a greasy spoon diner, Margot finds a radio, calls for help and returns to the restaurant with the barrel. A Coast Guard officer named Dale arrives. After the guests are convinced they have been saved, Dale reveals himself to be a line cook in disguise and returns to the kitchen.
As dessert is being prepared, Margot confronts Slowik for his "loveless" cooking and complains that she is still hungry. When he asks what she would like, Margot requests a cheeseburger and French fries prepared without the pretentiousness of fine dining. Moved by her request, Slowik personally does so, and finds joy in preparing it. After one bite, Margot praises the food, then requests to take it "to go". Slowik allows her to leave, and Margot escapes on the Coast Guard boat docked nearby. The dessert is an elevated s'mores dish—the staff decorate the restaurant with crushed graham crackers and melted chocolate, then adorn the guests with stoles made of marshmallows and hats made of chocolate. Slowik sets the restaurant ablaze, detonating the barrel and killing the guests, staff, and himself. Safely away, Margot eats her cheeseburger as she watches the restaurant burn, and uses a copy of the menu to wipe her mouth.
Cast
Ralph Fiennes as Chef Slowik
Anya Taylor-Joy as Margot
Nicholas Hoult as Tyler
Hong Chau as Elsa
Janet McTeer as Lillian
Paul Adelstein as Ted
John Leguizamo as a movie star
Aimee Carrero as Felicity
Reed Birney as Richard
Judith Light as Anne
Rob Yang as Bryce
Arturo Castro as Soren
Mark St. Cyr as Dave
Rebecca Koon as Linda
Peter Grosz as sommelier
Christina Brucato as Katherine
Adam Aalderks as Jeremy
Production
Development
Will Tracy dined at Cornelius Sjømatrestaurant, an island restaurant outside Bergen, Norway, during a honeymoon and later suggested a story to Seth Reiss inspired by the experience. Several figures from the world of fine dining were brought on as consultants for the film, including chef Dominique Crenn, who recreated several dishes from her San Francisco restaurant Atelier Crenn for the fictional restaurant Hawthorn, and second unit director David Gelb, who was brought on to recreate the filmmaking style from his Netflix docuseries Chef's Table.
It was announced in April 2019 that Alexander Payne was attached to direct. In December 2019, the screenplay appeared on the annual Black List, a survey showcasing the most popular films still in development. By May 2020, Searchlight Pictures held the distribution rights, and Payne had left the film due to scheduling conflicts, with Mark Mylod replacing Payne as director.
Casting
In April 2019, it was announced that Emma Stone and Ralph Fiennes would star in The Menu.
In June 2021, Anya Taylor-Joy entered negotiations and was confirmed in July to replace Stone, who had left due to commitments to other projects; Hong Chau and Nicholas Hoult joined the cast the same month. John Leguizamo, Janet McTeer, Judith Light, Reed Birney, Rob Yang, and Aimee Carrero joined in September. In October, Paul Adelstein, Arturo Castro, Mark St. Cyr, Rebecca Koon and Peter Grosz were confirmed as parts of the ensemble.
Filming and post-production
Filming began on September 3, 2021, in Savannah, Georgia, with cinematographer Peter Deming and film editor Christopher Tellefsen. Film locations include the Jekyll Island shore.
Colin Stetson composed the musical score, released by Milan Records as The Menu (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) on November 18, coinciding with the film's release.
Release
The Menu premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2022, and also made its US premiere at Fantastic Fest that month. It was released November 18, 2022 in the United States in 3,211 theaters, the widest release in Searchlight's history.
The film was released to digital platforms on January 3, 2023, with a Blu-ray and DVD release by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on January 17, 2023.
Reception
Box office
The Menu grossed $38.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $41.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $79.6 million.
In the United States and Canada, The Menu was released alongside She Said, and was projected to gross $7–10 million from 3,100 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3.6 million on its first day, including $1 million from Wednesday and Thursday night previews. The film went on to debut to $9 million, finishing second behind holdover Black Panther: Wakanda Forever. Over its second weekend, The Menu made $5.5 million (and a total of $7.6 million over the five-day Thanksgiving frame), finishing fifth. During its third weekend, the film made $3.5 million, finishing fourth.
Critical response
Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while those polled by PostTrak gave it a 78% positive score, with 53% saying they would definitely recommend it.
Accolades
References
Notes
External links
Official screenplay
2022 black comedy films
2022 comedy horror films
2022 thriller films
2022 films
2020s English-language films
2020s American films
American black comedy films
American comedy horror films
American comedy thriller films
American satirical films
Matricide in fiction
Films about chefs
Films directed by Mark Mylod
Films produced by Adam McKay
Films about food and drink
Films about mass murder
Murder–suicide in films
Films set in restaurants
Films set on islands
Films shot in Savannah, Georgia
Films scored by Colin Stetson
Gary Sanchez Productions films
Searchlight Pictures films
TSG Entertainment films |
1930156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Plummer | Henry Plummer | Henry Plummer (1832–1864) was a prospector, lawman, and outlaw in the American West in the 1850s and 1860s, who was known to have killed several men. He was elected sheriff of Bannack, Montana, in 1863 and served until 1864, during which period he was accused of being the leader of a "road agent" gang of outlaws known as the "Innocents," who preyed on shipments from Virginia City, Montana to other areas. In response some leaders in Virginia City formed the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch and began to take action against Plummer's gang, gaining confessions from a couple of men they arrested in early January 1864. On January 10, 1864, Plummer and two associates were arrested in Bannack by a company of the Vigilantes and summarily hanged. Plummer was given a posthumous trial in 1993 which led to a mistrial. The jury was split 6–6.
Early years
Plummer was born William Henry Handy Plumer in 1832 in Addison, Maine, the last of six children in a family whose ancestors had first settled in Maine in 1634, when it was still a part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. His father died while Henry was in his teens. In 1852, at age 19, Plummer headed west to the gold fields of California. He changed the spelling of his surname to Plummer after moving west. His mining venture went well: within two years he owned a mine, a ranch, and a bakery in Nevada City. In 1856, Plummer was elected sheriff and city manager. Supporters suggested that he should run for state representative as a Democrat. However, the party was divided, and without its full support, he lost.
Becoming an outlaw
On September 26, 1857, Plummer shot and killed John Vedder. As city marshal of Nevada City, California, Plummer had been providing protection of Lucy Vedder, John's wife, who was seeking to escape from her abusive husband. Plummer claimed he was acting in self-defense in the incident, but was convicted of second-degree murder. He won an appeal for a retrial and was convicted again and sentenced to ten years in San Quentin. But in August 1859, supporters wrote to the governor seeking a pardon based on his alleged good character and civic performance. The governor granted the pardon because of Plummer's poor health as a result of tuberculosis, which was incurable at the time.
In 1861, Plummer tried to carry out a citizen's arrest of William Riley, who had escaped from San Quentin; in the attempt, Riley was killed. Plummer turned himself in to the police, who accepted that the killing was justified. Fearing that his prison record would prevent a fair trial, they allowed Plummer to leave the state.
Life of a criminal
Plummer headed to Washington Territory where gold had been discovered. There he became involved in a dispute that ended in a gunfight won by Plummer. He decided to leave the West and return to Maine.
On the way back east, waiting for a steamboat to reach Fort Benton, Montana, on the Missouri River, Plummer was approached by James Vail. He was recruiting volunteers to help protect his family from Indian attacks at the mission station he was attempting to start in Sun River, Montana. No passage home being available, Plummer accepted, along with Jack Cleveland, a horse dealer who had known Plummer in California.
While at the mission, both Plummer and Cleveland fell in love with Vail's attractive sister-in-law, Electa Bryan; Plummer asked her to marry him and she agreed. As gold had recently been discovered in nearby Bannack, Montana, Plummer decided to go there to try to earn enough money to support them both. Cleveland followed him. In January 1863, Cleveland, nursing his jealousy, forced Plummer into a fight and was killed. The altercation took place in a crowded saloon, and observers agreed that Plummer had killed his foe in self-defense. Plummer was viewed very favorably by most town residents, and in May he was elected sheriff of Bannack.
The Vigilantes
Between October and December 1863, the rate of robberies and murders in and around Alder Gulch increased significantly, and the citizens of Virginia City grew increasingly suspicious of Plummer and his associates. Notable criminal acts by alleged members of the Plummer gang included:
On October 13, 1863, Lloyd Magruder was killed by road agent Chris Lowrie. Magruder was an Idaho merchant leaving Virginia City with $12,000 in gold dust from goods he had sold there. Several of the men he hired to accompany him back to Lewiston, Idaho, were criminals. Four other men in his party were also murdered in camp—Charlie Allen, Robert Chalmers, Horace Chalmers and William Phillips—by Lowrie, Doc Howard, Jem Romaine and William Page.
On October 26, 1863, the Peabody and Caldwell's stage was robbed between the Rattlesnake Ranch and Bannack by two road agents believed to be Frank Parish and George Ives. Bill Bunton, the owner of the Rattlesnake Ranch who joined the stage at the ranch, was also complicit in the robbery. The road agents netted $2,800 in gold from the passengers and threatened them all with death if they talked about the robbery.
On November 13, 1863, a teenaged Henry Tilden was hired by Wilbur Sanders and Sidney Edgerton to locate and corral some horses owned by the two men. Near Horse Prairie, Tilden was confronted by three armed road agents. He was carrying very little money and was allowed to depart unmolested, but was warned that if he talked about whom he had seen, he would be killed. He told Hattie Sanders, Wilbur's wife, and Sidney Edgerton that he had recognized one of the road agents as Sheriff Henry Plummer. Although Tilden's account was dismissed because of general respect for Plummer, suspicion in the region increased that Plummer was the leader of a gang of road agents.
On November 22, 1863, the A.J. Oliver stage was robbed on its way from Virginia City to Bannack by road agents George Ives, "Whiskey Bill" Graves, and Bob Zachary. The robbery netted less than $1,000 in gold and treasury notes. One of the victims, Leroy Southmayd, reported the robbery and identified the road agents to Sheriff Plummer. Members of Plummer's gang confronted Southmayd on his return trip to Virginia City, but Southmayd was cunning enough to avoid injury or death.
In November 1863, Conrad Kohrs traveled to Bannack from Deer Lodge, Montana, with $5,000 in gold dust to buy cattle. After talking with Sheriff Plummer in Bannack, Kohrs worried about the risk of robbery on his return to Deer Lodge. While his group was camped overnight, his associates found road agents George Ives and "Dutch John" Wagner surveying the camp and armed with shotguns. A day or two later, Kohrs was riding on horseback to Deer Lodge when Ives and Wagner gave chase. As Kohrs's horse proved the faster, Kohrs evaded confrontation and reached the safety of Deer Lodge.
In early December 1863, a three-wagon freight outfit organized by Milton S. Moody was going from Virginia City to Salt Lake City. Among the seven passengers was John Bozeman. It was carrying $80,000 in gold dust and $1,500 in treasury notes. While the outfit was camped on Blacktail Deer Creek, Wagner and Steve Marshland entered the camp, armed and ready to rob the pack train. Members of the camp had armed themselves well, and Wagner and Marshland were able to escape by claiming they were just looking for lost horses. Two days later, Wagner and Marshland were both wounded in an unsuccessful attempt to rob the train as it crossed the Continental Divide at Rock Creek.
On December 8, 1863, Anton Holter, who was taking oxen to sell in Virginia City, survived an attempted robbery and murder. When Ives and Aleck Carter, whom Holter recognized, discovered Holter was not carrying any significant wealth, they tried to shoot him. He avoided being shot and escaped into the brush.
At the time Bannack and Virginia City were part of a remote region of the Idaho Territory; there was no formal law enforcement or justice system for the area. Some residents suspected that Plummer's road agent gang was responsible for numerous robberies, attempted robberies, murders and attempted murders in and around Alder Gulch in October–December 1863. From December 19 to 21, 1863, a public trial was held in Virginia City by a miners' court for Ives, the suspected murderer of Nicholas Tiebolt, a young Dutch immigrant. Hundreds of miners from around the area attended the three-day outdoor trial. George Ives was prosecuted by Wilbur F. Sanders, convicted, and hanged on December 21, 1863.
On December 23, 1863, two days after the Ives trial, leading citizens of Virginia City and Bannack formed the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch in Virginia City. They included five Virginia City residents, led by Sanders. Between January 4 and February 3, 1864, the vigilantes arrested and summarily executed at least 20 alleged members of Plummer's gang. Shortly after its formation, the Vigilance Committee dispatched a posse of men to search for Carter, Graves, and Bunton, known associates of Ives. The posse was led by Captain James Williams, the man who had investigated the Tiebolt murder. Near the Rattlesnake Ranch on the Ruby River, the posse located Erastus "Red" Yeager and George Brown, both suspected road agents. While traveling under guard back to Virginia City, Yeager made a complete confession, naming the majority of the road agents in Plummer's gang, and Henry Plummer. The posse found Yeager and Brown guilty and hanged them from a tree on the Lorrain's Ranch on the Ruby River.
On January 6, 1864, vigilante Captain Nick Wall and Ben Peabody captured Wagner on the Salt Lake City trail. The vigilantes transported Wagner to Bannack, where he was hanged on January 11, 1864. By this time, Yeager's confession had mobilized vigilantes against Plummer and his key associates, deputies Buck Stinson and Ned Ray. Plummer, Stinson, and Ray were arrested on the morning of January 10, 1864, and summarily hanged. The two youngest members of the gang were said to be spared. One was sent back to Bannack to tell the rest to get out of the area, and the other was sent ahead to Lewiston to warn gang members to leave that town. (Lewiston was the connection from the territory to the world, as it had river steamboats that traveled to the coast at Astoria, Oregon, via the Snake and Columbia rivers.) Plummer was known to have traveled to Lewiston during the time when he was an elected official in Bannack. The hotel registry records with his signature during this period have been preserved. The large-scale robberies of gold shipments by gangs ended with Plummer's and the alleged gang members' deaths. Gang member Clubfoot George was hanged at about the same time with Plummer.
Posthumous trial
Plummer was given a posthumous trial in 1993 which led to a mistrial. The jury was split 6–6.
In popular culture
Francis M. Thompson's 1914 article in The Massachusetts Magazine (Vol. VI, No. 4 - pages 159-190) describes his relationship with Plummer and presents some of the details of the case, from a personal view of being a mercantile owner in Bannack during that period. In 2004, the Montana Historical Society gathered Thompson's memoirs into a book, A Tenderfoot in Montana.
Ernest Haycox's 1942 historical novel Alder Gulch depicts Plummer as handsome and well-spoken, but a cold and calculating murderer and thief without conscience. He portrays the vigilantes as justified but equally remorseless, as they conducted their lynching executions by slow strangulation hangings.
Henry Plummer appears in a fictional portrayal in the 2013 video game, Call of Juarez: Gunslinger. The game depicts him radically different to his real-life counterpart, as still being alive sometime after 1881, according to the protagonist, and is appropriately depicted as an older man. Though unlike other historical discrepancies mentioned by characters in the game, this is never touched upon.
References
Further reading
Fabel, Dennis W. (1998, 2001). Electa: A Historical Novel. Authorhouse.
External links
A reevaluation of Henry Plummer
May 24, 1863 Henry Plummer is elected sheriff of Bannack, Montana
Google books results
The Paper The Big Sky County and Henry Plummer
1832 births
1864 deaths
1864 murders in the United States
19th-century American criminals
Montana sheriffs
People from Washington County, Maine
People from Beaverhead County, Montana
People from Nevada City, California
People murdered in Montana
Lynching deaths in Montana
Outlaws of the American Old West
Montana articles lacking sources
California Democrats
Murdered criminals
People convicted of murder by California
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons |
13987282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow%20%281996%20film%29 | Rainbow (1996 film) | Rainbow is a 1996 family adventure film directed by Bob Hoskins, written by Ashley Sidaway and Robert Sidaway and starring Bob Hoskins, Terry Finn, Jacob Tierney, Saul Rubinek and Dan Aykroyd. The story concerns four children and a dog whose journey in a magical rainbow results in an adventure that finds them on a race against time to save the world.
Rainbow was the world's first all digital film and was shot in high-definition video. Shot entirely with Sony's first Solid State Electronic Cinematography cameras and featuring over 35 minutes of digital image processing and visual effects, all post production, sound effects, editing and scoring were completed digitally. The Digital High Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative using Sony's Electron Beam Recorder for theatrical release.
Synopsis
Mike "Mikey" Bailey is a rambunctious 10-year-old living in Hudson Harbour, New Jersey with his grandfather Frank, a magician; his single mother Jackie, who works in the newsroom at a local TV station; and his older brother Steve, who is a loner and wishes to join a local gang of teenagers. Mike encounters a stray dog who he names Mutt, who leads him to a spot where he seemingly witnesses a rainbow actually land. He tells his friends Pete and Tessy of his encounter and takes them to the landing site, but they do not believe his claims. At the site they find a triangular crater. Tessy takes a soil sample and tests it, and the soil illuminates in colour and vanishes in her hand. Mike, Pete, and Tessy prepare a project to track down the next rainbow and examine it.
Eventually, a rainbow appears and the three, along with Steve and Mutt, race across town on their bicycles to get to the rainbow. Upon arrival, they witness it land and are sucked into a colourful passageway, taking photographs as they go. They are surrounded by sparkling lights, when turn into pieces of gold when touched. Steve pockets three of the pieces, which causes the rainbow to vanish and drop the group into a cornfield in Kansas. The farmer takes them to the office of sheriff Wyatt Hampton, who calls Jackie at work to make arrangements to send the kids home. The sheriff takes the kids to the airport, where they sneak away to a get their pictures developed and lead the sheriff on a wild chase before boarding their flight. They arrive back in Hudson Harbor, where they are mobbed my reporters who had been tipped off by Jackie's boss. Jackie and Frank come to the children's aid, but everyone except Frank thinks the kids had stowed away on a flight to Kansas are lying about the rainbow. They get in trouble at school and turn the photos they took over to their science teacher, Sam Cohen.
The next day, colour begins to drain from the world, and people begin to either act aggressively towards each other or fall unconscious. Sam realizes that there weren't any flights that could've taken the children to Kansas in time, and after looking at their pictures, discovers their project and finds the crater. Steve sells one of the pieces of gold to a pawnshop, and uses the money to buy a motorcycle and leather jacket, and tries to use another piece to buy his way into the gang, but they gang beat him up and steal the bike, jacket, and gold from him.
The children, Frank, Jackie and Sam all deduce that due to Steve's removal of the gold pieces, the rainbow has been damaged and caused colour to be drained from the world, preventing plants from generating oxygen through photosynthesis. The group split up to retrieve the gold pieces. Mike and Frank break into the pawn shop and retrieve a piece of the gold, barely escaping the violent mobs roaming the streets. Steve, Pete and Sam go to the gang's hideout, which they fill with helium as a distraction so Steve can steal back his stuff. With time almost up before all the oxygen is gone from the world, Mike, Steve and Mutt race on his motorcycle through the violent mobs to the new rainbow's landing site. Mike and Mutt are absorbed by the rainbow, but Mike tosses the gold pieces back into it, causing a rain which restores color to the world. Mike and Mutt ride the rainbow to a tropical rainforest, as the film ends.
Cast
Willy Lavendel as Mike Bailey, the main character who seeks to chase the rainbow.
Jacob Tierney as Steve Bailey, Mike's older brother who wants to join a local street gang.
Jonathan Schuman as Pete, one of Mike's friends.
Eleanor Misrahi as Tissy, Mike's other friend who shows great intelligence.
Bob Hoskins as Frank Bailey, Mike's grandfather who is a skilled magician.
Terry Finn as Jackie Bailey, Mike and Steve's mother.
Saul Rubinek as Sam Cohen, a school science teacher.
Dan Aykroyd as Sheriff Wyatt Hampton, the sheriff of Sativa Falls in Kansas.
Richard Jutras as Deputy Clarence Head, Hampton's silent deputy who spitwads as a running gag.
Production
Principal photography began in Montreal on 21 September 1994, the start of a nine-week shoot that would take the cast and crew through to the end of November. This included two weeks of green screen studio filming.
Clarenceville, a 30-minute drive from Montreal, was the site of the important cornfield scenes (doubling for Kansas), and the opening and closing of the film features aerial footage in New York City and Hawaii. The remainder was shot in Montreal.
Montreal was chosen for the production site due its ideal mix of architecture and weather conditions. "When the script was originally written, the locale was set in Washington D.C." Visual Consultant, 2nd Unit Director and Executive Producer David L. Snyder stated. "When we arrived in Montreal Bob and I made the decision to change the locale to New Jersey and not move the production around, as we had found everything we needed in Quebec. A fictional city located in New Jersey can be fairly nondescript and much less identifiable than Boston, New York City, or Washington for that matter."
Hoskins chose Snyder to establish the appropriate look after their experience working together on Super Mario Bros.
Pre-production commenced at Ealing Studios, London prior to the move to Montreal. The Ealing conferences dealt with script readings and visual concepts, including some preliminary filming of various 'practical' man-made rainbows.
Once in Canada, Snyder met with Production Designer Claude Pare and asked him to turn his concepts into reality, which included design ideas for the Hudson Harbor settings. A primary task involved taking a French-Canadian city and replacing all the French language signage with English language graphics and signage.
For a film that's featured set-piece is a ride through the Rainbow and whose story features the loss of colour to the world, costume designer Janet Campbell's role was especially important.
Each character's look was also designed to reflect his or her individuality. "Steve is one good example," says Campbell. "He's older than the other kids and is a rebel, so the colors I've chosen for him are darker. But toward the end, when his true nature begins to shine through, the colors of his clothing become brighter."
The best example of Campbell's attempts to showcase colour came in the guise of Jack The Prophet, the character which warns about the impending advent of doomsday.
In early October, in the area of Montreal known as the Plateau Mont Royal, the cast and crew spent several days filming both the inside and outside of an authentic American diner. The Galaxie Diner, transformed for the film into Ynez and Charlie's Galaxie Diner, serving Spanish-Chinese food, plays an important part of the film.
About seventy-five extras were needed to portray a mob brandishing baseball bats, overturning cars and generally causing havoc, as the world turns headlong into disaster. Opposing them are 15 members of Montreal's actual SWAT team (many of whom had prior experience working on films) and several mounted policemen.
The eight-strong stunt crew included veteran, five-time world karate champion, Jean Frenette. He performed the motorcycle jump over a car and through the deadly 'Wall of Fire', with a pillion rider seated behind him.
To achieve the floating quality for the interior of the Rainbow, originally the traditional special effects concept of harnesses and wire rigs hanging the actors from the rafters was suggested. However, the film's Visual Effects Supervisor, Steven Robiner, brought in from Sony Pictures in Los Angeles, had a different idea. Robiner said "Aesthetics was my main concern; we wanted to show the kids really floating through the rainbow, and none of these actors were gymnasts so I felt strongly that it would be much easier for them to express this feeling of floating and weightlessness being underwater. It was also going to be much easier in the post production process to composite the children within the rainbow, and not have to worry about hand-painted wire-removal" Robiner's plan was to submerge a green screen inside a diving training pool that had an instructors window, under the water, at the side. Fortunately, a nearby Montreal university, located in Montreal's east end, had exactly the type of pool he was looking for. At first this underwater concept was questioned as being too radically different and untried, however after Robiner pointed out that this would also save the production about 3 days of shooting because more than 70% of the rainbow interior scenes could be all shot at this one single pool location with a locked off camera and lights, the producers agreed.
To help the children adjust to this potentially hostile environment, the producers engaged the services of aquatic consultant Daniel Berthiaume.
Shooting under water lasted for two full days and Berthiaume was in the water for periods of three to five hours at a time.
The last portion of the shoot continued on a large sound stage in Montreal, where the Visual Effects segments involving the kids travelling through the rainbow was to be filmed. The stage's 3-story high walls and floor were all painted with the special green coloured paint necessary for the compositing process. Special mechanical seats, platforms and camera rigs concept designs were made by Steven Robiner and John Galt and then engineered and built by Special Effects Supervisor Antonio Vidosa and his crew. For a shot in which the four kids are to float, spinning in the form a circle with each child holding the hand of the kid on each side of them, with their heads together and feet at the outer edge, then they let go their hands and each spin off and away from the others. Originally it was suggested to do this with the four actors hanging on wires, but Robiner rejected that idea because "hanging four kids on wires just seemed to be a dangerous and time-consuming idea, on top of being difficult for them to perform in..."
To produce a shot in which the kids are supposed to be spinning head over heals while floating in the rainbow, another rig was used that let the actor remain motionless while the camera rotated 720 degrees over his head, behind his back, and then under his feet and up again. The old style HD cameras had umbilical cables for power and signal transmission which needed to be carefully wound around a large spool as the camera rotated.
Royal connection
Autumn Kelly (age 17), later a member of the British royal family by marriage, has a small part as one of the Tigerette gang.
Reception
Philip Kemp's review in Sight & Sound, August 1996, commented that "the story is put across with energy and imagination" and pointed out that the scenes where "colour drains away and society starts tearing itself apart… are genuinely disturbing [with] effective use of transitions between colour and monochrome." Kemp further reflected that the "chief credit for the clarity and richness of the images should go to veteran cinematographer Freddie Francis, whose experience of colour/monochrome effects goes back 40 years to his work with Oswald Morris on John Huston's Moby Dick.”
According to Halliwell's Film Guide, Rainbow was a "Heavy-handed, didactic children's film that strives for a fairy-tale quality, but too frequently falls flat."
References
External links
1996 films
Canadian children's fantasy films
British children's fantasy films
1990s children's fantasy films
Films directed by Bob Hoskins
Films shot in Montreal
1990s English-language films
1990s Canadian films
1990s British films |
192516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk%20%28Islam%29 | Shirk (Islam) | Shirk (; , lit. "association") in Islam is the sin of idolatry or polytheism (i.e., the deification or worship of anyone or anything besides God). Islam teaches that God does not share his divine attributes with anyone. Associating partners with God is disallowed according to the Islamic doctrine of Tawhid (oneness). Mušrikūn (pl. of mušrik ) are those who practice shirk, which literally means "association" and refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God (as God’s "associates"). The Qur'an considers shirk as a sin that will not be forgiven if a person dies without repenting of it.
Etymology
The word širk comes from the Arabic root Š-R-K (), with the general meaning of "to share".
In the context of the Quran, the particular sense of "sharing as an equal partner" is usually understood, so that polytheism means "attributing a partner to Allah". In the Quran, shirk and the related word mušrikūn ()—those who commit shirk and plot against Islam—often refer to the enemies of Islam (as in At-Tawbah verses 9:1–15).
Quran
Worship of anything but God
According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, the Quran states "twice", in surah an-Nisa, verses 48 and 116, "that God can pardon all sins save one", that of shirk ("associationism").
Islamic commentators on the Quran have emphasized that pre-Islamic Arabic idolatry invented a number of deities, most notable the three goddesses Manāt, Al-Lāt and Al-‘Uzzá, equal associates of God (as the Quran discusses in the 53rd surat) and the word mushrikūn (singular: mushrik) is often translated into English as "polytheists".
Entities worshipped besides God are called shuraka.. After Judgement Day, they will be cast into hell along with shayatin (satans) and evil jinn, to whom the pagans are also said to sacrifice in order to gain protection.
Obey or heed people rather than God
Another form of shirk mentioned in the Quran At-Tawbah is to take rabbis, monks, prophets, priests, theologians, scholars of religion, religious lawyers, or shayatin as Lord(s) in practice by following their doctrines, and/or by following their rulings on what is lawful when it is at variance to the law or doctrines prescribed by God's revelation:
Theological interpretation
Medieval Muslim and Jewish philosophers identified belief in the Trinity with the heresy of shirk in Arabic (shituf in Hebrew), meaning "associationism", in limiting the infinity of God by associating his divinity with physical existence.
In a theological context, one commits shirk by associating some lesser being with Allah. The sin is committed if one imagines that there is a partner with Allah whom it is suitable to worship. It is stated in the Quran: "Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him, but He forgives anything else, to whom He pleases, to set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin most heinous indeed" (Quran An-Nisa 4:48).
Some followers of a Sufistic interpretation of Islam tend to regard the belief in any power other than God as a type of polytheism (shirk). That includes false gods but also the belief in other sources of existence. Beliefs usually accepted by monotheism, such as a devil as a source of evil or free will as source for God's creation's own responsibilities, are equated with beliefs in other powers than God and therefore denounced.
Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with kufr for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and he singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity. The Quranic verse Al-Ma'idah 5:73 ("Certainly they disbelieve [kafara] who say: God is the third of three"), among other verses, has been traditionally understood in Islam as rejection of the Christian Trinity doctrine, but modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations. Other Quranic verses strongly deny the deity of Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers, who will be doomed to eternal punishment in Hell. The Quran also does not recognise the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself but respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God, who was sent to children of Israel. Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Qur'anic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus (Al-Ma'idah 5:19, 5:75-76, 5:119) as non-Christian formulas, which were rejected by the Church.
Cyril Glasse criticises the use of kafirun [pl. of kafir] to describe Christians as a "loose usage". According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, traditional Islamic jurisprudence has ahl al-kitab being "usually regarded more leniently than other kuffar [pl. of kafir]," and "in theory," a Muslim commits a punishable offense if he says to a Jew or a Christian, "Thou unbeliever."
Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as dhimmi, and those who were visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as musta'min.
Greater and lesser shirk
The term shirk is used in two senses: to mean both polytheism and something that is not polytheism but a certain form of sin. Shirk has been classified into two categories according to Islam:
Greater shirk (Shirk-al-Akbar): open and apparent
Lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar): concealed or hidden
Greater shirk
Greater shirk or Shirk-al-Akbar means open polytheism and has been described in two forms:
To associate anyone with Allah as his partner (to believe in more than one god)
To associate Allah's attributes with someone else (to believe anything or anyone other than God has divine attributes)
Ibn Taymiyyh and Salafis
Other interpretations divide greater shirk into three main categories. According to Salafis Shirk can be committed by acting against the three different categories. Ibn Taymiyyah seems to have been the first to introduce this distinction.
Rubūbīyah (Lordship)
This category of shirk refers to either the belief that others share Allah's lordship over creation as his equal or near equal or to the belief that there is no lord over creation at all.
Shirk by association: the shirk concerned with associating "others" with Allah
Shirk by negation: shirk in rubūbīyah (lordship)
Al-Asma wa's-Sifat (names and attributes)
This category of shirk includes both the non-believer practices of giving Allah the attributes of his creation and the act of giving Allah's names and attributes to created beings.
Shirk by humanization: in this aspect of shirk, Allah is given the form and qualities of human beings and animals. Man's superiority over animals causes the human form to be more commonly used by idolaters to represent Allah in creation. Consequently, the image of the creator is often painted, molded, or carved in the shape of human beings possessing the physical features of those who worship them.
Shirk by deification: this form of shirk relates to cases of created beings or things being given or claiming Allah's names or his attributes. For example, the ancient Arabs had the practice of worshiping idols whose names were derived from the names of Allah. The three main deities were Al-lāt (taken from Allah's name al-Elah), al-'Uzza (taken from al-'Aziz), and al-Manat (taken from al-Mannan). During the era of Muhammad, there was also a man in a region of Arabia called Yamamah, who claimed to be a prophet and took the name Rahman, which in Islam belongs only to Allah.
Al-'Ibadah (worship)
In this category of shirk, acts of worship are directed to others besides Allah, and the reward for worship is sought from the creation, instead of the creator. As in the case of the previous categories, shirk in al-'Ibadah has two main aspects.
This form of shirk occurs when any act of worship is directed to someone else besides Allah. It represents the most obvious form of idolatry against which the prophets were specifically sent by Allah and called the masses of mankind to give it up. Examples of this shirk are asking for forgiveness and admittance to paradise, which only Allah can provide, from others besides Allah.
Lesser shirk
Lesser shirk, or Shirke-e-Asghar. A person commits it by professing tawhid (there is no god except Allah) but having thoughts and actions that do not reflect that belief:
Mahmud ibn Lubayd reported,
Mahmud ibn Lubayd also said,
Umar ibn al-Khattab narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: "Whoever swears by other than Allah has committed an act of kufr or shirk." (graded hasan by Al-Tirmidhi and saheeh by Al-Hakim)
According to Ibn Mas’ood, one of Muhammad's companions said: "That I should swear by Allah upon a lie is more preferable to me than that I should swear by another upon the truth."
See also
Black Stone
Haram
Henotheism
Islam and blasphemy
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic view of the Trinity
Islamic views on Jesus' death
Paganism
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Shahada (confession)
Taghut (idol)
Notes
References
External links
Shirk in legislation
Islamic terminology
Islamic theology
Polytheism
Sin
Idolatry |
9383123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20vulnerability | Social vulnerability | In its broadest sense, social vulnerability is one dimension of vulnerability to multiple stressors and shocks, including abuse, social exclusion and natural hazards. Social vulnerability refers to the inability of people, organizations, and societies to withstand adverse impacts from multiple stressors to which they are exposed. These impacts are due in part to characteristics inherent in social interactions, institutions, and systems of cultural values.
Because it is most apparent when calamity occurs, many studies of social vulnerability are found in risk management literature.
Definitions
"Vulnerability" derives from the Latin word vulnerare (to wound) and describes the potential to be harmed physically and/or psychologically. Vulnerability is often understood as the counterpart of resilience, and is increasingly studied in linked social-ecological systems. The Yogyakarta Principles, one of the international human rights instruments use the term "vulnerability" as such potential to abuse or social exclusion.
The concept of social vulnerability emerged most recently within the discourse on natural hazards and disasters. To date no one definition has been agreed upon. Similarly, multiple theories of social vulnerability exist. Most work conducted so far focuses on empirical observation and conceptual models. Thus, current social vulnerability research is a middle range theory and represents an attempt to understand the social conditions that transform a natural hazard (e.g. flood, earthquake, mass movements etc.) into a social disaster. The concept emphasizes two central themes:
Both the causes and the phenomenon of disasters are defined by social processes and structures. Thus, it is not only a geo- or biophysical hazard, but rather the social context that needs to be considered to understand "natural" disasters.
Although different groups of a society may share a similar exposure to a natural hazard, the hazard has varying consequences for these groups, since they have diverging capacities and abilities to handle the impact of a hazard.
Taking a structuralist view, Hewitt defines vulnerability as being: ...essentially about the human ecology of endangerment...and is embedded in the social geography of settlements and lands uses, and the space of distribution of influence in communities and political organisation.
This contrasts with the more socially focused view of Blaikie et al. who define vulnerability as the:...set of characteristics of a group or individual in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard. It involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to which someone's life and livelihood is at risk by a discrete and identifiable event in nature or society.
History of the concept
In the 1970s the concept of vulnerability was introduced within the discourse on natural hazards and disaster by O'Keefe, Westgate, and Wisner. In "taking the naturalness out of natural disasters" these authors insisted that socio-economic conditions are the causes for natural disasters. The work illustrated by means of empirical data that the occurrence of disasters increased over the last 50 years, paralleled by an increasing loss of life. The work also showed that the greatest losses of life concentrate in underdeveloped countries, where the authors concluded that vulnerability is increasing.
Chambers put these empirical findings on a conceptual level and argued that vulnerability has an external and internal side: People are exposed to specific natural and social risk. At the same time people possess different capacities to deal with their exposure by means of various strategies of action (Chambers 1989). This argument was again refined by Blaikie, Cannon, Davis, and Wisner, who went on to develop the Pressure and Release Model (PAR) (see below). Watts and Bohle argued similarly by formalizing the "social space of vulnerability", which is constituted by exposure, capacity and potentiality (Watts and Bohle 1993).
Susan Cutter developed an integrative approach (hazard of place), which tries to consider both multiple geo- and biophysical hazards on the one hand as well as social vulnerabilities on the other hand. Recently, Oliver-Smith grasped the nature-culture dichotomy by focusing both on the cultural construction of the people-environment-relationship and on the material production of conditions that define the social vulnerability of people (Oliver-Smith and Hoffman 2002).
Research on social vulnerability to date has stemmed from a variety of fields in the natural and social sciences. Each field has defined the concept differently, manifest in a host of definitions and approaches (Blaikie, Cannon et al. 1994; Henninger 1998; Frankenberger, Drinkwater et al. 2000; Alwang, Siegel et al. 2001; Oliver-Smith 2003; Cannon, Twigg et al. 2005). Yet some common threads run through most of the available work.
Within society
Although considerable research attention has examined components of biophysical vulnerability and the vulnerability of the built environment
(Mileti, 1999), we currently know the least about the social aspects of vulnerability (Cutter et al., 2003). Socially created vulnerabilities are largely ignored, mainly due to the difficulty in quantifying them.
Social vulnerability is created through the interaction of social forces and multiple stressors, and it is resolved through social (as opposed to individual) means. While individuals within a socially vulnerable context may break through the "vicious cycle", social vulnerability itself can persist because of structural (i.e., social and political) influences that reinforce vulnerability. Social vulnerability is partially the product of social inequalities—those social factors that influence or shape the susceptibility of various groups to harm and that also govern their ability to respond (Cutter et al., 2003). It is, however, important to note that social vulnerability is not registered by exposure to hazards alone but also resides in the sensitivity and resilience of the system to prepare, cope, and recover from such hazards (Turner et al., 2003). However, it is also important to note, that a focus limited to the stresses associated with a particular vulnerability analysis is also insufficient for understanding the impact on and responses of the affected system or its components (Mileti, 1999; Kaperson et al., 2003; White & Haas, 1974). These issues are often underlined in attempts to model the concept (see Models of Social Vulnerability).
Models
Two of the principal archetypal reduced-form models of social vulnerability are presented, which have informed vulnerability analysis: the Risk-Hazard (RH) model and the Pressure and Release model.
Risk-Hazard (RH) Model
Initial RH models sought to understand the impact of a hazard as a function of exposure to the hazardous event and the sensitivity of the entity exposed (Turner et al., 2003). Applications of this model in environmental and climate impact assessments generally emphasised exposure and sensitivity to perturbations and stressors (Kates, 1985; Burton et al., 1978) and worked from the hazard to the impacts (Turner et al., 2003). However, several inadequacies became apparent. Principally, it does not treat the ways in which the systems in question amplify or attenuate the impacts of the hazard (Martine & Guzman, 2002). Neither does the model address the distinction among exposed subsystems and components that lead to significant variations in the consequences of the hazards, or the role of political economy in shaping differential exposure and consequences (Blaikie et al., 1994, Hewitt, 1997). This led to the development of the PAR model.
Pressure and Release (PAR) Model
The PAR model understands a disaster as the intersection between socio-economic pressure and physical exposure. Risk is explicitly defined as a function of the perturbation, stressor, or stress and the vulnerability of the exposed unit (Blaikie et al, 1994). In this way, it directs attention to the conditions that make exposure unsafe, leading to vulnerability and to the causes creating these conditions. Used primarily to address social groups facing disaster events, the model emphasises distinctions in vulnerability by different exposure units such as social class and ethnicity. The model distinguishes between three components on the social side: root causes, dynamic pressures and unsafe conditions, and one component on the natural side, the natural hazards itself. Principal root causes include "economic, demographic and political processes", which affect the allocation and distribution of resources between different groups of people. Dynamic Pressures translate economic and political processes in local circumstances (e.g. migration patterns). Unsafe conditions are the specific forms in which vulnerability is expressed in time and space, such as those induced by the physical environment, local economy or social relations (Blaikie, Cannon et al. 1994).
Although explicitly highlighting vulnerability, the PAR model appears insufficiently comprehensive for the broader concerns of sustainability science (Turner et al., 2003). Primarily, it does not address the coupled human environment system in the sense of considering the vulnerability of biophysical subsystems (Kasperson et al, 2003) and it provides little detail on the structure of the hazard's causal sequence. The model also tends to underplay feedback beyond the system of analysis that the integrative RH models included (Kates, 1985).
Criticism
Some authors criticise the conceptualisation of social vulnerability for overemphasising the social, political and economical processes and structures that lead to vulnerable conditions. Inherent in such a view is the tendency to understand people as passive victims (Hewitt 1997) and to neglect the subjective and intersubjective interpretation and perception of disastrous events. Bankoff criticises the very basis of the concept, since in his view it is shaped by a knowledge system that was developed and formed within the academic environment of western countries and therefore inevitably represents values and principles of that culture. According to Bankoff the ultimate aim underlying this concept is to depict large parts of the world as dangerous and hostile to provide further justification for interference and intervention (Bankoff 2003).
Current and future research
Social vulnerability research has become a deeply interdisciplinary science, rooted in the modern realization that humans are the causal agents of disasters – i.e., disasters are never natural, but a consequence of human behavior. The desire to understand geographic, historic, and socio-economic characteristics of social vulnerability motivates much of the research being conducted around the world today.
Two principal goals are currently driving the field of social vulnerability research:
The design of models which explain vulnerability and the root causes which create it, and
The development of indicators and indexes which attempt to map vulnerability over time and space (Villágran de León 2006).
The temporal and spatial aspects of vulnerability science are pervasive, particularly in research that attempts to demonstrate the impact of development on social vulnerability. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are increasingly being used to map vulnerability, and to better understand how various phenomena (hydrological, meteorological, geophysical, social, political and economic) effect human populations.
Researchers have yet to develop reliable models capable of predicting future outcomes based upon existing theories and data. Designing and testing the validity of such models, particularly at the sub-national scale at which vulnerability reduction takes place, is expected to become a major component of social vulnerability research in the future.
An even greater aspiration in social vulnerability research is the search for one, broadly applicable theory, which can be applied systematically at a variety of scales, all over the world. Climate change scientists, building engineers, public health specialists, and many other related professions have already achieved major strides in reaching common approaches. Some social vulnerability scientists argue that it is time for them to do the same, and they are creating a variety of new forums in order to seek a consensus on common frameworks, standards, tools, and research priorities. Many academic, policy, and public/NGO organizations promote a globally applicable approach in social vulnerability science and policy (see section 5 for links to some of these institutions).
Disasters often expose pre-existing societal inequalities that lead to disproportionate loss of property, injury, and death (Wisner, Blaikie, Cannon, & Davis, 2004). Some disaster researchers argue that particular groups of people are placed disproportionately at-risk to hazards. Minorities, immigrants, women, children, the poor, as well as people with disabilities are among those have been identified as particularly vulnerable to the impacts of disaster (Cutter et al., 2003; Peek, 2008; Stough, Sharp, Decker & Wilker, 2010).
Since 2005, the Spanish Red Cross has developed a set of indicators to measure the multi-dimensional aspects of social vulnerability. These indicators are generated through the statistical analysis of more than 500 thousand people who are suffering from economic strain and social vulnerability and have a personal record containing 220 variables at the Red Cross database. An Index on Social Vulnerability in Spain is produced annually, both for adults and for children.
Researchers have noted that social vulnerability may be shaped by communication-related factors. People may become more vulnerable if they have trouble accessing, processing, or reacting upon information about risks and hazards.
Collective vulnerability
Collective vulnerability is a state in which the integrity and social fabric of a community is or was threatened through traumatic events or repeated collective violence. In addition, according to the collective vulnerability hypothesis, shared experience of vulnerability and the loss of shared normative references can lead to collective reactions aimed to reestablish the lost norms and trigger forms of collective resilience.
This theory has been developed by social psychologists to study the support for human rights. It is rooted in the consideration that devastating collective events are sometimes followed by claims for measures that may prevent that similar event will happen again. For instance, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was a direct consequence of World War II horrors. Psychological research by Willem Doise and colleagues shows indeed that after people have experienced a collective injustice, they are more likely to support the reinforcement of human rights. Populations who collectively endured systematic human rights violations are more critical of national authorities and less tolerant of rights violations. Some analyses performed by Dario Spini, Guy Elcheroth and Rachel Fasel on the Red Cross' "People on War" survey shows that when individuals have direct experience with the armed conflict are less keen to support humanitarian norms. However, in countries in which most of the social groups in conflict share a similar level of victimization, people express more the need for reestablishing protective social norms as the human rights, no matter the magnitude of the conflict.
Research opportunities and challenges
Research on social vulnerability is expanding rapidly to fill the research and action gaps in this field. This work can be characterized in three major groupings, including research, public awareness, and policy. The following issues have been identified as requiring further attention to understand and reduce social vulnerability (Warner and Loster 2006):
Research
1. Foster a common understanding of social vulnerability – its definition(s), theories, and measurement approaches.
2. Aim for science that produces tangible and applied outcomes.
3. Advance tools and methodologies to reliably measure social vulnerability.
Public awareness
4. Strive for better understanding of nonlinear relationships and interacting systems (environment, social and economic, hazards), and present this understanding coherently to maximize public understanding.
5. Disseminate and present results in a coherent manner for the use of lay audiences. Develop straight forward information and practical education tools.
6. Recognize the potential of the media as a bridging device between science and society.
Policy
7. Involve local communities and stakeholders considered in vulnerability studies.
8. Strengthen people's ability to help themselves, including an (audible) voice in resource allocation decisions.
9. Create partnerships that allow stakeholders from local, national, and international levels to contribute their knowledge.
10. Generate individual and local trust and ownership of vulnerability reduction efforts.
Debate and ongoing discussion surround the causes and possible solutions to social vulnerability. In cooperation with scientists and policy experts worldwide, momentum is gathering around practice-oriented research on social vulnerability. In the future, links will be strengthened between ongoing policy and academic work to solidify the science, consolidate the research agenda, and fill knowledge gaps about causes of and solutions for social vulnerability.
See also
Disadvantaged
Vulnerability index
Vulnerability assessment
References
Notes
Sources
Bankoff, G. (2003). Cultures of Disaster: Society and natural hazards in the Philippines. London, RoutledgeCurzon.
Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis & B. Wisner. (1994). At Risk: Natural hazards, People's vulnerability, and disasters. London, Routledge.
Cannon, T., J. Twigg, et al. (2005). Social Vulnerability, Sustainable Livelihoods and Disasters, Report to DFID Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance Department (CHAD) and Sustainable Livelihoods Support Office. London, DFID: 63.
Chambers, R. (1989). "Editorial Introduction: Vulnerability, Coping and Policy." IDS Bulletin 20(2): 7.
Chavez-Alvarado, R.; Sanchez-Gonzalez, D. (2016). "Vulnerable aging in flooded households and adaptation to climate change in cities in Latin America: the case of Monterrey", Papeles de Poblacion 22(90), 9-42.
Frankenberger, T. R., M. Drinkwater, et al. (2000). Operationalizing household livelihood security: a holistic approach for addressing poverty and vulnerability. Forum on Operationalising Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches. Pontignano (Siena), FAO.
Henninger, N. (1998). Mapping and Geographic Analysis of Human Welfare and Poverty: Review and Assessment. Washington DC, World Resources Institute.
Hewitt, K., Ed. (1983). Interpretation of Calamity: From the Viewpoint of Human Ecology. Boston, Allen.
Hewitt, K. (1997). Regions of Risk: A Geographical Introduction to Disasters. Essex, Longman.
Oliver-Smith, A. and S. M. Hoffman (2002). Theorizing Disasters: Nature, Power and Culture. Theorizing Disasters: Nature, Power and Culture (Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster). A. Oliver-Smith. Santa Fe, School of American Research Press.
Villágran de León, J. C. (2006). "Vulnerability Assessment in the Context of Disaster-Risk, a Conceptual and Methodological Review."
Warner, K. and T. Loster (2006). A research and action agenda for social vulnerability. Bonn, United Nations University Institute of Environment and Human Security.
Wisner, B, Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, Davis, I. (2004). At Risk: Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. 2nd edition, London, Routledge.
Further reading
Overview
Adger, W. Neil. 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 16 (3):268–281.
Cutter, Susan L., Bryan J. Boruff, and W. Lynn Shirley. 2003. Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social Science Quarterly 84 (2):242–261.
Gallopín, Gilberto C. 2006. Linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity. Global Environmental Change 16 (3):293–303.
Oliver-Smith, Anthony. 2004. Theorizing vulnerability in a globalized world: a political ecological perspective. In Mapping vulnerability: disasters, development & people, edited by G. Bankoff, G. Frerks and D. Hilhorst. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 10–24.
Natural hazards paradigm
Burton, Ian, Robert W. Kates, and Gilbert F. White. 1993. The environment as hazard. 2nd ed. New York: Guildford Press.
Kates, Robert W. 1971. Natural hazard in human ecological perspectives: hypotheses and models. Economic Geography 47 (3):438–451.
Mitchell, James K. 2001. What's in a name?: issues of terminology and language in hazards research (Editorial). Environmental Hazards 2:87–88.
Political-ecological tradition
Blaikie, Piers, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis and Ben Wisner. 1994. At risk: natural hazards, people's vulnerability, and disasters. ist ed. London: Routledge. (see below under Wisner for 2nd edition)
Bohle, H. G., T. E. Downing, and M. J. Watts. 1994. Climate change and social vulnerability: the sociology and geography of food insecurity. Global Environmental Change 4:37–48.
Langridge, R.; J. Christian-Smith; and K.A. Lohse. "Access and Resilience: Analyzing the Construction of Social Resilience to the Threat of Water Scarcity" Ecology and Society 11(2): insight section.
O'Brien, P., and Robin Leichenko. 2000. Double exposure: assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of economic globalization. Global Environmental Change 10 (3):221–232.
Quarantelli, E. L. 1989. Conceptualizing disasters from a sociological perspective. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 7 (3):243–251.
Sarewitz, Daniel, Roger Pielke, Jr., and Mojdeh Keykhah. 2003. Vulnerability and risk: some thoughts from a political and policy perspective. Risk Analysis 23 (4):805–810.
Tierney, Kathleen J. 1999. Toward a critical sociology of risk. Sociological Forum 14 (2):215–242.
Wisner, B., Blaikie, Piers, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis. 2004. At risk: natural hazards, people's vulnerability, and disasters. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Human-ecological tradition
Brooks, Nick, W. Neil Adger, and P. Mick Kelly. 2005. The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the national level and the implications for adaptation. Global Environmental Change 15 (2):151–163.
Comfort, L., Ben Wisner, Susan L. Cutter, R. Pulwarty, Kenneth Hewitt, Anthony Oliver-Smith, J. Wiener, M. Fordham, W. Peacock, and F. Krimgold. 1999. Reframing disaster policy: the global evolution of vulnerable communities. Environmental Hazards 1 (1):39–44.
Cutter, Susan L. 1996. Vulnerability to environmental hazards. Progress in Human Geography 20 (4):529–539.
Dow, Kirsten. 1992. Exploring differences in our common future(s): the meaning of vulnerability to global environmental change. Geoforum 23:417–436.
Liverman, Diana. 1990. Vulnerability to global environmental change. In Understanding global environmental change: the contributions of risk analysis and management, edited by R. E. Kasperson, K. Dow, D. Golding and J. X. Kasperson. Worcester, MA: Clark University, 27–44.
Peek, L., & Stough, L. M. (2010). Children with disabilities in the context of disaster: A social vulnerability perspective. Child Development, 81(4), 1260–1270.
Research Needs
Cutter, Susan L. 2001. A research agenda for vulnerability science and environmental hazards [Internet]. International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change [cited August 18, 2006]. Available from https://web.archive.org/web/20070213050141/http://www.ihdp.uni-bonn.de/html/publications/publications.html.
External links
Social Vulnerability in Spain (applied research based on a set of indicators which cover the muldimensional aspects of social vulnerability, by means of a database specifically designed by the Spanish Red Cross- information in Spanish, executive summaries available also in English language)
Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center, Texas A&M University
Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute, University of South Carolina
Livelihoods and Institutions Group, Natural Resources Institute
Munich Re Foundation
National University of Colombia, Working Group on Disaster Management
Radical Interpretations of Disaster (RADIX)
Social protection, International Labour Organization
Social protection, World Bank
Nations University’s Institute for Environment & Human Security
Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences
Vulnerability Net
Centers For Disease Control and Prevention - Social Vulnerability Index: Ranking all U.S tracts using 15 Census and American Community Survey indicators
Dídac Sánchez Foundation
Vulnerability
Sociological terminology |
21989868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%20in%20Norway | 1957 in Norway | Events in the year 1957 in Norway.
Incumbents
Monarch – Haakon VII (until September 21), then Olav V
Regent – Olav (until September 21)
Prime Minister – Einar Gerhardsen (Labour Party)
Events
16 March – The Kongsberg Silver Mines closes.
21 March – The Soviet Union threatened to use nuclear weapons if foreign military bases were established in Norway.
21 September – King Haakon VII dies
7 October – The 1957 Parliamentary election takes place.
16 December – During a NATO meeting in Paris, Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen declares that Norway will not allow nuclear weapons or foreign bases on Norwegian soil.
Popular culture
Sports
Music
Film
Literature
Fuglane, novel by Tarjei Vesaas
Notable births
January
2 January – Haldis Lenes, competitive rower.
5 January –
Torbjørn Andersen, politician
Rolf Gramstad, speedway rider
8 January – Christian Eggen, composer, pianist and conductor.
11 January – Håvard Moen, footballer
30 January – Inger Lise Husøy, trade unionist and politician
February
4 February – Anne Krigsvoll, actress.
6 February – Sven Nordin, actor
7 February – Knut Jøran Helmers, chess player
10 February – Hallvard Flatland, television presenter
11 February – Oddmund Finnseth, jazz musician
13 February – Inger Marie Gundersen, jazz vocalist
14 February – Terje Totland, high jumper
March
1 March –
Grete Brochmann, sociologist
Olav Njølstad, historian.
3 March – Liv Bernhoft Osa, actress.
5 March – Per Roar Bredvold, politician
11 March – Per Barth Lilje, astronomer
15 March – Roger Albertsen, footballer (died 2003).
17 March – Mari Maurstad, actress.
19 March – Øystein Sevåg, musician
26 March – Randi Langøigjelten, middle-distance runner
28 March – Rune Ulvestad, footballer
29 March – Anne Grete Hollup, writer.
April
3 April – Anne Krafft, visual artist
6 April – Terje Mikkelsen, conductor
9 April – Geir Borgan Paulsen, weightlifter
11 April – Bjørn Tronstad, footballer
12 April – Hallvar Thoresen, footballer.
14 April – Rolf Åge Berg, ski jumper
15 April – Thor Egil Olsen, coxswain
20 April –
Kristin Clemet, politician and Minister.
Dag Vidar Kristoffersen, footballer
22 April – Lene Jenssen, competitive swimmer.
23 April –
Jarl Goli, actor, painter and television personality
Hege Peikli, cross-country skier.
May
4 May – Jarle Halsnes, alpine skier.
5 May –
Gene Dalby, poet
Siri Hatlen, businesswoman
11 May –
Niels Fredrik Dahl, novelist, poet and playwright.
Synnøve Solbakken, politician
17 May –
Lillian Hansen, politician
Arne Nygaard, organizational theorist
22 May –
Anne Grete Preus, singer (died 2019)
Hege Schøyen, singer, actor and comedian
23 May – Lars Sponheim, politician
26 May – Ingebjørg Godskesen, politician
27 May – Dag Terje Andersen, politician
31 May – Ole Christian Bach, con artist (died 2005)
June
13 June – Anne Berit Eid, orienteering competitor.
19 June – Eirik Ildahl, comics writer, scriptwriter, playwright and novelist
21 June – Kjell Søbak, biathlete
22 June – Atle Torbjørn Karlsvik, naval officer
25 June – Eddie Kalleklev, sprint canoer
26 June – Astrid Tveit, high jumper
28 June – Dag Mejdell, businessman.
29 June – Jon Ewo, writer.
July
1 July – Pål Sandli, rower
2 July – Jan Otto Myrseth, prelate
5 July –
Trond H. Diseth, child psychiatrist
Tom Levorstad, ski jumper
10 July – Iselin Alme, singer and actress
12 July – Fredrik Carl Størmer, jazz drummer and entrepreneur
16 July – Atle Teigland, trade unionist
17 July – Njål Vindenes, musician
23 July – Olav Hansson, ski jumper
25 July – Tor Helness, bridge player
26 July – Nils Tore Føreland, politician
27 July –
Kurt Oddekalv, environmentalist (died 2021).
Jørn Hoel, composer, guitarist and singer.
Ellen Schlichting, gastroenterological surgeon
29 July – Otto Ulseth, footballer and journalist
30 July – Eirik Jensen, former policeman
August
4 August – Øystein Langholm Hansen, trade unionist and politician
6 August – Tor Brostigen, politician
8 August – Bente A. Landsnes, business executive
10 August – Elin Rodum Agdestein, politician.
12 August – Ellen Marie Vars, writer.
16 August – Terje Kojedal, footballer
17 August – Dag Henrik Sandbakken, politician
20 August – Hans Sverre Sjøvold, police chief and civil servant.
30 August – Anne Lise Ådnøy, prelate
September
4 September – Sylvelin Vatle, writer.
7 September – Rolf Wallin, musician
12 September –
Jan Egeland, diplomat, political scientist, humanitarian leader and politician
Arvid Libak, politician
22 September – John G. Bernander, politician and media executive
23 September – Sigurd Thinn, ice hockey player.
25 September – Morten Qvale, photographer
27 September – Tone Hulbækmo, musician
28 September –
Torry Pedersen, newspaper editor.
Ernst-Wiggo Sandbakk, jazz musician
October
1 October – Arne Brimi, chef.
4 October – Yngve Moe, musician (died 2013)
7 October – Finn Øglænd, writer
8 October – Claudia Scott, singer
12 October – Trond Helge Torsvik, geophysicist
13 October – Øivind Løsåmoen, ice hockey player.
14 October – Morten Aasen, equestrian
18 October – Erik Loe, sports official
22 October –
Else Berit Eikeland, diplomat.
Hilde Indreberg, judge
November
1 November – Anne Grethe Jeppesen, sport shooter.
2 November – Erling Havnå, kickboxer and convicted criminal
5 November – Anette Bøe, cross-country skier.
15 November – Jon Grunde Vegard, diver.
16 November – Kirsten Borgen, sport wrestler.
30 November – Morten Brekke, sport wrestler
December
2 December – Dagfinn Høybråten, politician
3 December – Anne B. Ragde, writer.
6 December –
Eva Vinje Aurdal, politician
Lars Egeland, librarian and politician
14 December –
Steinar Aspli, politician
Runar Tafjord, musician
21 December Olaug Svarva, economist.
23 December –
Kjell Lars Berge, linguist
Svein Richard Brandtzæg, chemist and business executive
30 December – Stein Versto, poet, novelist, translator and folk musician.
Full date missing
Åsmund Asdal, biologist and agronomist
Annika Biørnstad, media executive.
Leonard Borgzinner, essayist, political philosopher, science fiction author, illustrator and fanzine editor (died 1990)
Henrik Bull, judge
Freddy Fjellheim, author
John Grue, applied mathematician
Tine Jensen, psychologist
Jan Knudsen, crime fiction writer
Siri Røine, civil servant
Tom Stalsberg, journalist
Marit Elisebet Totland, politician
Notable deaths
28 January – Harry Lundeberg, merchant seaman and labour leader in America (born 1901)
29 January – Mimi Falsen, painter (born 1861)
17 February – Wilhelm Preus Sommerfeldt, bibliographer and librarian (born 1881)
24 February – John A. Schefte, newspaper editor and politician (born 1872)
6 March – Hans Jacob Nilsen, actor, theatre director and film director (born 1897)
9 March – Otto Delphin Amundsen, genealogist (born 1896)
15 March – Just Knud Qvigstad, philologist, linguist, ethnographer, historian and cultural historian (born 1853)
29 March – Laurits Grønland, politician (born 1887)
5 April – Arne Leonhard Nilsen, politician (born 1893)
22 April – Mikkjel Hemmestveit, Nordic skier (born 1863)
3 May – Kristian Schreiner, professor of medicine (born 1874)
5 May – Olaf Løhre, politician (born 1877).
24 May – Rasmus Pettersen, gymnast and Olympic gold medallist (born 1877)
22 June – Anders Beggerud, civil servant during the Nazi regime (born 1894)
12 July – James Maroni, theologian and priest, Bishop of the Diocese of Agder (born 1873)
27 July – Eivind Blehr, government minister in the NS government during the German occupation of Norway (born 1881)
29 July – Arnold Carl Johansen, politician (born 1898)
2 August – Carsten Tank-Nielsen, naval officer (born 1877)
5 August – Tilla Valstad, teacher, novelist and journalist (born 1871)
13 August – Carl Størmer, mathematician and physicist (born 1874)
19 August – Hans Prydz, physician and politician (born 1868)
21 August –
Henrik Østervold, sailor and Olympic gold medallist (born 1878).
Harald Sverdrup, oceanographer and meteorologist (born 1888)
7 September – Bjørn Helland-Hansen, oceanographer (born 1877)
10 September – Hallvard Devold, Arctic explorer, trapper and meteorologist (born 1898)
20 September – Edvard Bræin, organist, composer, and orchestra conductor (born 1887)
21 September –
Olaf Bjerke, trade unionist and politician (born 1893)
Haakon VII of Norway, King of Norway (born 1872)
27 September – Nicolai Rygg, economist (born 1872)
28 September – Arnt J. Mørland, ship-owner, resistance member, and politician (born 1888)
24 October –
Andreas Claussen, barrister, civil servant and politician (born 1883)
Hans Endrerud, footballer (born 1885)
26 October – Sverre Krogh, actuary, newspaper editor and politician (born 1883)
29 October – Roar Tank, educator and local historian (born 1880)
1 November – Olav Kjetilson Nylund, politician (born 1903)
17 November – Harald Herlofson, rower (born 1887)
19 November – Christian Leden, ethno-musicologist and composer (born 1882)
23 November – Andreas Fleischer, theologian, missionary to China, and Lutheran Bishop (born 1878)
1 December – Magnus Vigrestad, sculptor (born 1887)
2 December – Tellef Wagle, competitive sailor (born 1883)
4 December – Magnus Falkberget, actor and artistic director (born 1900)
13 December – Erling Bühring-Dehli, newspaper editor and politician (born 1887)
14 December – Audun Rusten, swimmer (born 1894)
18 December – Thomas Refsum, sport shooter (born 1878)
20 December – Carl Keilhau, journalist and poet (born 1919)
25 December – Yngvar Fredriksen, gymnast (born 1887)
Full date missing
Anders Beer, businessman (born 1875)
Gustav Berg-Jæger, journalist and Nazi collaborator (born 1884)
Erling Eriksen, film director, screenwriter, and film producer (born 1878)
Andreas Fredrik Falkenberg, engineer, businessperson and politician (born 1875)
Hartvig Johannson, businessman (born 1875)
Arne Juland, educator (born 1877)
Carl Rustad, military officer and businessman (born 1881)
Halvor Saamundsen, politician (born 1877)
Johannes Henrik Schiøtz, military officer and historian (born 1884)
See also
References
External links |
10469491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955%20State%20of%20Vietnam%20referendum | 1955 State of Vietnam referendum | The 1955 State of Vietnam referendum determined the future form of government of the State of Vietnam, the nation that was to become the Republic of Vietnam (widely known as South Vietnam). It was contested by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm, who proposed a republic, and former emperor Bảo Đại, who had abdicated in 1945 and at the time of the referendum held the title of head of state.
Although published counts showed Diệm winning the election with 98.9% of the vote, the referendum was widely marred by electoral fraud. In the capital, Saigon, Diệm was credited with more than 600,000 votes, although only 450,000 people were on the electoral roll, while Diệm was also credited with receiving over 90% of registered voters in rural regions where opposition groups had prevented voting.
The referendum was the last phase in the power struggle between Bảo Đại and his prime minister. Bảo Đại disliked Diệm and had frequently attempted to undermine him, having appointed him only because he was a conduit to American aid. At the time, the country was going through a period of insecurity, as Vietnam had been temporarily partitioned as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords that ended the First Indochina War. The State of Vietnam controlled the southern half of the country, pending national elections that were intended to reunify the country under a common government. Still, the Vietnamese National Army was not in full control of southern Vietnam; the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects ran their own administrations in the countryside supported by private armies, while the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate controlled the streets of Saigon. Despite interference from these groups, Bảo Đại, and even French officials, Diệm managed to subdue the private armies and consolidate government control over the country by mid-1955.
Emboldened by his success, Diệm began to plot Bảo Đại's downfall. He scheduled a referendum for 23 October 1955 and pushed Bảo Đại out of the political scene, hindering the former emperor's attempts to derail the poll. In the period leading up to the vote, campaigning for Bảo Đại was banned, while Diệm's election campaign focused on personal attacks against Bảo Đại. These included pornographic cartoons of the head of state and unverified rumours claiming he was illegitimate and linking him to various mistresses. The government-controlled media launched polemical attacks on Bảo Đại, and police went door-to-door, warning people of the consequences of failing to vote. After his brother Ngô Đình Nhu had rigged the referendum, Diệm proclaimed himself president of the newly created Republic of Vietnam.
Background
The defeat of the French Army at Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, followed by the Geneva Accords, led to a divided Vietnam. The French-backed State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, provisionally held control south of the 17th parallel. Hồ Chí Minh's Viet Minh held the north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which Hồ Chí Minh had proclaimed in 1945. The agreements stated that nationwide elections were to be held in 1956 to unify the country under a common government. In July 1954, during the transition period, Bảo Đại appointed Diệm as Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam.
On 11 October 1954, the border was closed by the International Control Commission, after a period of 300 days during which free passage between both halves of Vietnam had been allowed. Under the Geneva Accords, anti-communist military personnel were obliged to evacuate to the south, while communist forces were to be moved north. Civilians were free to move to whichever zone they preferred. The issue was a topic of concern for either side throughout the course of the 300 days: Operation Freedom Passage followed with transportation options for civilians to move to the south, and Diệm authorizing U.S. CIA adviser Colonel Edward Lansdale to stage campaign intended to convince more people to move to South Vietnam. The campaign was particularly focused on Vietnam's Catholics, who were to provide Diệm's power base in his later years, with the use of slogans such as "God has gone south", while the Viet Minh attempted to prevent the transport in rural areas, and spread rumours of its own considering the threats of moving south, and Task Force 90 in particular.
In the end, between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people migrated to the south, many of them Catholics. At the start of 1955, French Indochina was dissolved, leaving Diệm in temporary control of the south.
At the time, Diệm had little authority beyond the gates of his own palace. Bảo Đại had little confidence in him and gave him meagre support—the pair had clashed in the past, with Diệm resigning as Bảo Đại's Interior Minister two decades earlier, believing the head of state to be weak and ineffective. Many historians believe that Bảo Đại may have selected Diệm for the latter's ability to attract U.S. support and funding. During the transition period, the French Expeditionary Corps maintained a presence in South Vietnam. This led to tension between France and the State of Vietnam. Diệm, a passionate nationalist, detested the French, who reciprocated, hoping he would fail, even calling for his removal on occasions.
Diệm faced challenges to his authority from four more groups. The Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious sects had private armies that controlled the Mekong Delta and the areas west of Saigon, respectively. The Bình Xuyên was an armed, organised crime empire that controlled much of Saigon with a 40,000 strong private army, while the Vietminh still controlled much of the rural area. Diệm's Vietnamese National Army (VNA) was led by General Nguyễn Văn Hinh, a French citizen who loathed and frequently disobeyed him. Bảo Đại sold the operating license of the national police to the Bình Xuyên, effectively putting administrative control of the police in the hands of a crime syndicate.
Amid growing French and US skepticism of his ability to provide stable rule, Diệm forced the matter to a head in April 1955. He ordered the Bình Xuyên to relinquish control of the National Police and submit to his command by integrating into the VNA or disbanding, threatening to crush them if they refused. He bribed Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài commanders into joining the VNA, gradually resulting in the defection of some commanders and their units, while others continued to lead their forces against Saigon. The Bình Xuyên defied Diệm's ultimatum. On 27 April, the VNA initiated the Battle for Saigon. After a brief but violent battle that left between 500 and 1,000 people dead and about 20,000 homeless, the Bình Xuyên were crushed. Diệm had regained both U.S. confidence and control of the police. Jubilant crowds lauded Diệm and denounced Bảo Đại, who had tried to dismiss him in the middle of the battle to prevent him from quelling the Bình Xuyên. In addition, General Paul Ely, the head of the French presence in Vietnam, tried to impede Diệm; his troops put road blocks against the VNA and gave intelligence to the Bình Xuyên.
Buoyed by his successes, and fueled by increased hatred of both the French and Bảo Đại after their attempts to prevent him from dismantling the Bình Xuyên, Diệm became more confident as he went about consolidating his hold on power. On 15 May, Diệm abolished Bảo Đại's Imperial Guard; its 5,000 men became the 11th and 42nd Infantry Regiments of the VNA. Diệm then stripped Bảo Đại of his extensive crown lands. On 15 June, Diệm had the Council of the Royal Family at Huế declare that Bảo Đại be stripped of his powers, and that he, Diệm, be made president. Bảo Đại's relatives condemned him for abdicating as head of state, and for his links with France and the Bình Xuyên. Historians have speculated that the royals agreed to turn on Bảo Đại so Diệm would not seize their assets.
Organization of the referendum
On 7 July 1955, the first anniversary of his installation as prime minister, Diệm announced that a national referendum would be held to determine the future of the country. On 16 July, Diệm publicly announced his intention to not take part in the reunification elections: "We will not be tied down by the [Geneva] treaty that was signed against the wishes of the Vietnamese people."
Diệm contended that the Communists would never allow free elections in the north, so therefore South Vietnam must strike out on its own and establish a separate, non-Communist state. This was echoed by the Saigon press, which ran articles assailing communist elections as shambolic, rigged, and meaningless; at the time, the northern half of Vietnam had a greater population than the south. A month earlier, North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng wrote to Saigon asking to begin negotiations over the specific details of the elections. While the Americans were happy to avoid elections because of fears of a communist victory, they hoped that Diệm would enter the dialogue over planning matters and wait for North Vietnam to object to a proposal, and thus use it to blame Ho [Chi Minh] for violating the Geneva Accords. The Americans had earlier advised Diệm, who had been acting in defiance of Bảo Đại, that continued aid was contingent on Diệm establishing a legal basis for usurping the head of state's power.
On 6 October 1955, Diệm announced the referendum would be held on 23 October. The election was open to men and women aged 18 or over, and the government arranged to have a polling station set up for every 1,000 registered voters. The poll was contested by Bảo Đại, who had spent much of his time in France and advocated a monarchy, and Diệm, who ran on a republican platform. According to historian Jessica Chapman, it was a choice between "the country's obsolete emperor and its far-from-popular prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem". In announcing the referendum, Diệm portrayed his decision as being motivated by a love of democracy and popular discontent with the rule of Bảo Đại. The prime minister cited a plethora of petitions from various social, religious, and political groups calling on him to stage a plebiscite to remove Bảo Đại, claiming he was motivated by these "legitimate and democratic" sentiments. U.S. officials advised Diệm to claim 60% and 70% of the vote to make the election look plausible.
Under the Elysee Accords and the subsequent legislation that created the State of Vietnam in 1949, Bảo Đại's position as head of state was neither permanent nor indefinite. Sovereignty was presumed to rest solely upon the people, with Bảo Đại being a mere conduit. As a result, the referendum itself was within the law. Diệm had not been elected to his post, so he saw the referendum as an opportunity to rebuff opponents, who claimed that he was undemocratic and autocratic. The event also gave Diệm an opportunity to boost his prestige by defeating Bảo Đại in a head-to-head contest. It was previously agreed that a National Assembly would be elected first, but Diệm went ahead with the plebiscite, which meant that he would have total power if he deposed Bảo Đại before a legislature was formed.
U.S. diplomats were concerned that the move would be seen as a power grab, as Diệm was organising and driving an electoral process in which he was a candidate. The Americans felt that a legislature should be formed first and that the body should oversee the referendum, but Diệm ignored their advice. Ambassador G. Frederick Reinhardt informed Washington that Diệm had no intention of allowing a level playing field for the opposition, and that the foreign press had already made much of Diệm's democratic pronouncements being a facade. The Department of State agreed and opted to avoid trumpeting the referendum as an exercise in democracy for fear of attracting negative reactions to their foreign policy. Nevertheless, U.S. officials in Vietnam were pleased with the referendum, as they saw it as an opportunity to strengthen South Vietnam and avoid defeat to the communists, as they saw a republican model as being more robust.
Having declared his disdain for the 1956 reunification elections, Diệm saw the referendum as the first step in creating a long-term state to rule over South Vietnam. He repeatedly said that the creation of a legislature and a constitution for his new state would follow the referendum.
Diệm reportedly saw the poll as an opportunity to legitimise him as a symbol of Vietnamese democracy, so that he could frame and justify his refusal to participate in national elections as a struggle between freedom and communist authoritarianism. Diệm asserted that South Vietnam would eventually reunify the nation under a democratic administration and liberate their northern compatriots from communist oppression, and championed the referendum as a first step in nurturing democracy. His support base was to use this as a means of justifying the deposal of Bảo Đại, citing past decisions that according to them, were pro-communist.
One of Diệm's main themes was that the referendum would usher in a new era of unprecedented democracy: "This shall be but the first step made by our people in the free use of our political rights." The day before the poll, Diệm said: "This 23 October, for the first time in our country's history, our men and women will exercise one of many basic civil rights of a democracy, the right to vote." A government proclamation four days before the poll said: "Dear compatriots, proclaim your will forcefully! Go forward firmly in the path of Freedom, Independence and Democracy!"
Campaign
Diệm ran a personal attack campaign against the head of state, for whom campaigning was prohibited. The army and national police went about enforcing the ban on pro-Bảo Đại and anti-Diệm activities. Police went from door to door, explaining the consequences of failing to vote. They organized conferences in rural villages and addressed the populace with loudspeakers. In general, Diệm's line of attack was to portray Bảo Đại as a drunken womanizer who was preoccupied with immoral pleasures and unconcerned with the problems of the populace. Vietnam's monarchic tradition was built on Confucianism and the emperor's Mandate of Heaven, and Diệm's campaign claimed Bảo Đại had lost this mandate through his debauched lifestyle. According to Joseph Buttinger, who was based in Vietnam as the second in command at the International Rescue Committee, the methods used to influence the poll were "outrageous". Donald Lancaster, a journalist who covered the poll, said "Whereas Bảo Đại was given no opportunity to defend himself, the government-controlled press proceeded to overwhelm him with scurrilous abuse." Diệm later banned Bảo Đại from entering the State of Vietnam.
Diệm's advertising included the parading of giant pageant-style floats of Bảo Đại through the streets of Saigon, depicted with bags of money on his shoulders, a deck of cards in his hands, and with naked blonde women and bottles of cognac in his arms. This was a reference to the head of state's reputation for opulence, gambling and womanising. In particular, the blonde hair referred to Bảo Đại's purported penchant for European mistresses with whom he liaised on the French Riviera. Bảo Đại's dummy was accompanied by that of a Frenchman putting gold into his pockets, thereby questioning his nationalist credentials. Posters and effigies associating Bảo Đại with a pig's head were disseminated, while a prominent newspaper composed and encouraged the people to sing insulting songs about Bảo Đại.
Walls and public transport vehicles were plastered with slogans, including "Beware of the evil king Bảo Đại's preference for gambling, women, wine, milk, and butter. Those who vote for him betray their country." Aside from referring to his opulent lifestyle, other slogans such as "Bao Dai, puppet king selling his country", and "Bao Dai, master keeper of gambling dens and brothels", referred to his alleged softness towards the communists. The radio was used to verbally abuse Bảo Đại, who was accused of treason and corruption in these broadcasts.
On the other hand, the bachelor Diệm was described as the "hero of the people" and "father of all children". The slogans exhorted the populace to vote for the prime minister because "To vote for the revolutionary man Ngo Dinh Diem is to build a society of welfare and justice". They portrayed Diệm as a patriotic and nationalist anti-communist, proclaiming "To kill communists, depose the king, [and] struggle against colonialists is a citizen's duty in Free Vietnam."
Diệm's government-controlled press overwhelmed Bảo Đại with endless personal propaganda attacks, with special editions of newspapers being devoted to polemical biographical accounts of the former emperor. This allowed Diệm's campaign to condemn Bảo Đại with much more salacious detail than was possible through mere slogans. This started in August when the daily newspaper Thoi Dai started a three-week series that disseminated unsubstantiated and scandalous details about Bảo Đại's life. These were written by editorialist Hong Van, who called Bảo Đại a "dung beetle who sold his country for personal glory". Van claimed Bảo Đại was the illegitimate son of Emperor Khải Định, alleging Khải Định had been infertile and married a maid, before claiming the maid's son, by another man, as his own. The paper claimed Bảo Đại was "big like a lubber, had many children, and was very fond of women" while Khải Định was uncomfortable with females, hinting that the different personalities were inconsistent with a common biological lineage.
Capitalising on anti-French sentiment, the paper went on to discuss Bảo Đại's upbringing in France, claiming that he was already womanising as a teenager because of his European upbringing. Bảo Đại later married an ethnic Vietnamese French citizen, who became Empress Nam Phương, who had been raised Catholic. The editorials accused her of being a French agent and claimed she had treated the queen mother badly, a serious character flaw as Confucianism strongly emphasized respect for elders. Hong Van went on to claim that Bảo Đại's sequence of Gallic lovers was an indication that colonial officials were successfully using sex to turn the head of state into a puppet of France.
The culmination of the newspaper campaign was a satirical pornographic cartoon, entitled "The Story of Bảo Đại". It summarized the scandalous depictions of the head of state made by Thoi Dai in the preceding weeks and was published on 19 October, four days before the referendum. The pictures featured full frontal nude depictions of Bảo Đại and his mistresses, with genitalia clearly visible, including a frame showing a naked blonde performing an erotic dance for the head of state.
Aside from painting Bảo Đại as a sexually insatiable glutton, Diệm's campaign also attacked the head of state's nationalist credentials. They criticised him as being too soft in his dealings with French colonial authorities, and for serving as the head of state of the Empire of Vietnam, a puppet regime set up by Imperial Japan after they invaded during World War II. They also accused him of ceding half the country to the communists. The communists had already captured more than half the country on the battlefield, and Bảo Đại claimed he had no choice, but Diệm's campaign portrayed him as incompetent and unwilling to take the blame.
Diệm used the Ministry of Information's electoral education campaign as a partisan political tool. Instead of using it purely to explain the democratic process, the campaign was used to extol Diệm and his allies. After explaining what democracy was, a pamphlet outlined why Deposing a chief-of-state is a vital act. After elaborating on the powers of the head of state, the pamphlet went on to champion Diệm as an anti-communist who could defend people's freedom, while explaining why Bảo Đại was unfit to lead, saying that he did not have respect among the international community.
On 15 October, Bảo Đại issued a statement protesting against the referendum. He urged the governments of France, the United Kingdom, the United States, India and even the Soviet Union not to recognise Diệm, asserting that he was an obstacle to the reunification of Vietnam under the Geneva Accords. He accused Diệm's poll of being "a governmental activity which conforms neither to the profound sentiment of the Vietnamese people nor to the common cause of peace".
On 18 October, he made the token gesture of formally dismissing Diệm. The following day, he denounced "the police methods" of Diệm's "dictatorship" and warned the Vietnamese populace "against a regime that was bound to lead them to ruin, famine, and war". Bảo Đại accused Diệm of trying to foment conflict between the French and the Americans. On the eve of the poll, Bảo Đại stated "I can even tell you that I know the percentage of favourable votes that Mr. Diem has decided to obtain."
Other opposition
The staging of the election was subsidised by foreign funding. The United States government and a combination of American Roman Catholic charities contributed US$2 million each. Ba Cụt, a leader of an anti-government Hòa Hảo religious sect, distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet, citing the funding as proof and further asserting that Diệm was going to "Catholicize" the country. The Vietnamese Socialist Party, which was affiliated to the Hòa Hảo, claimed Diệm had "bribed the world of laborers and young students to petition in support of Diem's rise to chief-of-state and to petition in favor of deposing Bao Dai", using the American election funding. Another Hòa Hảo rebel leader, General Trần Văn Soái, assailed Diệm's undemocratic regime and declared the referendum illegal. He invited "friendly countries and the people of Vietnam to distrust this political maneuver". Diệm had earlier told a cabinet minister that there was only one political party and went about eradicating opposition by force. Opponents claimed Diệm's declarations about the value of democracy were hollow.
Logistics and voting
Lansdale advised Diệm to print his ballots in red, while those of Bảo Đại were printed in green. In Vietnam, red is associated with good luck and prosperity, whereas green is often associated with a cuckold and bad luck. Diệm's red ballots pictured him with youthful and modern-looking people, while Bảo Đại's photo was placed in old-fashioned robes, which he never wore. In addition, Bảo Đại's portrait showed him to appear dazed and bloated, while Diệm and those surrounding him were smiling and appeared to be energetic. The ballot claimed that a vote for Diệm would be a vote for democracy, stating "I depose Bảo Đại and recognise Ngô Đình Diệm as Head of State, charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime." Bảo Đại's ballot read "I do not depose Bảo Đại and do not regard Ngô Đình Diệm as the Head of State charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime." The voters would place the red or green ballot into the box, according to their preference, while discarding the other, which meant the voting was actually not secret.
The logistics of the referendum were organised and supervised by Diệm's brother and confidant, Ngô Đình Nhu, who was the leader of the family's secret Personalist Labor Revolutionary Party, which supplied the Ngôs' electoral base. Reports of violence and intimidation were widespread. During the referendum, Nhu's staff told voters to throw away the green ballots. Those who disobeyed were often chased down and beaten, with pepper sauce and water sometimes being forced into their nostrils. The violations were particularly flagrant in central Vietnam, a region over which another of Diệm's younger brothers, Ngô Đình Cẩn, ruled. Cẩn was based in the former imperial capital city of Huế, home of the Nguyễn Dynasty and a source of support for Bảo Đại. He stifled this support by ordering the police to arrest 1,200 people for political reasons in the week leading up to the vote. In the city of Hội An, several people were killed in election violence on the day of the poll. Voting started at 07:00 and ended at 17:00.
Counting and results
Diệm's government formulated procedural regulations ostensibly designed to ensure results and ballots were correctly accounted for and to prevent election fraud. In reality however, the votes were counted without independent supervision, which resulted in Diệm being credited with 98.9% of the vote. The prime minister tallied 605,025 votes in Saigon, although only 450,000 voters were registered in the capital. Diệm's tally also exceeded the registration numbers in other districts. French newspapers claimed that only half of the registered voters in Saigon had actually voted, and that the rest had boycotted the election, implying that more than 60% of the votes in the capital were not authentic. Defenders of Diệm claim this was due to recently arrived, mostly Catholic, refugees from North Vietnam who voted without being enrolled, rather than large-scale ballot stuffing.
Diệm's regime had announced that 5,335,668 people were eligible to vote, but when the results were declared, there were 5,784,752 ballots. Diệm's government claimed his candidacy had been endorsed by the mother of Bảo Đại, although Diệm had ordered the military to confiscate her family's property and evict her from the land. The near unanimous voter turnout and support for Diệm was replicated in highland and Mekong Delta swamp areas, which were not even under the control of the government and its Vietnamese National Army. In some districts of the Mekong Delta, overwhelming tallies for Diệm in excess of 90% of the registered voters were recorded, even though the Hòa Hảo warlord Ba Cụt and his army had prevented voting.
The referendum was widely condemned for being fraudulent. Historian and writer Jessica Chapman said "Even Diệm apologists like Anthony Trawick Bouscaren and American CIA officer Edward Lansdale concur with the prime minister's harshest critics on the conclusion that the South Vietnamese government was either incapable of or unwilling to hold a truly free, representative plebiscite". A CIA report written in 1966 adjudged the poll to be the most heavily manipulated in the first 11 years of South Vietnam's history. The U.S. government privately concluded that the monopoly Diệm had on the media and the election campaign was a greater factor in the victory than intimidation and the fact that the voting was effectively public. Reinhardt cabled Washington, saying that the "referendum proved [a] resounding success for [the] Diem government". He indicated that the poll results were not necessarily a reflection of reality by adding that the result did not show that Diệm had majority support but that he was able to control the country, effectively unchallenged. The U.S. government was heartened by Diệm's apparent ability to negate communist and other opposition.
The scholar Bernard B. Fall stated that "there is not the slightest doubt that this plebiscite was only a shade more fraudulent than most electoral tests under a dictatorship". The American journalist Stanley Karnow cited the dubious plebiscite as evidence of Diệm's "mandarin mentality". Chapman wrote that "... no amount of unilateral campaigning, anti-Bảo Đại sentiment, or Confucian political restraint could explain Diệm's 98 percent margin of victory in a politically heterogeneous South Vietnam. Corruption and intimidation must have played a significant role." Buttinger said that while the monarchy was "another rotten relic of Vietnam's past" and Bảo Đại "its last, unworthy representative", fraud and intimidation were unnecessary as Diệm would have won easily in any event. Historian David Anderson said the victory "was not a true representation of Diệm's power or popularity. The emperor's weakness, the disarray of the political opposition, and other such factors explain his triumph".
Reaction and aftermath
Three days after the vote, Diệm proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Vietnam, naming himself as its president. He said "The October 23rd plebiscite in which [the people of South Vietnam] took such an enthusiastic part, constitutes an approval of the policies pursued thus far and at the same time augurs a whole new era for the future of our country." Diệm reiterated that he would not partake in national reunification elections, saying that they would be futile unless "true liberty" came about in the communist North Vietnam, which impressed American observers, who feared a total communist takeover.
Having claimed the election was entirely without irregularities, the United States government hailed Diệm as a new hero of the "free world". Senator Mike Mansfield (D-MT) claimed the referendum "was a reflection of their [the Vietnamese people's] search for a leader who would respond to their needs ... they sensed that Diệm could provide that kind of leadership." Mansfield had been a professor of Asian history before entering politics; as a result his opinions about Vietnam were more influential and held in high regard by his fellow senators. Archives of policy discussions show that the Americans were concerned more about the negative image created by Diem's autocratic and antidemocratic style among the international community, rather than its possible effects on national cohesion. The US State Department spokesman said "the people of Viet-Nam have spoken, and we, of course, recognise their decision". An official congratulatory statement from the department said "The Department of State is gratified that according to reports the referendum was conducted in such an orderly and efficient manner and that the people of Viet-Nam have made their choice unmistakably clear ... we look forward to a continuation of the friendly relations between the Government of Viet-Nam and the United States."
Reaction to Diệm's victory among the American press varied with geographic location. Newspapers in the Midwest hailed Diệm's win as a triumph for democracy and extolled the new president as a champion of democracy. However, The New York Times said that the extreme margin of victory made "Diem's administrative control look more pervasive than is thought to be the case by a number of observers here." However, the paper also obligingly claimed the poll a "sound democratic procedure" and a "public tribute to a strong-willed leader". Reader's Digest called it an "overwhelming endorsement" and dubbed Diệm a "beacon of light, showing the way to free people".
Diệm's victory was seen as a blow to French stature in Vietnam, as the former colonial power had helped to set up Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam in 1949. They consistently opposed Diệm and his policies, and unsuccessfully tried to impede him. The U.S. media regarded Diệm's victory as a signal that the United States would be the only Western power in South Vietnam. Some felt that this would enable Diệm to rule effectively without French hindrance, while others felt that this would leave too much of a burden on the American government. The French media and diplomatic corps viewed the result as a humiliation. Before the poll, French officials had privately predicted Diệm would dissolve the French High Command and use any victory as justification for scrapping the national reunification elections. The French media viewed the poll as undemocratic and a plot by the Americans to sabotage any prospect of national reunification, but France recognised the Republic of Vietnam soon after.
Diệm severed economic relations with France on 9 December 1955, and withdrew from the French Union shortly afterwards. Neither the Soviet Union nor the People's Republic of China overtly objected to Diệm's actions in creating a new state in the southern half of Vietnam. Nevertheless, by the time of Diệm's deposal and assassination in 1963, France bought 46.3% of South Vietnam's exports and accounted for most of the foreign investment in the country. French cultural influences and the language remained prevalent.
In January 1956, with no legislature and constitution in place, Diệm used his absolute power to dissolve the Revolutionary Council by launching police raids on the members, forcing those from the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo who had rallied to his side to go on the run. As a result, they turned against him.
References
Sources
1955 in South Vietnam
State of Vietnam
Electoral fraud in Vietnam
Referendums in South Vietnam
History of South Vietnam
Ngo Dinh Diem
Vietnamese monarchy
Constitutional referendums
Monarchy referendums
October 1955 events in Asia |
10733556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th%20Marine%20Infantry%20Parachute%20Regiment | 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment | The 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment (, 8e RPIMa) is an airborne regiment of the French Army. The 8e RPIMa was created on 28 February 1951 and the men wear the red beret. It is part of the 11th Parachute Brigade.
The regiment is garrisoned at Castres, France. Current missions of the 8e RPIMa revolve around peacekeeping and assistance to world populations, and in that regard at the service and disposition of NATO or the United Nations directives. The regiment intervenes around the world protecting French interests in and not limited to: Tchad, Lebanon, New Caledonia, Kuwait, Rwanda, Gabon, Kurdistan, Zaïre, Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, RDC, ex-Yugoslavia, Cambodia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Ivory Coast, and Afghanistan. Overseas, the regiment is engaged in operations defending French interests, or countries that are in liaison with France in security missions. In Europe, the regiment is engaged in defending the national French territory at the corps of the terrestrial action force. This regiment can be rapidly deployed anywhere in the world. The regiment parts various Commando Parachute Groups, a group of French elite units. Parachute training is conducted at the École des troupes aéroportées (ETAP) in Pau.
Creation and different nominations since 1951
28 February 1951 : creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion, 8e BPC.
12 September 1952 : became the 8th Commando Parachute Groupment, 8e GCP.
1 August 1953 : became the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC.
31 May 1954 : dissolution of the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC.
1 May 1956 : creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Regiment 8e RCP at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division 25e DP.
1 December 1958: became 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, 8e RPIMa.
Campaigns
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Campaign
8th Colonial Parachute Battalion
(1951–1954)
1951–1954 : Indochina War
Campaign Participation Engagement
8th Colonial Parachute Regiment
(1956–1958)
1956–1961 : Algerian War
Campaign Participation Engagement
8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
(1958–present )
1970 : Chad
1978–1979: Lebanon, UNIFIL
1979: Chad, Opération Tacaud
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1980 : New Hebrides with Royal Marines
1982 : Lebanon, UNIFIL
1983 : Chad, Operation Manta
1982–1983 : Lebanon, Multinational Force in Lebanon
1984 : Chad
1986 : New Caledonia
1986 : Chad, Opération Épervier
1988 : New Caledonia
1989 : Chad, Opération Épervier
1990 : Gabon, Opération Requin
1991 : Kuwait
1991 : Kurdistan
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1991–1992: Zaire
1992 : Cambodia
1993 : Central African Republic, RCA
1993–1995 : Sarajevo
1995 : Tahiti
1996–1997 : RCA
1996 : Sarajevo
1997 : DRC
1997 : Congo-Brazzaville
1998 : Macedonia
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1999 : Kosovo
2002 : Kosovo
2002 : Ivory Coast, Opération Licorne
2003–2005 : Kosovo
2006–2007 : DRC
2008–2009 : Afghanistan
2010–2011 : Kosovo with 1er RHP and 17e RGP
2013–2014 : RCA
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The unit was created on 28 February 1951, in Hanoi as the "8th Colonial Parachute Battalion", as a part of the French union forces. Present since 1951 and to 1954, the "8th Colonial Parachute Battalion" fought at Lai-Chau, Hòa Bình, Langson and Dien Bien Phu heavily superiorly outnumbered. The Battalion was cited at the orders of the armed forces and mentioned in dispatches four times for acts of valor. The quasi totality of the battalion disappeared and was subsequently dissolved on 19 May 1954, after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
The unit was recreated as the "8th Colonial Parachute Regiment" on 1 May 1956. The regiment participated in operations against the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN), most notably at El Kiffene, Ain El Kesseub and Tarf at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division.
8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment (1958 – present)
The regiment relocated to the town of Nancy, Metropolitan France, in 1961, to form part of the 11th Light Intervention Division. The regimental headquarters moved to Castres in 1963.
The regiment took part in various peacekeeping missions in Lebanon on numerous yearly designated occasions within the UNIFIL first then joined the Multinational Force in Lebanon.
The regiment has been present around the world in Lebanon, Chad, Central Africa, Gabon and many others while mainly participating in humanitarian and peacekeeping missions.
The regiment has been spearheading combat, combat support, peacekeeping and multipurposed facade mission operations throughout the globe with the ongoing War on Terror, mainly on all exterior theatres of operations where the French Armed Forces are engaged in along the five continents and oceanic surroundings. The regiment served with the NATO ISAF in Afghanistan. In a fierce battle on 18–19 August 2008, ten French soldiers were killed and 21 wounded making it the largest loss of French troops in battle in many years.
Composition
The regiment is composed of around 1200 marine infantry parachute personnel in eight combat companies:
Compagnie de commandement et de logistique (CCL) – Command and logistics company
Compagnie d'éclairage et d'appui (CEA) – Reconnaissance and support company
1re Compagnie de combat – 1st Combat company
2e Compagnie de combat – 2nd Combat company
3e Compagnie de combat – 3rd Combat company
4e Compagnie de combat – 4th Combat company
Compagnie de réserve opérationnelle (CRO)' – Operational reserve company
Traditions
French army metropolitan and marine paratroopers forming the 11th Parachute Brigade wear the Red Beret.
The Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on 29 September.
The prière du Para (Prayer of the Paratrooper) was written by André Zirnheld in 1938.
Insignias
Just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army; the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946. The French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed "winged armed dextrochere", meaning a "right winged arm" armed with a sword pointing upwards. The Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers. In fact, the Insignia represents "the right Arm of Saint Michael", the Archangel which according to Liturgy is the "Armed Arm of God". This Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions. The French Army Insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor.
Regimental Colors
Since creation, the regiment has endured the loss of 19 Officers, 91 Sous-Officiers and 437 paratroopers of the 8e RPIMa.
Decorations
The regimental colors are decorated with:
Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures with :
4 palms
Croix de la Valeur militaire with :
1 palm (21 May 2012 for service in Afghanistan).
1 palm (31 August 2012 for service in Lebanon – Regularization of the citation at the orders of the armed forces received in 1979).
1 palm (1 October 2013 for service in Afghanistan).
Fourragère with colors of la Croix de la Valeur militaire.
The regiment bears wearing 3 Fourragère:
Fourragère bearing the colors of the Médaille militaire.
Fourragère bearing the colors of the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures.
Fourragère bearing the colors of the Croix de la Valeur militaire.
Honors
Battle honors
INDOCHINE 1951–1954
AFN 1952–1962
Regimental Commanders
Honorary Regimental Arms Celebration
The regiment distinguished savoire-faire in Indochina. The regiment received 4 citations at the orders of the armed forces for acts of valor.
In Algeria, the regiment placed out of combat 2800 militants and recuperated 1000 arms.
In 1978 and commanded by colonel Cann, the regiment was engaged in total in Lebanon in support of the peace effort. The regiment received the 5th citation at the orders of the armed forces.
In 1979 and commanded by captain Marchand, a company from the regiment was engaged fully in Chad.
In 2008, the regiment endured the loss of eight 8e RPIMa paratroopers fighting in Afghanistan.
In 2013, the regiment endured the loss of two paratroopers in RCA.
Notable members of the regiment
Guy Le Borgne, regimental commander (1952–1953)
Patrice Le Nepvou de Carfort (1952–1959)
René de Salins (1920–2014)
Pierre Tourret, regimental commander (1953–1954)
François Cann, regimental commander ( 1977–1979)
Maurice Amiot
References
Sources and bibliographies
Collectif, Histoire des parachutistes français, Société de Production Littéraire, 1975.
Frédéric Pons, Opérations extérieures – Les volontaires du 8e RPIMa, Lebanon 1978 – Afghanistan 2009, Presses de la Cité, June 25, 2009
Dossier « Le 8e RPIMa : Régiment du Tarn », in Revue du Tarn'', numéro 227, automne 2012, p. 393-552
External links
Official site – 8e RPIMa
Parachute infantry regiments of France
Marines regiments of France
20th-century regiments of France
21st-century regiments of France
Military units and formations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Military units and formations established in 1951
1951 establishments in France |
1948085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Patrick%20%28politician%29 | Dan Patrick (politician) | Dan Goeb Patrick (born Dannie Scott Goeb; April 4, 1950) is an American radio talk show host, television broadcaster, and politician. He has been serving as the 42nd lieutenant governor of Texas since January 2015, under Greg Abbott.
Originally from Baltimore, Maryland, Patrick began his career as a radio and television broadcaster. After forming a chain of sports bars and subsequently going bankrupt, he became a radio host again, this time becoming a conservative commentator. From 2007 to 2015, Patrick was a Republican member of the Texas Senate for the 7th District, which included a small portion of the city of Houston and several Houston-area suburbs located mostly in northwest Harris County.
Patrick defeated three-term incumbent David Dewhurst in the primary runoff for lieutenant governor on May 27, 2014. He then won the position in the fall general election. He was re-elected in 2018 and 2022, defeating Democratic nominee Mike Collier.
Early life
Patrick was born Dannie Scott Goeb in Baltimore on April 4, 1950. He was raised in a blue-collar neighborhood in East Baltimore. He is the only child of the former Vilma Jean Marshall (1926–2016) and Charles Anthony Goeb (1926–2002), who worked at The Baltimore Sun for thirty-one years as a newspaper vendor, before he retired in 1984.
Patrick graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in English from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. He is the first member of his family to graduate from college. After graduating and embarking on a broadcasting career, he changed his name from "Dannie Scott Goeb" to "Dan Goeb Patrick" – informally in 1977 and legally in 2004 – to honor his wife's family and brother-in-law.
Broadcasting and business career
Radio and television
Patrick started his first radio job in 1968 at the age of 18. After college, in 1977, he became a television broadcaster at WNEP-TV in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Patrick later held a similar position at WTTG in Washington, D.C., before he became the lead sportscaster with KHOU-TV in Houston.
As a broadcaster, Patrick was able to get attention through various stunts, such as painting himself blue in support for the Houston Oilers and wearing a large cowboy hat. He became the second most popular TV personality in Houston by 1983, as well as one of the most well-known, though surveys also found that he was one of the most disliked. Patrick's public speaking skills caused him to be nicknamed "the Silver-tongued Devil." Patrick left his job at KHOU in the mid-1980s after failing to reach an agreement with Belo Corporation (which bought KHOU-TV in 1984) for a long-term contract.
Sports bar chain
In November 1983, Patrick and several investors opened one of the first sports bars in the U.S., which they named Dan and Nick's Sportsmarket. The bar did well for a time, due to "the strength of Patrick's personality" and an oil boom in Houston at the time, and they eventually took ownership of five sports bars in the city.
When the oil boom of the mid 1980s ended, Houston's economy went into decline and fiscally damaged Patrick's sports bar chain. In 1986, after the sports bars failed, Patrick filed for personal bankruptcy and in October 1992, discharged several hundred thousand dollars of debt obligation. Patrick, who stated it took him 10 years for him and his family "to regain financial equilibrium," has frequently and openly discussed the ordeal and stated how it shaped him as an individual and conservative.
Conservative talk radio host
Following bankruptcy, Patrick reinvented himself as a conservative talk radio host in the 1990s. He began by buying a four-hour timeslot at AM 700 KSEV (then called KTBT) in the summer of 1987. He originally was a sports radio host, operating out of his remaining sports bar. However, he was able to take over the radio station in 1988, and he switched to politics shortly afterward. He hosted a conservative radio talk show. The program, Dan Patrick & Friends, was broadcast in the Houston radio market on KSEV and in Dallas on AM 1160 KVCE. Initially he broadcast under the pseudonym Dan Scott as a radio host, later changing to the current name at the request of his employer to avoid confusion of Patrick with another anchor at a competing station with the last name of Scott.
Patrick grew successful and influential through his talk radio career. He earned high name recognition. As a talk radio host, Patrick advocated for fiscal conservatism, evangelical Christian values on social issues, and he became a vocal opponent of illegal immigration. He was also known as a populist. Patrick's talk radio career was instrumental to his political rise, including his election and influence in the State Senate and his eventual election as lieutenant governor. One notable decision Patrick made as the owner of a talk radio station was to sign relative unknown Rush Limbaugh for airing on KSEV in 1989 via radio syndication. Limbaugh's success as a national talk show host helped increase ratings of Patrick's radio station.
In addition to radio, Patrick anchored The Patrick Report, a half-hour news program which aired on Houston television station KTBU during 2001. Patrick was also general manager of KTBU. By February 2006, Patrick already owned one radio station. In 2006, Patrick signed a deal to purchase radio station KMGS AM 1160 in Highland Park, Texas (now KBDT). By 2013, Patrick was the majority owner of two radio stations, in Houston and Dallas radio markets. Patrick continued broadcasting after his election as a State Senator, and he continued to own KSEV after his election as lieutenant governor.
Other
In November 2008, Patrick began work to produce The Heart of Texas, a movie based on a real-life story of two families in Simonton, a small Houston-area city. The movie was released the next year on DVD.
Patrick proposed a boycott of Bill Maher's television show Politically Incorrect over controversial statements made by the comedian following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Patrick is also frequently at odds with the Houston Chronicle and announced a boycott of that newspaper in April 2004. He owned a blog called Chronically Biased, which criticized the newspaper.
Early political career
Patrick first considered running for the United States House of Representatives in 2004.
Texas Senate
Patrick was first elected to Texas State Senate's seventh district in 2006, winning the primary election with 68.8% of the vote and the general election with 69.2% of the vote. His term began on January 9, 2007 with the convening of the Eightieth Texas Legislature.
In the 2010 general election, Patrick was reelected with 86.4% of the vote. He also endorsed Rick Perry for re-election in the 2010 election. Soon after winning re-election, Patrick announced, and subsequently created, a Tea Party Caucus in the Texas state legislature, which at its creation had 48 legislative members.
Patrick obtained passage of three Senate bills during his first session. In the Senate, Patrick actively advocated for a "fiercely conservative agenda." At the time, few of his proposals passed.
W. Gardner Selby, editor of the Austin American-Statesman'''s "PolitiFact Texas", listed Patrick as third among the top 10 Republican political influencers in Texas. Patrick is also listed in Texas Monthly as one of the state's most powerful players.
During his first month as a legislator, Patrick introduced legislation to make abortion in Texas illegal should the U.S. Supreme Court overturn Roe v. Wade.
In May 2012, acrimony between Patrick and fellow Republican state senator John Carona was widely reported throughout Texas. In an email exchange, Patrick accused Carona of spreading false rumors about Patrick's marriage. Carona denied that, and additionally denied having commented on Patrick's sexuality. Carona further said to Patrick: "I've never been shy about sharing my dislike and distrust of you. Put bluntly, I believe you are a snake oil salesman, a narcissist that would say anything to draw attention to himself." News reports suggested the feud was motivated by positioning to succeed David Dewhurst as lieutenant governor should Dewhurst have won a seat as U.S. senator in 2012.
Committee assignments
Committee on Education (Chair)
Committee on Criminal Justice
Committee on Finance
Committee on Health & Human Services
Committee on Intergovernmental Relations
Committee on Finance
Subcommittee on Fiscal Matters
Subcommittee on Public Education Funding
Subcommittee on Higher Education Funding
Lieutenant governor of Texas
2014 campaign
On June 26, 2013, Patrick announced he would challenge incumbent David Dewhurst in the Republican primary for lieutenant governor in 2014. This challenge came despite Patrick's enthusiastic endorsement of Dewhurst in his failed 2012 bid for the U.S. Senate. Patrick stated that while he had been planning on retiring from politics after his Senate term ended, he decided to run for lieutenant governor after Dewhurst failed to end fellow State Senator Wendy Davis's filibuster of Texas Senate Bill 5 and after Senator Jane Nelson refused to run herself.
Patrick led the four-candidate field in the primary with 550,769 votes (41.5%). Dewhurst followed with 376,196 (28.3%); Staples, with 235,981 (17.8%), and Patterson, 165,787 (12.5%). Election watchers did not expect Patrick to get first place. In the runoff election on May 27, Patrick won with 487,829 votes (65.1%), defeating Dewhurst, who had 262,086 votes (34.9%). Patrick's victory was one of several notable primary victories by Tea Party movement-aligned Republicans in the election runoff.
According to Ross Ramsey of The Texas Tribune, Patrick did not shift to the political middle as the general election approached, contrary to what political candidates typically do. On November 4, 2014, Patrick won the general election against his state Senate colleague, Democrat Leticia Van de Putte of San Antonio, to become the lieutenant governor-elect of Texas. He was swept into office in a Republican landslide that saw the party retain all statewide elected offices for the fifth consecutive election.
2018 campaign
On January 9, 2017, the day before the 85th Texas Legislature began its session, Patrick announced he would run for re-election in 2018. He stated his early announcement was in order to dispel rumors that he would challenge Governor Greg Abbott or U.S. Senator Ted Cruz. Patrick easily won the Republican primary on March 6, 2018, defeating Rockwall City Council Member Scott Milder.
In addition to his own campaign, Patrick was active in endorsing and assisting Republican primary candidates in the Texas Senate, including some challengers to GOP incumbents. Patrick's favored candidates won nearly all the races where Patrick made intraparty endorsements. Later in the year, Patrick donated nearly $175,000 to Texas Senate candidate Pete Flores in a special election; Flores won the election in an upset, increasing Patrick's chances of keeping a three-fifths GOP majority in the Senate after the 2018 elections. Patrick succeeded in maintaining a three-fifths majority in the Senate, though Republican Senator Kel Seliger was considered a possible swing-vote.
In the November 6 general election, Patrick won re-election to a second term, defeating Democratic challenger Mike Collier. He won about 51% of the vote against Collier's 46%.
2022 campaign
In the 2022 general election, Patrick again defeated Democratic challenger Mike Collier, winning about 53.8% of the vote to Collier's 43.5%, with an over 826,000 margin.
On January 25, 2023, Patrick told The Texan's reporter McKenzie DiLullo that he would be running for reelection in 2026.
Tenure
Patrick was sworn in on January 20, 2015.Fernandez, Manny (January 20, 2015). "Texas' New Governor Echoes the Plans of Perry". The New York Times. Retrieved January 24, 2015. Soon after assuming office, the Texas Senate voted to drop the threshold needed to consider a bill from two-thirds to three-fifths, something that Patrick had long supported.Smith, Morgan (January 21, 2015). "With Change in Procedure, Senate Democrats Lose Clout". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved January 23, 2015. Under Patrick, the Senate enforced procedural rules that had long been ignored.
Major legislation that Patrick helped pass during his tenure as lieutenant governor include legalization of campus carry and open carry, a bill allowing pastors to refuse marrying couples if it violates their beliefs, and expanded border security and enforcement measures.
Patrick made legislation prohibiting state or local governments from issuing subpoenas on pastors' sermons a priority in the 2017 session. Governor Abbott signed the bill into law on May 21, 2017.
Patrick made legislation requiring the U.S. national anthem at state-funded events a priority for the 2021 session, along with legislation to protect "election integrity" in Texas. Otherwise, Patrick assumed a low-key profile at the beginning of the legislative session. Following the regular 2021 session, The New York Times described Patrick and Governor Abbott as "the driving force behind one of the hardest right turns in recent state history," with Patrick the more conservative of the two. According to the Houston Chronicle, Patrick "uniquely grasped and wielded the power of the growing right-wing movement in Texas," allowing him to become influential in the state.
During his tenure as lieutenant governor, Patrick became influential in Texas Republican politics. He actively endorsed candidates in the 2022 Republican primaries for the Texas Senate, something described as "unusual" for a lieutenant governor. He reportedly had an influential role in former president Donald Trump's endorsements in Texas elections.
Following a March 7, 2023 guest lecture by Texas A&M professor Dr. Joy Alonzo at University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) that suggested that the Patrick administration's policies on the opioid crisis had led to more opioid deaths, Patrick's office contacted Texas A&M chancellor Johh Sharp about Alonzo. Alonzo was placed on administrative leave immediately, and was formally censured by UTMB. The investigation by Texas A&M found no evidence of wrongdoing, and Dr. Alonzo's leave was ended two weeks later. Patrick defended his conduct in an August 2, 2023, op-ed in the Houston Chronicle.
Political positions
Abortion
Patrick opposes abortion and authored Texas' "Mandatory Ultrasound Bill", a bill signed into law in May 2011 by Governor Perry, which requires women seeking abortion to have a sonogram of the fetus taken at least twenty-four hours before the abortion is performed. Patrick purported that the bill might stop more than 15,000 abortions annually with an estimated goal of eliminating one in five abortions. Regarding his estimation, Patrick stated the following: "There's no other piece of legislation anywhere else in the country that has that kind of impact... I don't take credit for it. It's God's hands."
Patrick's Mandatory Ultrasound Bill was initially halted by an injunction issued in Zurawski v. State of Texas, a legal challenge headed by the New York-based Center for Reproductive Rights. On January 10, 2012, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled in Texas' favor and the law was allowed to take effect.
Patrick opposes abortion in cases of incest and rape. In January 2014, when he was asked about exceptions to outlawing abortion, Patrick said, "The only exception would be if the life of the mother was truly in danger…but that is rare."
Education
Patrick supports increasing the number of charter schools in the state.
In February 2011, Patrick, who at the time was vice chairman of the Texas senate's Committee on Education, spoke in favor of cutting an unspecified number of non-teaching positions from the state's public school districts, citing positions such as "math department supervisors" or "curriculum experts". At the time, Patrick cited a statistic later determined to be misleading by PolitiFact that Texas's 1,200+ public school districts, considered as a group, are the fifth-largest employer in the world.
Patrick has supported placing creationism within the public school curriculum in Texas, despite court rulings that such a policy would violate the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.
In 2019, Patrick pushed to increase Texas teachers' paychecks by $5,000.
In 2021, Patrick supported legislation to prevent public schools from requiring that students read writings by prominent civil rights figures, such as Susan B. Anthony, Cesar Chavez, and Martin Luther King Jr., when covering women’s suffrage and the civil rights movement in social studies classes.
In 2022, Patrick pledged to end tenure for new hires at Texas public universities. He also said that he intended to revoke tenure for faculty who teach critical race theory.
Gun laws
Patrick generally supports gun rights.
In 2019, Patrick called for requiring background checks for gun sales between two strangers. Patrick later backed away from this position, instead throwing his support behind legislation to expand gun rights, including constitutional carry.
Illegal immigration
Patrick opposes illegal immigration. As a talk radio host, he reserved some of his "most hard-edged oratory for illegal immigrants." Patrick expressed support for Arizona's SB 1070 immigration enforcement law, and supports passing a similar law in Texas that would allow local law enforcement to ask lawfully-stopped individuals about their immigration status and would make it a state misdemeanor to be present in Texas as an illegal immigrant. Questions arose during the 2014 lieutenant governor's race about the immigration status of one of Patrick's employees, Miguel "Mike" Andrade. Patrick and Andrade offered different recollections about Andrade's employment. The matter was raised by one of Patrick's opponents, Jerry Patterson, who questioned Patrick's declared commitment to halt illegal immigration.
As Lieutenant Governor, Patrick moved to keep National Guard troops sent to the Texas-Mexico border during the illegal immigration surge of 2014 indefinitely, rather than until March 2015, as originally planned. Patrick's 2015 budget in the Texas Senate called for spending $815 million on border security, which he said was more than the previous seven years combined. Governor Greg Abbott signed the measure—for about $800 million—into law. In a June 2018 interview on Fox Business Network, Patrick estimated that 30 million illegal immigrants lived in the U.S.
LGBT rights
In 2014, after a federal court ruled that Texas' ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, Patrick expressed his opposition to same-sex marriage, and vowed to fight such court decisions should he be elected to the Lt. Governor's office. He argued that if the state ban was removed, then it would lead to the legalization of bigamy, pedophilia and incest.
Patrick strongly opposed HERO, an unsuccessful Houston ordinance intended to establish legal protections for gay and transgender residents along with some other classes, as he claimed that the ordinance would lead to sexual predators being freely able to enter women's restrooms. He has stated that if necessary, he would support legislation to require people to use the bathroom that corresponds to the gender listed on their birth certificates.
Hours after the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, Patrick tweeted a picture of the Bible verse, "Do not be deceived: God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows. Galatians 6:7." An adviser released a statement that the tweet had been pre-scheduled, and it was later deleted. He issued a statement on the incident, again stating that the tweet was pre-planned and that "I didn't pull down the FB post & tweet because God's word is wrong. His word is never wrong ... I took it down to stop the hateful comments and the misinformation being spread of God's message to all of us- straight or gay."
In May 2016, Patrick criticized the Obama administration after it released a directive stating that all public schools must allow transgender students to use the bathroom and locker facilities that correspond with their identified gender, stating that, on the prospect of the federal government withholding funding for Texas schools for not following the directive, "he can keep his 30 pieces of silver [and that w]e will not yield to blackmail from the president of the United States." In 2017, Patrick strongly advocated for a bathroom bill that would prohibit transgender students at public schools from using any restroom other than that of their biological sex. Patrick described the legislation as a "legislative priority." Patrick encouraged state Senator Lois Kolkhorst of Brenham to introduce a bathroom bill similar to a previous law adopted in 2016 in North Carolina, and strongly pushed for it at its proposal on January 5, 2017. Texas House Speaker Joe Straus of San Antonio, a moderate Republican, said that the measure is not an important matter for lower chamber.Bobby Cervantes, "Bathroom legislation now ready for debate: Bruising battle looms over transgender bill", San Antonio Express-News, January 6, 2016, pp. 1, A11
In April 2019, Patrick called Democratic presidential candidate Beto O'Rourke "light in the loafers", a slur often used to insinuate someone as gay, though O'Rourke is heterosexual. He also called O'Rourke a "moron." Patrick later stated that while he stood by his comments, the insinuation was unintentional.
Voting rights
In 2020, Patrick referred to vote-by-mail expansion efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic as a "scam by Democrats to steal the election."
In 2021, Patrick presided over the passage of legislation in the Texas Senate that restricted voting rights, including prohibiting local boards from sending applications for mail-in ballots to voters.
In 2022, Patrick's campaign sent out a mass mailing to Republican voters across Texas with inaccurate instructions on how to send requests for absentee ballots. The mailing included return envelopes that were addressed to the Texas secretary of state's address when they should have been to local election offices. Patrick's campaign defended the inaccurate instructions, saying it "gave voters an added layer of comfort" not to have to mail sent to "Blue County election officials."
Cannabis
In 2019, Patrick opposed a bill that would have decriminalized simple possession of cannabis in Texas. After the Texas House passed the bill, he announced that it was dead on arrival in the Senate.
In 2021, during an interview, Patrick expressed that he was open to some medical cannabis changes, while he downplayed the more ambitious efforts. He said: "We're not gonna turn this into California where anybody can get a slip from a doctor and go down to some retail store and say 'You know, I got a headache today so I need marijuana,' because that's just a veil for legalizing it for recreational use."
Domestic partner benefits
In November 2012, Patrick asked then-Texas attorney general Greg Abbott's office to issue an opinion on the constitutionality of government entities providing domestic partner insurance benefits. An amendment to the Texas Constitution in 2005 limits marriage to heterosexual relationships and prohibits similar, alternative legal arrangements. Patrick did not disclose his own views on same-sex marriage or civil unions for same-sex couples. He told the Houston Chronicle that his request was prompted by Dallas County's November 2012 decision and an Austin-area public school districts' October 2012 decision to join other Texas cities and counties in extending benefits to their unmarried employees' heterosexual or homosexual partners.
Statutory rape laws
Patrick was interviewed extensively on ABC's 20/20 segment "The Age of Consent: When Young Love Is a Sex Crime," defending his position on the strict Texas statutory rape laws. "While it seems unfair, he was 19, she was 15," says Patrick, "That's the price you pay. Even if you end up getting married."
Confederate monuments
Patrick is a strong supporter of maintaining Confederate monuments on public display, despite opposition from civil rights groups who consider the statues as a defense of the institution of slavery and of the Civil War. As one of six members of the board that oversees the Texas State Capitol grounds, Patrick described the need: "to learn from history all of our history, including events and times that many would like to forget. ... Our goal should be to have a meaningful dialogue for future generations so those moments in our history are not repeated."
COVID-19 pandemic
In an interview with Fox News host Tucker Carlson on March 23, 2020, Patrick stated that he was willing to risk his life from the COVID-19 pandemic if it would avoid an economic shutdown, which he stated would negatively impact subsequent generations. Patrick also stated that he thought many grandparents agreed with him on this. Patrick later moderated his rhetoric while continuing to show skepticism of shutting down the economy.
Patrick worked to increase access to hydroxychloroquine, an unproven drug to treat the coronavirus which President Trump promoted. On April 7, 2020, Patrick announced the creation of a task force to make recommendations on how to re-open Texas's economy.
Patrick again garnered controversy on April 21, when he defended his previous comments on the pandemic by saying "And what I said when I was with you that night, there are more important things than living. And that's saving this country for my children, and my grandchildren and saving this country for all of us. And I don't want to die, nobody wants to die, but man, we got to take some risks and get back in the game, and get this country back up and running."
In May 2020, Patrick paid a $7,000 fine imposed on a Dallas businesswoman after she defied Texas's lockdown orders in order to keep her hair salon open. He said, "Seven days in jail, no bail and a $7,000 fine is outrageous."
Video games
After the 2019 El Paso shooting, Patrick listed factors that he believed contributed to the shooting, starting off with video games, saying, "We've always had guns, always had evil, but I see a video game industry that teaches young people to kill."
Donald Trump
Patrick endorsed Texas Senator Ted Cruz for the 2016 Republican presidential primaries and served as his Texas campaign chairman. After Donald Trump became the Republican nominee, Patrick endorsed him and eventually became the Texas state chairman for his campaign. Trump won Texas by 9 percentage points, the closest result since 1996. In January 2018, Patrick stated that he considered Presidents Trump and Ronald Reagan as the two greatest presidents in his lifetime, and the Austin American-Statesman described Patrick as an "ardent defender" of Trump.
At a political rally for President Trump on October 17, 2019, Patrick told a crowd of 20,000 that liberals "are not our opponents, they are our enemy."
After Joe Biden won the 2020 election and Trump made false claims of fraud, Patrick backed Trump as he refused to concede. Patrick said he would pay up to $1 million for reports of voter fraud across the country. In October 2021, Patrick paid the first reward of $25,000 to a Pennsylvania poll worker who reported a man that voted twice.
Personal life
Patrick's first marriage ended in divorce. His second wife is Janetlea "Jan" Patricia Rankin, a former teacher. The couple was married in 1975 and lives in the Houston suburb of Cypress. They have two children, Ryan and Shane. Ryan served as a district judge from Harris County, Texas, and swore his father into office as the lieutenant governor in 2015. In July 2017, Ryan Patrick was chosen to be U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Texas by U.S. President Donald Trump, and the United States Senate subsequently confirmed him.
Religious views
While growing up, Patrick and his family were "not very religious." After moving to Houston, he and his wife attended a Catholic church, but he joined a Baptist church soon after learning about it. Though Patrick was a member of the Second Baptist Church Houston since 1992, he stated he was not truly a Christian until March 1994, when, on a television-and-radio convention in Las Vegas, he repented of his sins, committed his life to God, and was saved. After this, Patrick's faith became an important part of his life, and he considered going into Christian ministry for a time.
Patrick, an evangelical Christian, is a member of various Christian organizations, including Fellowship of Christian Athletes and the International Bible Society, and has served as guest pastor of his church, the Second Baptist Church Houston. He is very outspoken about his Christian faith, and he stated in his inauguration speech upon becoming lieutenant governor that "I respect all faiths and religions, but I am a Christian first, a conservative second and a Republican third, and I praise Jesus for this moment and this day." Patrick was baptized in the Jordan River during a trip to Israel in 2016.
Electoral history
2022
2018
2014
2010
2006
Works
Patrick, Dan (2002). The Second Most Important Book You Will Ever Read: A Personal Challenge to Read the Bible, Publisher: Thomas Nelson, Inc.,
The Heart of Texas (film). Heart Of Texas The Movie. Dan Patrick, Executive Producer. 2009 Plaid Shirt Pictures and Media Tech, Inc.
See also
References
External links
Lieutenant Governor of Texas Official state website
Dan Patrick campaign site
The Voice of Texas Foundation Dan Patrick for Texas Governor PAC
Texas Observer article, "Party Crasher"
Rice Thresher article, "Shock-jock senator tunes out left, turns off right"
CLOUT Patrick's political organization.
Lone Star Times, Weblog launched by Patrick, but no longer owned by or formally affiliated with him.
Chronically Biased, a website critical of the Houston Chronicle'' maintained by Patrick until 2005
|-
1950 births
21st-century American politicians
21st-century Baptists
Activists from Houston
American broadcasters
American Christian writers
American conservative talk radio hosts
American evangelicals
Baptists from Texas
Journalists from Houston
Lieutenant Governors of Texas
Living people
Politicians from Houston
Politicians from Baltimore
Tea Party movement activists
Republican Party Texas state senators
University of Maryland, Baltimore County alumni
Baptists from Maryland
Television personalities from Texas |
5259899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari%20Ben-Menashe | Ari Ben-Menashe | Ari Ben-Menashe (; born 4 December 1951) is an Israeli-Canadian businessman, security consultant, and author. He was previously an employee of Israel's Military Intelligence Directorate from 1977 to 1987, and an arms dealer. He lives in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and runs an international commodity exporting firm, Traeger Resources and Logistics Inc.
In 1989, Ben-Menashe was charged with attempting to sell three military aircraft to Iran in contravention of the U.S. Arms Export Control Act. After nearly a year in jail, he was acquitted.
Biography
Ari Ben-Menashe was born in Tehran, Iran and immigrated to Israel as a teenager. His parents were Iraqi Jews who settled in Tehran in 1945. He served in the Israel Defense Forces in signals intelligence from 1974 to 1977.
Intelligence career
In 1977, Ben-Menashe joined Israel's Military Intelligence Directorate. He later said, "I happened to be the right guy at the right time. I spoke Persian, Arabic, English. I knew the United States." In his book Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network Ben-Menashe said that following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, his Iranian background provided useful connections, with some of his school friends playing roles in the new government. These connections, Ben-Menashe said, led to his playing an intermediary role in the Israeli effort to sell arms to Iran and were close to the Israeli government decision to back the Reagan campaign's "October Surprise" efforts to ensure American hostages held by Iran and its allies were released on a timetable that strengthened Ronald Reagan and not the incumbent US President, Jimmy Carter.
Ben-Menashe served in the Military Intelligence Directorate until 1987, once under Moshe Hebroni, the deputy to the Directorate's Director, General Yehoshua Sagi. Hebroni told Craig Unger in 1992, "Ben-Menashe served directly under me.... He had access to very, very sensitive material."
In September 1986, Ben-Menashe gave information to Time correspondent Raji Samghabadi about the weapons shipments to Iran organised by Richard Secord, Oliver North and Albert Hakim, which later became known as the Iran–Contra affair. Time was unwilling to publish the allegations, and Ben-Menashe later passed the information to the Lebanese Ash-Shiraa, which published them on 3 November 1986, and soon led to congressional investigations. Samghabadi later said, "The information he gave me was earthshaking, and it was later corroborated by Congress." According to Ben-Menashe, the leaking was done on the orders of Likud's Yitzhak Shamir to embarrass his Labour Party rival, Shimon Peres, whose Labour party had criticized Shamir and Likud for secret activities such as arms operation to Iran.
1989 arrest
In November 1989, he was arrested in the United States for violating the Arms Export Control Act for trying to sell three Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to Iran using false end-user certificates. Ben-Menashe claimed that the Israeli government offered him a plea bargain. After realizing that Israel was not going to support him, Ben-Menashe began to give interviews to journalists from prison on matters including his role in the October Surprise and its links with the Iran–Contra affair.
Then, Israel sought to discredit him, with efforts including an "authoritative source" telling The Jerusalem Post (27 March 1990) that "the Defence establishment 'never had any contacts with Ari Ben-Menashe and his activities.'" The claims were dropped after Ben-Menashe provided Newsweeks Robert Parry with employment references from Israeli intelligence sources. After almost a year in prison, he was acquitted on 28 November 1990, with a jury accepting that he had acted on behalf of Israel. During his trial, Ben-Menashe's passport was presented as another piece of evidence that he was more than just a low-level Persian translator for the Israeli Defense Forces. The passport documented travel all over the world including Peru, Chile, Guatemala, and multiple points in Asia and Europe. Ben-Menashe's lawyer asked the jury rhetorically, "They need a Persian translator in Chile?" He then stated, "That doesn't make any sense." Former Time correspondent Raji Samghabadi, to whom Ben-Menashe had given details on the Iran–Contra affair before they became public, proved a key defense witness. Samghabadi testified that Ben-Menashe had told him about the US and Israeli arms deals, which would become the foundation of the Iran–Contra Affair, several months before the story broke in the Lebanese newspaper Ash-Shiraa, which indicated that he had high-level inside knowledge of Israeli affairs.
With Ben-Menashe's claims remaining in the public eye, in early 1991 The New Republics Steven Emerson traveled to Israel and, on his return, described Ben-Menashe as merely a "low-level translator" even though the references described Ben-Menashe as working in "key positions" and handling "complex and sensitive assignments." Parry later wrote that other documents confirmed Ben-Menashe's travels: "Ben-Menashe's passports and other documents revealed that he had traveled extensively with frequent trips to Latin America, Eastern Europe, the United States and elsewhere, not exactly the record of the stay-at-home, low-level translator that Israel was trying to sell to me and other journalists." Emerson also published his claims in other outlets, and Newsweek (which Parry had left in June 1990) also attacked Ben-Menashe. In 1992, however, Moshe Hebroni, the deputy director of the Military Intelligence Directorate, told Craig Unger that Ben-Menashe had worked directly with him and had access to sensitive material.
Public claims
In 1990 and 1991, Ben-Menashe said that he had been personally involved in Iran in order to assist the Reagan's presidential campaign with its October surprise of preventing the American hostages from being released before the 1980 election. He also gave Seymour Hersh information about Israel's nuclear program, which was published in Hersh's book The Samson Option. Ben-Menashe then fled to Australia and, in his application for refugee status, declared himself a victim of persecution of the Israeli and US governments. For his return to the US in May 1991 to testify to Congress, the journalist Robert Parry received a tip from an intelligence source that the US was planning to divert Ben-Menashe to Israel, where Ben-Menashe feared that he would be charged for revealing official secrets. With a delay to Ben-Menashe's flight, congressional investigators were able to extract assurances from the US government.
In December 1991, Ben-Menashe's appeal against a refusal by Australia to grant him refugee status failed. He left Australia and eventually settled in Canada. 1993 he married a Canadian woman and moved to Montreal; three years later he gained Canadian citizenship.
In 1992, Ben-Menashe published a book about his involvement in the Iran–Contra Affair and intelligence operations on behalf of Israeli intelligence in Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.–Israeli Arms Network. Rafi Eitan, Israeli spy and Begin's counter-terrorism advisor, told author Gordon Thomas, who wrote Gideon's Spies, that Eitan had worked with Ben-Menashe on setting up the US–Israeli network for covertly supplying arms to Iran and had collaborated with Ben-Menashe on using Prosecutor's Management Information System (PROMIS) for espionage. Sent a copy of Ben-Menashe's book, Eitan said he had no criticism of it and added that Ben-Menashe "is telling the truth.... That's why they squashed it."
When Robert McFarlane, President Reagan's national security adviser, sued the book's publisher Sheridan Square Press (founded by William Schaap and Ellen Ray in New York), for libeling him, Sheridan Square lost its financial backers and was forced to shut down.
Robert Maxwell
Ben-Menashe claimed that Robert Maxwell, the owner of Mirror Group newspapers in the United Kingdom, was a Mossad agent and that Maxwell had tipped off the Israeli embassy in 1986 about the Israeli nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu after Vanunu and a friend approached the Sunday Mirror and The Sunday Times in London with a story about Israel's nuclear capability. Vanunu was subsequently lured by Mossad from London to Rome, kidnapped, returned to Israel, and sentenced to 18 years in jail. According to Ben-Menashe, the Daily Mirrors foreign editor, Nicholas Davies, worked for the Mossad and was involved in the Vanunu affair. No British newspaper would publish the Maxwell allegations because of his litigiousness reputation. However, Ben-Menashe was used as a key source by Pulitzer Prize-winning The New York Times journalist Seymour Hersh for his book about Israel's nuclear weapons, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy, published in Britain in 1991 by Faber and Faber. Hersh included the allegations about Maxwell, Davies, and Vanunu in the book. Davies's former wife, Janet Fielding, also confirmed in the book that she knew Ben-Menashe was an Israeli intelligence operative and that Menashe and Davies were business partners in an arms company, which was involved in the sale of arms for Israel to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War. When Hersh asked Fielding whether she knew Ben-Menashe was an Israeli intelligence operative, she responded, "It wasn't difficult to put two and two together. Do you think I'm bloody stupid? I shut my ears and walked [out of the marriage with Davies]."
On October 21, 1991, two Members of Parliament, Labour MP George Galloway and Conservative MP Rupert Allason (who writes spy novels under the pseudonym Nigel West) agreed to raise the issue in the House of Commons, which enabled newspapers to claim parliamentary privilege and to report the allegations. Davies was subsequently fired from the Daily Mirror for gross misconduct. Maxwell issued a writ for libel against Faber and Faber as well as Hersh and allegedly told Davies that the Mirror editor had threatened to resign if Davies was not fired but that he would get his job back when the dust settled.
Two weeks later, on November 5, 1991, Maxwell fell from his yacht, the Lady Ghislaine. Ben-Menashe claimed that Maxwell had been assassinated by Mossad for trying to blackmail it.
On November 12, Matthew Evans, the chairman of Faber and Faber, called a press conference in London to say he had evidence that Ben-Menashe was telling the truth about Davies. Evans read out a statement from Hersh, who said he had documentation showing meetings between Davies, unnamed Mossad officers, and "Cindy" (Cheryl Bentov), the woman who lured Vanunu to Rome. Evans and Hersh were later shown to have themselves been the subject of a sting operation by Joe Flynn, Fleet Street's most celebrated con man. Evans had met Flynn in Amsterdam and paid him £1,200 for the forged documents.
October Surprise
Ben-Menashe testified in 1991 that he had personally witnessed George HW Bush attend a meeting with members of the Iranian government in Paris in October 1980, as part of a covert Republican Party operation to have the 52 U.S hostages held in Iran remain there until President Jimmy Carter, who was negotiating their release, had lost the 1980 presidential election to Ronald Reagan. Time called him a "spinner of tangled yarns," and ABC News claimed he failed a lie-detector test: on a scale of reliability from zero to minus eight, he scored minus eight or minus seven on major questions. In 1992, the American journalist Craig Unger of The Village Voice wrote: "Ari has put five or six dozen journalists from all over the world through roughly the same paces. His seduction begins with a display of his mastery of the trade craft of the legendary Israeli intelligence services. A roll of quarters handy for furtive phone calls, he navigates the back channels that tie the spooks at Langley to their counterparts in Tel Aviv. His astute analysis and mind-boggling revelations can stir even the most jaded old hand of the Middle East.... Listen to him, trust him, print his story verbatim—then sit round and watch your career go up in flames."
In its report published January 3, 1993, the House October Surprise Task Force investigating the "October surprise" allegations stated, "Ben-Menashe's testimony is impeached by documents and is riddled with inconsistencies and factual misstatements which undermine his credibility. Based on the documentary evidence available, the Task Force has determined that Ben-Menashe's account of the October meetings, like his other October Surprise allegations, is a total fabrication."
Business career
Personal and business controversies
Ben-Menashe moved to Sydney, Australia, in 1992, then to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he married a Canadian woman and became a citizen. He was arrested in 2002 during acrimonious divorce proceedings and charged with assault, following complaints by his wife and mother-in-law, but he was subsequently acquitted. He set up Carlington Sales Canada Corporation, which was accused of taking payments for shipments of grain that allegedly never materialized, according to Canada's National Post (July 25, 2005). Ben-Menashe's American business partner, Alexander Legault, was arrested in October 2008 while he was being deported back into the United States after a failed refugee claim in Canada. He had been wanted on $10,000,000 bond by the FBI since 1986 on charges of racketeering, conspiracy, organized fraud, mail fraud, and unregulated security in Florida and Louisiana.
Documents obtained in 2002 by Canadian journalists under Canada's freedom of information legislation show that Ben-Menashe had a relationship with the Canadian government: "over 400 pages showing Ben-Menashe was regularly de-briefed by Canadian intelligence officers, plumbed about what he knew of the inner workings of the governments he was involved with."
Zimbabwe
Ben-Menashe again came to the attention of the international media in 2002, when he alleged that Morgan Tsvangirai, the leader of Zimbabwe's opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change, had asked him to help "eliminate" President Robert Mugabe. Ben-Menashe produced a videotape of conversations between himself and Tsvangirai in London, England, and Montreal, where the latter appeared to ask for Ben-Menashe's help as a political consultant. Unknown to Tsvangirai, Ben-Menashe's Montreal consultancy firm at the time, Dickens and Madson, was working for Mugabe, and tapes of the ambiguous conversation were passed to the Zimbabwean authorities, which charged Tsvangirai with treason, which is punishable by death in that country.
Tsvangirai was put on trial for treason before the Harare High Court but was exonerated in October 2004 after the judge accepted he had not used the word "eliminate" to mean that he wanted Mugabe to be assassinated. Judge Paddington Garwe described Ben-Menashe, who was the prosecution's star witness, as "rude, unreliable, and contemptuous."
Ben-Menashe was hired by Paul Le Roux, an international drug lord and DEA informant born in the former Rhodesia to lobby the Zimbabwe government to grant leases to Zimbabwean farmlands. The lands would then be subleased to white farmers dislodged by previous land reform in Zimbabwe. Ben-Menashe received more than US$14 million from Le-Roux.
Soybeans
In June 2005, Alexander Vassiliev of Sonox International, a Florida-based food export company, told the National Post that he had wired a deposit of US$336,000 to Ben-Menashe's former company, Albury Grain Sales, which undertook to ship 12,000 tonnes of soybeans from North America to a Sonox agent in Uzbekistan. Vassiliev alleged that the soybeans did not arrive. The case went to court and was dismissed and then referred to arbitration, where it was again dismissed. Alexander Vassiliev said that he simply ran out of money for lawyers.
Firebombing
In December 2012, Ben-Menashe's lavish home in Montreal was badly damaged by a firebomb. According to the National Post, Ben-Menashe suggested, "Someone had been out to get him."
Sudan
Ben-Menashe's Montreal based lobbying firm was hired by Sudanese General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo in a $6 million deal. The firm, Dickens & Madson Inc, signed a deal offering to seek government recognition, funding, and "striving to obtain funding and equipment for the Sudanese military" with General Dagalo. Dagalo's forces carried out the Khartoum massacre in which more than 100 protesters were killed.
Myanmar
He was also hired by Tatmadaw the military junta ruling Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état pushing unverified claims that the goal of the coup was to move Myanmar out of China's orbit in an attempt to rebrand the globally condemned regime.
Publications
Ari Ben-Menashe: Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network, New York, Sheridan Square Press 1992 (USA) . (First published 23 October 1992 by Allen & Unwin Australia Pty Ltd)
References
Further reading
"Journalist defends Tsvangirai tape", CNN, February 26, 2002.
"Harry Martin and Propaganda Techniques", Political Research Associates, undated.
Ben-Menashe strikes again, The Review, Australia/Israel and Jewish Affairs Council, March 2002.
Joint report of the Task Force to Investigate Certain Allegations Concerning the Holding of American Hostages by Iran in 1980 ("October Surprise Task Force"), US GPO, 1993, pp 97–99
Cohen, Julie: "Who Will Unwrap the October Surprise?", Columbia Journalism Review, September 1991.
Danby, Michael: "Of Liars and Lives", The Review, Australia/Israel and Jewish Affairs Council, April 2003
Davies, Nick: The Unknown Maxwell - his astonishing secret lives revealed by his aide and close companion. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1992.
Harris, Paul; Burke, Jason: "Mugabe men's blood gems", The Observer, March 3, 2002.
Hersh, Seymour: The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy, 1991.
Hutchinson, Brian; Hamilton, Graeme: "Montreal's 'man of infamy'", National Post, June 25, 2005.
Mallo, Sean: Fact or fiction? The claims of Ari Ben-Menashe, The Green Left Weekly, February 5, 1992.
Unger, Craig: "The trouble with Ari," The Village Voice, July 1992.
Unger, Craig: Saving the Saudis, Vanity Fair, October 1, 2003.
Weinberg, Steve : , Columbia Journalism Review, March 1992.
Living people
Businesspeople from Tehran
1951 births
Iranian Jews
Iranian emigrants to Israel
Israeli Jews
Historians of espionage
Israeli non-fiction writers
Israeli emigrants to Canada
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Jewish Canadian writers
Canadian businesspeople |
72120652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sz%C3%A9kelys | List of Székelys | This is a list of notable Székelys (a Hungarian subgroup living mostly in the Székely Land in Romania, estimated to number about 500,000–700,000 as of 2022) and of people of Székely descent, sorted by field and name:
Athletes
Francisc Balla (born 1932), freestyle wrestler, won silver medals at the 1965 and 1967 World Wrestling Championships and a silver medal (1967) and bronze medal (1968) at the European Wrestling Championships
Mihály Bodosi (1909 – 2005), athlete, competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics
László Bölöni (born 1953), Romanian football player and manager of Hungarian ethnicity
Zsolt Erőss (1968 – 2013), mountain climber
Réka Forika (born 1989), Romanian biathlete of Hungarian ethnicity, won a gold medal at the Biathlon Junior World Championships 2010
Csaba Györffy (1943 – 2018), Romanian international footballer
Mónika György (born 1982), Romanian cross-country skier of Hungarian ethnicity
Kálmán Hazai (1913 – 1996), water polo player, won a gold medal at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Ferenc Ilyés (born 1981), Hungarian international handball player
Emil Imre (born 1996), Romanian short track speed skater of Hungarian ethnicity, won a gold medal at the 2013 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival
Kriszta Incze (born 1996), freestyle wrestler, won a silver medal at the 2019 European Championships, a bronze medal at the 2021 European Championships, a bronze medal at the 2022 European Championships, and another bronze medal at the 2019 European Games
Zoltán Kádár (born 1966), Romanian international football player of Hungarian ethnicity
Zoltán Kelemen (born 1986), Romanian figure skater
Lajos Keresztes (1900 – 1978), wrestler, won a gold medal at the 1928 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Katalin Kristó (born 1983), Romanian short track speed skater of Hungarian ethnicity
Csaba László (born 1964), Romanian-Hungarian professional football manager
Márton Lőrincz (1911 – 1969), wrestler, won a gold medal at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Tímea Lőrincz (born 1992), Romanian cross-country skier of Hungarian ethnicity
Edit Matei (born 1964), Austrian-Romanian international handball player
Edit Miklós (born 1988), Hungarian-Romanian World Cup alpine ski racer of Hungarian ethnicity; she began skiing at age five, participating in World Cup races for children by the age of 12, and making her World Cup debut in December 2005 at age 17
Endre Molnár (born 1945), water polo player, won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics, as well as a silver medal at the 1972 Summer Olympics, a bronze medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics, and another bronze medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Roland Niczuly (born 1995), Romanian professional football player, captain of Sepsi OSK
Carol-Eduard Novak (born 1976), Romanian road and track racing cyclist of Hungarian ethnicity
Tibor Selymes (born 1970), Romanian international football player
Iozefina Ștefănescu (1932 – 2015), Romanian handball player
Ecaterina Szabo (born 1967), artistic gymnast, won 20 Olympic, world and continental medals, including four Olympic golds
Éva Székely (1927 – 2020), swimmer, won a gold medal at the 1952 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1956 Summer Olympics
Bernadette Szőcs (born 1995), Romanian professional table tennis player
Emőke Szőcs (born 1985), Romanian-born biathlonist
Éva Tófalvi (born 1978), Romanian biathlete of Hungarian ethnicity
Maria Török-Duca (born 1959), professional handball player and manager, regarded by some as the greatest Romanian playmaker of all time
Levente Vajda (born 1981), chess player, Grandmaster
Szidonia Vajda (born 1979), chess player, with FIDE titles of International Master and Woman Grandmaster
Lajos Vákár (1910 – 1993), ice hockey player and coach
Science and Humanities
János Apáczai Csere (1625 – 1659), polyglot, pedagogist, philosopher and theologian
Márton Balázs (1929 – 2016), Romanian mathematician of Hungarian descent
Albert-László Barabási (born 1967), Romanian-born Hungarian-American physicist, known for his discoveries in network science and network medicine
Ákos Birtalan (1962 – 2011), economist and politician
Péter Bod (1712 – 1768), theologian and historian
Farkas Bolyai (1775 – 1856), mathematician
János Bolyai (1802 – 1860), mathematician who developed absolute geometry
László Borbély (born 1954), economist and politician
Edmond Bordeaux Szekely (1905 – 1979), philologist, linguist, psychologist
Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (1784 – 1842), philologist and Orientalist
Endre Fülei-Szántó (1924 – 1995), linguist, author and professor
György Frunda (born 1951), jurist and politician
Erasmus Julius Nyárády (1881 – 1966), botanist
Tivadar Puskás (1844 – 1893), inventor, telephone pioneer, and inventor of the telephone exchange
István Szamosközy (1570 – 1612), humanist and historian
Gyula Vályi (1855 – 1913), mathematician and theoretical physicist
Attila Verestóy (1954 – 2018), chemical engineer and politician
Musicians
Bíborka Bocskor (born 1982), singer and songwriter
Boldizsár Csiky (born 1937), composer
Annamari Dancs (born 1981), singer
János Koós (1937 – 2019), pop singer
Kálmán Mihalik (1896 – 1922), physician and composer, set the music for Székely himnusz
Imre Palló (1891 – 1978), baritone, opera house manager
Anne Roselle (1894 – 1989), opera singer and actress
Artists
Miklós Barabás (1810 – 1898), painter
Attila Bartis (born 1968), writer, photographer, dramatist and journalist
André de Dienes (1913 – 1985), photographer, noted for his work with Marilyn Monroe
Manyi Kiss (1911 – 1971), theater and film actress
Róza Laborfalvi (1817 – 1886), theater actress, noblewoman
Louis C.K. (born 1967), American comedian of Hungarian origin
Ferenc Márton (1884 – 1940), painter
János Mattis-Teutsch (1884 – 1960), painter, sculptor, graphic artist, art critic and poet, father of Székely origins
Imre Nagy (1893 – 1976), painter
István Nagy (1873 – 1937), artist who specialized in landscapes and figure painting
Bertalan Székely (1835 – 1910), history and portrait painter
Gábor Tompa (born 1957), theater and film director
Writers
Gloria Álvarez (born 1985), radio and television presenter, author, and libertarian political commentator, mother of Székely origin
Olga Bede (1908 – 1925), writer
Elek Benedek (1859 – 1929), journalist and writer
Domokos Bölöni (born 1946), writer and journalist
György Csanády (1895 – 1952), poet, journalist and radio director, the author of Székely himnusz
György Dragomán (born 1973), author and translator
György Enyedi (1555 – 1597), Unitarian bishop, moderator, and writer
Sándor Bölöni Farkas (1795 – 1842), writer
Attila György (born 1971), writer, journalist, literary editor
Sándor Kányádi (1929 – 2018), poet and translator, one of the most famous and beloved Hungarian poets in his lifetime
Kelemen Mikes (1690 – 1761), political figure and essayist
József Nyírő (1889 – 1953), writer of popular short stories and novels
Balázs Orbán (1829 – 1890), author, ethnographic collector, parliamentarian, correspondent member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Erno Polgar (1954 – 2018), writer, nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2017
Dávid Baróti Szabó (1739 – 1819), poet, linguist, Jesuit priest and teacher
Géza Szőcs (1953 – 2020), poet and politician
Áron Tamási (1897 – 1966), Hungarian writer, famous for his stories written in original Székely style
Military
János Czetz (1822 – 1904), military commander
György Dózsa (1470 – 1514), man-at-arms
Áron Gábor (1814 – 1849), artillery officer
Albert Király (fl. 1595), military leader
Vilmos Nagy de Nagybaczon (1884 – 1976), commanding general of the Royal Hungarian Army, Hungarian Minister of Defense, military theorist and historian
Moses Székely (c. 1553 – 1603), nobleman and military leader
Politicians
József Dudás (1912 – 1957), politician and resistance fighter
Sámuel Kálnoky (1640 – 1706), Chancellor of Transylvania
Attila Kelemen (1948 – 2022), Romanian politician and Member of the European Parliament
Hunor Kelemen (born 1967), politician and writer
Károly Király (1930 – 2021), politician
Elek Köblös (1887 – 1938), activist and political leader
Vasile Luca (1898 – 1963), Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian and Soviet politician of Székely origin
Béla Markó (born 1951), Romanian politician
Imre Mikó (1805 – 1876), statesman, politician, economist, historian and patron
Zsolt Nagy (born 1971), Romanian politician of Hungarian ethnicity
László Rajk (1909 – 1949), politician, Hungarian Minister of Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs
Barna Tánczos (born 1976), politician
Lóránt Vincze (born 1977), politician
Other
Attila Ambrus (born 1967), bank robber
Florence Baker (1841 – 1916), explorer
Zoltán Dani (born 1956), Yugoslav army officer, father of Székely origin
Sándor Demján (1943 – 2018), businessman, entrepreneur, the second richest person in Hungary according to Forbes
Gergely Kovács (born 1968), archbishop of the Archdiocese of Alba Iulia.
Áron Márton (1896 – 1980), Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Alba Iulia
Moses Székely the Younger (1603 – c. 1658), nobleman, Prince of Transylvania
See also
List of Hungarians
References
Lists of people by nationality
Székelys |
1522692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rivers%20of%20Austria | List of rivers of Austria | This is a list of rivers (or tributaries thereof) at least partially located in Austria. Nearly all of Austria is drained by the Danube into the Black Sea; the rest flow into the North Sea. Rivers are listed twice, first by basin, then alphabetically.
Within basins, rivers that flow into the sea are listed alphabetically. Rivers that flow into other rivers are sorted by the proximity of their points of confluence to the sea (the lower in the list, the more upstream). Rivers which themselves do not flow through Austria, but have tributaries that do so (e.g. Vltava) are listed in italics. The Austrian namens are given in brackets, (e.g. Rhine (Rhein)).
By basin
Draining into the Black Sea
Danube (Donau) (in Sulina, Romania)
Drava (Drau) (near Osijek, Croatia)
Mur (near Legrad, Croatia)
Ledava (near Muraszemenye, Hungary)
Sulm (south of Leibnitz, between Retznei and Obervogau)
Kainach (in Wildon)
Mürz (in Bruck an der Mur)
Pesnica (Pößnitz) (near Ormož, Slovenia, Hungary)
Meža (Mieß) (near Dravograd, Slovenia)
Lavant (at Lavamünd)
Gurk (near Völkermarkt)
Glan (near Klagenfurt)
Glanfurt (near Ebenthal)
Metnitz (near Althofen)
Gail (in Villach)
Gailitz (at Arnoldstein)
Möll (near Möllbrücke)
Gailbach (at Strassen)
Rába (Raab) (near Győr, Hungary)
Pinka (in Körmend, Hungary)
Lafnitz (in Szentgotthárd, Hungary)
Rabnitzbach (in Gleisdorf)
Rabnitz (near Győr, Hungary)
(near Rábcakapi, Hungary)
Wulka (into Lake Neusiedl)
Leitha (near Mosonmagyaróvár, Hungary)
Schwarza (converging at Haderswörth in the parish of Lanzenkirchen)
Pitten (converging at Haderswörth in the parish of Lanzenkirchen)
Morava (March) (in Bratislava-Devin, Slovakia)
Thaya (near Hohenau)
German Thaya (Deutsche Thaya) (converging at Raabs an der Thaya)
Moravian Thaya (Mährische Thaya) (converging at Raabs an der Thaya)
Fischa (in Fischamend)
Piesting (in Gramatneusiedl)
Myrabach (in Pernitz)
Schwechat or Schwachat (at Schwechat)
Triesting (at Achau)
Liesing
Wien (in Vienna)
(into Vienna's severage)
Arbesbach (in Vienna)
Gießgraben (into an old branch of the Danube near Utzenlaa, Königsbrunn am Wagram)
Traisen (in Grafenwörth)
Gölsen (in Traisen)
Krems (Lower Austria) (in Grafenwörth)
Kamp (in Grafenwörth)
Erlauf (in Pöchlarn)
Ybbs (in Ybbs an der Donau)
Gießenbach (between Grein and Sankt Nikola an der Donau)
Aist (between Mauthausen and Au an der Donau, Naarn im Machlande)
Enns (in Enns)
Steyr (in Steyr)
Erzbach (in Hieflau)
Salza (in , Landl)
Northern Taurach (near Radstadt)
Gusen (at Langenstein)
Traun (in Linz)
Krems (Upper Austria) (in Traun)
Alm (near Lambach)
Laudach (north of Vorchdorf)
Ager (in Lambach)
Aurach (at Wankham)
Vöckla (at Vöcklabruck)
Dürre Ager (at Timelkam, Vöcklabruck)
Fornacher Redlbach (west of Vöcklamarkt)
Seeache (into the Attersee that is drained by the Ager)
Zeller Ache (into the Mondsee which is drained by the Seeache)
Zeller Bach (into the Irrsee which is drained by the Zeller Ache)
Innbach (in Wilhering)
Aschach (near Alkoven)
Ranna (in Rannamühl (Pfarrkirchen im Mühlkreis))
Inn (in Passau, Germany)
Lindenbach (at Wernstein am Inn)
Antiesen (near Antiesenhofen)
Oberach (near Ried im Innkreis)
Hartbach (east of Obernberg am Inn)
Salzach (in Haiming, Germany)
Saalach (in Freilassing, Germany)
Grabenbach (at Bad Reichenhall, Germany)
Weißbach (at Bad Reichenhall, Germany)
Steinbach (between Schneizlreuth, Germany, and Unken)
Leoganger Ache (northwest of Saalfelden)
Fischach (near Bergheim)
Klausbach (in Elsbethen)
Berchtesgadener Ache (near Anif)
Almbach (in Hallein)
Taugl (into the lake )
Lammer (at Golling an der Salzach)
Fuscher Ache (at Bruck an der Großglocknerstraße)
Krimmler Ache (in , Wald im Pinzgau)
Alz (in Marktl, Germany)
Traun (near Altenmarkt an der Alz, Germany)
Weiße Traun (confluence with the Rote Traun near Siegsdorf, Germany)
Fischbach (Weiße Traun) (confluence with the Seetraun near Ruhpolding, Germany)
Chiemsee (in Seebruck, Germany)
Tiroler Achen (in Grabenstätt, Germany)
Großache (in St. Johann in Tirol)
Schwarzlofer (near Kössen)
Brunnbach (between Kössen and Kirchdorf in Tirol)
Kieferbach (near Kiefersfelden, Germany)
Kaiserbach (in Kufstein)
Weißache (in Kufstein)
Brixentaler Ache (near Wörgl)
Kelchsauer Ache (in Hopfgarten)
Windauer Ache (in Hopfgarten)
Brandenberger Ache (in Rattenberg)
Ziller (in Münster)
Vomperbach (between Vomp and Terfens)
Wattenbach (near Wattens)
Mölsbach (confluence with the Lizumbach)
Lizumbach (confluence with the Mölsbach)
Fallbach (Inn, Baumkirchen) (at Baumkirchen)
Weißenbach (at Mils)
Lanser Bach (in Innsbruck)
Aldranser Bach (in Innsbruck)
Sistranser Bach (in Innsbruck)
Sill (in Innsbruck)
Ruetz (near the Europa Bridge)
Viggarbach (near Schönberg)
Navisbach (north of Steinach am Brenner)
Gschnitzbach (at Steinach am Brenner)
Obernberger Seebach (at Gries am Brenner)
Mühlauer Bach (in , a district of Innsbruck)
Tuffbach (in Innsbruck)
Weiherburgbach (in Innsbruck)
Fallbach (Inn, Innsbruck) (in Innsbruck)
Höttinger Bach (in Innsbruck)
Lohbach (in Innsbruck)
Geroldsbach (in the district of Innsbruck)
Melach (between Unterperfuss and Kematen in Tirol)
Fotscherbach (in Sellrain)
Schlossbach (in Zirl)
Ötztaler Ache (east of Imst)
Pitze (near Imst)
Gurglbach (near Imst)
Sanna (at Landeck)
Isar (near Deggendorf, Germany)
Ammer (in Moosburg, Germany)
Linder (near Oberammergau, Germany)
Fischbach (Linder) (confluence with the Neualmbach between Oberammergau, Germany and Reutte)
Neualmbach, also called Neualpbach (confluence with the Fischbach between Oberammergau, Germany and Reutte)
Loisach (in Wolfratshausen, Germany)
Rißbach (in , Lenggries, Germany)
Leutascher Ache (near Mittenwald, Germany)
Gleirschbach (at the exit of the Hinterau valley)
Lech (near Donauwörth, Germany)
Vils (near Füssen, Germany)
Archbach (in Pflach)
Iller (in Ulm, Germany)
Breitach (near Oberstdorf, Germany)
Draining into the North Sea
Elbe (near Cuxhaven, Germany)
Vltava (Moldau) (in Mělník, Czech Republic)
Lužnice (Lainsitz) (in Týn nad Vltavou, Czech Republic)
Malše (Maltsch) (in České Budějovice, Czech Republic)
Rhine (Rhein) (main branch at Hook of Holland, Netherlands)
Bregenzer Ach (into Lake Constance in Bregenz)
Weißach (near Doren)
Bolgenach (at Krumbach)
Leckner Ach (east of Hittisau)
Subersach (below Egg)
Dornbirner Ach (into Lake Constance near Bregenz)
Leiblach (into Lake Constance between Lindau, Germany and Lochau)
Frutz (at Koblach)
Ill (near Feldkirch)
Samina (at Frastanz)
Galina (between Frastanz and Feldkirch)
Meng (at Nenzing)
Gampbach (near Nenzing)
Alvier (at Bürs)
Alfenz (east of Bludenz)
Litz (in Schruns)
Gaflunerbach
Alphabetical list
Ager, Aist, Aldranser Bach, Alfenz, Alm, Almbach, Alvier, Antiesen, Arbesbach, Archbach, Aschach, Aurach, Berchtesgadener Ache, Bolgenach, Brandenberger Ache, Bregenzer Ach, Breitach, Brixentaler Ache, Brunnbach, Danube, Dornbirner Ach, Drava, Dürre Ager, Enns, Erlauf, Erzbach, Fallbach (Inn, Innsbruck), Fallbach (Inn, Baumkirchen), Fischa, Fischach, Fischbach (Linder), Fischbach (Weiße Traun), Fornacher Redlbach, Fotscherbach, Frutz, Fuscher Ache, Gaflunerbach, Gail, Gailbach, Gailitz, Galina, Gampbach, German Thaya, Geroldsbach, Gießenbach, Gießgraben, Glan, Glanfurt, Gleirschbach, Gölsen, Großache, Gschnitzbach, Gurglbach, Gurk, Gusen, Hartbach, Höttinger Bach, Ill, Inn, Innbach, Isar, Kainach, Kaiserbach, Kamp, Kelchsauer Ache, Kieferbach, Kitzbühler Ache, Klausbach, Krems (Lower Austria), Krems (Upper Austria), Krimmler Ache, , Lafnitz, Lammer, Lanser Bach, Laudach, Lavant, Lech, Leckner Ach, Ledava, Leiblach, Leitha, Leoganger Ache, Leutascher Ache, Lindenbach, Litz, Lizumbach, Lohbach, Loisach, Lužnice, Malše, Melach, Meng, Metnitz, Mieß, Möll, Mölsbach, Morava, Moravian Thaya, Mühlauer Bach, Mur, Mürz, Myrabach, Navisbach, Neualmbach (also called Neualpbach), Northern Taurach, Oberach, Obernberger Seebach, Ötztaler Ache, Pesnica, Piesting, Pinka, Pitten, Pitze, Rába, Rabnitzbach, Ranna, Rhine, Rißbach, Ruetz, Saalach, Salza, Salzach, Samina, Sanna, Schlossbach, Schwarza, Schwarzlofer, Schwechat, Seeache, Sill, Sistranser Bach, Steinbach, Steyr, Subersach, Sulm, Taugl, Thaya, Tiroler Achen, Traisen, Traun, Triesting, Tuffbach, Viggarbach, Vils, Vöckla, Vomperbach, Wattenbach, Weiherburgbach, Weißach, Weißache, Weißbach, Weißenbach, Wien, Windauer Ache, Wulka, Ybbs, Zeller Ache, Zeller Bach, Ziller
Austria
Rivers |
49678744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ename | Ename | Ename is a Belgian village in the Flemish province of East Flanders. It stands on the right side of the river Scheldt and it is part of the municipality of Oudenaarde.
The territory was inhabited during Prehistoric and Roman times, and became a trade settlement during the 10th century. From the 11th century it was part of the domain of the Benedictine abbey of Saint Salvator, until its 1795 dissolution in the aftermath of the French Revolution.
The remains of the Saint Salvator abbey are today part of a major heritage project in Flanders, established by the Province of East-Flanders. The Provincial Archaeological Museum of Ename displays the major finds that have been excavated on the abbey site.
Today the village of Ename hosts the Museumnacht in July and the Feeste t' Ename with the traditional horse market that has been held for centuries during the celebrations of the patron hallow Saint Laurentius, on the 10th of August.
History
Early history
The human presence in this area dates back to more than 5000 years ago. Human activity in this region can be traced back to the middle-neolithicum....
Roman time
Ename was close to the major Roman road that led from Boulogne-sur-Mer to Cologne and the road that, from Bavay, went northwards toward Ghent. The site was used for agriculture. Small fragments of Roman pottery from the 1st and 2nd century AD were found underneath Saint Laurentius church. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, after the invasion by German Tribes, these territories were used for agriculture. They were then abandoned for two centuries before agricultural activity was resumed.
Middle Ages
In early medieval Frankish times, the territory of Ename was under the control of the Saint Peter's abbey of Ghent. It was part of the villa Ehinham, a rural domain whose centre was in the nearby village of Nederename.
Shortly before the year 1000, it was transformed into an important trade settlement and military stronghold. After the Frankish king Otto I was proclaimed emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope John XII in 962, he tried to strengthen his grip on his vast empire. His policy consisted in assigning strategic areas of his empire to men whose loyalty was proven. For this reason he assigned to count Godfrey of Verdun, a member of his family who had both Carolingian and Ottonian roots, the border zone along the river Scheldt.
In 963, Godfrey married Mathilda of Saxony, daughter of Herman Billung, duke of Saxony and right hand of the emperor. She had previously been married to the count of Flanders, Baldwin III, who had died of smallpox in 962. Probably as a wedding gift, the emperor gave Mathilda some properties on the border zones and among them were Ename and Velzeke.
Godfrey ruled the county of Biest (comitatus Biest), one of the four counties which formed the pagus Bracbatensis. It extended southwards from the row of hills around the city of Ronse, to the cities of Ghent and Dendermonde in the north.
Godfrey and Mathilda initially must have ruled from Velzeke, while they created a trade center with a harbor in Ename, due to its advantageous economic position at the Scheldt. The river marked the border between the Ottonian Empire and the county of Flanders, which was why Ename had also a strategic military position. They probably moved to Ename from 993, and around 995 Godfrey and Matilda built there a keep surrendered by a walled castrum. A stone church dedicated to Saint Salvator was built for the trade settlement and a larger church dedicated to Saint Laurentius was erected in the nearby village.
With the death of Henry II in 1024 there were no direct heirs to the imperial crown: he was the last member of the Ottonian dynasty. His successor, Conrad II, belonged to the Salian dynasty. Once crowned, he surrounded himself with loyal noblemen. The territories of the family of Verdun were then given to the family of Hainaut, and Ename lost his central role. Tensions between the empire and the county of Flanders increased at the beginning of the 11th century. In 1033, the count of Flanders Baldwin IV, conquered Ename. He was not able to keep it for long time; nevertheless, he destroyed the keep. In 1047, his son Baldwin V took possession of Ename. The territory was consecrated in order to prevent any further military use. In 1060, Philip I became King of France at the age of seven. The count of Flanders was his regent together with his mother, the queen Anne of Kiev. Baldwin V was then very powerful. In 1063, the Benedictine abbey of Ename was founded by Adele of France, wife of Baudouin V and daughter of the king of France, Robert II. It was firstly dedicated to Our Lady. In order to provide a financial income to the abbey, the count donated the village of Ename and other properties in the surroundings. The abbey started in the former Ottonian palace building, under the direction of abbot Walbrecht, who had come from the Saint Vaast abbey in Arras. In the founding document it was stated that twelve monks and the abbot should have lived in the abbey. The construction works for the erection of the abbey started immediately around the Saint Salvator church, and the new complex was finished around 1070. The abbey was then founded a second time and was dedicated to Saint Salvator
Modern history
In the course of the centuries the monastery and the church were rebuilt and enlarged several times. In 1795 the French revolutionaries invaded the southern Netherlands: the monastery was confiscated and sold. After a few years it was dismantled and the pieces sold as building material. The possessions of the abbey were also sold. During the more than seven hundred years that the Saint Salvator abbey existed, Ename remained a rural village.
Archaeology
A century after the demolition of Saint Salvator abbey, in 1895, the mayor of Ename, Edmond Beaucarne, published the results of his research on the historical sources of Ename.
From 1942 to 1947, professor Van de Walle started the excavation campaign that revealed the Romanesque abbey church of Saint Salvator.
The Belgian National Service for Excavations started a second turn of archaeological investigations in 1982, which lasted till 2002, under the management of Dirk Callebaut. Part of the castrum, almost the whole abbey and the settlement underneath were excavated and documented.
Also the church of Saint Laurentius was excavated and studied in a major research project from 1999 to 2002.
From 1984 on, the forest Bos t'Ename was the object of a large-scale historical and ecological investigation aimed at tracing back the evolution of the landscape
The results of all the archaeological and historical investigations on the territory of Ename have been visualised in interactive 3D models, on display on the archaeological site in the Timeframe application. It is a presentation technique that enables the visitors to virtually discover the abbey buildings and the surrounding landscape over several historical periods. Some characters of the history of Ename are used to create a realistic portrait of their era and give information on the life of the inhabitants.
Multilingual information panels at the site inform the visitors during their walk around the remains.
Castrum
The oldest trace of the use of the area where the castle stood was a waste ditch and treads, dating back to the second half of the 10th century. In the 11th century it was transformed into a walled area that contained a luxury limestone building, comprising an aula, a camera, a chapel; and a donjon, which had walls of 3 m up to 4,4 m. The foundations of this complex have been excavated and documented.
Settlement
The settlement was situated on a terrain where three occupation phases have been identified. Two churches were erected in the settlement: the Saint Salvator church, close to the river, and the Saint Laurentius church. The first one, no longer standing, has been excavated and part of the foundation can be visited on the archaeological site, while Saint Laurentius remains today the parish church of Ename.
Archaeology revealed that, in the settlement, properties were subdivided into plots delimited by ditches. Constructions were from wood and traces of fireplaces and houses have been excavated in the settlement.
Saint Laurentius Church
Saint Laurentius church was built around 1000 AD near the common field, in the centre of the village. The Ottonian building had a basilical ground plan, with an eastern and a western choir. During the restoration of the building, traces of the 11th-century decoration were discovered. Above the main altar, parts of a Majestas Domini fresco are still preserved and bear witness to the richness of the medieval decoration of the church
Saint Salvator abbey
The foundations of the Benedictine abbey of Sain Salvator can be visited in the archaeological site of Ename. The evolution of the abbey, from the first Saint Salvator church of the 9th century to the largest 18th-century complex, can be traced from the intricate evolution of the foundation walls.
Sights
The Provincial Archaeology Museum pam Ename, where part of the objects excavated in Ename are exhibited in a timeline sequence.
The Provincial Heritage Centre, that hosts temporary exhibitions.
Saint Salvator abbey archaeological site.
Saint Laurentius church.
The Ename forest.
References
External links
3D models on Europeana
Feest t' Ename
Ruined abbeys and monasteries
Oudenaarde
Archaeological sites in Belgium
World Heritage Sites in Belgium
Populated places in East Flanders
Former states in the Low Countries |
3920935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Mart%C3%ADn%20del%20Potro | Juan Martín del Potro | Juan Martín del Potro (; born 23 September 1988) is an Argentinian professional tennis player. Del Potro's biggest achievement is winning the 2009 US Open singles title, where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals and the five-time defending champion Roger Federer in the final. He was the only man outside the Big Three (Novak Djokovic, Federer, and Nadal) to win a major between the 2005 Australian Open and the 2012 US Open, a span of 30 tournaments. Del Potro's other career highlights include reaching the 2018 US Open final, winning an Olympic bronze medal in singles at the 2012 London Olympics and the silver medal at the 2016 Rio Olympics, winning Indian Wells in 2018, and leading Argentina to the 2016 Davis Cup title. His career has been hampered by a succession of wrist and knee injuries.
Del Potro first entered the top 10 of the ATP rankings on 6 October 2008. In January 2010, he reached a then-career-high ranking of world No. 4, after which he withdrew from most of the season due to an injury to his right wrist. In 2016, del Potro led Argentina to its first ever Davis Cup title by defeating Croatia's Marin Čilić in the final from two sets down. He reached his first major semifinal in four years by defeating Federer in the quarterfinals of the 2017 US Open. In 2018, he won his first Masters 1000 title at the Indian Wells Masters, defeating the defending champion and world No. 1 Federer in the final. After reaching the semifinals of the 2018 French Open, he matched his career-high ranking of No. 4, and in August 2018 he reached the world No. 3 ranking for the first time. At the 2018 US Open, he reached his second major final, where he lost to Novak Djokovic. Del Potro did not play between June 2019 and February 2022 because of pain from a knee injury, and said he would retire as a result. During his career del Potro won 22 ATP singles titles and one doubles title.
Early life
Juan Martín del Potro was born in Tandil, Argentina. His father, Daniel del Potro (1957–2021), played rugby union in Argentina and was a veterinarian. His mother, Patricia Lucas, is a teacher, and he has a younger sister named Julieta. He also had an elder sister, who died in a car accident when she was eight years old. Del Potro speaks Spanish, English and some Italian.
Aside from tennis, he enjoys playing association football and supports the Boca Juniors team in Argentina and Juventus in Italy. He would often dedicate time to both sports during his youth, and Argentine-Italian international footballer Mauro Camoranesi, who grew up in the same town, remains a close friend of del Potro.
Del Potro began playing tennis at the age of seven with coach Marcelo Gómez (who also coached Tandil-born players Juan Mónaco, Mariano Zabaleta and Máximo González). Del Potro's talent was discovered by Italian ex-tennis professional Ugo Colombini, who accompanied him through the initial phases of his young career, and is still today his agent and close friend. When questioned in 2007 about his ambitions in tennis he replied, "I dream of winning a Grand Slam and the Davis Cup." Despite refusing to participate in the Davis Cup several times, he has since achieved both goals. He is a Roman Catholic.
Tennis career
Junior years
Del Potro played his first junior match in April 2003 at the age of 14 at a Grade-2 tournament in Italy. As a junior in 2002, del Potro won the Orange Bowl 14s title, beating Marin Čilić en route to a victory over Pavel Tchekov in the final. In 2003, at the age of 14, del Potro received wildcards to three ITF Circuit events in Argentina, where he lost in straight sets in the first round of each.
As a junior, del Potro reached as high as No. 3 in the combined ITF junior world rankings, in January 2005.
Junior Grand Slam performance - Singles:
Australian Open: A (-)
French Open: QF (2005)
Wimbledon: 2R (2004)
US Open: 1R (2004)
2004–2005: Early career
In May 2004, del Potro won his first senior match, at the age of 15, at the ITF Circuit event in Buenos Aires by defeating Matias Niemiz. He then went on to lose in three sets to Sebastián Decoud in the second round. His next victory came over five months later against the Chilean Álvaro Loyola in a tournament in Antofagasta. Later that year, del Potro reached the quarterfinals of the ITF Circuit event in Campinas, Brazil; recording victories over Henrique Mello and Alessandro Camarço. Del Potro won two more matches before the end of the year and saw his world ranking rise from No. 1441 in August to No. 1077 in November. He also reached the finals in the Argentina Cup and Campionati Internazionali D'Italia Junior tournaments.
Del Potro reached his first final of the ITF Junior Circuit on 11 January 2005, the "Copa del Cafe (Coffee Bowl)" Junior ITF Tournament in Costa Rica, where he lost to Robin Haase in three sets. Because of the rain delays, the final set had to be played indoors; the first time the indoor courts had been used in the 44-year history of the youth tournament.
At the age of 16, del Potro reached his first senior singles final at the Futures tournament in Berimbau Naucalpan, Mexico, where he lost to Darko Mađarovski. He then went on to win consecutive titles at two Future ITF Circuit events in Santiago, Chile, including the 26th International Junior tournament. In the first tournament, he beat Jorge Aguilar, and in the second, he did not drop a set in the whole tournament and defeated Thiago Alves in the final, a player ranked more than 400 places higher at the time. He won his third title in his home country by defeating Damián Patriarca, who forfeited the match, at the ITF Circuit event in Buenos Aires.
Del Potro turned professional in June 2005 after the Italy F17 event in Bassano del Grappa, and in his first professional tournament, the Lines Trophy Challenger tournament in Reggio Emilia, he reached the semifinals, where he lost to countryman Martín Vassallo Argüello in three sets. Two tournaments later, he reached the final of the Credicard Citi MasterCard Tennis Cup in Campos do Jordão, Brazil where he lost to André Sá in straight sets. After turning 17, he won the Montevideo Challenger by defeating Boris Pašanski in the final in three sets. That same year, he failed in his first attempt to qualify for his first major, at the US Open, losing in the first round to Paraguayan Ramón Delgado. Throughout 2005, del Potro jumped over 900 positions to finish with a world ranking of No. 157, largely due to winning three Futures tournaments. He was the youngest player to finish in the year-end top 200.
2006: Top 100
In February, del Potro played his first ATP Tour event in Viña del Mar, where he defeated Albert Portas, before losing to Fernando González in the second round. Later, seeded seventh, he won the Copa Club Campestre de Aguascalientes by defeating the likes of Dick Norman and Thiago Alves, before beating Sergio Roitman in the final.
Del Potro qualified for the main draw of his first major in the 2006 French Open at the age of 17. He lost in the opening round to former French Open champion and 24th seed Juan Carlos Ferrero. Having received a wildcard, he reached the quarterfinals of the ATP event in Umag, Croatia, where he lost in three sets to the eventual champion, Stanislas Wawrinka. In Spain, he participated in the Open Castilla y León Challenger tournament held in Segovia, defeating top seed Fernando Verdasco in the quarterfinals and Benjamin Becker in the final.
Del Potro qualified for his first US Open in 2006, after being seeded ninth in the qualifying stages, where he beat Brian Vahaly, Wayne Arthurs, and Daniel Köllerer in straight sets. At the US Open, he lost in the first round to fellow qualifier Alejandro Falla of Colombia in four sets. He went on to qualify for his first ATP Masters Series tournament in Spain, the Madrid Open, where he lost in the first round to Joachim Johansson. After receiving a wild card thanks to Roger Federer, he reached the quarterfinals of the 2006 Swiss Indoors in Basel, defeating lucky loser Tobias Clemens in the first round and George Bastl in the second round, before losing to the eventual runner-up Fernando González in three sets. Del Potro finished 2006 as the youngest player in the top 100, aged 18 years, 2 months.
2007: Top 50, Davis Cup quarterfinal
Del Potro began the year by reaching his first semifinal in ATP Adelaide, Australia, where he lost to Chris Guccione, having beaten Igor Kunitsyn earlier in the day. He then reached the second round of the Australian Open, where he had to retire because of injury in his match against eventual finalist Fernando González in the fifth set. In February, del Potro played for Argentina in the first round of the Davis Cup against Austria, winning the fourth and deciding match against Jürgen Melzer in five sets, allowing Argentina to qualify for the quarterfinals.
Del Potro defeated Feliciano López before losing to eventual semifinalist Mardy Fish in the second round of the indoor Regions Morgan Keegan Championships. In his next ATP Masters event, he reached the second round of the Pacific Life Open, beating Gustavo Kuerten in the first round, but then losing to Richard Gasquet. Del Potro went further in the Miami Open, reaching the fourth round, after he defeated three top-50 players: Jonas Björkman, Marcos Baghdatis, and Mikhail Youzhny, before falling to Rafael Nadal in two sets. In May, he lost in the first round of the French Open to eventual champion Nadal.
In his first grass-court event, del Potro beat Thomas Johansson in two sets and reached the second round at the Queen's Club, where he lost to Nadal. He also reached the quarterfinals in Nottingham the following week; there he beat British qualifier Jamie Baker and Kunitsyn in the first two rounds, but lost to Ivo Karlović at the quarterfinal stage. At his inaugural Wimbledon Championships, he defeated Davide Sanguinetti in the first round, before losing to eventual champion Roger Federer in the second round, after a rain delay in the third set.
Del Potro lost to Frank Dancevic in three sets in the second round of the singles at the ATP event in Indianapolis. At the same event, partnered with Travis Parrott in doubles, he won his first doubles tournament, defeating Teymuraz Gabashvili and Karlović in the final. He regards this as a special victory, "It was fantastic to play doubles with Parrott. I'm so happy because I've never won a doubles tournament. For the rest of my life, I will remember this tournament." Del Potro qualified for the ATP Masters Series event in Cincinnati, where he reached the third round. He defeated countryman Guillermo Cañas in the first round and Philipp Kohlschreiber in the second, before losing to former world No. 1, Carlos Moyá. At that year's US Open, he defeated Nicolas Mahut and Melzer, before losing to eventual finalist and third seed Novak Djokovic in the third round. He also reached the third round of the Madrid Masters by beating Potito Starace and Tommy Robredo, before losing to eventual champion David Nalbandian, in straight sets. In the last tournament of the year, the Paris Masters, he reached the second round, where he lost to Nikolay Davydenko. That year, del Potro was the youngest player to finish in the year-end top 50 at 19 years, 2 months.
2008: First titles, Davis Cup final, top 10
Del Potro's first half of the season was hampered by injuries and a change of coach, starting with a first-round loss in Adelaide, where he was the seventh seed. He then made it to the second round of the Australian Open in January, only to retire against David Ferrer due to an injury. Del Potro returned to the circuit in March, winning his first match against Jesse Levine at the Miami Open, before losing in the second round to López. Struggling with injuries, his ranking fell as low as no. 81 in April. "At the start of the year, I was playing good, but I had many injuries, many problems with my body, with my physique", said del Potro. "I changed my coach, changed my physical trainer, I changed everything."
In May, del Potro had to retire again, this time in a first-round match against Andy Murray at the Rome Masters. During the second set, the Argentine allegedly made derogatory comments about Murray's mother which resulted in a complaint to the umpire. Del Potro's serve was subsequently broken three times in a row, and he suffered a back injury, which caused his retirement. In his second major of the year, the French Open, he was eliminated in the second round by Simone Bolelli in four sets. In June, he reached the semifinals of the Rosmalen Open, losing to eventual winner and top seed David Ferrer in straight sets. For the second year in a row, he was knocked out of Wimbledon in the second round; he won his first-round clash with Pavel Šnobel in straight sets, but then lost to Stanislas Wawrinka.
A successful summer followed for the Argentine. In July, del Potro and his team decided to remain in Europe to test his fitness. "We decided to play on clay courts for my back because if I start to play again on hard courts, maybe I will injure it again", he recalled. Del Potro won his first career ATP Tour title at the Mercedes Cup in Stuttgart, defeating Gasquet in straight sets in the final. A week later, del Potro reached his second career ATP Tour final at the Austrian Open in Kitzbühel, where he beat local hope and sixth seed Melzer in less than an hour, to claim his second title in two weeks. Having competed in just two clay tournaments all of the 2007 season, he never thought he would win his first two titles on clay courts.
In August, del Potro won his third consecutive title at the Los Angeles Open, beating Andy Roddick in straight sets in the final. After the match, Roddick praised his opponent. "[Del Potro] hits this way and this way kind of equally and he can hit it from inside out and running to it, which is a good thing for him, bad for the rest of us". A fourth consecutive title followed a week later in the Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington, D.C., where he recorded a victory over Viktor Troicki, becoming the first player in ATP history to win his first four career titles in consecutive tournaments. "I don't really understand what I did. It is difficult to believe that I have won four consecutive titles", del Potro said, crediting coach Franco Davín for his impressive run. "He changed my game. He changed my mind. He changed everything. When I play and I see him in the stands, it gives me confidence. I can play relaxed."
At the 2008 US Open, del Potro progressed to the third round, where he won his first match to five sets in the circuit against Gilles Simon to reach the round of 16. He went on to defeat Japanese teenager Kei Nishikori in straight sets. In the quarterfinals, he was stopped by eventual finalist Murray, losing after almost four hours. The defeat came after 23 consecutive victories: the second-longest winning streak in 2008 and the longest winning streak by a player outside the top 10 in the last 20 years.
Del Potro was selected to play his first home-based Davis Cup tie, between Argentina and Russia. He won his first singles match against Davydenko in three sets. He also won the fifth and deciding match against Igor Andreev in straight sets, booking Argentina a place in the final.
At the Japan Open, he made the final by defeating 11th seed Jarkko Nieminen, top seed and defending champion Ferrer, and fourth seed Richard Gasquet. He was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the final. At the Madrid Masters, he lost in the quarterfinals in straight sets to Roger Federer. He reached the semifinals of his next tournament, the Swiss Indoors, before losing to countryman Nalbandian. He was beaten by Nalbandian again in his next tournament, this time it was in the second round of the Paris Masters. Del Potro blamed fatigue for his defeat, "It's difficult to play the last tournament of the year. I was tired, my mind was in Argentina [the venue for the Davis Cup final]". This left del Potro's qualification for the 2008 Tennis Masters Cup out of his hands, but Jo-Wilfried Tsonga beat James Blake in the semifinals, which was enough to ensure his place at the year-end event.
Del Potro won one match at the Masters Cup, against Tsonga, but lost his other two matches against the higher-ranked Djokovic and Davydenko, meaning that he exited the tournament in the round-robin stage. This was his last event of the year on the ATP Tour. He went on to lose one match in the Davis Cup final, against López, as his team succumbed to a 3–1 loss against Spain. He withdrew from his second match due to a thigh injury and was replaced by José Acasuso. Nonetheless, del Potro enjoyed a successful season; winning four titles and finishing 2008 as the youngest player in the top 10, top-ranked Argentine, and highest-ranked South American.
2009: US Open champion, ATP Tour Finals final, top 5
Del Potro began his 2009 season at the Auckland Open in New Zealand as the top seed. He defeated American Sam Querrey in the final to win the title, the fifth of his career. Seeded eighth at the Australian Open, he beat Marin Čilić in the fourth round. Del Potro's tournament ended in his next match, when he lost in straight sets to Federer. At Indian Wells, the sixth seed del Potro advanced to the quarterfinals, where he was defeated by world No. 1 Nadal. Del Potro avenged that loss the following week at the Miami Open, where he came back from a double break down in the third set at 0–3 to defeat Nadal in the quarterfinals. This was the first time del Potro had defeated Nadal in five meetings. Despite a loss in the semifinals to Murray, del Potro reached a career-high world ranking of No. 5.
In the clay-court season, del Potro was eliminated in the second round of the Monte Carlo Masters by Ivan Ljubičić. In Rome, del Potro beat Victor Troicki and Wawrinka to advance to the quarterfinals, where he was defeated by defending champion Djokovic in straight sets. This meant del Potro's head-to-head record with the Serb was now 0–3. Del Potro then played at the Madrid Masters. After defeating Murray for the first time in the quarterfinals, he lost to Federer in the semifinals. At the French Open, where he was fifth seed, del Potro defeated Michaël Llodra, Troicki, Andreev, and ninth seed Tsonga en route to the quarterfinals. He then defeated three-time former quarterfinalist Tommy Robredo to get to his first semifinal of a Grand Slam. He was defeated in a close semifinal, where he was leading by a set twice, by eventual champion Federer who, after their match, said: "[Del Potro] is young and strong, I have a lot of respect for him." Prior to this encounter, del Potro had never taken a set from Federer in their five previous career meetings.
At the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, his poor grass-court form from the past continued, as he went down to unseeded Lleyton Hewitt in the second round. In the Davis Cup quarterfinal against the Czech Republic, del Potro won his matches against Ivo Minář and Berdych in straight sets, but Argentina still lost the tie 2–3, eliminating them from the competition. A few weeks later, he defeated Hewitt and Fernando González en route to the Washington final. He successfully defended his title against top-seeded Wimbledon finalist Andy Roddick to win his second tournament of the year and become the first player since Andre Agassi to win back-to-back Washington titles. Del Potro played the following week at the Masters 1000 in Montreal, where he was seeded sixth, defeating world No. 2 Nadal in the quarterfinals, his second win in a row over Nadal. He then defeated Roddick in the semifinals, saving a match point, to advance to his first Masters 1000 final, and to improve his head-to-head record against Roddick to 3–0. In the final, he lost against Murray in three sets. He later withdrew from the next Masters 1000 event in Cincinnati due to fatigue.
Seeded sixth at the US Open, del Potro began by defeating Juan Mónaco and Jürgen Melzer in straight sets, before dropping a set but defeating Köllerer to reach the fourth round. He defeated a resurgent Juan Carlos Ferrero to advance to the quarterfinals for the second consecutive year. Del Potro then advanced to the semifinals by defeating Marin Čilić. Del Potro was down a set and a break, before winning 17 of the final 20 games to win the match. His advance to the semifinals ensured his return to the top 5 in the rankings. He then crushed world No. 3 and reigning Australian Open champion Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, to reach his first Grand Slam final. This was his third consecutive victory over Nadal and made him the first Argentine to reach a Grand Slam singles final since Mariano Puerta at the 2005 French Open. In the finals, del Potro rallied from a set and a break down to defeat world No. 1 and five-time defending champion Roger Federer in five sets; his first victory over Federer after six previous defeats, and Federer's first loss in the US Open since 2003. Del Potro stated, "Since [I was] young, I dream with this and take trophy with me", said del Potro, who became the first Argentine male to win the title since Guillermo Vilas in 1977. "I did my dream, and it's unbelievable moment. It's amazing match, amazing people. Everything is perfect." After the match, Federer praised del Potro; "I thought he hung in there and gave himself chances and, in the end, was the better man."
He is the first player since countryman David Nalbandian to defeat Federer at the US Open, and at 198 cm (6 ft 6 in), he is the tallest ever Grand Slam champion, a record he now shares with Marin Čilić, the 2014 US Open winner, and 2021 champion Daniil Medvedev. Besides Nadal and Djokovic, del Potro is the only player to defeat Federer in a Grand Slam final, and the first player to defeat both Nadal and Federer in the same Grand Slam tournament.
Dick Enberg hosted the post-match ceremony, during which a victorious del Potro requested to address his fans in Spanish. Enberg declined the request, saying that he was running out of time, but went on to list the corporate sponsored prizes del Potro won. A couple of minutes later, del Potro made the same request again, and only then did Enberg relent saying, "Very quickly, in Spanish, he wants to say hello to his friends here and in Argentina." An emotional del Potro finally spoke a few sentences in Spanish to a cheering crowd. Many viewers expressed disappointment with Enberg and broadcaster CBS over the interview. A CBS executive later defended Enberg, noting that the contract with the United States Tennis Association required that certain sponsors receive time during the ceremony. On return to his hometown Tandil, del Potro was greeted by an estimated 40,000 people.
In his first match since the US Open, del Potro was upset by world No. 189, Édouard Roger-Vasselin, in straight sets at the Japan Open in Tokyo. He then lost his second straight match to Melzer in the second round at the Masters 1000 event in Shanghai, retiring while trailing in the second set. This retirement caused concerns over the length of the tennis season. He had to retire again in the Paris Masters quarterfinals when down 0–4 to Radek Štěpánek due to an abdominal injury. In November, del Potro competed in the ATP World Tour Finals, where he lost his first round-robin match against Andy Murray, but he managed to defeat Fernando Verdasco in his second match to keep his hopes alive. After defeating Roger Federer in the following match, he qualified for the semifinals, ousting Murray by one game, the slimmest possible margin. He defeated Robin Söderling in the semifinals, before losing to Nikolay Davydenko in the final. Del Potro finished 2009 as the youngest player in the top 10, top-ranked Argentine, and highest-ranked South American for the second consecutive year.
2010: First wrist injury, out of top 250
Del Potro started his 2010 season at the AAMI Kooyong Classic in Melbourne, Australia, with a win over Croatian world No. 24 Ivan Ljubičić. On 11 January, he moved up to a career high world No. 4. He was scheduled to face Jo-Wilfried Tsonga on day 2 of the Kooyong Classic exhibition tournament, but withdrew due to a wrist injury. He came into the 2010 Australian Open with the injury not healed, and took a month off after the event, where he lost in the fourth round to Marin Čilić.
Following the Australian Open loss, del Potro missed several tournaments, including the Masters tournaments at Indian Wells and Miami, which were touted as potential return dates, due to the persistent wrist injury. Even though he withdrew from the Monte-Carlo Masters, he regained the world No. 4 ranking, due to Murray's early exit in the second round. He then withdrew from Barcelona and the Rome Masters. On 4 May, del Potro took the option of having an operation to fix the injury. On 19 May, del Potro said he would not defend his US Open title, but if all went well, he would appear after the event, targeting the Paris Masters as a possible comeback. However, on 22 July, the USTA stated that del Potro was expected to defend his US Open crown. The player himself confirmed that his comeback to the tour would be the Thailand Open and said nothing about the New York event. On 2 August, del Potro returned to the practice courts. A week before the start of the US Open, after practicing for two weeks, del Potro withdrew from the event, for he felt he was not ready to compete at the highest level.
After the nine-month break, del Potro confirmed that he would make his return at the Thailand Open. In his return match, he lost in the first round in two sets to Olivier Rochus, despite serving 16 aces. He then also played at the Japan Open, but again lost in the opening round, this time to Feliciano López.
2011: Return to tour, second Davis Cup final
Del Potro began his 2011 season at the Sydney International as a wildcard entry. In the second round, del Potro was defeated by Florian Mayer of Germany in straight sets, despite winning against sixth seed Feliciano López in three sets in the first round. His next tournament would be the first Grand Slam of the year at the 2011 Australian Open, where del Potro was defeated by 21st seed Marcos Baghdatis in the second round. As a result, del Potro slipped further down the rankings to No. 485.
After the Australian Open, he participated in the San Jose Open where he was accepted into the main draw via a protected ranking (PR). He reached the semifinals without dropping a set, however he lost to top seed Fernando Verdasco, in straight sets. Del Potro's next scheduled tournament was the U.S. National Indoor Championships, where he was accepted into the main draw via a wildcard. Here, he made his second consecutive semifinal, where he lost to top seed, world No. 8, and eventual champion Andy Roddick. To continue preparing for his first ATP Masters event since 2009, del Potro entered the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships on a wildcard. He defeated Ričardas Berankis, Teymuraz Gabashvili, Kevin Anderson and second-seeded Mardy Fish, to advance to his first ATP final since the 2009 World Tour Finals. In the final, he defeated an erratic Janko Tipsarević in two sets.
Del Potro's next tournament was the ATP Masters at the Indian Wells Masters. He reached the semifinals, where he lost to top-seeded Rafael Nadal in straight sets. Del Potro then flew to Key Biscayne, Miami to participate in the second ATP Masters of the year at the Miami Masters. Del Potro made it to the fourth round, in the third round he defeated world No. 4, Robin Söderling, in straight sets, however in the next round he lost to eventual semifinalist Mardy Fish in straight sets.
He then played at the Estoril Open, which was del Potro's first tournament on clay since he lost the 2009 Roland Garros semifinal to the eventual champion Roger Federer. In Estoril, del Potro defeated top-seeded Robin Söderling, two time-finalist in the French Open, and dropped just one set in his five matches and took the title against Fernando Verdasco in the final. After suffering an 8-millimeter tear in his left rectus abdominis, del Potro withdrew from Madrid Open and did not participate in the Internazionali BNL d'Italia, but confirmed that he would play the French Open. There he lost in the third round in four sets to second-seeded Novak Djokovic.
Del Potro reached the fourth round at Wimbledon for the first time by defeating Flavio Cipolla, Olivier Rochus, and Gilles Simon but lost in four sets to world No. 1, Rafael Nadal, a match described by The Guardian as the "battle of walking wounded". Del Potro returned to the top 20 at world No. 19 for the first time in nearly a year. His next tournament was the Los Angeles Open in late July, where he received a first-round bye as the second seed. He defeated James Blake but was defeated by Ernests Gulbis in the quarterfinals.
At the Canada Masters, seeded 16th, del Potro defeated Jarkko Nieminen before losing to Marin Čilić in the second round. At the Cincinnati Masters tournament, del Potro lost to Roger Federer, snapping the two-match winning streak he had against his rival. Del Potro entered the 2011 US Open seeded 18th. He beat Filippo Volandri and Diego Junqueira before losing to Gilles Simon in the third round.
After the US Open, del Potro played in the Davis Cup semifinal against Serbia, winning both of his rubbers against Janko Tipsarević and world No. 1, Novak Djokovic. This helped Argentina to a 3–2 victory over Serbia, booking their place in the final. In October he competed in the Stockholm Open, losing in the second round to James Blake. He then reached the final in Vienna, losing for the first time to Tsonga. Despite having won the first set, he eventually lost the final. Del Potro then reached the semifinals of the Valencia Open 500, losing to eventual champion Marcel Granollers. He then withdrew from the Paris Masters due to a shoulder injury, wiping out his chances of qualifying for the year-end championships.
Del Potro played in the Davis Cup final in Seville, with the title on the line and looking to fulfill his childhood dream. He lost in the second rubber to David Ferrer, despite being two sets to one up, eventually losing in a five-set contest in a match lasting over five hours. With his country down 2–1, del Potro needed to beat Rafael Nadal in the reverse singles to keep the tie going. Del Potro dominated the first set, but could not keep his level up and lost in four sets. For the third time in six years, Argentina lost in the finals of the Davis Cup World Group, this time 3–1.
Del Potro finished the year ranked world No. 11, despite being ranked no. 485 at one stage. He was named 2011 ATP Comeback Player of the Year.
2012: Olympic bronze, back to top 10
Del Potro's first tournament of the year was the Sydney International, where he was the top seed. He made it to the quarterfinals after receiving a bye into the second round. He defeated Łukasz Kubot in the second round. In the quarterfinals, he was beaten by Marcos Baghdatis.
In the first round of the Australian Open, del Potro defeated Adrian Mannarino in four sets. He reached the quarterfinals of the Grand Slam for the second time, losing to third-seeded Roger Federer in straight sets.
He went on to play at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam, where he was the third seed. Here he defeated Tomáš Berdych in order to make it to his first final of an ATP 500 level tournament or higher after returning from his wrist injury in 2010. He lost to Federer in straight sets in the final. At the Open 13 in Marseille, del Potro defeated Davydenko, Gasquet, Tsonga, and Michaël Llodra in the final to get his tenth ATP title. Del Potro then had a good run in Dubai, reaching the semifinals, then losing to Federer again in two tiebreaks. Del Potro lost in the quarterfinals of the Indian Wells Open to Federer for the fourth time that year. He made it to the fourth round of the Miami Open, but lost to David Ferrer in two sets.
Del Potro started his clay-court campaign of 2012 in the Davis Cup quarterfinals against Croatia. He won his first rubber against Ivo Karlović and then defeated Marin Čilić in the reverse singles. He continued his clay-court season at the Estoril Open, where he was the defending champion and the top seed. He did not drop a set en route to the final, where he beat Frenchman Richard Gasquet in straight sets to collect his 11th ATP title. He next competed in the Madrid Masters as the twelfth seed and defeated Florian Mayer, Mikhail Youzhny, Marin Čilić, Alexandr Dolgopolov, but lost in two tiebreaks to Tomáš Berdych in the semifinals.
Del Potro played at the second Grand Slam of the year, the French Open, where he was seeded ninth. Del Potro defeated Albert Montañés, Édouard Roger-Vasselin and Marin Čilić. He defeated seventh seed Tomáš Berdych before losing to Roger Federer in the quarterfinals in five sets, after being up two sets to love.
At Wimbledon, del Potro beat Robin Haase, Go Soeda, and Kei Nishikori, before losing to David Ferrer in the fourth round.
At the Olympic Games, also held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, del Potro faced Federer in the semifinals, which resulted in the longest "best of three sets" tennis match by duration in history, lasting four hours and 26 minutes; the final set took two hours and 43 minutes. Del Potro lost the match, by 17–19 in the third set. Less than two hours after this marathon, del Potro took to the tennis court again with Gisela Dulko for their quarterfinal mixed doubles match against Lisa Raymond and Mike Bryan, which they lost. Two days later, del Potro defeated Djokovic in the bronze-medal match. It was del Potro's first victory over Djokovic, excluding a win that occurred in the Davis Cup where Djokovic retired after dropping the first set.
Del Potro returned to hard courts to play at the Rogers Cup, where he was upset by 33-year-old world No. 40 Radek Štěpánek. Del Potro ended the illustrious career of American tennis star Andy Roddick, retiring him by winning their fourth round match before going on to lose in the quarterfinals of the US Open against Djokovic.
In October, del Potro beat qualifier Grega Žemlja to win the Erste Bank Open in Vienna. He then beat Roger Federer in a third set tie-break to win the Swiss Indoors title, in Basel. The following week, he suffered a third-round loss to Michaël Llodra at the BNP Paribas Masters. During the round-robin stage of the ATP World Tour Finals, he won two of his three matches and qualified for the semifinals, where he was defeated by Djokovic in three sets, after leading by a set and a break.
He ended the year ranked world No. 7, with a 65–17 win–loss record and four titles captured throughout the season.
2013: Wimbledon semifinal, return to top 5
Del Potro began his season at the Australian Open, where he was upset in the third round by Jérémy Chardy in five sets. The next month, he won the Rotterdam Open, beating Gaël Monfils, Ernest Gulbis, Jarkko Nieminen, Grigor Dimitrov in the semifinals, and Julien Benneteau in the final. At Dubai, del Potro beat Marcos Baghdatis, saving three match points, Somdev Devvarman, and Daniel Brands, but lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Novak Djokovic.
At Indian Wells in March, del Potro defeated Nikolay Davydenko, Björn Phau, and Tommy Haas. In the quarterfinals, he beat Andy Murray for the second time in six matches. In the semifinals, he upset top seed and world No. 1 Djokovic, to end the Serb's streak of 22 victories. He then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal in three sets. Del Potro withdrew from most of the clay-court season and from the French Open due to a viral infection.
On grass, del Potro began at the Queen's Club Championships, where he won his first comeback match in three sets against Xavier Malisse, who had achieved his biggest win at the Queens Club against Novak Djokovic in 2010. Del Potro came back from behind in the third set to take the match. He defeated Daniel Evans, only to be upset in the quarterfinals by Lleyton Hewitt.
At Wimbledon, Del Potro won against Albert Ramos, Jesse Levine, and Grega Žemlja before advancing past the fourth round for the first time in his career, thanks to a win over Andreas Seppi. He then played David Ferrer and, despite slipping badly during the fifth point of the match and aggravating a pre-existing leg injury, requiring over five minutes of treatment and by his own admission being close to forfeiting the match, he recovered to defeat Ferrer in straight sets to advance to his first Grand Slam semifinal since the 2009 US Open without dropping a set. On 5 July, Djokovic defeated him in five sets in 4 hours and 44 minutes, making it the longest semifinal in the history of Wimbledon men's singles.
Starting the US Series, del Potro won the Washington Open, where he got a first-round bye, and then defeated Ryan Harrison, Bernard Tomic, and Kevin Anderson on his way to the quarterfinals, Tommy Haas in the semifinals, and won the final against John Isner in three sets. Before the final he didn't drop a set. This was his third title at the event and his second of the year. Del Potro reached the semifinals of Western & Southern Open where he won against Nikolay Davydenko, Feliciano López, in the quarterfinals Dmitry Tursunov, and faced Isner again, this time in the semifinals. He lost the match in three sets. Del Potro got to the second round of the US Open, after a four-set victory against Guillermo García-López, only to be upset by Lleyton Hewitt in five sets.
At the Japan Open, Del Potro, who entered the tournament on a wildcard, beat Marcos Baghdatis, Carlos Berlocq, Alexandr Dolgopolov, and Nicolas Almagro before beating third seed Milos Raonic in two sets to win his third title of the year.
In October, Del Potro reached the final of the Shanghai Rolex Masters, defeating Philipp Kohlschreiber, Tommy Haas, Nicolás Almagro, and Rafael Nadal (for the first time since the semifinals of the 2009 US Open) en route, but eventually losing to defending champion Djokovic in a third-set tiebreak. In late October he beat sixth-seeded Roger Federer in three sets in the final of the Swiss Indoors, his fourth title of the year. However, he lost to Federer in the quarterfinals of the Paris Masters and in a winner-take-all, round-robin clash in the ATP World Tour Finals at the O2 arena in London. He finished the year with a 51–16 record, winning four titles overall and prize money of $4,294,039. Del Potro was named Argentina's Sportsman of the Year.
2014–2015: Second wrist injury, two years away from tour
Del Potro began his 2014 ATP World Tour season at the Sydney International as the top seed, winning the final of the tournament against defending champion Bernard Tomic in only 53 minutes. It was his fifth title as top seed.
When asked to play for Argentina in the Davis Cup, del Potro declined, arguing problems with the press and the team, and his decision to prioritize his personal career.
At the Australian Open, he won his opening match against Rhyne Williams, but lost to Roberto Bautista-Agut in the second round, having led two sets to one. Despite his second-round loss, del Potro returned to being world No. 4 because David Ferrer made it only to the quarterfinals and thus lost 360 points, whereas del Potro lost only 45 points. After the Australian Open, del Potro required treatment for his left wrist, which has been giving him trouble since 2012.
In February, at the 2014 Rotterdam Open, he eased past Gaël Monfils and Paul-Henri Mathieu in straight sets, but fell to Latvian Ernests Gulbis in the quarterfinals. In the 2014 Dubai Tennis Championships, he retired against Somdev Devvarman after losing the first set due to his wrist injury and said "It was really tough to play today. I tried everything. I cannot be the player I would like to be.". The same injury led to his subsequent withdrawal from Masters 1000 series events in Indian Wells and Miami, meaning that del Potro dropped to world No. 8.
Del Potro underwent surgery in March 2014 to repair the problem in his left wrist, missing the rest of the 2014 season.
Del Potro began his 2015 season with wrist pain and was not sure whether he would play Sydney and the 2015 Australian Open. However, at the last minute he decided to play both tournaments. He had not played a tournament since February 2014, but he started the Sydney International with a straight-sets win against Sergiy Stakhovsky. In the second round he defeated world No. 19 and top seed Fabio Fognini to reach the quarterfinals, which he lost to Mikhail Kukushkin in two tiebreakers. Del Potro was scheduled to play Jerzy Janowicz in the first round of the 2015 Australian Open, but withdrew due to his wrist injury the day before the match and had another surgery on his left wrist. In late March Del Potro played in the Miami Open with a protected ranking and lost his first-round match to Vasek Pospisil. It would be his last match of the year, undergoing wrist surgery again in June 2015.
2016: Comeback, Olympic silver, Davis Cup champion
He played his first tournament since undergoing surgery at the Delray Beach Open in mid February. In his first competitive match in almost a year, del Potro defeated Denis Kudla in two sets. He followed this up with a straight sets win over Australian John-Patrick Smith. He defeated Jérémy Chardy in two sets in the quarterfinal, reaching his first semifinal since 2014; which he lost to eventual champion Sam Querrey. He returned to Indian Wells, competing in the first round, winning against Tim Smyczek in two sets. He lost in the next round to Tomas Berdych in straight sets. His next tournament was the Miami Open. He won his first match against countryman Guido Pella in two sets. He was set to play Roger Federer for the first time in more than two years, but just hours before the match Federer withdrew due to a stomach virus. Instead he played lucky loser and countryman Horacio Zeballos and lost in straight sets.
Del Potro then competed in his first clay-court tournament since 2013 at the BMW Open in Munich in late April. He won his first clay-court match in three years against Dustin Brown, beating him in two sets. In his second match of the tournament, he defeated Jan-Lennard Struff in his first three-set match of the year but lost to Philipp Kohlschreiber in the quarterfinals in straight sets. The next tournament he entered was the Madrid Open. He had his best victory after coming back on the tour, defeating 14th seed Dominic Thiem in straight sets. He lost his next match to Jack Sock in two sets. He then competed at the Stuttgart Open, his first grass tournament since the 2013 Wimbledon Championships. He started off against Grigor Dimitrov, winning in straight sets. He then saw off John Millman in two sets. He faced fourth seed Gilles Simon in the quarterfinal, emerging victorious in three sets. In the quarterfinal he played seventh seed Kohlschreiber, who had defeated him earlier this year at the BMW Open, in Munich, and again lost in straight sets.
He entered Wimbledon and was drawn against Frenchman Stephane Robert. He defeated Robert to set up a second-round match with fourth seed Stanislas Wawrinka, whom he defeated in four sets. Del Potro then lost in an ill-tempered four-set match against 32nd seed Lucas Pouille in the third round.
In the 2016 Olympic Games, held at the Olympic Tennis Centre in Rio de Janeiro, del Potro defeated top seed and world No. 1, Novak Djokovic, in the first round, winning two tiebreaks. It was a huge win for him because he was ranked no. 145 in the world and was coming back from a bad injury. He also defeated João Sousa and Taro Daniel in three sets. Next, he defeated top-20 player Bautista Agut to guarantee a medal match. He played 2008 gold medalist and the 2016 doubles gold medalist, Rafael Nadal. He defeated him in three tight sets to guarantee a medal. Del Potro played in his first gold medal match against the reigning Wimbledon champion from the previous month, Andy Murray. He lost in four grueling sets in over four hours. However, del Potro said after beating Nadal "I already won silver, that's good enough for me."
At the US Open Del Potro's ranking of No. 141 was not sufficient to gain direct entry into the main draw but he was granted a wild card. He was drawn against countryman Diego Schwartzman and defeated him in straight sets. In the second round, he faced and defeated 19th seed and top-ranked American Steve Johnson in straight sets, fighting back from a break down during the first two sets. In the third round, he faced 11th seed and Grand Slam finalist David Ferrer, and again defeated him in straight sets. In the fourth round, he faced eighth seed Dominic Thiem. After del Potro won the first set, the match ended when Thiem retired during the second set. Del Potro then lost to eventual champion Stan Wawrinka in the quarterfinals in four sets.
Del Potro then played against Murray, in a rematch of the Olympic final, in the Davis Cup semifinal, held in Glasgow. Del Potro won the thrilling five-set match in 5 hours and 7 minutes. Del Potro was granted a wildcard for the Shanghai Masters in October, where he lost in the first round in three sets to 11th seed David Goffin, despite being a set and a break up. After this, del Potro was given a wild card into the Stockholm Open. Del Potro beat John Isner, Nicolas Almagro, Ivo Karlovic, and Grigor Dimitrov on his way to the final. In the final, del Potro cruised to victory over Jack Sock to win his first title since his return from injury. Del Potro then played at the Swiss Indoors, where he comfortably beat qualifier Robin Haase in the first round. He then got revenge on Goffin in a straight sets win, before falling in two tight sets to Kei Nishikori in the quarterfinals.
Vying for Argentina's first title, del Potro played in the 2016 Davis Cup against Croatia. His first match was a four set victory against Ivo Karlović. Partnering Leonardo Mayer, del Potro lost in doubles against Ivan Dodig and Marin Čilić. 2–1 down in matches, del Potro played in singles against Čilić, coming back from two sets down for the first time in his career to win in five sets. Described as one of the best Davis Cup comebacks ever, del Potro levelled the score at 2–2, paving the way for Federico Delbonis to complete the comeback by beating Ivo Karlović, in straight sets, thus claiming Argentina's first ever Davis Cup title.
For the second time in his career, after 2011, del Potro was named ATP Comeback Player of the Year.
2017: Continued comeback, US Open semifinal
Del Potro decided to skip the 2017 Australian Open and made his season debut at the Delray Beach Open, where he was seeded in a tournament for the first time in three years, at No. 7, and won his first three matches against Kevin Anderson, Damir Dzumhur and Sam Querrey, who beat him in the semifinals of the same tournament last year. However, in the semifinals this year, del Potro lost to top seed and world No. 4 Milos Raonic in straight sets. Next, del Potro played in the Mexican Open, where he was drawn to play qualifier Frances Tiafoe, who idolised del Potro when he was a child. Del Potro won in a tight three-set match. In the next round, del Potro played the top seed of the tournament for the second time in a row. This time it was Djokovic on the other side of the court. Del Potro lost in three sets after winning the first set.
Del Potro next played at the Indian Wells Masters. Del Potro was seeded 31st so he received a bye into the second round, where he played his Argentine Davis Cup teammate Federico Delbonis. He won in two tight sets. In the next round, Del Potro faced Djokovic again, with the same result, Del Potro losing in three sets. After, Del Potro played at the Miami Open, where he had a comfortable victory over Robin Haase before losing to Roger Federer in straight sets. Del Potro began his clay-court season at the Estoril Open, where he beat Yuichi Sugita for the loss of just four games in the first round. However, the day after his victory, Del Potro heard that his grandfather died and subsequently withdrew from the tournament. Del Potro withdrew from the Madrid Open, reappearing at the Italian Open where he reached the quarterfinals of a Masters 1000 tournament for the first time since the 2013 Paris Masters, following victories over 10th seed Grigor Dimitrov, Kyle Edmund and seventh seed Kei Nishikori, which was his first victory in 2017 over a top 10 ranked player. However, he succumbed yet again to world No. 2, Novak Djokovic, in a rain-interrupted straight sets match.
In May Del Potro competed at the newly formed Lyon Open, where he defeated lucky loser Quentin Halys, but lost in the next round against Portuguese qualifier Gastão Elias in straight sets. Doubt was cast over his participation at the French Open because of a back injury that had hampered him at Lyon, but he eventually decided to partake in the event. Del Potro entered the event after a five-year absence as the 29th seed, the first time since the 2014 Australian Open that he was seeded at a Grand Slam tournament. In the first round, Del Potro defeated Guido Pella in straight sets, and in the second round against Nicolás Almagro, it was one set apiece before Almagro retired. Del Potro eventually fell in straight sets to top seed Andy Murray in the third round.
After suffering a second round exit at Wimbledon in straight sets against Ernests Gulbis, Del Potro began his summer North American hardcourt season in Washington, where he lost to Kei Nishikori in the third round, ending his 15-match winning streak at the event. He then lost in two sets to Denis Shapovalov in the second round at the Canadian Open in Montreal, and at the Cincinnati Masters he won against Tomáš Berdych in the first round and qualifier Mitchell Krueger in the second before losing to eventual champion Grigor Dimitrov in the third round.
At the US Open, Del Potro defeated Henri Laaksonen, Adrián Menéndez-Maceiras and Roberto Bautista Agut in straight sets, putting his best year performance to date against Bautista Agut. He began his fourth round match against Dominic Thiem struggling, falling two sets behind. However, he then raised his level and, with the help of the crowd, eventually prevailed in five sets, including saving two match points in the fourth set with two aces. In the post match interview he admitted he considered retiring from the match during the second set.
The US Open account on Instagram switched his racquet for Thor's hammer using software editing tools, which created a new nickname for the Argentine: Juan Martin "del Thortro", by fellow tennis player Roger Federer, adding to a collection of nicknames such as "Delpo", "Tower of Tandil", "Palito" (stick) and "Enano" (midget). In the quarterfinals he defeated Roger Federer in four tight sets; his second victory over the Swiss at the US Open, having beaten him in the final in 2009. By doing so he reached his first major semifinal since Wimbledon 2013. His run came to an end in four sets, losing to world No. 1, Rafael Nadal.
Del Potro began his Asian hard court swing in Beijing, where he lost in straight sets to Grigor Dimitrov in the second round, his second loss against the Bulgarian. This was followed by the Shanghai Masters, where he reached the semifinals of a Masters 1000 event for the first time since 2013 (also in Shanghai), most notably upsetting Alexander Zverev in the third round, his second triumph over a Top 5 ranked opponent after his victory over Roger Federer at the US Open. Del Potro won the first set but eventually lost in the semifinals against Federer, who would go on to win the tournament.
Del Potro defended his 2016 Stockholm Open title by defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the finals of the 2017 Stockholm Open in straight sets. This victory gave Del Potro his 20th ATP career title. He then reached the final of Basel, where he faced Federer and again lost in three sets after winning the first. Del Potro then made it to the quarterfinals of the Paris Masters, where he was one win away from entering the top 10 and qualifying for the ATP Finals, which would have been his first time since 2013 participating in the year-end tournament. However, he was defeated in three sets by John Isner and subsequently declined to be chosen as an alternate for the tournament, instead choosing to rest with his family and friends in his native Tandil. Nevertheless, Del Potro won 730 points in a span of three weeks and reached the 11th spot of the ATP rankings.
2018: First Masters, second US Open final, world No. 3, injuries
Del Potro started the season at the ASB Classic in New Zealand, where he debuted with a victory against Denis Shapovalov. This victory assured his return to the top 10 of the ATP rankings for the first time since August 2014. Del Potro then defeated Karen Khachanov and David Ferrer en route to the final, where he lost to Roberto Bautista Agut in three sets.
At the Australian Open he lost in the third round against Tomáš Berdych. Despite this, he returned to the top ten ranked world No. 9. Del Potro then competed at the Delray Beach Open where he was seeded second but lost in the second round to eventual champion Frances Tiafoe. He then won the Acapulco Open, defeating Kevin Anderson in straight sets to obtain his 21st title, and his biggest title since 2013 Swiss Indoors.
His winning streak would not stop there, however, as he went on to win the Indian Wells Open, the first Masters 1000 tournament of his career. He received a bye into the second round, where he started his successful run by defeating teenager Alex De Minaur, veteran David Ferrer, compatriot Leonardo Mayer, 31st seed Philipp Kohlschreiber and 32nd seed Milos Raonic en route to the final. There, he faced reigning champion and world No. 1, Roger Federer. Del Potro prevailed in three sets despite Federer serving for the match in the decider and holding three championship points. This was del Potro's biggest achievement in the ATP Tour after the 2009 US Open.
Del Potro continued his successful run at the Miami Open, again starting from the second round as a seeded player. He defeated Robin Haase, Kei Nishikori and Filip Krajinović, before facing off in the quarterfinals against 20th seed Milos Raonic. Del Potro managed to once again prevail in a grueling match against the Canadian, reaching the semifinals. His 15-match win streak ended as he was defeated by 14th seed and eventual champion John Isner.
Del Potro returned to the courts in early May for the clay court season, although his first results were lackluster. After starting the Madrid Open with a solid victory against Bosnian Damir Džumhur in the second round, he was upset by qualifier Dušan Lajović in three sets. In his next tournament in Rome, del Potro defeated rising star Stefanos Tsitsipas before retiring against David Goffin in the next round due to a groin injury. His participation at the French Open was in doubt but he recovered in time and entered the tournament as the fifth seed. Following victories against French players Nicolas Mahut and Julien Benneteau, he defeated 31st seed Albert Ramos Viñolas and world No. 10, John Isner, en route to a quarterfinal clash against world No. 4 and frequent rival, Marin Čilić. After an intense match, in which he had an argument with a fan who supposedly heckled him, Del Potro defeated Čilić in four sets and reached the semifinals, the first time since 2009. He then lost to ten-times French Open champion Rafael Nadal in straight sets. His run to the semifinals ensured that, for the first time since February 2014, Del Potro would return to his career-best ranking of world No. 4.
At Wimbledon, Del Potro defeated Peter Gojowczyk, Feliciano Lopez and Benoît Paire in straight sets to set up a round of 16 clash with Gilles Simon. He went on to beat Simon in four sets over two days and in nearly 4,5 hours to set up another meeting with world No. 1 Rafael Nadal, who defeated him in five sets after del Potro having led two sets to one. Del Potro then competed at the Los Cabos Open, where he reached the final but lost to second-seeded Fabio Fognini in straight sets. Del Potro was seeded third at the Rogers Cup, but withdrew due to an injury to his left wrist. Nonetheless, due to Alexander Zverev's loss in the quarterfinals, del Potro moved up to a new career-high ranking of world No. 3 as of the week of 13 August. Del Potro was seeded fourth at Cincinnati, defeating Chung Hyeon and Nick Kyrgios before falling to David Goffin in the quarterfinals.
Entering the US Open seeded third, del Potro reached the quarterfinals without dropping a set, defeating Donald Young, Denis Kudla, 31st seed Fernando Verdasco, and 20th seed Borna Ćorić. He then faced 11th seed John Isner, defeating him in four sets to reach his second consecutive US Open semifinal, where he faced top seed and defending champion Rafael Nadal in a rematch of the previous year's semifinal. Nadal retired from the match due to a knee injury after del Potro took the first two sets. With this victory, del Potro advanced to his second Grand Slam final, nine years after his 2009 US Open triumph. He was defeated by two-time champion Novak Djokovic in three straight sets.
Del Potro entered the China Open in October as the top seed. He defeated Albert Ramos Viñolas, Karen Khachanov, Filip Krajinović, and reached the final without dropping a set after Fabio Fognini withdrew before the semifinal. He faced unseeded Nikoloz Basilashvili in the final, losing in two sets. He then competed in the Shanghai Masters seeded third. He defeated Richard Gasquet and faced 13th seed Borna Ćorić in the third round, narrowly dropping the first set before he retired due to a knee injury. This injury forced his withdrawal from the rest of the season, including the ATP Finals, for which he had qualified for the first time since 2013.
2019–2021: Continued injuries
Del Potro's injury lingered into the 2019 season, forcing him to withdraw from the Australian Open. He made his comeback at the Delray Beach Open in February where he reached the quarterfinals, losing to Mackenzie McDonald in three sets. Still not having recovered from injury, Del Potro chose not to defend his titles in Acapulco and Indian Wells, withdrawing from both tournaments. Playing in his first tournament back at the Madrid Open, del Potro lost his first match to Laslo Djere. He then played in Rome and secured wins against David Goffin, who had a 3–1 lead over him before the match, and Casper Ruud. He failed to convert two match points in a second set tiebreaker to ultimately lose his quarterfinal against world No. 1 Novak Djokovic over a three-hour match.
At the 2019 French Open, del Potro was seeded eighth. After wins in the first three rounds against Nicolás Jarry, Yoshihito Nishioka and Jordan Thompson respectively he lost in the fourth round to tenth-seeded Karen Khachanov in four sets. In his first grass-court tournament of the season at Queen's Club, del Potro suffered another career-threatening injury when he fractured his kneecap in his first round match against Denis Shapovalov.
Del Potro did not play any professional tennis from June 2019 at Queen's Club until 2022 at the Argentina Open. He underwent four right knee surgeries (June 2019, January 2020, August 2020 and March 2021) and withdrew from the Tokyo Olympics in July 2021. At the 2021 US Open, del Potro reported that his knee was getting better, he had picked up training on the court again and hoped to be ready to play on the tour within a couple of months.
2022: Return to professional tennis, potential retirement
On 31 January, it was announced that Del Potro will make his return to professional tennis at the Argentina Open, where he accepted a wildcard. He also accepted a wildcard to play the Rio Open.
On 5 February, Del Potro stated in a press conference that it he would likely retire after the Argentina Open. He cited ongoing knee pain due to an injury as a reason behind the potential retirement, and said that his return is "maybe more of a farewell than a comeback". Del Potro lost in the first round of the Argentina Open to Federico Delbonis, and again hinted at retirement in the post-match interview. He withdrew from the 2022 Rio Open on 11 February. Del Potro has not played any matches since; he dropped out of the singles rankings on 20 June, as well as the doubles rankings on 9 May.
2023: Failed comeback at the US Open
In March, he stated that he would begin training for a potential return at the 2023 US Open. In August, he announced that he wouldn't be able to compete in the tournament, due to his physical state.
Playing style
Del Potro is an offensive baseliner with a very powerful serve and a deep, flat, topspin groundstroke, where he pushes his opponents deeper with his heavy groundstroke and trying to blast past them with a winner. His forehand is one of his main strengths and possibly the most powerful in the game, capable of frequently generating speeds more than 160 km/h. It is widely considered among the top three best forehands on tour by fellow players and analysts, alongside Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal.
Although he possessed a very consistent and powerful double-handed backhand, injury and surgeries on his wrist have rendered his backhand the main weakness in his game. Since his return in 2016, del Potro made tactical changes in his game in order to protect his wrist, like significantly reducing the pace of his two-hander and adopting a one-handed slice. Despite del Potro admitting that relying on slices is "not my game," the shot has been effective in moving his opponents out of position and slowing down rallies enough to allow him to set up powerful offensive shots with his forehand. Furthermore, to compensate for the newfound vulnerability in his backhand wing, del Potro has improved the power and accuracy of his other shots, most notably his serve.
Equipment and apparel
Del Potro used the Wilson Hyper ProStaff 6.1 Midplus Stretch early on in his career, and has continued to use this racquet under new paint jobs years later. Del Potro is very superstitious, and after suffering a wrist injury shortly after switching to the Wilson BLX Pro Tour paint job in 2010, he returned to playing with the then outdated Wilson K-Factor 6.1 95 paint job. He particularly favored the exact racquets he had used to win his only Grand Slam title at the 2009 US Open. He again refused to update his racquet to the Wilson BLX Juice Pro in 2012, and in 2014 had only a few K-Factor racquets left. For strings, he uses Luxilon ALU Power strung at 58 lbs. He currently makes use of the same racket painted to resemble the Wilson ProStaff 97.
His clothing sponsor is Nike. He used to wear sleeveless shirts, but more recently has worn crew shirts, and often also sports double-wide wristbands and a bandana. For shoes, he wears Nike Air Max Cages.
Record against the Big Four
Del Potro has a combined record against all members of the Big Four, which is one of the best in this category. He is also one of the few to have won at least three matches against each of the four.
Roger Federer
Del Potro has a record against Roger Federer, and a record in final. Besides the 2009 US Open title, del Potro also captured the 2012 and 2013 Swiss Indoors finals and the 2018 Indian Wells final, while Federer won the 2012 Rotterdam Open and the 2017 Basel Open. Federer won their a five-set meeting at the 2009 French Open semifinals, and the longest best-of-three-set match in history at the 2012 Olympic semifinal, 19–17 in the deciding set. Del Potro prevailed in the 2017 US Open quarterfinals against Federer in four sets.
Novak Djokovic
Del Potro has a record against Novak Djokovic. Djokovic won their first four meetings, before back to back victories for del Potro at the 2011 Davis Cup and their bronze medal match at the 2012 Summer Olympics in straight sets. However, in 2013, Djokovic won two of the most important matches between them to date; an epic five-setter at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships semifinals and a three-setter at the 2013 Shanghai Masters final. In the same year, del Potro defeated Djokovic en route to his second Masters 1000 final, at the 2013 Indian Wells Masters. Del Potro upset Djokovic in the first round at the 2016 Rio Olympics en route to the silver medal. Djokovic defeated Del Potro in three close sets in the final of the 2018 US Open, which was the first grand slam final for Del Potro since his victory at the 2009 US Open. Three of his four victories have come via national representation tournaments.
Rafael Nadal
Del Potro has a record against Rafael Nadal. He bested Nadal in the semifinals en route to his 2009 US Open title, which was the first time a player managed to beat both Roger Federer and Nadal in the same Grand Slam tournament (Novak Djokovic subsequently did the same at the 2011 US Open). However, the Spaniard managed to win both times in the Indian Wells Masters encounters, in the 2011 semifinal and the 2013 final. Nadal also won the fourth and last rubber of the 2011 Davis Cup final against the Argentine. Del Potro gained the upper hand at the 2013 Shanghai Masters, defeating Nadal to reach the final where he lost to Djokovic. Del Potro defeated Nadal in a third set tiebreak in the semifinal of the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, while Nadal stopped Del Potro's 2017 US Open run, defeating him in a four-set semifinal. In the quarterfinals of 2018 Wimbledon, Nadal came from two sets to one down to defeat Del Potro in an epic five-set match. In their most recent meeting, Del Potro advanced to the final of the US Open when Nadal had to retire, while trailing by two sets to love.
Andy Murray
Del Potro has a record against Andy Murray. They only played two finals. The first was in the 2009 Rogers Cup, which was won by Murray. However, when del Potro beat Murray in the quarterfinals of the 2013 BNP Paribas Open, del Potro won against all members of the Big Four in 2013. In their second final, del Potro lost to Murray in the 2016 Summer Olympics. However, during Argentina's Davis Cup semi-final tie against Great Britain, del Potro got revenge by beating Andy Murray in a five-set thriller that was, for each man, the longest match of his career.
Personal life
Del Potro dated singer Jimena Barón from April 2017 until February 2018. Del Potro dated model Sofia Jimenez from December 2018 until their breakup in May 2020.
In 2022, it was revealed that Daniel del Potro (Juan Martín's late father) had misappropriated US$30 million of his son's career earnings while managing his financial affairs. A documentary based on his life was directed by Rodolfo Lamboglia.
Career statistics
Grand Slam tournament performance timeline
Grand Slam tournament finals
Singles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up)
Olympic medal matches
Singles: 2 (1 silver medal, 1 bronze medal)
Year-end championships finals
Singles: 1 (1 runner-up)
Notes
References
External links
Profiles
1988 births
Living people
Argentine male tennis players
Argentine people of Italian descent
Argentine Roman Catholics
People from Tandil
US Open (tennis) champions
Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic tennis players for Argentina
Olympic bronze medalists for Argentina
Olympic medalists in tennis
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for Argentina
Sportspeople from Buenos Aires Province |
3480370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Six%20Arms%20Saga | The Six Arms Saga | "The Six Arms Saga" is a story arc featuring the popular Marvel Comics character Spider-Man, written by Stan Lee and drawn by Gil Kane. It spans the issues The Amazing Spider-Man #100–102 (1971) and features the first appearance and origin story of Morbius, the Living Vampire. The story arc is mostly remembered for Spider-Man growing four extra arms, and for a subsequent What If…? stating that keeping the arms would have allowed Spider-Man to save Gwen Stacy and defeat Thanos himself.
The Six-Armed Spider-Man appears in Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse.
Plot
Peter Parker has recently experienced a lot of misery in his life: his best friend Harry Osborn has become a junkie, his close friend Captain George Stacy died in his arms, and Gwen Stacy – Peter's girlfriend – wrongly blamed Spider-Man for her father's death. He has a fatal thought: for Peter Parker to live, Spider-Man must die! Peter has been working on a serum to terminate his spider powers ever since he got them, and decides to take it. He then falls into a troubled sleep in which he fights all his enemies, while enduring excruciating side pains. The dream ends with George Stacy's spirit imploring Peter to keep protecting New York as Spider-Man, stating that his powers are both a blessing and a curse. When he wakes up, Peter notices a ghastly thing: he has grown four extra arms. The serum has increased his spider powers rather than nullifying them.
After rejecting an invitation to a movie from Gwen, and a late-night photo assignment from the Daily Bugle, Peter, as Spider-Man, calls Dr. Curt Connors for help, who offers him his summer house as refuge. Elsewhere, Michael Morbius is found stranded in the ocean by a boat and taken aboard, only for numerous passengers to then mysteriously disappear. When the crew confronts him, Morbius attacks them and flees. As night falls and the crew goes to sleep, Morbius, now resembling a vampire, returns and feeds on their blood, but is overwhelmed by guilt and attempts to kill himself by jumping into the ocean. He washes ashore and stumbles upon Connors' summer house, which he enters before falling asleep. Meanwhile, Spider-Man is working on a cure for his condition in Connors' lab in the lower levels of the house and, frustrated, smashes a test tube. Morbius is awakened by the noise and attacks Spider-Man. As the two fight, Connors arrives and the stress of being attacked by Morbius causes him to transform into the Lizard.
Morbius and the Lizard fight over who will kill Spider-Man. Morbius manages to bite the Lizard before escaping. An enzyme in Morbius' blood allows Connors to temporarily regain control of his mind, and he joins forces with Spider-Man to track down Morbius, believing that his blood can help cure them both. Meanwhile, Morbius reflects on how he became a vampire following a failed experiment that he, his fiancée, Martine Bancroft, and his assistant worked on to cure Morbius' rare blood disease; he killed his assistant before jumping into the ocean, not wanting to hurt Martine. As Spider-Man and the Lizard search for Morbius, Gwen and Aunt May worry about Peter, as they haven't heard from him in a while, and J. Jonah Jameson reveals to Robbie Robertson that the Daily Bugle is facing financial problems. Eventually, Spider-Man and the Lizard find Morbius and defeat him, but the vampire ends up falling into the river and disappears. Nonetheless, Spider-Man managed to retrieve a blood sample from him, which he uses to cure both himself and the Lizard.
Other versions
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel version of Clone Saga, a clone of Spider-Man has six arms and a variant black costume surfaced. When unmasked, this clone is revealed to also have more spider-like physical features, such as fangs around his mouth, additional eyes and spiky hair along his entire face. The variant cover for Ultimate Spider-Man #100 was based on that of The Amazing Spider-Man #100, in which the saga takes place.
Mutant X
In the Mutant X universe, Spider-Man still has six arms. For unexplained reasons, he has taken to calling himself Man-Spider instead of Spider-Man. Moreover, the chemical he consumed apparently altered his DNA, since his clone (who is killed by Madelyne Pryor within the series) also has six arms.
Pestilence
Deadpool encounters a version of Spider-Man in a universe which he refers to as "an Age of Apocalypse" (not the Age of Apocalypse). In this reality, a six-armed Spider-Man becomes Pestilence, Horseman of Apocalypse, with poisonous fangs and engages in cannibalism.
What If?
An issue of What If? had asked "What If Spider-Man had Kept his Six Arms?". Morbius is killed by sharks (they were attracted to the blood on Morbius when he landed in the water) before a cure for Spider-Man's mutation is found. After a fight with the Lizard, Spider-Man is advised by Dr. Curt Connors to see Professor X. Spider-Man ends up in a scuffle with X-Men members Angel, Beast, Cyclops and Iceman until Professor X and Jean Grey break it up. Professor X then examines him with Cerebro and learns that Spider-Man's mutation is permanent. Spider-Man then visits Mister Fantastic for a second opinion. Mister Fantastic also states that the mutation is permanent. When the Thing comes in announcing that Doctor Octopus is holding hostages at City Hall demanding to see Spider-Man, Spider-Man easily takes down Doctor Octopus with his six arms. Spider-Man gains enormous popularity and is the nationally recognized spokesperson for the physically challenged, thereby proving J. Jonah Jameson wrong in his assumption that Spider-Man would be considered as a freak. Afterwards, Mister Fantastic summons Spider-Man back to present his latest invention...four arm sheaths that will keep the extra arms invisible (as long as they are worn) when Peter Parker is in his civilian outfit.
Years later, Aunt May has died of natural causes and Peter begins his full-time career as a superhero. His extra limbs give him augmented strength and agility. Spider-Man also prevented the death of Gwen Stacy at the hands of the Green Goblin as well as participating in the Secret Wars where his alien costume soon resulted in the creation of Venom whom Spider-Man also defeats. The story ends with Peter accepting the situation in which he himself was responsible for and making the best of it.
Spider-Verse
In the run-up to Spider-Verse, after learning that something is crossing dimensions to kill Spider-Men, the Superior Spider-Man (Doctor Octopus' mind in Spider-Man's body) assembles a team of the more ruthless surviving Spider-Men to oppose this threat, including a six-armed Spider-Man wearing a costume perfectly adapted to his condition. During the storyline, this version of Spider-Man accompanies Spider-Man Noir to a world where the spider-bite left Peter in a coma, with the six-armed Spider-Man using the serum that gave him his extra arms to cure Peter of his mutation for good, guessing that Peter's mutation being so new would make it more receptive to the serum. However, the six-armed Spider-Man is later killed during a trip to 2099 with Lady Spider and Spider-Man 2099 when he is caught and fed on by one of the Inheritors.
In other media
Television
"The Six Arms Saga" is adapted into the second season of Spider-Man: The Animated Series, Neogenic Nightmare. In this continuity, the transformation is caused by the same spider-bite that gave Spider-Man his powers and took longer to develop. After the mutation begins, Spider-Man first asks Professor X and the X-Men for aid, but they are unable to help. Spider-Man then turns to Dr. Mariah Crawford instead, but his initial attempt at a cure results in him growing four arms. After fighting the Punisher, Michael Morbius, and the NYPD, the accelerated mutation causes Spider-Man to mutate into the feral "Man-Spider". Kraven the Hunter and Punisher are eventually able to capture Man-Spider and deliver him to Dr. Crawford, who restores him to normal. By the end of the season, the Vulture attempts to drain Spider-Man's youth and power, but Dr. Curt Connors reprograms the Vulture's equipment to absorb the defective genome that originally caused Spider-Man's mutation and permanently cure him, though the genome was temporarily transferred to the Vulture. In the two-part series finale, "Spider Wars", Spider-Man teams up with multiple alternate reality versions of himself assembled by the Beyonder and Madame Web, including a Spider-Man that was still dealing with his mutation crisis who eventually transforms into Man-Spider during their mission. The Beyonder later teleports Man-Spider back to his home dimension so he can receive help.
The Six Arms Saga is alluded to in Ultimate Spider-Man. In the episode "Strange", Peter Parker dreams that he has four additional arms while fighting Nightmare within his mind. In "Carnage", the Green Goblin injects Peter with the Carnage symbiote, leading to Peter imagining what his subsequent transformation will look like, with a spider-like form being among the possibilities. In "The Savage Spider-Man", while traveling to the Savage Land with Wolverine, Spider-Man is poisoned during an encounter with Taskmaster and transforms into the feral Man-Spider before he is eventually cured after Ka-Zar sprays him with liquid from a skunk-like creature native to the Savage Land and turned back to normal off-screen. In "Return to the Spider-Verse (Pt. 4)", an alternate reality version of Man-Spider was captured by Wolf Spider, who seeks to drain his counterparts' life energy, before the "prime" Spider-Man, Miles Morales, and Spider-Gwen arrive to rescue them and defeat Wolf Spider.
Film
In November 2017, Sony Pictures announced plans to make a film adaptation of Morbius' origin story from "The Six Arms Saga" as part of Sony's Spider-Man Universe, written by Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless, directed by Daniel Espinosa, and starring Jared Leto as Dr. Michael Morbius, with Spider-Man removed from the narrative. Production began in November 2018, with filming beginning in February 2019. Morbius was originally scheduled to be released on January 28, 2022, before it was pushed back to April 1, 2022.
The six-armed Spider-Man appears in Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse as a member of Miguel O'Hara's Spider-Society.
Video games
The six-armed Spider-Man appears as a playable character in Spider-Man Unlimited.
References
Comics by Roy Thomas
Comics by Stan Lee |
1831132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola%20High%20School%20%28Montreal%29 | Loyola High School (Montreal) | Loyola High School is a co-educational subsidized private Roman Catholic school, adhering to the Jesuit tradition, for grades 7–11. The school is located in the Loyola District of the Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce borough in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It was established in 1896 by the Society of Jesus as part of Loyola College, at the request of the English Catholic community in Montreal. It is named after St. Ignatius of Loyola, who founded the Jesuit Order in 1534.
History
Founded in 1896, Loyola High School began as Loyola College (an eight-year classical college or "collège classique") which assumed responsibility for the English section of Collège Sainte-Marie de Montréal, a French Jesuit school which existed from 1848 to 1969. In 1915, Loyola College moved from its downtown location to the west end location on Sherbrooke St. West. In 1964, the Loyola High School Corporation was established to run the High School separately from the College. Loyola College merged with Sir George Williams University in 1974 to form Concordia University.
The school became fully co-educational in 2023.
School campus
Loyola was originally located in an abandoned Sacred Heart Convent on Bleury and St. Catherine Street. A fire broke out at this location in 1898, forcing the college to move into the former Tucker School on Drummond Street. That summer, a wing was added, but space soon became inadequate. In 1900, the Jesuits purchased the Decary Farm in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce located in the west end of Montreal.
In 1916, Loyola College officially moved to the new campus. The high school was located in the Junior Building and, until 1961, shared the Administration Building and then the north half of the Central Building. It was the original campus, which was designed in the Collegiate Gothic architectural style and covered in gargoyles, leaded and stained-glass windows and oak moulding, where young men began their journey to become "Eight-Year Men". After four years of high school and four years of college, they graduated with university degrees in Arts or Sciences.
In 1961, the era of boarders ended and the high school moved exclusively to the Junior Building. An extension was added in 1970 and a gymnasium was built south of Sherbrooke Street in 1978. In 1988 a decision was reached to erect a new building in order to properly accommodate the student body and to enable the school to offer the curriculum outlined by the Ministry of Education.
Loyola considered a number of possible options for the future building, including adding an extension onto the Junior Building. The school eventually made arrangements with Concordia University to swap the Junior Building for a site on the southwest end of the Loyola campus beside the school gymnasium. The new building was completed in 1992. The Bishops Atrium and a three-story wing were constructed in 2004, along with the Eric Maclean, S.J. Centre for the Performing Arts auditorium the following year.
Academic
In the school’s Mission Statement, Loyola is described as a “university-preparatory school.” Students are also expected to complete the requirements for a Secondary School Diploma to be admitted to C.E.G.E.P. Core and optional subjects offered in the high school curriculum are broken down according to cycle - Cycle 1 (years 1 and 2) and Cycle 2 (years 3, 4, and 5). The high school performs competitively locally and provincially in examinations results.
Religious and spiritual formation
As a Catholic and Jesuit school, all of Loyola's activities are meant to be inspired by Catholic teachings in the tradition of St. Ignatius of Loyola.
While the school's president is ultimately responsible for ensuring the school's spiritual mission, the Loyola Ignatian Formation director oversees its particular activities in the entire Loyola community (alumni, parents, faculty, and students). The Campus Ministry is tasked with overseeing students' spiritual formation.
Jesuit affiliation
Loyola is a member of the American Jesuit Schools Network, and is administered by the Jesuits of English Canada. The two Jesuit provinces, English and French, are currently in the process of merging into one Canadian Jesuit province.
Athletics
Loyola fields a number of athletic teams in competition with other schools in Canada and the United States, primarily competing in the Greater Montreal Athletics Association and Réseau du sport étudiant du Québec. Loyola's traditional rivals in athletics are Lower Canada College and Selwyn House School.
Facilities
Double gym (volleyball, basketball, wrestling, tennis)
Strength and conditioning room (wrestling)
The Lower Fields (football, soccer, rugby, ultimate)
Concordia Stadium (football, soccer, rugby, ultimate); seating capacity of 4000
Stinger Dome (ultimate)
Ed Meagher Arena (hockey): upgraded to NHL standards in 2013
Concordia Gym (basketball and wrestling during Ed Meagher Tournament only)
Coat of arms
The name "Loyola" is derived from the Spanish Lobo-y-olla, meaning "wolf" and "kettle". The school's coat of arms is a variation of St. Ignatius of Loyola's coat of arms, which depicts the union of the House of Loyola (represented by the two wolves and kettle) and the House of Onaz (represented by the seven red bars on a field of gold) in 1261. The phrase "Loyola y Onaz" typically appears at the bottom, though another variation of the school's coat of arms includes the Jesuit motto "Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam", meaning "for the greater glory of God".
Loyola in print
Jim Pearson, Loyola and Montreal: Stories from Our History (Montreal: 2018)
Joseph B. Gavin, S.J., From 'Le petit collège de bois' to 7272 Sherbrooke St. West: A Brief History of Loyola High School, Montreal (Montreal: 2012)
Dr. Gil Drolet, Loyola, The Wars: In Remembrance of 'Men for Others''' (Waterloo: Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies, 1996)
T.P. Slattery, Loyola and Montreal'' (Montreal: Palm Publishers, 1962)
Loyola in court
In 2008, Quebec's Ministry of Education, Sport and Leisure introduced a mandatory "Ethics and Religious Culture" (ERC) course to all Quebec schools. Loyola had reservations about the course's ability to meet its objectives from a relativistic perspective, and applied for an exemption to teach an ERC equivalency course. Loyola's equivalency course had similar goals as the government's ERC but was structured on a methodology that was more in keeping with its Catholic, Jesuit identity. The government denied the request for exemption and, as a result, Loyola took the matter to the Superior Court of Quebec where in 2010 the Superior Court ruled in Loyola's favour. The Ministry appealed and in 2012 the appellate court overturned the Superior Court's decision.
Loyola then took the case to the Supreme Court of Canada where, on 19 March 2015, it was ruled that the Quebec Ministry was in violation of Loyola's religious freedom and ordered the Ministry to reconsider the exemption.
Notable alumni
Religion
Jean Vanier (1943) – founder of L'Arche
Terrance Prendergast, S.J. (1961) – Archbishop of Ottawa, Canada
Michael Czerny, S.J. (1963) – Cardinal, Under-secretary to Pope Francis in Migrants and Refugees Section
Politics, law and business
Georges P. Vanier (1906) – Governor General of Canada
Charles Gavan "Chubby" Power (1906) – Senate of Canada; Canada federal Minister
Eric Kierans (1931) – Quebec provincial Minister and federal Minister, President Montreal Stock Exchange
Zbigniew Brzezinski (1943) – United States National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter
Warren Allmand (1948) – Solicitor-General of Canada, Canada federal Minister
Dominic D'Alessandro – President and CEO of Manulife Financial
Allan Lutfy (1963) – Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada
Michael L. Phelan (1964) – Judge of the Federal Court of Canada
Jim Flaherty (1966) – Canada federal Minister of Finance
Robert J. Bauman (1967) – Chief Justice of British Columbia and Chief Justice of the Court of Appeal for the Yukon
Daniel Fournier (1971) – Chairman of the Board and CEO of Ivanhoé Cambridge
Gerald T. McCaughey (1972) – President and CEO of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
Francis Scarpaleggia (1974) – Liberal Member of Parliament for Lac-Saint-Louis
Jean-Pierre Blais (1978) – Chairman of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission
Noubar Afeyan (1978) – Chairman and Co-founder of Moderna
Arts, entertainment, and writing
Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau (1924) – poet, diarist, painter
Peter Desbarats – author, playwright and journalist
Richard Monette (1963) – actor, artistic director of the Stratford Festival of Canada
Don Ferguson (1963) – of the Royal Canadian Air Farce
Roger Abbott (1963) – of the Royal Canadian Air Farce
Mark Starowicz (1964) – historian, producer, journalist
Don Carmody (1968) – Academy Award-winning film producer
Michael Sarrazin – Hollywood actor
Stephen Campanelli (1976) - film-maker and cameraman
David Acer (1987) – author, magician and stand-up comedy performer
Joseph Donovan (1992) – Juno Award-winning music producer for Sam Roberts Band
Sam Roberts (1992) – Juno Award-winning singer, songwriter with Sam Roberts Band
Philosophy and academia
Bernard J.F. Lonergan, S.J. (1922) – philosopher and theologian
William Joseph Mackey, S.J. (1932) – responsible for establishing the modern education system in Bhutan
Witold Rybczynski (1966) – architect, historian, Professor of Urbanism
Athletics
Ralph Toohy (1943) – football player CFL, Montreal Alouette, Hamilton Tiger-Cats; three-time Grey Cup champion; four-time All-Star
Keith English (1945) – football player CFL, Montreal Alouette, Grey Cup champion, Rookie of the year – 1948
Brian F. O'Neill (1945) – executive vice president of NHL; Stanley Cup trustee; elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame
Jim Madigan – Head Coach Northeastern University men's ice hockey
Alexander Killorn (2006) – ice hockey player NHL, Tampa Bay Lightning; two-time Stanley Cup champion
See also
List of Jesuit sites
References
External links
Loyola High School official site
Concordia University
Education in Montreal
Private schools in Quebec
High schools in Montreal
Catholic secondary schools in Quebec
Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce
Jesuit secondary schools in Canada
Educational institutions established in 1896
1896 establishments in Quebec |
54240823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Smelting%20and%20Refining%20Company | International Smelting and Refining Company | The International Smelting and Refining Company was a subsidiary of Anaconda Copper that operated primarily out of the International Smelter near Tooele, Utah. The International Smelter began operation in 1910 as a copper producer handling ores from Bingham Canyon and was expanded into a lead smelting operation in 1912. Copper smelting finished at International in 1946, and the lead smelter shut down in January 1972. The closure of the smelter would lead to the associated Tooele Valley Railway (which had their primary railyards at the smelter) to be shut down ten years later in 1982. The company also handled several other Anaconda owned interests. After the shut down of several of the International Smelting sites, environmental reclamation has been performed by Anaconda Copper's successor company ARCO and the EPA Superfund program.
History
Interest in constructing a smelter outside of Tooele was begun by the Utah Consolidated Mining Company in the early 1900s due to the James Godfrey et al. v. American Smelting and Refining Company et al. lawsuit, which shut down several of the smelters operating in the Murray, Utah, area due to air pollution concerns. While several of the largest smelters in the area such as the ASARCO smelter in Murray were able to settle out of court, many of the smaller smelters such as the Utah Consolidated and Highland Boy shut down due to the court ruling. The mine and smelter owners who were affected by the lawsuit began to search for a new smelter site away from the populous Salt Lake Valley. A prime site was found in Tooele on the western slope of the Oquirrh Mountains which was isolated from the growing Salt Lake Valley, had strong headwinds which it was hoped would take most of the pollution up into the nearby Pine Canyon instead of towards nearby Tooele City, and was located close to the rapidly growing Bingham mining district. After negotiations to smelt the Highland Boy ores at the ASARCO copper smelter at Garfield, Utah, fell through, Utah Consolidated pushed for the founding of the International Smelting and Refining Company, which was formally founded on December 1, 1908, in New Jersey. Corporate offices for the company would at one point be located in New York City The Tooele Valley Railway, which was built to serve the smelter construction and operation, had been chartered in Utah on November 18, 1908.
Construction on the smelter began on December 9, 1908, several days after the formal foundation of the company. Among the founders of the new smelter were mining moguls John D. Ryan and Thomas F. Cole who would eventually bring the company under the control of Anaconda Copper. In 1909 the company purchased the Raritan Copper Works, a copper refinery in New Jersey, which would eventually process most of the product produced in Tooele and Anaconda's smelter in Butte, Montana (some sources state though the Raritan–International merger didn't take place until 1934). The copper smelter in Tooele opened in 1910, with an aerial tramway having been built to bring ores in from the Bingham Canyon mining district. In 1911 the decision was made to construct a lead smelter as an addition to the Tooele site, which opened in 1912.
The 1910 Mexican Revolution caused several Arizona mines to begin shipping their ores to the Tooele Smelter since the conflict cut off access to the Cananea, Mexico, smelter. In response by 1913 work began in Miami, Arizona, to construct a new International Smelting plant. The International Smelter in Miami was designed by Louis D. Ricketts to process the local copper ore. By 1915 the new Arizona smelter began production. The smelter was designed with efficiency in mind, and proved to be one of the most successful smelters in the region. Freeport-McMoRan continues to operate a smelter at this site in the present day.
In 1914 the Anaconda Copper group bought full ownership of International Smelting Company. The assets of the International Smelting Company at the time included in addition to the Tooele operations, International Lead Refining Co. in East Chicago, Indiana, the Arizona smelter, the Raritan works, and the associated Raritan Terminal and Transportation Company. The International Smelting and Refining Company was re-founded in Montana upon the completion of the Anaconda purchase. By the 1920s the Tooele operation had become a custom smelter, processing ores from mines across the intermountain west. A large fire on May 9, 1942, destroyed the Tooele smelter's labs, machine shop, and the Tooele Valley Railway's locomotive works; all of which were rebuilt anew a short time later.
By 1937 the National Tunnel and Mines Company began construction of the Elton Tunnel to replace the tramway connecting the Apex Mine and Utah Delaware Mine in Bingham Canyon with the smelter. The tunnel was named after J. O. Elton, General Manager of the International Smelter, who conducted the ground-breaking ceremony. By 1940 the National Tunnel and Mines Company was considered a subsidiary of majority owner Anaconda Copper. The tunnel was completed by 1941. Expectations were that the tunnel would provide increased production at the smelter, and many Tooele locals celebrated the new tunnel with a local "Tunnel Days" festival. An electric narrow-gauge railroad system ran through the tunnel, and interchanged with the Tooele Valley Railway at the surface portal. While demand for metal production kept the tunnel busy during World War II, the post-war environment caused a dramatic drop in demand for metals. This post-war market lead to the Elton Tunnel being shut down, the closure of the Apex and Utah Delaware mines, and the end of copper smelting operations in Tooele. The National Tunnel and Mines Company declared bankruptcy in 1948, a move which forced all the remaining assets into complete control by Anaconda.
From 1941 to 1944 the International Smelting and Refining Company leased and expanded the Copper Canyon mining camp near Battle Mountain, Nevada. The site included an ore crusher, mill, and employee housing. It appears much of the equipment used at Copper Canyon came from other International/Anaconda properties. The lease at Copper Canyon appears to have been quickly ended though by 1945. It also appears that sometime in this era the company looked into creating a busing company to transport employees to work at the Tooele smelter known as the International Bus Company, but those plans failed to come to fruition.
With the copper smelter having been shut down, the remaining operations in Tooele focused on lead and zinc recovery. The nearby U.S. Smelting in Midvale, Utah, contracted with International to smelt their milled ores in 1958. By 1960 Anaconda/International had sold off their Miami, Arizona, smelter to Inspiration Consolidated Copper. The Tooele smelter's remaining years of operation were difficult, with aging equipment and decreasing profits. When Chilean socialist president Salvador Allende nationalized Anaconda Copper's Chuquicamata mine and El Salvador mine in 1971, it forced the company to close off unprofitable mines and smelters to remain profitable. When the International Smelter finally shut down in early 1972, over 30 mines in the intermountain west were forced to close due to the lack of any other nearby smelter. The smelter, which had once hired 2000 employees during its peak, had only 350 full-time employees by the time of the closure of the Tooele operation. Meanwhile, the Raritan Copper Works were shut down in 1976.
Demolition of the Tooele smelter began shortly afterwards. The machine shops and administrative offices survived for a short while longer as part of Anaconda/ARCO's Carr Fork Mine operation until after that mine was closed and sold to Kennecott Copper. Environmental Protection Agency work in the area began in 1986 to study the site. In 1994 a buffer area around the smelter site which included both the smelter and the Elton Tunnel location was declared to be the "Carr Fork Reclamation and Wildlife Area." Long term site reclamation of the Tooele smelter began with a Utah Environmental Department Study in 1996 which detected high concentrations of lead and arsenic downhill from the smelter site. In 2000 the EPA declared the area a Superfund project and began a remediation project at the smelter site and parts of the Tooele Valley Railway route. Guidelines for land developers in the area were set in place and made available for the public via the Tooele County Health Department. The smelter site was removed from the active Superfund list in 2011.
Environmental cleanup of the East Chicago Anaconda/International lead site and the neighboring USS Lead facilities started in 2009 with the EPA declaration of the area as a Superfund site. Due to the low-income neighborhoods built in the area after the shut down of the lead facilities, clean up has been a difficult and controversial process. In 2016 the EPA began evicting residents from the West Calumet housing complex, which had been built over the former Anaconda/International site, with plans to demolish the structures there. Soil remediation is an ongoing process at the site.
Preservation
Several locomotives used at the Raritan Copper Works by International have been preserved. Locomotive No. 8 is in a private collection and has been modified to have a tender. Locomotive No. 9, is preserved in the New Jersey Museum of Transportation. Locomotive No. 10 is in Boothbay, Maine. Locomotive No. 11 is preserved in South Carver, Massachusetts.
Significant artifacts from the International Smelter in Tooele were preserved in the Tooele Valley Museum to the west of the smelter site. Artifacts preserved included work tools, laboratory sampling equipment, signs used on the smelter site, and documents pertaining to the operation of the smelter and the local workers unions. The Carr Fork Reclamation and Wildlife Area has sign markers and monuments with information on the historic smelter site. As of June 2016, several pylons of the aerial tramway between the smelter and Bingham Canyon remain standing across the Oquirrh Mountains.
The only surviving structure from the Tooele smelter site is an ore conveyor bridge, which was dismantled and rebuilt into a sky bridge at the Trolley Square mall in Salt Lake City. The bridge passes over 600 South, with a small informational placard near it in the mall detailing its history. At the Nevada Southern Railroad Museum in Boulder City, Nevada, a steam crane known as "The Crab" that was used at the Tooele smelter is stored.
See also
Tooele Valley Railway
Anaconda Copper
References
External links
Anaconda Copper
Copper smelters
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Utah
Historic American Engineering Record in Nevada
Historic American Engineering Record in Utah
Lander County, Nevada
Tooele County, Utah |
24343293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Stuhlbarg | Michael Stuhlbarg | Michael Stuhlbarg ( ; born July 5, 1968) is an American actor. He is known as a character actor having portrayed a variety of roles in film, television and theatre. He has received several awards including two Screen Actors Guild Awards as well as nominations for two Primetime Emmy Awards, a Tony Award, and a Golden Globe Award.
He rose to prominence as troubled university professor Larry Gopnik in the 2009 dark comedy film A Serious Man, directed by Joel and Ethan Coen. Stuhlbarg has since become known as a character actor and has appeared in numerous films and television series portraying real life figures, such as George Yeaman in Lincoln (2012), Lew Wasserman in Hitchcock (2012), Andy Hertzfeld in Steve Jobs (2015), Edward G. Robinson in Trumbo (2015), Abe Rosenthal in The Post (2017), and Stanley Edgar Hyman in Shirley (2020). His other supporting roles include Hugo (2011), Men in Black 3 (2012), Blue Jasmine (2013), Pawn Sacrifice (2014), Arrival (2016), Call Me by Your Name, and The Shape of Water (both 2017). He joined the Marvel Cinematic Universe appearing as Nicodemus West in Doctor Strange (2016) and Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022).
Stuhlbarg's most notable roles in television include his performances as Arnold Rothstein in HBO's Boardwalk Empire (2010–2013), Richard A. Clarke in The Looming Tower (2018), and Richard Sackler in Dopesick (2021), receiving Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie nominations for the latter two. His other television appearances include FX's Fargo (2017), Showtime's Your Honor (2020–2023), and HBO's The Staircase (2022). On stage, Stuhlbarg has acted in numerous productions including the 2005 debut of Martin McDonagh's The Pillowman on Broadway, for which he won a Drama Desk Award and received a Tony Award nomination.
Early life
Stuhlbarg was born in Long Beach, California, the son of Susan and Mort Stuhlbarg, philanthropists. His father had been a salesman, becoming a successful manufacturer of security products.
He was raised as a Reform Jew. He has said, "It's more of a spiritual resonance as opposed to particularly of Judaism." Stuhlbarg trained at The Juilliard School in New York City, where he was a member of the Drama Division's Group 21 (1988–1992). He graduated from Juilliard with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1992.
Stuhlbarg also studied acting at the University of California, Los Angeles, the Vilnius Conservatory in Lithuania, the British American Drama Academy at Oxford, and the National Youth Theatre of Great Britain at the University of London. He also studied mime with Marcel Marceau. Stuhlbarg is married to Mai-Linh Lofgren.
Career
1993–2005
Stuhlbarg began his career appearing in stage productions. In a 1993 production of Saint Joan, Stuhlbarg portrayed Charles VII of France; however, UPI critic Frederick M. Winship thought that Stuhlbarg was miscast in the production. The following year, he portrayed the title character in a production of Richard II. Writing for The New York Times, theater critic David Richards dubbed Stuhlbarg a "promising young actor", yet felt his portrayal of Richard came across as a "blend of Rasputin and an odious rent collector is altogether unavoidable, but I'd like to believe it's not his fault." He starred in the two character play Old Wicked Songs throughout late 1995. For his role in the 1996 production of the Eugene O'Neill play Long Day's Journey into Night, Stuhlbarg won the Elliot Norton Award for Outstanding Actor in a large company production. In a 1997 production of Henry VIII, Stuhlbarg played multiple roles, including Thomas Cranmer.
Stuhlbarg made his film debut in the 1998 drama A Price Above Rubies, which starred Renée Zellweger. In the 1999 Studio 54 production of the musical Cabaret, Stuhlbarg played Ernst Ludwig, a German who in the course of the production is revealed to be a Nazi. Stuhlbarg played the dual role of both Time and Clown in a 2000 production of William Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale; The New York Press critic Jonathan Kalb praised his "endearing stutter and hopping gait". In the Tim Blake Nelson-directed war drama The Grey Zone (2001), Stuhlbarg played a Jewish Hungarian who becomes a Sonderkommando in the Nazi Germany Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. Stuhlbarg had previously appeared in the play of the same by Nelson in 1996. Following appearances in productions of Cymbeline, Twelfth Night, and The Persians, Stuhlbarg gave a critically acclaimed performance in the 2005 Broadway production of the Martin McDonagh play The Pillowman. He played Michal, a mentally damaged man who has suffered years of abuse from his parents and gained 50 pounds for the role. Ben Brantley of The New York Times praised Stuhlbarg for "boldly and expertly" capturing "both the innocence and ugliness of Michal". Stuhlbarg won a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play and received his first Tony Award nomination for his performance.
2006–2013
In 2006, Stuhlbarg appeared in the plays Measure for Pleasure and The Voysey Inheritance. He played a recurring role on Aaron Sorkin's television series Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip from 2006 to 2007, which aired for one season. His first film appearance of 2008 was the independent drama Afterschool, in which he played a "sanctimonious" high school principal and he had a one-line scene in Ridley Scott's Body of Lies as a lawyer. Also in 2008, Stuhlbarg portrayed Prince Hamlet in Oskar Eustis' production of William Shakespeare's Hamlet at the Delacorte Theater. In August of that year, Stuhlbarg was cast as the lead character in the Coen brothers film A Serious Man. The dark comedy, in which he portrayed troubled Jewish university professor Larry Gopnik, was released in October 2009. In his review of the film, Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert felt that "Much of the success of A Serious Man comes from the way Michael Stuhlbarg plays the role. He doesn't play Gopnik as a sad-sack or a loser, a whiner or a depressive, but as a hopeful man who can't believe what's happening to him. He was nominated for Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his performance in the film. Cold Souls, his other release of 2009, featured Stuhlbarg in a smaller role as a hedge fund consultant, and he also guest starred in the episode "There's No Place Like Mode" of the comedy series Ugly Betty.
Beginning in September 2010, Stuhlbarg portrayed organized crime boss Arnold Rothstein in Terence Winter's HBO crime drama series Boardwalk Empire. The character was written off after the show's fourth season in 2013. Martin Scorsese directed the pilot episode of the show, after having previously directed Stuhlbarg in the short film The Key to Reserva (2007). In Scorsese's historical adventure film Hugo (2011), Stuhlbarg played René Tabard, a film historian. Stuhlbarg appeared in the science fiction comedy sequel Men in Black 3 (2012) as Griffin, an alien with clairvoyant abilities who helps Agent J (played by Will Smith) and K (played by Tommy Lee Jones and Josh Brolin) on their mission. The film's director, Barry Sonnenfeld, said that after seeing Stuhlbarg's script and notebook filled with "tiny scribbles, notes, diagrams" that “It made me suspect that perhaps I had actually cast an alien. To Michael, all his little notations made sense. To me, they were scary and indecipherable.” Later in the year, Stuhlbarg briefly appeared as a hitman alongside his Boardwalk Empire co-star Michael Pitt in the opening scene of Martin McDonagh's dark comedy Seven Psychopaths. His third release of 2012 was the historical drama Lincoln, directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Daniel Day-Lewis as President Abraham Lincoln. In the film, he portrayed Democratic Congressman George Yeaman, representative of Kentucky. The Alfred Hitchcock biopic Hitchcock was his final release of the year, with Stuhlbarg portraying talent agent and studio executive Lew Wasserman. In Woody Allen's comedy-drama Blue Jasmine (2013), starring Cate Blanchett, Stuhlbarg appeared as a dentist who makes unwanted sexual advances to Blanchett's character.
2014–present
Stuhlbarg played chess grandmaster Bobby Fischer's manager, Paul Marshall, in the 2014 film Pawn Sacrifice, starring Tobey Maguire as Fischer. In Danny Boyle's 2015 Steve Jobs biopic, Stuhlbarg portrayed computer scientist Andy Hertzfeld, who was a member of the original Mac team. He appeared in two more biographical films in that year – Trumbo, based on the life of screenwriter Dalton Trumbo (played by Bryan Cranston), featured Stuhlbarg portraying actor Edward G. Robinson, who was accused of having ties to the Communist Party during the Hollywood blacklist, and Stuhlbarg played a supporting role in Don Cheadle's Miles Ahead, based on the life of Miles Davis. Stuhlbarg played a CIA agent in the science fiction drama Arrival (2016), appearing alongside Amy Adams, Jeremy Renner, and Forest Whitaker as they attempt to translate communications from an extraterrestrial craft. In the same month, Stuhlbarg played Nicodemus West, colleague and rival to the titular character (played by Benedict Cumberbatch) in the superhero film Doctor Strange. In his final release of the year, the political thriller Miss Sloane, Stuhlbarg featured as an Irish lobbying firm head battling against gun control. Brian Truitt of USA Today praised his "superb" performance and declared him "One of the best in Hollywood right now".
In the third season of the crime anthology television series Fargo, Stuhlbarg played Sy Feltz, loyal and dedicated business partner to Ewan McGregor's character Emmit Stussy. The season premiered in April 2017. In November, Stuhlbarg co-starred as Samuel Perlman, an archaeology professor, whose son Elio (played by Timothée Chalamet) develops a relationship with his father's assistant (played by Armie Hammer), in the romantic drama Call Me by Your Name. Stuhlbarg was moved by Perlman's "sense of generosity and love and understanding" and director Luca Guadagnino said he cast Stuhlbarg because he wanted "someone who could carry a sort of softness and warmth and at the same time communicate a great knowledge and great culture". Perlman's consoling speech given to his son in the film was described by Huffington Post writer Nell Minow as being "one of the most moving scenes ever filmed." For Guillermo del Toro's fantasy drama The Shape of Water, released in December 2017 to critical and box office success, Stuhlbarg was required to speak Russian to play Dr. Robert Hoffstetler, a Soviet spy. His final performance of 2017 and second release of December, was as The New York Times executive editor A. M. Rosenthal, in Steven Spielberg's political thriller The Post, which starred Tom Hanks and Meryl Streep and depicts the publishing of the Pentagon Papers by journalists from The Washington Post and The Times. With his performances in Call Me By Your Name, The Shape of Water, and The Post, he became the sixth actor to appear in three films nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture in the same year.
Stuhlbarg was due to appear as Gore Vidal's domestic partner Howard Austen in the biopic Gore, starring Kevin Spacey as Vidal, but the film was withdrawn from release during post-production amid ongoing sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey. He appeared in the 2018 miniseries The Looming Tower as counter-terrorism czar Richard A. Clarke, for which he received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. He received a second Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his role as Richard Sackler in the 2021 miniseries Dopesick.
In the television series Your Honor (2020–2023), Stuhlbarg played Jimmy Baxter, the mob boss of a prominent organized crime family in the city of New Orleans.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theater
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1968 births
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Drama Desk Award winners
Jewish American male actors
Juilliard School alumni
Living people
Male actors from Long Beach, California
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre alumni
American Reform Jews
UCLA Film School alumni
National Youth Theatre members
21st-century American Jews |
16711149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic%20violence%20in%20Chile | Domestic violence in Chile | Domestic violence in Chile (locally referred to as violencia intrafamiliar) is a prevalent problem as of 2004. Domestic violence describes violence by an intimate partner or other family members, regardless of the place the violence occurs.
Extent
Violence against women was prevalent across all classes of Chilean society by 1994. As of the early 1990s, it was reported that domestic violence affects about fifty percent of the women in Chile. All socioeconomic classes are affected by domestic violence, with some groups having higher rates of domestic violence than others. Consistent with these findings, a 2003 Chilean national survey indicated that 25–30% of female homicides occur at home.
A 2004 Chilean National Women's Service (SERNAM) study reported that 50 percent of married women had suffered spousal abuse, 34 percent reported having suffered physical violence, and 16 percent reported psychological abuse (2007). Between January and November 2005, 76,000 cases of family violence were reported to the police; 67,913 were reported by women, 6,404 by men, and approximately 1,000 by children. Women are clearly the most likely to become victims of domestic violence, but other members of the household are also at risk for victimization.
It has been acknowledged that there has been a long history of sex abuse in the country's Catholic Church as well.
Nature of domestic violence
Domestic violence can be physical, psychological, emotional, verbal, or sexual. Men or women may be the offender, but research indicates that women suffer disproportionately from abuse by their male partners. Throughout history, women have been viewed by society as subordinate to men, leaving them susceptible to abuse by their male partners. Additionally, the home has been viewed as an essentially private institution, impeding lawmakers from moving forward with policies against domestic violence. With many choosing to look the other way when they learn of domestic violence, this problem persists and can be difficult to address. It is a common idea that outsiders, specifically lawmakers, should not interfere with such private matters as violence in the home. Growth of the women's movement in Chile, as elsewhere, has helped raise awareness and created concern at an international level.
Contributing factors
Economic factors
Among the contributing factors to domestic violence are household factors, community and societal factors, and individual factors. Household factors include size, density and violence history. Community and societal factors include media violence, poverty level, crime rate, and environmental conditions. Lastly, individual factors are educational level, gender, age, and employment status. A 1999 study conducted by psychologists found that violence is a learned behavior and is passed down through generations. Exposure to violence in early childhood increases the risk for an individual to become violent in their own home.
In 2004, 44% of the Chilean population was living in poverty, and studies have shown that low socioeconomic status and stressful life events are positively correlated with domestic violence. Additionally, a 2003 study found that poverty, and escalation of negative life events that typically accompany poverty, increase Chilean women’s vulnerability to domestic abuse. So, while domestic violence occurs in all classes, it is more prevalent among poor households. In Chile, it has been found that families who experience domestic violence are usually isolated and lack supportive ties among the communities in which they live.
The geographic concentration of poverty in Chile, with regard to the socioeconomic opportunities and risk behaviors of marginalized families living in disadvantaged neighborhoods, has been linked to higher rates of domestic violence. In other parts of the world, there is some recent evidence to support reduced violence in cases where women own assets. Owning land or a house signifies a woman's option to exit a violent relationship and deters marital violence. In Chile, married women and men have equal rights to their assets upon divorce or if a spouse dies.
In rural Chile, inheritance is the principal way in which land is acquired by both men and women, whether the land has titles or not. Sometimes women cannot claim their inheritance to land without titles because the cost of legal documents is too high. The same effects on domestic violence have not been seen by female employment alone, since owning a home or land offers an immediate escape option. Land ownership can be empowering for women, a factor that, on its own, has been shown to reduce domestic violence. As these factors intersect, the risk for women is compounded and they become more susceptible to domestic violence.
Cultural factors
Until 1989, the Civil Code of Chile legally sanctioned husbands’ ownership and authority over their wives, giving men power over their female partners and leading to abuse within the home. This power dynamic created by cultural beliefs can be seen around the world and is not isolated to Chile. The belief that Chilean women are more tolerant of male violence than other women has hindered policymakers from moving forward against domestic violence. This belief leaves Chilean women unprotected and trapped within abusive homes. Because events occurring in the home have been viewed as private family matters, historically, domestic violence has been socially and culturally accepted in Chilean society.
The secrecy that has protected these offenders is exemplified by research results from 2004 that reported that 30% of women from the Region de la Metropolitana and 21% of women from the Region de la Araucania had not told anyone about their experiences with domestic abuse. The combination of these beliefs has allowed Chilean society to turn a blind eye to the domestic violence problem that plagues their communities. These myths are slowly coming to light as attitudes change and a movement against domestic violence has begun among Chilean women.
Traditional marriage and family are very important in Chilean culture. Because of this, many Chilean women are encouraged to stay in abusive relationships and marriages because there is a stigma against divorce and being single, especially if a woman has children with the abusive spouse or partner.
Economic impacts
Domestic violence impacts the Chilean economy directly and indirectly. Chile has low levels of female labor force participation. A 2011 study found that while about 75% of U.S. women are engaged in paid employment, 43% of women in Chile are engaged in paid employment. More sick days are taken by battered partners, decreased household productivity, and increased healthcare costs. Increased healthcare costs are attributed to emergency room visits, mental health services, medication, and physical therapy (2011) . Criminal justice and social services costs increase with high rates of domestic violence, but studies have found that programs aimed at intervening in or preventing domestic violence are highly cost-effective.
Direct impacts
The economy of Chile is impacted by domestic violence in several ways. These costs include increased expenditures on medical treatment, police services, criminal justice system, and social services. Injury from abuse leads to more emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases. More time is spent by law enforcement responding to domestic violence calls, and criminal justice system costs are increased due to domestic violence court cases, which can lead, in turn, to prison costs.
Indirect impacts
With increased domestic violence rates, earnings are lower, productivity at work decreases, and labor market participation declines. A 1999 study conducted in Santiago, Chile, found that abused women were less likely to work outside the home. Another study based in Santiago, conducted in 2000, estimated that women who did not suffer physical violence earned an average of US$385 per month while women who faced physical violence at home earned only US$150 per month. This study displays the severe economic effects of domestic violence in the home.
Impacts on Women
Mental and Psychological Impacts
Domestic abuse harms women mentally and psychologically in Chile. Some impacts that domestic abuse has on a woman’s mental health in Chile includes Depression and PTSD. Depression is very common among Chilean women because it is linked to physical and sexual violence. Chilean women also experience PTSD because of abusive households and from significant others who are violent.
Policy responses
Background
The Chilean legal system has traditionally been very weak on family violence, due to structural problems, resulting from the failure to label domestic violence as a crime and the failure to prosecute domestic violence under general assault statutes. A study conducted in 1990 in Chile showed that 83.3% of battered women’s injuries were classified as ‘light injuries’ and were only punishable as a misdemeanor. Acts of violence that would otherwise be severe crimes under the law, when occurring within the home were passed as ‘light injuries’ and minimal punishment was pursued.
Chilean National Ministry for Women (SERNAM)
The Chilean National Ministry for Women (SERNAM, Servicio Nacional de la Mujer) addresses the Chilean legal systems’ treatment of domestic violence cases. SERNAM is responsible for developing preventative and remedial programs. They have opened offices across the country, providing legal and therapeutic assistance for victims of domestic violence.
In 1997, SERNAM issued a detailed set of policy proposals to assure rural women equality of opportunity, a product of consultative process.
Michelle Bachelet was the first female president of Chile, leading the country between 2006 and 2010. During her presidency, Bachelet increased the budget of the National Women's Service (SERNAM) and helped the institution gain funding from the United Nations Development Fund for Women. At the end of 2006, there were 29 government and private centers to attend to victims of intrafamily violence. During 2006, the SERNAM partnered with NGOs to conduct courses on the legal, medical, and psychological aspects of domestic violence for police officers and judicial and municipal authorities. This intensive training program by SERNAM has increasingly allowed many Chilean police to provide effective assistance in domestic violence cases. SERNAM has been active in advancing the domestic violence legislation (see below).
Domestic violence law of 1994
The Intrafamily Violence Law passed in 1994 was the first political measure to address violence in the home, but because the law would not pass without being accepted by both sides, the law was weak in the way it addressed victim protection and punishment for abusers. The law was later reformed in 2005.
Medical personnel
Another barrier is posed by the Chilean medical personnel, which has been criticized for continuing to mistreat victims of domestic violence and to minimize injuries, even though today they are required by law to report known cases of physical assault to the criminal justice system.
Child sex abuse law of 2019
In 2019, amid the ongoing sex crisis in Chile's Catholic Church, legislation was passed removing the statute of limitations on reporting sex abuse against children throughout Chile. The legislation, which is not retroactive, was first proposed in 2010.
See also
Women in Chile
Crime in Chile
References
Chile
Violence in Chile
Women's rights in Chile |
440307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Latter%20Day%20Saint%20movement | History of the Latter Day Saint movement | The Latter Day Saint movement is a religious movement within Christianity that arose during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century and that led to the set of doctrines, practices, and cultures called Mormonism, and to the existence of numerous Latter Day Saint churches. Its history is characterized by intense controversy and persecution in reaction to some of the movement's doctrines and practices and their relationship to mainstream Christianity (see Mormonism and Christianity). The purpose of this article is to give an overview of the different groups, beliefs, and denominations that began with the influence of Joseph Smith.
The founder of the Latter Day Saint movement was Joseph Smith, who was raised in the burned-over district of Upstate New York. Smith stated that, in response to prayer, he saw God the Father and Jesus Christ, as well as angels and other visions. This eventually led him to a restoration of Christian doctrine that, he said, was lost after the early Christian apostles were killed. In addition, several early leaders made marked doctrinal and leadership contributions to the movement, including Oliver Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Brigham Young. Modern-day revelation from God continues to be a principal belief of the Mormon faith.
Mormon history as an academic field is called Mormon studies.
Movement's historical context
Second Great Awakening and the Charismatic Movement
The Latter Day Saint movement arose in the Palmyra and Manchester area of western New York, where its founder Joseph Smith was raised during a period of religious revival in the early 19th century called the Second Great Awakening, a Christian response to the secularism of the Age of Enlightenment which extended throughout the United States, particularly the frontier areas of the west.
A significant early event in this Second Great Awakening was the Cane Ridge Revival, a large camp meeting that took place in 1801 at Cane Ridge, Kentucky. Joseph Smith's father Joseph Smith Sr. said he had several visions or dreams, as had Smith's paternal and maternal grandfathers.
The people of western New York, like the rest of the United States at the time, were also influenced by folk religion. The fathers of both Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery were reported to have used divining rods, though not by those within the LDS church. Joseph Smith used seer stones, which he used after his claimed First Vision. People of the time used such rods and stones in various ways, including to locate underground water, to find lost items, to locate buried treasure or mineral mines, as part of religious or magic rituals, or to communicate with spirits or angels. Until about the 1830s, the use of such divining media, even as a profession, was thought by many, though not all, as "honorable and profitable employment". (Palmyra Herald, July 24, 1822)
Another related strand of religious thought that became important to the Latter Day Saint movement was the Restoration Movement, primarily influenced by Barton W. Stone (who participated in the Cane Ridge revival), and Alexander Campbell, who joined Stone in 1824 in Ohio. Stone and Campbell believed that the division among Christian sects had been caused by a Great Apostasy (or falling away) from the original teachings of Jesus, and that the correct principles of Christianity could be re-established by "restoring" practices described in the New Testament. The Restorationists also intended to eliminate sectarianism, arguing that there should be only one Christian church, which should be called the "Church of Christ."
While these restorationist ideas were circulating in the western frontier, the family of Joseph Smith was living in western New York, where they attended many of the local revivals. During this time, the area was seeing so many Christian revivals that western New York's most well-known revivalist Charles Grandison Finney later dubbed the area the "Burned-Over District". Because of a lack of clergy from established churches, this area was unusually open to religious innovations, new movements, and social experiments such as religious communism.
Latter Day Saints do not typically distinguish between this Restoration movement and the broader Protestant Reformation, since both were an attempt to return to the values and doctrines taught by Jesus and the Apostles, while most Latter Day Saint groups believe that there was a need for God to actively restore both authority and doctrine. However, in spite of their different use of the word restoration, this movement was an important part of the culture that led Joseph Smith to become interested in religion.
Masonic influences
Joseph Smith and several of the church founders were Freemasons, and were founding members of a lodge in Nauvoo, Illinois in March 1842. There are some similarities between Mormon temple worship and symbolism and the stories and symbols of Freemasonry. In modern times, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) holds no position for or against the compatibility of Masonry with LDS Church doctrine.
Leadership of Joseph Smith
Smith's First Vision
Most Latter Day Saints trace the beginnings of Mormonism to Joseph Smith's First Vision, which he said he had in about 1820 in the woods near his home. Early accounts of this vision describe it as a vision of Jesus in which he was told his sins were forgiven. Later, more detailed accounts indicate Smith was also told that all Christian denominations had become corrupt and further clarify that Smith saw multiple heavenly beings, including Jesus and God the Father.
Early visits by angels, Urim and Thummim, and the Book of Mormon
Smith also described many other visions involving angels. Some of his earliest visitations involved a Nephite prophet-warrior, who called himself Moroni. Smith said this angel appeared to him many times, and showed him where to find a set of buried Golden Plates containing ancient writings that the prophet-warrior had sealed in a stone box before his death, together with other artifacts. The writings on the Golden Plates, according to Smith, contained an account of the various nations that inhabited ancient America, and described how they were led to the New World by Jesus, but eventually lost their Christian faith through a series of wars and corruption.
After he said he received the Golden Plates, Smith began to dictate their translation to his wife Emma Hale Smith and various associates of his, including Martin Harris and, for most of the later translation, Oliver Cowdery. Smith said he translated the text through the gift and power of God and through the aid of the Urim and Thummim, or seer stone. The resulting writings were published in March 1830 as the Book of Mormon.
The Book of Mormon was much more ambitious than being just a purported history of Native Americans. Mormons quickly adopted the book as a work of scripture of similar importance to the Bible. The book's title page described it as an attempt to show Native Americans "what great things the Lord has done for their fathers", and to convince "Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God." (Book of Mormon, title page.) The book contained doctrinal discussions on numerous themes, including how the pride of the wealthy leads to the downfall of civilization, the dangers of "secret combinations" of people who meet secretly and use secret signs and oaths "to carry out the evil purposes of the group", and God's mercy and protection over his followers. Latter Day Saints consider the crowning moment of the book to be Jesus' visit to the ancient Americans, during which time he teaches them in person about the meaning of his death and resurrection.
Shared experiences by Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, and restoration of the priesthood
Some of the early movement's most important charismatic experiences were shared between Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, who joined the movement during the translation of the Book of Mormon. During the translation of the Golden Plates, Smith and Cowdery determined that they needed to obtain the Priesthood, or the authority to act in God's name, which they believed had been lost from the earth during the Great Apostasy. According to an account by Cowdery in 1834, they went into the woods near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania on May 15, 1829, were visited by an angel who gave them the "Holy Priesthood". (Messenger and Advocate, 1(1), Oct. 1, 1834.) In 1835, Smith and Cowdery stated that the angel was John the Baptist, and that the "Holy Priesthood" was specifically the Priesthood of Aaron", which included the power to baptize. Today this area is preserved as the Aaronic Priesthood Restoration Site.
Smith and Cowdery further elaborated for the 1835 publication of the Doctrine and Covenants that they were also later visited by Peter, James, and John, who restored the "keys of your ministry" and the "keys of the kingdom". Neither Smith nor Cowdery ever gave a date for this visitation.
Organization of the Church of Christ
After the restoration of the Priesthood, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery began baptizing dozens of people, as early as June 1829. (History of the Church 1:6, p. 59). These converts did not belong to a formal church organization. Nevertheless, this community of believers referred to themselves as "the Church of Christ", and included converts in three New York towns: Fayette, Manchester, and Colesville.
There is no known record of an early Mormon concept of the Lord's church prior to Smith's translation of the Book of Mormon from April to June 1829. Some time in April 1829, Smith dictated a story of Alma the Elder, the former priest of a wicked king, who baptized his followers by immersion, "having authority from the Almighty God", and called his community of believers the "church of God, or the church of Christ".
Some time between June and December 1829, Joseph Smith, David Whitmer and Oliver Cowdery said they received a revelation about "how he should build up his church & the manner thereof". This revelation was called the "Articles of the Church of Christ", and it indicated that the church should ordain priests and teachers "according to the gifts & callings of God unto men". The church was to meet regularly to partake of bread and wine. Cowdery was described as "an Apostle of Jesus Christ".
On April 6, 1830, Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and a group of approximately 50 believers met to formally organize the Church of Christ into a legal institution. By later accounts, this meeting was a charismatic event, in which members of the congregation had visions, prophesied, spoke in tongues, ecstatically shouted praises to the Lord, and fainted (Joseph Smith History, 1839 draft). Also, the church formally ordained a lay ministry. Smith and Cowdery, according to their 1831 account, were each ordained as "an apostle of Jesus Christ, an elder of the church". ("Articles and Covenants of the Church of Christ", Painesville Telegraph, April 19, 1831).
Movement in Ohio
The movement more than doubled in size with the conversion of Sidney Rigdon, a former Campbellite minister, who led several congregations of Restorationists in Ohio's Western Reserve area, causing hundreds of his adherents to follow him into Mormonism. A fiery orator, Rigdon was called to be Smith's spokesman, and immediately became one of the movement's leaders. By 1831 the church's headquarters were established in Kirtland, Ohio, and Smith urged the membership to gather there or to a second outpost of the church in Far West, Missouri (see below).
While based in Kirtland, the church changed its name to the "Church of the Latter Day Saints", and added a number of new doctrines and leadership offices. An attempt to establish a communitarian economy known as the "Law of Consecration" was established in 1831. The Latter Day Saint understanding of the priesthood was elaborated by the separation of the higher or Melchizedek Priesthood offices from the lesser or Aaronic Priesthood offices and by the restoration of the Patriarchal Priesthood. Also established were the First Presidency, the High Council—later elaborated as the High Council of Zion, the Travelling High Council (or Quorum of the Twelve) and Stake high councils—Seventies, patriarchs, high priests, and bishops.
During the Kirtland era, many charismatic experiences were reported, many involving visitations of angels or communication from God through stones. However, some Church members claimed to receive revelations that contradicted those received by Joseph Smith. He and several followers prayed about the issue, and Joseph recorded a series of revelations, which included a description of several real spiritual gifts, a statement that only Joseph Smith, as the Prophet, could receive new doctrines and commandments for the Church, and a warning that not all supernatural experiences come from God. This effort to balance charismatic experience with order and stability became a lasting characteristic of the Latter Day Saint Movement.
Kirtland also was the site of the construction of the movement's first temple. Latter Day Saints reported a great outpouring of spiritual experiences in connection with the Kirtland Temple's dedication. The temple was associated with the Kirtland-era "endowment", and with the temple ceremonies of "foot washing" and "solemn assembly." The movement also established the "School of the Prophets" which met in the temple. At Kirtland, Smith reported many revelations including the "Word of Wisdom"—advocating temperance and dietary restrictions. He acquired Egyptian papyrus scrolls which he said contained the writings of the Biblical patriarchs Abraham and Joseph. According to some reports, it was in Kirtland that Smith first began to practice the doctrine of plural marriage when he married Fanny Alger as his first plural wife in 1833.
In 1837 Smith and Rigdon founded an "anti-bank" called the Kirtland Safety Society. When it failed, some 300 of the Kirtland membership became disillusioned, including a third of the church leadership. The result was the movement's first major schism. A new organization led by Smith's former secretary, Warren Parish, along with Martin Harris and others, vied for control of the church in Kirtland. Re-establishing the original "Church of Christ" name, these "reformed Latter Day Saints" took possession of the temple and excommunicated Smith and Rigdon. Smith and Rigdon relocated to Missouri and were followed there by hundreds of loyalists in a trek known as the "Kirtland Camp."
Movement in Missouri
As the church was gathering to Kirtland, a second gathering place was established 900 miles distant, on the frontier in Jackson County, Missouri. Joseph Smith had revealed to Latter Day Saints that they were to prepare "the way of the Lord for his Second Coming", "for the time is soon at hand that I shall come...." (D & C 34:6,7) He also revealed that the "center place" of the City of Zion would be near the town of Independence in Jackson County. (D & C 57:3) Latter Day Saints began to settle the area to "build up" the City of Zion in 1831. Settlement was rapid and non-Mormon residents became alarmed that they might lose political control of the county to the Latter Day Saints. In October 1833, non-Mormon vigilantes succeeded in driving the Mormons from the county. Deprived of their homes and property, the Latter Day Saints temporarily settled in the area around Jackson County, especially in Clay County.
Years elapsed, and despite Mormon lawsuits and petitions, the non-Mormons in Jackson refused to allow the Mormons to return. Meanwhile, new converts to Mormonism continued to migrate to Missouri and settle in Clay County. In 1836, the Missouri legislature created Caldwell County specifically for Mormon settlement and Missouri branches of the church gathered there, centering on the town of Far West.
Church headquarters established in Far West
In 1838 Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon and their loyalists left the former church headquarters of Kirtland and relocated to Far West, Missouri. A brief leadership struggle left the former heads of the Missouri portion of the church excommunicated, such as David Whitmer, Oliver Cowdery, William Wines Phelps and others. Years later, many of this group of "dissenters" became part of the Whitmerite schism in the Latter Day Saint movement.
While the church was headquartered in Far West, Smith announced revelations that changed the name of the church to the "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" and initiated the "Law of Tithing." Conflicts with non-Mormon settlers arose as the church began to plant colonies in the counties surrounding Caldwell. These escalated into what has been called the 1838 Mormon War. The perceived militant attitude adopted by the church caused some leaders, including Thomas B. Marsh, president of the Quorum of the Twelve, to break with Smith and Rigdon. This precipitated another schism which led to the foundation of the Church of Jesus Christ, the Bride, the Lamb's Wife by George M. Hinkle, who had been the Mormon commander of the Caldwell County militia.
As a result of the war, 2,500 Missouri militia troops were called out to put down the Mormon "rebellion." Smith and other church leaders were imprisoned in Liberty, Missouri and the majority of the Latter Day Saints were deprived of their property and expelled from the state.
Movement in Illinois
With the help of sympathetic non-Mormons in Illinois, in the spring of 1839 the Latter Day Saint refugees regrouped and began to establish a new headquarters in Nauvoo. Smith and other leaders were allowed after several months of harsh treatment to escape Missourian custody, and they rejoined the main body of the movement in April, 1839. In 1841, construction began on a new temple, significantly more elaborate than the one left behind in Kirtland. The Nauvoo city charter authorized independent municipal courts, the foundation of a university and the establishment of a militia unit known as the "Nauvoo Legion." These and other institutions gave the Latter Day Saints a considerable degree of autonomy.
Nauvoo saw the final flowering of Joseph Smith's vision for the movement, including some of Mormonism's more controversial practices. It was here that Smith introduced Baptism for the dead, Rebaptism, the Nauvoo-era Endowment, and the ordinance of the Second Anointing. In addition, he created a new inner council of the church—containing both men and women—called the Anointed Quorum. Although, according to some reports, Smith himself had been secretly practicing what he later called plural marriage for some time, in Nauvoo he began to teach other leaders the doctrine.
In March 1844, Smith was said by William Law to have organized a secret council of the church called the "Council of the Kingdom". Practices of this council included acclaiming Joseph Smith as "Prophet, Priest, and King" in addition to polygamy. These secrets were threatened to be released in a newspaper called the Nauvoo Expositor. Smith, acting in his capacity as mayor and head of the municipal court, responded by having the newspaper declared a "public nuisance" and by ordering the destruction of the press.
Death of Joseph Smith
Whenever Latter Day Saints gathered in large numbers, they met with opposition from neighbors who suspected that Mormon bloc-voting would lead to theocracy. By the mid-1840s, many non-Mormons in Hancock County felt threatened by growing Mormon political power, commercial rivalries, and a new religion with at least two elements that were hard to digest in the religious community of that time: first, Latter Day Saints had a somewhat different perspective on the nature of God from traditional Protestants; second, the claim of modern revelation, together with the claim of new scripture, opened the canon of the Bible.
Smith's destruction of the Expositor exacerbated all these fears and non-Mormons throughout Illinois began to clamor for his arrest. When Smith submitted to imprisonment in the county seat of Carthage, the Governor of Illinois, Thomas Ford, left the jail, taking the only impartial local militia unit with him. With the jail being guarded only by two guards and a unit of anti-Mormon militiamen, the Carthage Greys, a mob of disbanded militia units, attacked without resistance. Joseph and his brother Hyrum were killed.
All men who were tried for the murders were acquitted after the prosecuting attorney dismissed the testimonies of the state's witnesses suddenly in his closing remarks.
Change in leadership
Succession Crisis of 1844
In the months following Smith's murder, it was not immediately clear who would lead the church. His brother, Hyrum, who was Assistant President of the Church, (and as such would have been Smith's natural successor) had died with him. Another Smith brother who may have been a presumed successor should both Hyrum and Joseph die, Samuel, died a month later. Before Brigham Young could return to Nauvoo and stake his claim, another Smith brother, William was also considered as a potential successor. Other men who (by some reports) were designated as successors, including Book of Mormon witnesses David Whitmer and Oliver Cowdery, had been excommunicated from the church.
As a result, three of the principal claimants on the scene were:
Sidney Rigdon, the only remaining member of the First Presidency—the church's highest executive council before his excommunication.
The (Presiding) High Council of Nauvoo—the church's highest legislative and judicial council—led by William Marks.
The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles—the council in charge of the church's missionary program—led by Brigham Young.
Smith's widow, Emma, wanted Marks to become church president, but Marks believed that Rigdon had the superior claim.
In a general meeting of the church at Nauvoo on August 8, 1844, Rigdon and Young presented their respective cases. As the only surviving member of the First Presidency (who had not officially apostatized), Rigdon argued that he should be made "guardian" of the church. Young argued that without Smith there, there was no presiding authority higher than the Twelve. Therefore, he proposed that the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles be constituted as the new presiding authority. A vote of the congregation overwhelmingly supported Young's proposal, said to have been caused by Brigham briefly yet miraculously having the "voice and countenance of Joseph Smith" during his talk. Soon after, Rigdon left Nauvoo and established his own church organization in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Rigdon, Young and Marks were later joined by a fourth claimant, James J. Strang of Voree, Wisconsin, who claimed that Smith had sent him a letter designating him as his successor. However, Strang had only recently joined the church, and lacked name-recognition among the rank-and-file Mormons in Nauvoo. Though he would manage to attract a sizable following, his assassination in 1856 all but extinguished his sect.
Further schisms and the "Mormon War in Illinois"
With Rigdon's flight, Young and most of the Twelve Apostles assumed control of church headquarters in Nauvoo. A conflict with Joseph Smith's last surviving brother, William, was a factor that led the remaining members of the Smith family to break with the Twelve. Many (though not all) initially followed Strang, though all later left Strang's organization and joined themselves to the nascent Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, which coalesced in the early 1860s around Joseph Smith's eldest son, Joseph Smith III.
Meanwhile, at Nauvoo, the conflict between Mormons and non-Mormons escalated into what is sometimes called the "Mormon War in Illinois." Latter Day Saints in outlying areas were driven from their homes and gathered to Nauvoo for protection. The Illinois state legislature voted to revoke Nauvoo's charter and the city began to operate extra-legally. At about this time, Nauvoo's population peaked; it may have had as many as 12,000 inhabitants (and several nearly as large suburbs), rivaling Chicago, Illinois, whose 1845 population was about 15,000, and its suburbs. However, by the end of 1845, it became clear that no peace was possible, and Young and the Twelve negotiated a truce so that the Latter Day Saints could prepare to abandon the city. The winter of 1845-46 saw the enormous preparations for the Mormon Exodus across the Great Plains.
Major divisions
The largest group of Latter Day Saints followed nine of the Twelve Apostles west, establishing a way station at Winter Quarters, Nebraska in 1846, and entering Salt Lake Valley in 1847. Having planted this initial colony in the Great Basin, Young returned to Winter Quarters and in December 1847 reorganized his faction of the church, establishing himself as the head of a new First Presidency. This reorganization led to additional schisms, including the break with Alpheus Cutler and what became the Church of Christ (Cutlerite) as well as Lyman Wight's group in Zodiac, Texas. Young's organization today, the LDS Church, is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah. (See History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.)
The bulk of Sidney Rigdon's church had dissolved by 1847, but some loyalists reorganized as The Church of Jesus Christ under the leadership of William Bickerton in 1862. James J. Strang's church in Voree suffered a significant schism in 1849, led by former follower Aaron Smith. After Strang's 1856 assassination, much of the remaining membership fell away from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), but a small following remained loyal. Other leaders, including David Whitmer, James Collin Brewster, James Emmett, Gladden Bishop, William Smith, and Charles B. Thompson also established church organizations that had limited followings.
Joseph Smith's family—including his widow, Emma Hale Smith, and her children—continued to live in Nauvoo after the departure of the majority of the Latter Day Saints. In 1860, the eldest of the Smith sons, Joseph Smith III, said he received a revelation to take his place as Prophet/President of a "New Organization" of the Latter Day Saint church. This group had gathered together many of the remnants of the various Midwestern Latter Day Saint groups into the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now called the Community of Christ. This has continued to be the second largest Latter Day Saint group, with headquarters on a portion of the original Temple Lot in Independence, Missouri.
Others remained unaffiliated, however, and in 1863 a group of Latter Day Saints from Illinois and Indiana united under the leadership of Granville Hedrick and reclaimed the name of the movement's original organization, the "Church of Christ." This group was the first group of Latter Day Saints to return to Independence, Missouri, to "redeem Zion." They are now headquartered on portion of the original Temple Lot there and are known as the Church of Christ (Temple Lot).
The Latter Day Saint movement today
Denominations
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
By far the largest of the sects, with membership in the millions, the LDS Church continues to be led by Brigham Young's successors. Young reorganized the First Presidency in 1847, and the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles have continued the same succession pattern: when the Prophet dies, the senior Apostle becomes the head of the LDS Church. As of January 2018, Russell M. Nelson is the church president. Among other things, the LDS Church has become known for its proselyting and humanitarian work worldwide.
Community of Christ
The Community of Christ, known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS) until 2001, is the second largest group, with over 250,000 members. Joseph Smith's descendants continued to serve as Prophet and President until the retirement of Wallace B. Smith in the early twenty-first century. Today the church is led by President/Prophet Stephen M. Veazey, who is no relation to Joseph Smith. While the Community of Christ is somewhat more in line doctrinally with mainline Protestantism, they also believe in the Book of Mormon and an open scriptural canon, and place great emphasis upon peacemaking and similar pursuits. The Community of Christ has ordained women to priesthood since 1985 and dedicated a temple in Independence, Mo., in 1994.
Minor factions
Other notable minor factions of the Latter Day Saint movement include: the Church of Christ (Temple Lot), which owns the Temple Lot in Independence, Missouri; the Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite), founded by a member of Joseph Smith's Council of Fifty; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), founded by James J. Strang in 1844; the Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite), founded by a follower of Sidney Rigdon in the early 1860s (and now the third-largest Latter Day Saint denomination); the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, founded in the 1940s by a man who claimed to be receiving revelations from John the Baptist; and the Restoration Branches, which broke with the Community of Christ in 1984 when that church began ordaining women. In addition, several other Latter Day Saint factions continue to exist, some of which still practice polygamy.
Important beliefs
Jesus Christ
Latter Day Saints share a central belief in Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Savior and Redeemer of the world. They accept his sacrifice as the only way to be saved. According to this movement's theology, that is the central message of the scriptures.
Revelation and scripture
Latter Day Saints generally share an open canon. While different sects believe in different revelations, a central theme of the Latter Day Saint movement is that God always has more to say to the church, because the church's situation is always changing.
Latter Day Saints believe in the Bible and other ancient scripture. However, the modern prophet is usually considered to be a more important source of revelation, because he receives contemporary (and, thus, more relevant) instructions from God.
Priesthood authority
Most Latter Day Saint sects believe that authority from Jesus Christ is necessary in order to baptize, give the gift of the Holy Ghost, or administer the Lord's Supper (or the sacrament). This Priesthood authority can be traced to the day that Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the Melchizedek Priesthood from Peter, James, and John, who received the Priesthood from Jesus himself.
Zion
Many of Joseph Smith's early revelations prophesied that the Latter Day Saints would build Zion, a new Jerusalem, a religious utopia centered in Jackson County, MO. The Prophet urged his followers to give everything they had to this cause. However, when they failed to live the Law of Consecration, which was a promise to voluntarily give all their property to the community for equal distribution, Joseph Smith received a revelation that God would build Zion later, when the people were ready. Both the Community of Christ and the LDS Church have come to understand Zion as primarily a community way of life that is centered around Jesus Christ, but many people still believe that, when they are ready, they will be able to build the literal city of Zion as well.
Notable people
Harvey G. Whitlock (1809–1874), an early member
See also
Criticism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Cunning Folk Traditions and the Latter Day Saint Movement
History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Latter Day Saint Historians
List of articles about Mormonism
Mormonism and history
Mormonism in the 19th century
Death in 19th-century Mormonism
Mormonism in the 20th century
Mormonism in the 21st century
Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy
Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
References
Citations
General and cited sources
Leonard J. Arrington and Davis Bitton, The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints (Urbana: 1992).
Richard P. Howard, The Church Through the Years (Herald House: 1992).
Dallin H. Oaks and Marvin S. Hill, "Carthage Conspiracy" (University of Illinois Press).
Further reading
Matthew Bowman (January 24, 2012). The Mormon People: The Making of an American Faith. Random House. .
Historiography
Turner, John G. (April 2014). "More than a Curiosity: Mormonism and Contemporary Scholarship". Journal of Religion 94#2 pp. 229–241. .
External links
Official website of the LDS Church History Department
Open Access Journal of Mormon History |
7584759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2020%20in%20Iowa | U.S. Route 20 in Iowa | U.S. Highway 20 (US 20) in Iowa is a major east–west artery which runs across the state, separating the northern third of Iowa from the southern two-thirds. It enters Iowa from Nebraska, concurrent with Interstate 129 (I-129) and US 75, crossing the Missouri River at Sioux City. US 20 runs in a more-or-less straight line across Iowa, paralleling 42° 27' N. It leaves Iowa in Dubuque by crossing the Mississippi River into Illinois. Since October 2018, US 20 is a four-lane divided highway for its entire length in Iowa.
Route description
US 20 enters Iowa on the Sergeant Floyd Memorial Bridge, which also carries I-129 and US 75, over the Missouri River. Almost immediately upon landing in Iowa, there is an interchange with I-29, at which I-129 ends. Continuing east, US 20 and US 75 run together around the southern and eastern sides of Sioux City. The two routes split at the Gordan Drive (US 20 Business, or US 20 Bus.) interchange as US 20 exits to the east from Sioux City. The expressway is an older section that goes through Lawton and comes to a stop sign at Moville. About further east, at Ida Avenue (County Route D22, or CR D22), the newest four-lane stretch (except for a short expressway segment just south of Holstein that is briefly concurrent with US 59) starts and goes to about west of an interchange with US 71 and Iowa Highway 471 (Iowa 471), just north of Early. From this point until an interchange with Iowa 4 northwest of Rockwell City is the second newest section of four-lane, which opened in November 2012. This new roadway passes to the north of Sac City and Lytton and has another interchange with the realigned route of US 71 northeast of Sac City but mostly has at-grade intersections, including CR M54 into Sac City and CR N28 into Lytton.
East of Iowa 4, and extending to the former beginning of the four-lane expressway northeast of Moorland (now an interchange with CR D36), is a four-lane section which opened in December 2010 and bypasses Rockwell City to the north. US 20 continues until just south of Highview, when it becomes a full Interstate-standard freeway. The expressway south of Fort Dodge has interchanges with US 169 and CR P59. East of Fort Dodge, US 20 overlaps with Iowa 17 for , ending at Webster City. Near Williams, US 20 intersects I-35. Beginning at the interchange with US 65 is a section of four-lane freeway which, when completed, shaved nearly off US 20's length. Prior to 2003, US 20 joined US 65 north through Iowa Falls and then east toward Ackley and Parkersburg before heading south again to the freeway with Iowa 14. The bridge crossing the Iowa River near Steamboat Rock is a launched steel I-girder bridge, the first of its kind in the U.S. The bridge was designed to cross the old-growth woodland of the Iowa River valley with minimal impact.
US 20 continues east toward Cedar Falls where it overlaps Iowa 58 for just over . The western junction of Iowa 58 (Hudson Road) connects traffic to the University of Northern Iowa while the eastern junction of Iowa 58 is also the western junction of Iowa 27, the Avenue of the Saints. Another mile () east, in Waterloo, US 20 intersects US 63 (Sergeant Road). On the southeast side of Waterloo, I-380 joins US 20/Iowa 27 for before exiting with Iowa 27 south toward Cedar Rapids.
US 20 continues as a freeway east of Waterloo. It intersects Iowa 150 at Independence and Iowa 13 at Manchester, as well as junctioning a number of county roads serving smaller communities. Approximately between Independence and Manchester, the highway goes over a terminal moraine and enters the Driftless Area, a region it will not exit until reaching Stockton, Illinois.
At Delaware, US 20 changes from a freeway to an expressway with at-grade intersections; however, there are many interchanges where US 20 meets major roads, mostly at the villages and towns along US 20's route. US 20 serves Earlville, Dyersville (where US 52 joins the route and passing near the Field of Dreams filming site), Farley, Epworth, and Peosta before entering Dubuque. On the western edge of Dubuque, an interchange onto the Southwest Arterial routes US 52 around the southern outskirts of the city, connecting to US 61 and US 151. US 20 remains at least four lanes through Dubuque, but there are nine stoplights along the route, particularly on the western edge of the city. There is a brief controlled-access section where the highway descends into the Mississippi River valley. Near the river, Locust Street (Iowa 946) connects US 20 with US 61 and US 151, which have entered the city from the south as an expressway and continue northward as a freeway. US 20 crosses from Iowa into Illinois via the Julien Dubuque Bridge.
History
US 20 was designated in Iowa on October 16, 1926. The designation created a single route number for drivers to follow across the state from Sioux City to Dubuque; previously, three route numbers were used.
It is possible to drive most of US 20's former two-lane alignment from Early to Dubuque. Most of this routing (with the exception of Iowa 57 from US 65 to Cedar Falls) is now under city and county control, but most of the guide signs remain from when US 20 followed this route. From Moorland, the highway's former alignment is US 20 Bus. through Fort Dodge. At CR P59, it continues on CR D20. The road changes designations several times between this point and Iowa Falls, but its route is very clear. It follows US 65 north out of Iowa Falls to the junction of Iowa 57, then follows Iowa 57 to Cedar Falls. At Cedar Falls, the former alignment continues on US 218 to Broadway Street; through Waterloo, it follows Broadway to Franklin Street to Dubuque Road. Beyond Waterloo, the designation of the road again changes several times, but the route to follow remains clear. Between Dyersville and Farley, US 20 follows its historic alignment. At Farley, the former alignment follows Old Highway Road into Dubuque.
Expansion project
The first segment of US 20 in Iowa to become four lanes was a short expressway segment east of Moville, which opened in 1958. Another short expressway segment in the Dubuque area opened in 1959. The rest of the expressway from Sioux City to Moville opened in 1964. By 1979, the Sioux City bypass was complete, as well as the section from Iowa 17 to I-35, and the section from Independence to Delaware. By the end of the 1980s, the four-lane portions of US 20 ran from Coalville (near Fort Dodge) to I-35 and from Waterloo to Dubuque.
During the 1990s, little work was done to the route. It was extended westward to US 169 in 1991 and eastward to US 65 the same year, though, initially, the section from I-35 to US 65 was only two lanes. The new, semi-controlled section in Dubuque opened in 1996. Work began to accelerate in 2000, with the section between I-35 and US 65 becoming four lanes that year. The segment from Iowa 14 to Cedar Falls also opened in 2000. By 2003, the highway was complete from Fort Dodge to Dubuque.
Paving work between Iowa 4 and Moorland was completed in 2010 and the stretch was opened in December 2010. In November 2012, the four-lane highway opened between Iowa 4 near Rockwell City and US 71 at Early.
As of January 2014, around of US 20 remained two lane, between Early and Moville. Local leaders were lobbying for the remaining estimated cost of $375 million (equivalent to $ in ) to complete the project.
In November 2015, it was announced that the of US 20 between Early and Moville would be widened to four lanes at an estimated cost of $240 million (equivalent to $ in ). The funding came from the state's gas tax increase. The final segment was completed in October 2018.
Exit list
Related route
Iowa Highway 946 (Iowa 946) is a short route that begins at a partial trumpet interchange along the US 61/US 151 expressway. Northbound traffic passes beneath the expressway and joins southbound traffic on Locust Street. In the half-mile () between US 61/US 151 and US 20, Iowa 946 passes a light industrial area containing a Hy-Vee grocery store.
Iowa 946 intersects US 20, known locally as Dodge Street, at a signal-controlled intersection. Immediately east of this intersection is the approach to the Julien Dubuque Bridge, which carries US 20 across the Mississippi River into East Dubuque, Illinois. Iowa 946 continues north on Locust Street for through another light industrial area. At the edge of downtown Dubuque, Iowa 946 turns east for where it meets US 61/US 151 just west of Dubuque's Ice Harbor. Iowa 946 was created along Locust Street upon the staggered completion of an expressway starting in 1991 which relocated US 52, US 61, and US 151 away from Locust Street and closer to the Mississippi River. The new expressway carried the three routes beneath the approach to the Julien Dubuque Bridge, making a direct intersection impossible. Since all four routes are U.S. Highways and come from all directions, it was imperative to keep the routes connected. With the completion of the Southwest Arterial around the southern edge of Dubuque, US 52 has been rerouted away from the downtown area.
References
External links
US 20 at the Iowa Highways Page
U.S. 20 Corridor Association (group advocating completion of the four-lane expressway in western Iowa)
Iowa
20
Transportation in Woodbury County, Iowa
Transportation in Ida County, Iowa
Transportation in Sac County, Iowa
Transportation in Calhoun County, Iowa
Transportation in Webster County, Iowa
Transportation in Hamilton County, Iowa
Transportation in Hardin County, Iowa
Transportation in Grundy County, Iowa
Transportation in Black Hawk County, Iowa
Transportation in Buchanan County, Iowa
Transportation in Delaware County, Iowa
Transportation in Dubuque County, Iowa |
202365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhaz%20language | Abkhaz language | Abkhaz, also known as Abkhazian, is a Northwest Caucasian language most closely related to Abaza. It is spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people. It is one of the official languages of Abkhazia, where around 100,000 people speak it. Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in Turkey, Georgia's autonomous republic of Adjara, Syria, Jordan, and several Western countries. 27 October is the day of the Abkhazian language in Georgia.
Classification
Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language and is thus related to Adyghe. The language of Abkhaz is especially close to Abaza, and they are sometimes considered dialects of the same language, Abazgi, of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a dialect continuum. Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial, it also contains elements characteristic of Kabardian; these are the main reasons for many others to prefer keeping the two separate, while others still refer to it as the Tapanta dialect of Abkhaz. Chirikba mentions that there are possible indications that proto-Northwest Caucasian, could have divided firstly into proto-Circassian and to proto-Ubykh-Abkhaz; Ubykh then being the closest relative to Abkhaz, with it only later on being influenced by Circassian.
Geographical distribution
There is not an agreed number of speakers of Abkhaz, and there are widely different numbers. It is agreed that today most of the Abkhaz people do not live in Abkhazia. In the census conducted by the Republic of Abkhazia in 2011, Abkhazians comprised 50.8% of the population, around 122,175 people; of these 92,838 speaking it natively. Only two of the original dialects are still spoken in Abkhazia. The Bzyp dialect is still spoken in its homeland northwest of Sukhumi, stretching from the Bzyp River to the western environs of Sukhumi and the Psyrtskha valley, whereas the Abzhywa dialect is spoken south-east of Sukhumi. The rest of the Abkhaz speaking population inhabits other neighbouring areas.
The exact number of Abkhazians and Abkhaz speakers in Turkey is not clear. The Turkish census denotes 13,951, but the figures are dubious, since the numbers of Abkhazians that came from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th have been documented at around 30 thousand. Ethnologue gives 150,000 Abkhazians living in Turkey, of these 50,000 still speak the language. The Joshua Project says there are 166,000 ethnic Abkhazians in Turkey, and the head of the Abkhaz federation says there are in between 500-700 thousand Abkhazians in Turkey. In general, Abkhaz seems to have been lost by most of the descendants, and bilingualism being low except in some specific areas, although there seems to be an effort for the new generation to learn the language with public schools being able to teach Abkhaz and together with 7,836 second language speakers. Abkhazian villages are concentrated around the cities of Adapazarı, Düzce, Sinop, Hendek and Samsun in the northern part, and in the west around cities such as Bilecik, Inegöl and Eskişehir; they are mainly found in the provinces of Sakarya and Bolu in the western part, and near the Çoruh river in the north-east.
Historically the dialects of Sadz, Ahchypsy and Tsabal were located in Abkhazia; Sadz being spoken from the Bzyp river to the Matsesta River, and further to the north-west bordering the Sochypsta River. Today they are exclusively spoken in the northwestern part of Turkey, specially in the Sakarya province, it being spoken in 14 villages.
The other major place where Abkhaz is spoken is in Karachay-Cherkessia, where the Northern dialects are spoken, although there they are considered as a separate language and form the literary Abaza language. They are spoken by 37,831 people in Russia, mostly in the south of Stavropol Krai in the area around Kislovodsk, and in the upper Kuma river area.
Abkhaz is also spoken as a minority language around the world. There is a considerable number of Abkhaz speakers in Adjara in southern Georgia, with the diaspora concentrating itself around the capital Batumi, with about 982 people considering Abkhaz their first language. In the Russian census of 2010, 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz were reported in Russia. In Ukraine there are around 1,458 according to the 2001 census, but of these only 317 speak Abkhazian. There were also communities in Syria, Jordan and Iraq with around 5,000 Abkhazians, although this number could reach 10,000 according to the Abkhazia's Foreign Ministry. The biggest western diaspora is in Germany, with around 5,000 speakers, but other communities are found in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Austria, France, Belgium and so on.
History
The earliest indisputable extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the Arabic script, recorded by the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century. Abkhaz has been used as a literary language for only about 100 years.
It was suggested that certain inscriptions on Ancient Greek pottery which had been considered nonsense are in fact written in Abkhaz-Adydge languages. The methodology of the research was criticised and the results called improbable.
In 1918, Tbilisi State University became the first institution of higher education to teach Abkhazian language. The founders of the university began to take care of the development and scientific study of the Abkhazian language. At the meeting of the Council of Professors held at Tbilisi State University in 1918, Ivane Javakhishvili noted the scientific importance of studying Caucasian languages. In 1918, by the decision of the Council of Professors, Petre Charaia was invited to teach the Abkhazian language, and from 1925, this mission was continued by Dimitri Gulia and Simon Janashia.
Dialects
Classification
Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:
Abzhywa, spoken in the Caucasus, and named after the historical area of Abzhywa (Абжьыуа), sometimes referred to as Abzhui, the Russified form of the name (Abzhuiski dialekt, derived from the Russian form of the name for the area, ).
Bzyb or Bzyp, spoken in the Caucasus and in Turkey, and named after the Bzyb () area.
Sadz, nowadays spoken only in Turkey, formerly also spoken between the rivers Bzyp and Khosta.
The literary language is based on the Abzhywa dialect.
Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to Chirikba (1996):
Common Abkhaz (Proto-Abkhaz)
North Abkhaz
Tapanta
Ashkharywa
South Abkhaz
Southwestern
Sadz
Southeastern
Ahchypsy, Bzyp
Tsabal, Abzhywa
General characteristics
In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than the standard Abzhywa dialect. The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are the basis for literary Abaza are spoken in Karachay-Cherkessia, while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in Turkey due to Russian invasions in the 19th century. While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact. Bzyp contains the most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from Kartvelian, specially Mingrelian; Sadz on the other hand has more words from Circassian. Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian.
Phonology
Consonants
Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced/voiceless/ejective and palatalized/labialized/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on the palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants.
Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives are unique to the Bzyp dialect.
The consonants highlighted in red and in brackets are the 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba.
Vowels
The nature of the vowels of Abkhaz is not clear. Some linguists, characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree vertical vowel system; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in Adyghe. The quality of 'ә' in this case, is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants.
Other linguists however, mainly Russian ones, describe the vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ].
Grammar
Typical of Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz is an agglutinative language that relies heavily on affixation. It has an ergative-absolutive typology, such that the subject of an intransitive verb functions identically to the object of a transitive verb. Notably, Abkhaz expresses ergativity entirely through the ordering of subjects and objects within verb constructions rather than through overt case marking as most other ergative languages do.
All Latin transliterations in this section utilize the system explicated in Chirikba (2003) (see Abkhaz alphabet for the details).
Verbs
DETR:detrimental
BENF:benefactive
PREV:preverb
SPREV:stem preverb
EXT:extension
MSD:masdar
RECI:reciprocal
Abkhaz morphology features a highly complex verb system that could be called a "sentence in miniature." Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a "verbocentric" language wherein verbs occupy the "central part of the morphology." However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology is highly regular.
Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as dynamic and stative.
Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп (d-x˚əčә́-wə-p - "she is a child"). Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess the full range of aspect, mood and tense forms, in contrast to statives, which do not.
Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs.
Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is finite versus non-finite, referring to the duration of the action. Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form dependent clauses.
Verb stems can be derived in a number of ways, including compounding, affixation, reduplication or conversion from another part of speech.
Roughly equivalent to the infinitive, or to a so-called "verbal noun," the Masdar form of the verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра (-ra) for a dynamic verb and -заара (-zaara) for a stative.
Various prefixes can be added to the Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in
However, the fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are "templatic," with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific "slot" or "position" within the broader verb template. Verbs are thus formed by the addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, person and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure. There is a high degree of agreement between verbs and other parts of speech. Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows:
[First Position]+[Second Position]+[Third Position]+[Indirect Object]+[Reflexive]+[Free Preverb]+[Stem Preverb]+[Agent]+[Negation]+[Causative]+STEM+[Extension]+[Number]+[Aspect]+[Tense]+[Negation]+[Ending Suffixes]
Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below.
First Position
The first prefixing element of the verb complex expresses either the subject of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or the direct object of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position. These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that do not contain them. The rules for using them are the following:
If the prefix is proceeded by a consonant cluster, the long form shall be used.
If the stress falls on the prefix, the long form shall be used
If the prefix is not proceeded by a consonant cluster, the short form shall be used.
If the stress does not fall on the prefix, the short form shall be used.
It is also possible for the possessive prefix ҽы́- (čə́-) in a reflexive construction or the relative prefix иы́- (jә́-) in a non-finite construction to occupy this position.
Example of an absolutive construction with the intransitive subject in the first slot highlighted
Example of an ergative construction with the direct object in the first slot highlighted
Example of a reflexive construction with the possessive prefix in the first slot
Second Position
The second position is occupied by the indirect object or by the prefix аи- (aj-) for reciprocal pronouns equivalent to "each other" or "one another" in English.
Third Position
This position accommodates a number of prefixes that express causative information.
Second Indirect Object
Any indirect object occurring after the one in the second position occupies this position instead; a possessive prefix of stative verbs can also be placed here.
Reflexive
Where a possessive prefix exists in the first position, the reflexive prefix is placed here.
Free Preverb
This position is occupied by preverbal elements which are not an explicit part of the verb stem.
Stem Preverb
Preverbal elements that are explicitly attached to the verb stem take this position.
Agent
The agreement marker corresponding to the agent (the subject of a transitive verb) takes this position.
Negation (Dynamic)
The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a dynamic verb construction.
Causative
The causative prefix r- takes the final position before the verb stem.
Extension
The first of the suffixing elements expresses adverbial information relating to "inside" (-la) or "outside" (-aa).
Number
The suffix -kºá pluralizes a stative verb.
Aspect
Several aspect markers occupy this position as suffixes.
Tense
Several tense markers occupy this position, dependent upon whether the verb in question is stative or dynamic. Dynamic verbs have a richly developed tense paradigm incorporating tense and aspect distinctions. The table below illustrates these various dynamic tense forms using the verb агара (agara – "to take").
Stative verbs, by contrast, lack this rich tense system, as illustrated below using the verb а́цәара (ácºara - "to be sleeping").
Negation (Stative)
The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a stative verb construction.
Ending Suffixes
The final position in the verb complex can accommodate any one of several mixed purpose markers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Purpose
! Suffix
|-
| Dynamic-Finite
| -ит (-jt)
|-
| Stative-Finite
| -п (-p''')
|-
| Conditional
| -р (-r)
|-
| Emphatic
| -еи (-aj)
|-
| Interrogative
| -ма (-ma)
|-
|Subjunctive
| -аа(и)т//-заа(и)т (-aajt'//-zaajt)
|}
The imperative takes a few possible forms, depending upon the type of verb. Dynamic verbs form the imperative by the addition of agreement suffixes to a bare verb stem; intransitives include the subject and indirect object makers, whereas transitives include the direct object and absolutive. Thus
Stative verbs form the imperative simply by adding the durative suffix -z to the verb stem. Thus
Abkhaz lacks diathetic opposition, and as such there is no true passive voice distinction.
Nouns
Like verbs, Abkhaz nouns are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a static noun stem. Noun stems can be derived according to several different processes, including compounding, reduplication, or the addition of a derivational affix.
The affixes mark number, definiteness and possession, as well as some case-like elements. Taken as a whole, the entire morphological structure of the Abkhaz noun is as follows:
[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+[Quantity]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Clitic]
As with verbs, not all of these elements can occur at the same time. The individual parts of noun morphology are addressed below.
Article Affixes
There is a range of definiteness in Abkhaz. Those articles adhering to definite/generic categories appear as prefixes in the broader noun structure, whereas the indefinite is suffixed.
The absence of either article affix implies a zero reference implying universal quantifiers, or to express the total lack of a referent.
Definite and indefinite affixes may appear together in the same noun, implying that the referents are meant as a group or body.
There are some semantic differences in article usage between the different dialects of Abkhaz.
Inflectional Prefixes
These are possessive prefixes which express grammatical person and noun class. They come in two forms, the full and short ones. The full ones contain the vowels inside the parenthesis, whereas the short ones do not.
Quantifying Prefixes
These few prefixes add numeric information to the noun complex. Often, this takes the form of a numeral.
Inflectional Suffixes
These suffixes convey either plural number or case-like adverbial information. Plural markers are addressed further below; the other possible inflectional suffixes are the following:
The third-person singular non-human possessive marker, attached to a locative or directional postposition
Locative -ҿы́ (-č’ә́) or directional -хьы́ (-x’ә́) postpositions
Instrumental suffix -ла (-la)
Adverbial suffix -с (-s), as in: иашьас (jaš’ás - "as a brother")
Comparative suffix -ҵас (-c’as), as in: ҩнҵа́с (jºənc’ás - "like a house")
Privative suffix -да (-da), as in: ҩны́да (jºnә́da - "without a house")
Various coordinating suffixes
Inflectional suffixes can follow each other sequentially.
Plural Suffixes
Abkhaz distinguishes singular and plural; the singular is unmarked, whereas the plural is indicated by noun class-dependent suffixes. There are several pluralizing suffixes, but the two most commonly used refer generally to the human and non-human noun classes. There are instances where explicitly human nouns take non-human plural markers.
There are also several plural endings that are of much narrower use.
Clitic
The clitic -гьы (-g’ə) functions as an in-built coordinating conjunction.
Noun Class
Nouns in Abkhaz are classified broadly according to a human/non-human paradigm, with the human class itself further subdivided into masculine and feminine gender. Gender is a fairly weak concept in Abkhaz grammar, and gender distinctions undergo a fair degree of neutralization in several contexts, including personal pronouns, verb agreement and possession marking. This class and gender system distinguishes Abkhaz from the other Northwest Caucasian languages.
Vocative Affixes
Although there is no special vocative declension, the prefix уа- (wa-), when attached to a noun stem, can express a vocative form.
Similarly, the suffix -a can be added to a proper noun ending in a consonant to communicate respect and endearment.
Pronouns
Abkhaz is a pro-drop language. Pronouns are not inflected, and verbal agreement is generally sufficient to indicate grammatical person.
It is common in everyday speech to use a short version of the pronoun which omits the suffix -рá (-rá), although this is done less frequently with third-person pronouns.
In addition to noun-marking, possession can be indicated by adding the suffix -тәы́ (-t’˚ә́) to the short version of a personal pronoun. Thus:стәы́ (st’˚ә́ - "mine")лтәы́ (lt’˚ә́ - "hers")
Intensive pronouns are derived from short-form personal pronouns combined with the suffix -хаҭá (-xatá). These have a roughly reflexive meaning.
сарá (sará - "I")
схаҭá (sxatá - "I myself")
Adjectives
Morphologically, adjectives are very similar to nouns, differing only in their syntactic function. Similarly to nouns, adjective stems can be derived by compounding, reduplication and affixation. When used attributively, adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicative adjectives, or those derived by suffixation, precede the noun. Adjectives are formed according to the following paradigm:
[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Adverbial Suffix]
Inflectional Prefix
The possessive prefix r- is used to show possessive agreement.
Adjective Suffixes
These suffixes are added to the adjective stem to show agreement with the noun being modified.
The comparative form of an adjective is formed using the comparative particle аиҳá (ajhá - "more"), which precedes the adjective. The superlative form is indicated by the intensifier suffix -ӡа. Thus:
Writing system
Abkhaz has used the Cyrillic script since 1862. The first alphabet was a 37-character Cyrillic alphabet invented by Baron Peter von Uslar. In 1909 a 55-letter Cyrillic alphabet was used. A 75-letter Latin script devised by a Russian/Georgian linguist Nikolai Marr lasted for 2 years 1926–1928 (during the Latinization campaign). The Georgian script was adopted and used between 1938 and 1954, after that was restored the initial Cyrillic alphabet designed in 1892 by Dmitry Gulia together with Konstantin Machavariani and modified in 1909 by Aleksey Chochua.
Cyrillic script:
Latin script:
Unicode
The Latin alphabet in Abkhaz is currently not in Unicode. Its inclusion was proposed in 2011. See also:
Status
Both Georgian and Abkhaz law enshrines an official status of the Abkhaz language in Abkhazia.
The 1992 law of Georgia, reiterated in the 1995 constitution, grants Abkhaz the status of second official language in the territory of Abkhazia — along with Georgian.
In November 2007, the de facto authorities of Abkhazia adopted a new law "on the state language of the Republic of Abkhazia" that mandates Abkhaz as the language of official communication. According to the law, all meetings held by the president, parliament, and government must be conducted in Abkhaz (instead of Russian, which is currently a de facto administrative language) from 2010, and all state officials will be obliged to use Abkhaz as their language of everyday business from 2015. Some, however, have considered the implementation of this law unrealistic and concerns have been made that it will drive people away from Abkhazia and hurt the independent press due to a significant share of non-Abkhaz speakers among ethnic minorities as well as Abkhaz themselves, and a shortage of teachers of Abkhaz. The law is an attempt to amend a situation where up to a third of the ethnic Abkhaz population are no longer capable of speaking their ethnic language, and even more are unable to read or write it; instead, Russian is the language most commonly used in public life at present.
Sample text
Original version
TransliterationISO 9 RomanizationTranslation
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
Phonetic transcription
Notes
References
Bibliography
Hewitt, B. George (2008). "Cases, arguments, verbs in Abkhaz, Georgian and Mingrelian." Case and Grammatical Relations: Studies in Honor of Bernard Comrie, edited by Greville G. Corbett and Michael Noonan, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 75–104.
Hewitt, B. George (1999). "Morphology Revisited: Some Peculiarities of the Abkhaz Verb." Studies in Caucasian Linguistics edited by Helma van den Berg, Leiden: CNWS, pp. 197–208.
Hewitt, B. George (1979). The Relative Clause in Abkhaz (Abžui Dialect)''. Lingua 47, pp. 151–188.
External links
Introduction, basic phrases and grammar and texts
Abkhaz alphabet and pronunciation (Omniglot)
Abkhaz at Language Museum
Example of Abkhaz language
Abkhaz-Russian On-Line Dictionary
Ancient Adyghe Abkhaz–Abaza Ubykh alphabet
Abkhaz basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
Abkhaz text corpus
Recordings of Abkhaz
Northwest Caucasian languages
Agglutinative languages
Subject–object–verb languages
Languages of Abkhazia
Languages of Georgia (country)
Languages of Russia
Languages attested from the 17th century
Vertical vowel systems
Languages written in Cyrillic script |
8456609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson%20%28surname%29 | Emerson (surname) | Emerson is an English surname derived from Anglo-Saxon Emars sunu, meaning "Emar's son" or "Ethelmar's son". Another origin has been suggested as starting with the Old French epic hero Aimeri de Narbonne which passed into Italian as Amerigo and subsequently into English as Emery, Amery, and Imray, among others; Emerson is thought to derived as a patronymic from Emery.
Prominent people who share this surname have been listed below.
In literature
Alice B. Emerson, pseudonym of the authors of the Betty Gordon and Ruth Fielding children's novel series
Claudia Emerson (1957–2014), American professor and Pulitzer Prize-winning poet
Earl Emerson (born 1948), American mystery novelist
Edward Waldo Emerson (1844–1930), son of Ralph Waldo, physician, writer and lecturer
George Barrell Emerson (1797–1881), American educator and pioneer of women's education rights
Gloria Emerson (1929-2004), American author, journalist and war correspondent.
Hunt Emerson (born 1952), English cartoonist and graphic novelist
Kathy Lynn Emerson, American writer of historical and mystery novels and non-fiction
Kevin Emerson, American author of young adult books
Mary Moody Emerson (1774–1863), American letter writer and diarist, teacher of her nephew Ralph Waldo Emerson
Nathaniel Bright Emerson (1839–1915), American physician and author of Hawaiian mythology
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), American writer, philosopher, and transcendentalist
Sally Emerson, English novelist
Steven Emerson (born 1954), American print and broadcast investigative journalist
William Emerson (minister) (1769–1811), American philosopher, father of Ralph Waldo Emerson
Willis George Emerson (1856–1918) American novelist and author of The Smokey God
In business
Ernest Emerson (born 1955), American knifemaker and martial arts expert
Isaac Edward Emerson (1859–1931), American businessman, creator of the headache remedy Bromo-Seltzer
John Wesley Emerson (1832–1899), American lawyer, historian, Civil War officer, and founder of the Emerson Electric Company
Raymond Emerson (1886–1977), American civil engineer, investment banker, and faculty at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology
S. Thomas Emerson (also known as Tom Emerson; born 1941), American entrepreneur, angel investor and educator
In performing arts
Ashley Emerson (born 1984), American operatic soprano
August Emerson, American television, film and musical theatre actor
Avalon Emerson (born 1988), American electronic music producer and DJ
Billy "The Kid" Emerson (1925–2023), African-American R&B musician
Darren Emerson (born 1971), British electronic musician
Donnie and Joe Emerson, American vocal and instrumental duo
Douglas Emerson (born 1974), American actor
Eric Emerson (1945–1975), American musician, dancer, and actor
Faye Emerson (1917–1983), American film actress and television personality
Frankie Emerson, American indie multi-instrumentalist, member of the rock band The Brian Jonestown Massacre
Hope Emerson (1897–1960), American film actress
Jacqueline Emerson (born 1994), American singer and actress
Keith Emerson (1944–2016), English composer and musician, member of the band Emerson, Lake, and Palmer
Luther Orlando Emerson (1820–1915), American musician, composer and music publisher
Max Emerson (born 1988), American actor, model, author, director and YouTuber
Michael Emerson (born 1954), American stage and screen actor
Stuart Emerson, UK guitarist associated with his own band, Emerson, and Meat Loaf
In politics
Andrew L. Emerson, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (1828–1829), first Mayor of Portland, Maine (1832)
Arthur Emerson, 21st Governor of American Samoa
Bill Emerson (1938–1996), aka Norvell William Emerson, American US congressman from Missouri
Clarence Emerson (1901–1963), Canadian merchant and politician, senator (1957–1963)
Craig Emerson (born 1954), Australian Labor Party representative from Queensland
David Emerson (born 1945), Canadian politician, businessman, civil servant
Frank Emerson (1882–1931), American politician, former governor of the US state of Wyoming
Hugh A. Emerson (1793–1860), lawyer and politician in Newfoundland, member of the Newfoundland House of Assembly (1837–1842)
James Emerson (1895–1917), British Army officer, posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross
James A. Emerson (1865–1922), New York politician
Jo Ann Emerson (born 1950), American congresswoman from Missouri, and widow of former congressman Bill Emerson
John Emerson (mayor) (1859–1932), Canadian politician; former mayor of Calgary, Alberta
Julie Emerson (born 1988), American politician
Junius Emerson (1926–1992), American politician, member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1965–1968, 1981–1982)
Lewis Edward Emerson (1890–1949), lawyer, judge and politician, first Chief Justice of Newfoundland and Labrador (1944–1949)
Louis W. Emerson (1857–1924), US congressman from New York
Newton Emerson (born c. 1970), Northern Irish political commentator and satirist
Peter Emerson (born 1943 or 1944), Northern Irish political activist
Prescott Emerson (1840–1889), lawyer and politician in Newfoundland, speaker of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly (1874–1878)
Rupert Emerson (1899–1979), American professor of political science and international relations
Herbert William Emerson (1881–1962), governor of Punjab, British India
In law
Thomas I. Emerson (1907-1991), American attorney, law professor, and First Amendment rights experts
In science and education
Alfred E. Emerson (1896–1976), American biologist
Barbara Emerson, English historian and biographer
Benjamin Kendall Emerson (1843–1932), American geologist and author
Beverly M. Emerson, American biochemist
Caryl Emerson, American literary critic, slavist and translator.
Charles Wesley Emerson (1837–1908), founder and first president of Emerson College
E. Allen Emerson (born 1954), computer scientist
Ellen Russell Emerson (1837-1907), American ethnologist, author
Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American historian, biochemist and nutritionist
John Haven Emerson (1906–1997), American inventor of biomedical devices
Oliver Farrar Emerson (1860–1927), American philologist and educator
Ralph Emerson (theologian) (1787–1863), Professor of Ecclesiastical History and Pastoral Theology in the Andover Theological Seminary
Ralph Emerson (botanist) (1912–1979), American botanist and mycologist
Rollins A. Emerson (1873–1947), American geneticist
Sharon Emerson (born 1945), American biologist
William Emerson (mathematician) (1701–1782), English eccentric, scientist and philosopher
William Henry Emerson (1860–1924), American chemist
William Keith Emerson (1925–2016) American malacologist
In sport
Alan Emerson (born 1957), British motorcycle speedway rider
Antony Emerson (1963–2016), Australian tennis player
Chester Emerson (1889–1971), American Major League Baseball player for Philadelphia Athletics
David Emerson (born 1961), Australian cricketer
Denise Emerson (born 1960), Australian cricketer
Denny Emerson (Edward E. Emerson; born 1941), American equestrian
Eddie Emerson (1892–1970), Canadian football player
Gary Emerson (born 1963), English golfer and winner of the 2004 Russian Open
Hugh Emerson (born 1973), Irish Gaelic footballer
June Emerson (1924–1990), Canadian baseball player
Martin Emerson (born 2000), American football player
Nat Emerson (1874–1958), American tennis player
Nelson Emerson (born 1967), Canadian right wing hockey player formerly in the National Hockey League
Niamh Emerson (born 1999), English heptathlete
Norman Emerson (cricketer) (born 1939), Australian cricketer
Ox Emerson (Gover Conner Emerson; 1907–1998), American football player
Rob Emerson (born 1981), American mixed martial artist
Ross Emerson (born 1954), Australian international cricket umpire
Roy Emerson (born 1936), Australian tennis player
Scott Emerson (baseball) (born 1971), American baseball player, coach and pitching instructor
In visual arts
Arthur Webster Emerson, American/Hawaiian painter
Edith Emerson (1888–1981), American painter
Ken Emerson (1927–2010), Australian cartoonist and comic strip creator
Peter Henry Emerson (1856–1936), Cuban-born British photographer
Sarah Emerson, American artist
William Ralph Emerson (1833–1917), Shingle-style American architect
William Otto Emerson (1856–1940), American painter and ornithologist
Fictional characters
Evelyn Emerson, character in the Amelia Peabody novel series by Elizabeth Peters
Nefret Emerson, character in the Amelia Peabody novel series by Elizabeth Peters
Radcliffe Emerson, character in the Amelia Peabody novel series by Elizabeth Peters
Michael Emerson, a character in The Lost Boys
Sam Emerson, a character in The Lost Boys
Lucy Emerson, a character in The Lost Boys
Other
Eben Emerson, American lighthouse keeper at Wood Island Light, Maine (1861–1865)
Ida Emerson, Broadway composer and lyricist
Jimmy Coleman, better known as J. Paul Emerson (died 2001), American radio host
Jared Emerson-Johnson (born 1981), American video game music composer, sound designer, voice director and voice actor
Jodi Emerson (born 1972), anti-human trafficking advocate
Joseph Emerson (1821–1900), American minister and theologian
Lidian Jackson Emerson (1802–1892), second wife of Ralph Waldo Emerson
Mark T. Emerson, United States Navy rear admiral, commanded of the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (2006–2009)
Meredith Emerson, American murdered whilst hiking on Blood Mountain
Norman Emerson (1900–1966), Irish Anglican priest
Rick Emerson (also known as Rick Taylor; born 1973), American radio host
Ursula Newell Emerson (1806–1888), American missionary in the Hawaiian Islands, co-founder of the Waialua Protestant Church
Zelie Emerson (1883–1969), American suffragette in England
See also
Cherry Logan Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Edward Emerson (disambiguation), various people
George Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Henry Emerson (disambiguation), various people
John Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Robert Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Stephen Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Tom Emerson (disambiguation), various people
William Emerson (disambiguation), various people
Ambro Emerson (1983–2002), Canadian champion trotting horse
Emmerson (disambiguation)
References
English-language surnames
Patronymic surnames |
63666277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%20Hon | Ho Hon | Ho Hon (; 22 July 1885 – 16 August 1951) was a Korean independence activist in Japanese controlled Korea and politician in the early years of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea). As a lawyer, he defended independence activists along with Lee In and Kim Byong-ro. In September 1948, following the official proclamation on the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the northern part of the Korean peninsula, he was elected a delegate to the first convocation of the Supreme People's Assembly, the unicameral parliament of North Korea. He also served President of Kim Il Sung University. While working as a reunification activist, he drowned in the Chongchon River in August 1951. He was also the father of Ho Jong-suk, a female activist and a politician in North Korea.
Biography
After the liberation, in August 1945, he participated in the founding of the (건국준비위원회) with Pak Hon-yong and Lyuh Woon-hyung, and was elected to the Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Korea through the Vice Chairman of the Committee. After its dismantling, he was oppressed while acting as a Democratic People's Front and Namjo Line Workers' Party in South Korea.
Early life
Heo Heon was born in 1885 in Hapyeong-ri, Hawoo-myeon, Myongchon County, North Hamgyong Province, as the son of Hyangban. When he was 10 years old in 1895, he followed his father to Hanseongbu and lived in a house near Gwanghwamun. Then, he entered the newly established Korean Residents' Elementary School, and in 1899 he went to Hansung Middle School and learned the theology. Around this time, Heo Heon's father, Heo-chu, was said to have served as an insider of the palace. However, Heochu decided to quit his office due to poor health and left his son Heo Heon to Lee Yong-ik. As a child, Heo Heon went to school based on Lee Yong-ik's Sarangchae.
Heo-heon went to Vladivostok in Yeonju and thought that he would extend his visit after his father Hu-chu died and had three years of father-in-law. Kang, an influential person, said that he gave two donkeys and a package to the school district. When he returned to his hometown, Myeongcheon, Hamgyong Province, his mother invited him to marry a woman named Ji-Young Jeong, who lived in Hamhung. Among the children he had from Ji-Young Lee, only her daughter, Ho Jong-suk, survived to adulthood, and later became herself an activist and politician.
He continued to study and climbed to Kyungsung, and his wife's livelihood was made by his wife, Jeong-Young. Afterwards, he remarried with Yoo Deok-hee and had six more children: daughters Huh Geun-wook and sons Ho Seon-wook, Ho Jong-wook, Ho Young-wook, Ho Seon-wook, and Ho Gi-wook.
After graduating from Hansung Middle School and Bosung College, he studied abroad in Japan and graduated from the Meiji University Law School. In 1907, he passed the 1st lawyer examination of the Korean Empire, and he obtained a lawyer qualification in Japan. After that, he defended the defense of independence activists, the employment problems of workers, and the issue of wage increases for free. In 1924, he was appointed as the principal of Boseong College and as the chairman of Chosun People's Lawyer. He was famous for traveling around the world for 6 months in 1926, and in 1927 the following year, he was a major executive of a new association. At the end of the Japanese colonial period in 1943, he was involved in a shortwave broadcast smuggling incident, where he also spent two years in prison.
And Ho Hon brought his wife to Hanseongbu, attended Hansung Foreign Language School, studied German, and learned English and Japanese. He learned a foreign language with the determination to major in international law. During this process, he made a lot of colleagues, Lee Yong-ik's grandson Lee Jong-ho and his acquaintance were thick, and he extended his face by greeting several other celebrities such as Lee Gap, Lee Dong-hui, and the Northwest. He graduated from a foreign language school in 1904, the year of the Russo-Japanese War. And for a while, he was appointed as a low-level official in Jigye-amun, Gyujanggak, and Jumu-amun.
Independence movement
In 1919, he was elected president of the Korean Bar Association. The March 1st Movement of March 1919 made him a representative anti-Japanese lawyer. At the time of the 3.1 movement, Ho Hon took charge of 47 people, including 33 national representatives and 14 related persons. He became famous for his embarrassing Japanese imperialism by defending the leaders of the March 1st Movement, who were obsessed with the unpredictable knowledge of law theory. In addition, during the trial against the arrested 49 people, it was submitted to the court for filing an indictment of charges, and it was also a hot topic, such as opposition from the prosecutors' prosecutors in court. After that, Ho Hon held a national reputation and performed various projects in addition to his daily attorneys, such as the free-standing defense of the Troops and the Communist Party of Korea.
In the 1920s, at the same time as a lawyer, he devoted himself to the education business. Following this, along with Lee Sang-jae, a private university was founded, but the Governor-General did not give approval, but it had the effect of establishing the Seoul National University. In addition, she paid attention to women's education. A woman activist and an independence activist helped to establish the Duksung Women's University, and when the Dong-A Ilbo was founded, he invested a large amount of 8,000 won to give thanks.
In 1924, he was appointed as the principal of Bosung College, which was poorly managed at the time, and became president of Korean lawyers at the time. At the end of April of that year, when Song Jin-woo stepped down as president, he also acted as president of Dong-A Ilbo for a while.
In April 1925, Cho Dong-ho and Cho Bong-am, who were sent to the Communist Party of Korea's foundation to get approval from the Comintern, were arrested by the Japanese Consulate-General in Shanghai in February 1928 and gave free arguments in Seoul's Gyeongseong District Court. As a result of this, Heo Heon is known not only in Korea but also in Japan.
On the other hand, by this time, Ho Hon is leaning toward a socialist tendency in the mid-left. The sympathetic argument against those involved in the case of the Communist Party of Korea, including Park Hon-young, and the broad communion with the communists, and the fact that all of her daughters, Jeong-sook Heo and her son-in-law, were all members of the Communist Party of Korea, which led him to a socialist tendency.
End of the Japanese colonial period
In the 1930s, his poor salary for professors earned him a plunge into the real estate and mining industries. He even went to the point of relying on livelihood for Yoon Chi-ho, Kim Seong-soo, and Song Jin-woo.
At the end of the Japanese occupation in 1943, he was involved in a shortwave broadcasting case. At the time, Ho Hon was severely tortured at the age of 58, and the alleged exile of his daughter, Heo Jung-sook, was included in the charges. After two years in prison, his health deteriorated extremely badly, and in April 1945 he was released as a jeweler. Afterward, Ho Hon went down to the house of Munhwa-myeon, Sinchon County, South Hwanghae Province, where his wife's wife is, and was liberated while relaxing at Dalcheon Hot Spring. He was nursed in Sinchon for four months from April 1945.
Liberation of Korea
On August 15, 1945, the ruling of the Japanese National Presidency and the formation of the National Preparatory Committee under the leadership of Yeo Hyung-hyun were heard, and when Ho Hon lived in Sinchon County, South Hwanghae Province, Chairman Geon-jun Yeo, Yun-hyung sent people to participate in the National Preparatory Committee. Asked. Around this time, Hon Hon was in a nursing home, but he readily agreed and came to Seoul. According to the records at the time, he said, 'I will give everything to the teacher. I believe in my teacher and I will help with all my wisdom. '
On the other hand, Ho Hon continued to criticize the Korean Democratic Party until the early days of the launch of the Korean Democratic Party, but increasingly, Heonheon's public speeches gradually grew in the colors of the defense of the Communist Party of Korea and the criticism of the Korean Democratic Party. He argued that anti-Japanese independence movements under Japanese rule were largely carried out by communists, and in this regard, "We should also thank the Communist Party of Korea," and after the Korean People's Party did not cooperate with the state, they even defended pro-Japanese and terrorists. And accused him of interfering with the complete independence of Joseon. In addition, he visited Ahn Jae-hong, who had been dissatisfied with the advancement of the Communist Party of Korea, and persuaded him several times, but Ahn Jae-hong did not listen and soon withdrew.
On September 4, the General Assembly of the National Assembly was elected as Vice-Chairman of the National Preparatory Committee, followed by the National People's Congress and prepared for the establishment of the People's Republic of Korea. While participating as a People's Committee, Ho Hon showed a reality that, unlike the Korean People's Party, he had to deny 'temporary government refusalism' and prepare the People's Republic. On September 7, 1945, he was appointed Prime Minister of the Cabinet of the People's Republic of Korea.
When the results of the Moscow Three-Phase Summit were announced in December, he argued that "it is now necessary to establish a provisional government for Koreans through the North and South according to the procedures set out in the "Moscow Protocol", not to follow the rule of Lim Jung. Everyone supported the "Moscow Protocol" and proposed to actively help the activities of the Micro-Community Committee.
Kim Won-bong, Kim Sung-suk, Jang Goon-sang (김성숙 (1898년)), and Sung Joo-sik, who left the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea on February 15, 1946, were invited to the co-chair of the Democratic People's Front (민주주의민족전선) with Yeo-hyung Baek, Paek Nam-un, Pak Hon-yong, and Kim Won-bong. Subsequently, he was elected the chief chairman of the Democratic Peoples Front.
At the opening of the National Democracy Front, Heo Heon was thinking of the emergency national conference hosted by the Provisional Government, and there is a buzzword of law, which is not right. Ho Hon publicly rejected the idea of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Recognizing that the provisional government was not approved by the international community, and that the officials returned to Japan as individuals, they accused Lim of deceiving the lawmakers to deceive the people. After Lim Jong-ho's denial, he became the public of the far right group and became the main target of terrorism. He had to move through the residence several times, avoiding raids and terrorist attacks by right-wing youth groups. On the other hand, Ho Hon did not join the political party of the, but acted as an individual. Heo Heon's health was not good because of the disease he got from prison.
In November 1946, he participated in the formation of the South Korean Workers' Party. After the formation of the Workers' Party of South Korea, Lyuh Woon-hyung sat down in office and stopped the conflict with Pak Hon-yong. Around this time, Ho Hon followed, supporting Pak. Later, on August 11, 1947, the US military authorities issued an arrest order against the leader of the South Korean leader, Ho Hon, and declared communist activity in South Korea illegal.
Socialists and communists moved side-by-side, avoiding the wanted and oppressive of Pak Hon-yong and Heo-heon, and Heo-hun had to move from time to time in the night, avoiding the eyes of the police, US military, and right-wing youth groups.
North Korea
In April 1948, for the north–south negotiations, he went to the north of the 38th parallel with Ri Sung-yop of the South Korean Workers' Party and did not come back. He was also elected to the Constitutional Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly. After the official proclamation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, he was elected chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly in September. At the same time, from October of that year, he served as president of Kim Il Sung University. Participated in the 2nd Inter-Korean Leaders' Meeting (Second Leadership Meeting of the Socialist Group of the Second Joseon Dynasty) held from July 2 to July 5, 1948.
In June 1949, he was elected chairman of the Central Committee of the Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea, and in August 1951 he was again elected as chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly. He died in August 1951 after drowning in an accident under suspicious circumstances on the Chongchon River on August 16 of the same year. He received a state funeral. After the funeral at the Moranbong Theatre in Pyongyang on September 7, 1951, he was buried in the Patriotic Martyrs' Cemetery.
References
1885 births
1951 deaths
North Korean atheists
People from Myongchon County
Leaders of the Workers' Party of Korea and its predecessors
Korean communists
Members of the 1st Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 1st Central Committee of the Workers' Party of South Korea
Members of the 2nd Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 1st Political Committee of the Workers' Party of South Korea
Members of the 1st Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of South Korea
Members of the 2nd Political Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 2nd Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
South Korean emigrants to North Korea
Members of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea |
57074196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Pi%C3%B1al | El Piñal | El Piñal (, ) was a port in the Pearl River Delta area that was temporarily granted to the Spanish from 1598 to 1600 by Cantonese officials of the Ming dynasty. Seen as a threat to the Portuguese monopoly on the 16th century China trade, the Spanish presence in El Piñal provoked a violent reaction from Portuguese Macau nearby. El Piñal was soon abandoned, and its exact location remains a matter of scholarly debate.
Location
The identification of El Piñal (or Pinhal) to a modern location is made difficult by incomplete and contradictory descriptions from surviving sources, as well as the shifting sediment of the Pearl River Delta altering the coastline from what it had been in the 16th century. The contemporary Spanish historian Antonio de Morga claimed El Piñal was 12 leagues from Canton (Guangzhou), while governor Francisco de Tello de Guzmán said it was 8 leagues. Jesuit missionaries who went to El Piñal said it was 10 to 12 leagues from Macau, a trip that took them 2 days. However, none of the above mentioned the direction of these distances. Also, the same Jesuit source and the Chinese Annals of Guangdong Province () have suggested that El Piñal was an island. Based on these records, scholars have suggested that El Piñal may be located in the mouth of the Xi River west of Macau, or around Qi'ao Island in the Lingdingyang estuary.
Scholars who favour El Piñal being in the vicinity of the Xi River include Albert Kammerer, Jin Guoping, and Francisco Roque de Oliveira. The Annals of Guangdong Province relates that the "Lüsong" (呂宋, "Luzon", referring to the Spanish in the Philippines) settled in Hutiaomen (虎跳門, "Jumping Tiger Gate") in 1598, a place that still exists today in Xinhui at the mouth of the Hutiaomen Channel branch of the Xi River. Jesuit accounts tell of a Chinese temple complex in El Piñal, which Jin Guoping infers to be the shrine of the last Song emperor Zhao Bing, who fled the Mongols and perished at the 1279 Battle of Yamen across from Hutiaomen. Another identification of El Piñal, favoured by Albert Kammerer, is supported by a 1646 memorial by Jorge Pinto de Azevedo, which includes a map showing an island called "Pinhal" at the mouth of Xi River's main branch, near Lampacau. However, these hypothetical locations do not match up with the distances reported by the Portuguese and the Spanish travellers, and would likely take more than two days to reach from Macau.
Western scholarship generally agrees with J. M. Braga and C. R. Boxer's analysis that El Piñal was located in Lingdingyang between Macau and Guangzhou, around Qi'ao Island. Boxer reasoned since "Pinhal", which means "pine grove", was commonly used by Iberian explorers for place names, it would make sense that the port of Pinhal would be situated in a pine grove. Boxer identifies the anchorage of Tangjiawan () in Zhongshan Island as Pinhal, noting "this is the only place between the Bocca Tigris and Macao where a grove of pine trees has flourished for centuries". John Crossley took Boxer's identification of Tangjiawan to mean the Qi'ao Island in the vicinity. This location, next to the harbour of Cumsingmoon, was noted to have been used by foreign ships for centuries, and the British and Americans made heavy use of the port in the 19th century. The identification of Qi'ao as El Piñal accords well with the distances given by the Iberian sources, but, as Jin Guoping points out, it is based on speculation with little textual support.
Background
In the 15th century, Spain and Portugal began extensive overseas exploration, setting in motion the Age of Discovery. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 split the newly discovered lands between the two empires along a meridian west of the Cape Verde islands, with the west belonging to Spain and the east belonging to Portugal, the situation had not been clarified for the antimeridian on the opposite side of the world. The 1529 signing of the Treaty of Zaragoza theoretically resolved this issue with a line east of the Moluccas, with Spain claiming all lands east of the line and Portugal west; however, difficulties in marine navigation and cartography in the 16th century made the exact longitude of the line up to debate. Such that, when the Spanish colonized the Philippines in 1542, they believed it was within Spanish jurisdiction while in fact it was well west of the line.
Around the same time, the Portuguese gained permission from Ming Chinese mandarins to establish a permanent settlement and trade base in Macau in 1557, which would grow into a bustling entrepot by the 1580s due to Portugal's exclusive access to both Chinese and Japanese markets and the global demand for Chinese goods. The Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 led to the union of the Iberian empires, which opened new trade opportunities between the overseas settlements of the Spain and Portugal. Even so, unlike other Portuguese overseas territories that accepted the new political reality, Macau remained steadfast against Spanish intrusion into East Asia. The Portuguese in Macau feared that a Spanish presence nearby would not only disrupt their monopoly on the China trade, but also endanger the existence of Macau itself since any misguided action by the Spanish might cause the Chinese to close itself off against all Europeans. To prevent such a possibility, Macanese residents sought assurance from Philip II, king of both Spain and Portugal, that Spain be prevented from reaching China. This was received in 1585 when Philip II confirmed the continuation of the injunction forbidding Spain and Portugal from intruding each other's zones of influence. However, as Macau itself flouted these injunctions when it sent trade ships to Manila, so did Manila send ships to China in open disregard.
An early opportunity for Spain to enter China presented itself when the Chinese pirate Limahong attacked Manila in 1574. As Limahong was wanted by the Chinese authorities, officials in Fujian province were willing to let the Spanish establish a trade port on an island south of Xiamen in return for Limahong's capture. However, the governor of the Philippines at the time did not respond favourably, and the offer came to nothing when Limahong escaped from Manila. In the 1590s, the need for a Spanish base in China gained new urgency as Japan, ruled by the militant regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi, invaded Korea and threatened to conquer Ryukyu, China, Taiwan, and the Spanish Philippines. The San Felipe incident of 1596 and the subsequent execution of Franciscan friars in Nagasaki all but confirmed Japan's hostile intentions in Spanish eyes, and even the death of Hideyoshi in 1598 did not alleviate these fears. Thus, in 1598, governor Francisco de Tello de Guzmán sent Juan de Zamudio to the coast of China not only to establish trade, but also to warn Chinese authorities of possible Japanese aggression along its southern coast.
Establishment
Some time later in 1598, Juan de Zamudio's frigate reached China and docked at Lantau Island, across the Lingdingyang estuary from Macau. From there Zamudio sent men to Guangzhou, the provincial capital of Guangdong, to negotiate for a port and permission to trade. With a gift of 7000 reals to the mandarins there (led by , Viceroy of Liangguang), the Spanish were allowed to establish themselves provisionally in El Piñal on the same terms as Siamese traders, albeit with a 50% higher tax rate than the Portuguese. This was done over the objections of the Macanese, who sent a delegation to the provincial capital advocating the repulsion of the Spanish. The Cantonese superintendent of coastal defense (海道副使; haitao in old European sources) was specifically recorded to have expressed that if they acceded to Portuguese meddling on this matter, the people of Macau "would become more arrogant". This indicates that the Spanish in El Piñal might have been intended as an offset to Portuguese influence in the region. In addition, the enterprising Cantonese officials might have been emboldened by the commercial success of Portuguese Macau to allow Spain, with their easy access to American gold and silver mines, to settle nearby. On the other hand, the imperial court in Beijing favoured the prohibitionist haijin policies, making it a real possibility that both Portugal and Spain's permission to stay in the Pearl River Delta could be revoked for any perceived misbehaviour. It was this worry that prevented the Portuguese from attacking El Piñal outright.
Around the same time as Juan Zamudio's voyage to China, on 17 September 1598, the former Philippines governor Luis Pérez Dasmariñas left Manila with three ships on an expedition to Cambodia to support its king against Siam. Soon after, the armada was scattered by heavy storms, with Dasmariñas's ship, carrying 120 men, drifting into the port of El Piñal where they met up with Zamudio. There it was decided that Zamudio would go back to Manila to report on the fate of Dasmariñas's expedition and seek reinforcements for Dasmariñas, who stayed behind in hopes of contacting the other ships of his armada.
Conflict with the Portuguese
The establishment of El Piñal and the coincidental arrival of Luis Pérez Dasmariñas brought considerable unease to Portuguese Macau. The effect on commerce became readily apparent: Spanish competition drove up the price of Chinese goods and thus affected Portuguese purchasing power and their resale margins. The captain-major overseeing Macau, Paulo de Portugal, had to respond in Macau's interests — he had previously urged Dasmariñas to leave with Zamudio, and now responded to Dasmariñas's defiance with open hostility. A blockade was formed around El Piñal, and a public warning was posted in Macau which forbade any help being given to the Spanish on pain of serious penalties and that if any of them came into the city they would be arrested. Dasmariñas even received word that the Portuguese "will try to harm you [Dasmariñas] as much as possible, and that let be clear that if they could, they would set you on fire."
Blockaded in El Piñal, the Spanish persisted with the help from sympathetic mendicant orders in Macau supplying El Piñal in secret. However, this help was limited, and throughout the year 1599 the Spanish were worn down by attrition, leaving the men sick and weak and on the verge of revolt. As it became clear that Manila was not going to send reinforcements, the Spanish got ready to leave El Piñal, but was delayed by Chinese bureaucracy, as various customs dues needed to be paid before the Chinese authorized their departure.
On 16 November 1599, Dasmariñas set off for Manila but was met with unfavourable winds such that he had to return to the coast of China. Rather than to risk offending Portuguese sensibilities again, Dasmariñas did not return to El Piñal but went to Lampacau, an island west of Macau formerly settled by the Portuguese. There he communicated with Paulo de Portugal that he had no intention to harm Portuguese interests, and as proof of that goodwill, promised that he would seek authorization for Macau to trade with Manila legally, and leave China by February 1600. The two reached an agreement on paper, and Paulo de Portugal gave his guarantee for Dasmariñas's safety.
In practice, Paulo de Portugal was pressured by the Macanese community to make a move against Dasmariñas in Lampacau, and the Viceroy of Goa gave de Portugal the permission to use force on the Spanish. As preparations against Dasmariñas were underway, Dasmariñas received warnings about the upcoming Portuguese action, but he dismissed these as rumours since he did not believe the captain-major would go back on his word. Thus on 17 January 1600, when de Portugal brought a heavily armed fleet to confront the Spanish (by this time reduced to one Chinese junk), Dasmariñas was caught unawares. De Portugal was to arrest Dasmariñas and send him to Goa, but Dasmariñas could not be enticed to surrender. Finally, the ships fired at each other for several hours, causing deaths and loss of cargo on the Spanish side. The Spanish eventually disentangled their junk from the fray and took shelter in the bay of Guanghai to the west, and returned for Manila some time later.
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the Pinhal episode, King Philip III made it known to the Real Audiencia of Manila that he did not approve of Juan Zamudio's voyage that resulted in the establishment of El Piñal. However, he also asked the governor of the Philippines to form a council facilitating a return to El Piñal. In any case, Spain did not return to El Piñal, and the Pinhal episode represented the end of Spain's attempts to circumvent the restrictions placed on them from reaching China. Sino-Spanish trade would hence be carried mostly by Chinese merchants going to Manila until the founding of Spanish Formosa in 1626. A plan was drawn up in 1627 to reclaim the port of El Piñal for Spain, but it did not lead to anything substantial.
On the Portuguese side, the Pinhal episode left them exasperated and paranoid against further threats to their interests. This was such that in 1601, when a Dutch ship came to Macau looking for El Piñal, the Macanese residents reacted harshly, imprisoning the Dutch reconnaissance party and summarily executed the 17 Dutchmen. This violent beginning to Luso-Dutch relations in the East would culminate in the Dutch-Portuguese War, where not only was Macau attacked in 1622, but Portuguese influence in the Far East would also become greatly diminished by the end of the war in 1661.
References
Notes
Bibliography
1598 establishments in Asia
1600 disestablishments
1600s disestablishments in Asia
16th century in China
China–Spain relations
History of foreign trade in China
History of Guangdong
Islands of Guangdong
Military history of Macau
Foreign relations of the Ming dynasty
Pearl River Delta
Ports and harbours of China
Portugal–Spain military relations
Spanish East Indies |
54086947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakura%20Wars%204%3A%20Fall%20in%20Love%2C%20Maidens | Sakura Wars 4: Fall in Love, Maidens | is a cross-genre video game developed by Red Company and Overworks and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. The fourth main installment in the Sakura Wars series and the last for Sega home consoles, it was released in March 2002. Defined by its publisher as a "dramatic adventure" game, Sakura Wars 4 combines overlapping tactical role-playing, dating sim and visual novel gameplay elements.
Set six months after the events of Sakura Wars 3: Is Paris Burning? and Sakura Wars: The Movie, main protagonist Ichiro Ogami returns to Tokyo and reunites with the Imperial Combat Revue and its "Flower Division", a troupe of magically-imbued women who also works as a theater company. While Ogami produces the group's adaptation of Les Misérables, the Imperial Combat Revue must join forces with the Paris Division to stop the hostile ghost of the main antagonist, Ōkubo Nagayasu, from terrorizing Tokyo.
Sakura Wars 4 was intended to take place in New York, continuing Ogami's overseas adventures. When the Dreamcast was discontinued by Sega, the development team instead decided to create a celebratory game to conclude Ogami's narrative. The game took just ten months to make, resulting in less gameplay content than previous Sakura Wars games. While reusing gameplay assets from Is Paris Burning?, the graphics were improved using new software tools. The game was produced by Yuji Horikawa and directed by Katsuhiko Goto, with Noriyoshi Ohba serving as executive producer; it was the last game in the series to involve Ohba. The game has been praised by critics, and is one of Japan's best-selling Dreamcast titles. The game's initial concepts would be used in the next entry, Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love.
Gameplay
Sakura Wars 4: Fall in Love, Maidens is a cross-genre video game in which the player controls the role of Ichiro Ogami and two all-female combat groups; the "Flower Division" of the Imperial Combat Revue and the "Paris Division" of the France-based Paris Combat Revue. Their goal is to stop Ōkubo Nagayasu from terrorizing Tokyo. Dubbed a "dramatic adventure" game and taking place across three "acts", the gameplay segments incorporate tactical role-playing, dating sim and visual novel elements. Gameplay is divided between periods where Ogami navigates the Grand Imperial Theater and interacts with various characters, and combat sequences governed by a turn-based battle system across a three-dimensional (3D) area allowing full range of movement.
During the adventure sections, when talking with both the main heroines and supporting characters from the Imperial Combat Revue, conversations rely on the series' "Live & Interactive Picture System" (LIPS); when faced with critical choices in the course of a conversation, dialogue options are displayed with a time limit for the player to select a response. Depending on the type of response, the character may respond positively or negatively, impacting their relationship and future interactions with Ogami. The game also incorporates "Double LIPS", where interactions cross between multiple characters; and "Analog LIPS", where a single response's intensity is judged by the player. If save data from the Dreamcast versions of the last three Sakura Wars titles is imported, Ogami's romance choices from those games are incorporated into the narrative.
During combat segments, the Flower Division fight monsters in the streets of Tokyo using machines called Koubu. As with Is Paris Burning?, the game uses the "Active & Realtime Machine System" (ARMS), where each unit has a full range of movement, with their distance limited by an Action Point meter. Each unit can perform two actions during their turn, which cover a variety of actions including attacking, healing, boosting a unit's statistics, and defending. Actions taken during LIPS sequences with members of the Flower Division directly impact battles; skillful performances during LIPS segments raise a character's Trust, granting status increases and improving combat ability. LIPS interactions can also unlock Combination and Coalesce attacks, where two characters perform a joint attack to deal high damage to a single enemy. If certain conditions are not met or if Ogami's unit is destroyed, the game ends.
Synopsis
In 1927 Tokyo, four months after his return from Paris, Imperial Japanese Navy Lieutenant Ichiro Ogami has reunited with the Flower Division of the Imperial Combat Revue. All is quiet until a powerful spirit breaks free of its imprisonment in Ginza and begins terrorizing the city using a powerful golden Koubu. Immobilized by a golden mist produced by the Koubu, the Flower Division are easily beaten back and their base at the Grand Imperial Theater damaged. The ghost belongs to Ōkubo Nagayasu, a corrupt samurai daimyo enraged at his vilification by the people following his death. When Nagayasu is about to kill the Flower Division in another attack, the Paris Combat Revue arrives and rescues them, answering the Imperial Combat Revue's call for aid. When Nagayasu steals the Mikasa, the two groups weaken Nagayasu and Ogami and his chosen companion use a powerful Koubu, the Soubu, to exorcise the ghost, restoring peace to Tokyo.
In their role as a theatre troupe, the Flower Division are preparing a stage adaptation of Les Misérables, which Ogami is tasked with directing. The need to properly portray the marriage scene leads to widespread misunderstandings as both Ogami and Flower Division members think each is proposing to the other. This is further complicated if Ogami had previously romanced any member of both the Flower and Paris Divisions. When the Paris Combat Revue arrives, if Ogami romanced any of them during the events of Is Paris Burning?, a love triangle situation is created. Ogami must choose which character he wishes to commit to. The production of Les Misérables is a resounding success, and Ogami is left as the sole figure of authority after the Imperial Combat Revue's original manager Ikki Yoneda retires, satisfied that Ogami can succeed him. The final scenes vary depending on whether Ogami romanced any member of the Flower or Paris Divisions, and which character Ogami chooses to commit to.
Development
Concept work for Sakura Wars 4 began during the last development stages for Sakura Wars 3: Is Paris Burning?. Sakura Wars 4 was originally going to be set in New York, continuing Ogami's overseas travels to both there and a planned Division in Taiwan. When it was announced that series publisher Sega were ending production on the Dreamcast, Sega asked that Sakura Wars 4 be moved to the PlayStation 2. The team disagreed, with series creator and general producer Oji Hiroi not wanting the series' final Dreamcast entry to be Is Paris Burning?. With this in mind, Red Company and Overworks instead decided to create a celebratory final entry for the Dreamcast. The game was directed by Katsuhito Goto, produced by Yuji Horikawa and executive produced by Noriyoshi Ohba. Ohba previously produced or executive produced the previous Sakura Wars games. Also returning from Is Paris Burning? were regular series character designer Hidenori Matsubara, scenario writers Satoru Akahori and Hiroyuki Kawasaki, and composer Kohei Tanaka. While previous development cycles had lasted two years or more, Sakura Wars 4 was completed in ten months. Sakura Wars 4 was designed as a "gift" from the developers to long-term fans.
The production proved challenging for the team despite the scenario being completed by the time of its announcement. The game system was based on the work done for Is Paris Burning?, with minimal changes made. The Koubu designs were redone slightly, with smoother bodies and new perforated body parts, requiring the integration of both new and updated software tools, which were also applied to complicated environmental effects in cutscenes. The anime sequences were directed by Susumu Kudo and produced by Production I.G, who previously worked on Is Paris Burning?, Sakura Wars 2: Thou Shalt Not Die, and the Sakura Wars film. The opening also played into the theme of celebration, showing the cast in relaxed situations. Rather than increase their quantity over previous titles, the teams chose to focus on quality. The anime sequences combined traditional animation with CGI-based elements to allow for greater fluidity The CGI mecha animations were created using techniques used for the movie. A troublesome part of development integrating new video software, with the aim to create the smoothest possible gameplay experience to date. This was possible due to the long-standing positive working relationship between Overworks and Production I.G.
Due to the development goals and short production period, the story was considerably shorter than earlier Sakura Wars, being formatted as a three act play rather than an anime series. The theatre theme also carried over into the motifs surrounding the main villain. The theme of the story was "eternal love", a culmination of the overall theme of romance used in the Sakura Wars series. While it was a legitimate sequel to the earlier Sakura Wars games, the density of the cast caused staff to compare it to a special program or fan disc. The inclusion of Les Misérables reflected the influences of Paris on Ogami since his return to Tokyo. For reference, the team used Kuroiwa Shūroku's 1919 translation, which was among the earliest Japanese versions of the novel. Cast members took on unconventional roles within the play as it would give them a means of evolving as characters; a cited example was Sakura taking a villainous role. The story ultimately acted as the closure for Ogami's storyline, bringing together the casts of the Sakura Wars series up to that point. The game's subtitle was taken from a poem by Japanese writer Tekkan Yosano, with Hiroi saying players would understand the quote's reference better after reading the whole poem.
Audio
Before beginning development on Sakura Wars 4, the team contacted the main cast from the past games (Chisa Yokoyama, Michie Tomizawa, Urara Takano, Kumiko Nishihara, Yuriko Fuchizaki, Mayumi Tanaka, Maya Okamoto, Kazue Ikura, Noriko Hidaka, Saeko Shimazu, Etsuko Kozakura, Kikuko Inoue and Yoshino Takamori) to ensure they could include all thirteen heroines. Once this was agreed, the team began development. Sakura Wars 4 was at the time the last major performance by Tomizawa as central heroine Sumire Kanzaki, as Tomizawa retired from the role in 2002.
The opening song, a remix of the series theme titled and the ending song, were performed by the main cast. "Geki! Tei - Finale" was Ogami actor Akio Suyama's first time singing a theme for the series, performing it with backing from the female cast. Hiroi was the first to suggest Suyama perform the songs. The ending theme was designed as a touching farewell ballad, with Takana's favourite part being the unison of all the singers during the theme's later half. Reusing a discarded plan for the theme of Is Paris Burning?, Tanaka wrote the song in the same key as "Geki! Teikoku Kagekidan". Hiroi originally wanted Suyama to sing the whole song, but Tanaka talked him out of it and relied on the actor's speaking talents to narrate his lyrics.
Release
Sakura Wars 4 was first announced in June 2001; when announced, Hiroi was quick to point out that while it was the last series entry for the Dreamcast, it was not the final entry in the Sakura Wars series. A preview disc was released with Sakura Wars Online, featuring promotional images and trailers released up to that point. Running up to the game's release, Is Paris Burning? and the Dreamcast ports of the first two Sakura Wars games were reissued at reduced prices by Sega. The game was released on March 21, 2002. It was later ported to Microsoft Windows personal computers (PC). It was released for Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000 and Windows XP on March 3, 2005. This version required multiple CD-ROMs due to the game's size. A DVD-ROM version for Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Vista on January 25, 2007. The PC version was published in China by Beijing Entertainment All Technology on January 28, 2007. As with most of the Sakura Wars series, the game never saw a release in the Western market. Localization efforts were prevented due to Sega's uncertainty as to whether the game's blend of genres would find a profitable audience outside Japan.
Reception
During its first week on sale, Sakura Wars 4 sold over 207,000 copies, selling through over 80% of its initial shipments. As of 2004, the game has sold over 257,000 copies, making the game the tenth best-selling Dreamcast title in Japan. As of 2007, the game is the fourth best-selling Sakura Wars title behind its predecessor. The game's soundtrack album was awarded at the 2003 Japan Gold Disc Awards in the "Animation – Album of the Year" category.
Due to its Japanese exclusivity, some of the English-language reviews for Sakura Wars 4 were published years after the initial release. Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave Sakura Wars 4 a score of 36/40, with the critics giving it scores of 10, 9, 8 and 9 out of 10; this was the highest score given to a mainline Sakura Wars game up to that point. RPGFan noted the game's focus on the theater, which the reviewer generally enjoyed despite missing the previous games' episodic format and noting a continued amount of unresolved plot threads. The graphics were praised for their increased quality and its solid gameplay elements, but criticised its short length.
Japanese site Game Watch Impress was very positive about the storyline, graphics and the gameplay system. The main issue raised was that the game was not designed for series newcomers due to its callbacks and short length. 4Gamer.net's Tetsuya Asakura, reviewing the PC version, praised the story options opened with the entire cast being present, and its solid gameplay. His main points of criticism were the limited graphical options and its short length.
Legacy
In honor of Tomizawa's retirement from the role of Sumire following Sakura Wars 4, an original video animation (OVA) titled Sakura Wars; Sumire Kanzaki Retirement Memorial—Su・Me・Re was produced by Radix Ace Entertainment and Overworks; Tanaka created the music, while Kawasaki wrote the script. Depicting Sumire's retirement from the Flower Division and her career as an actress, it features Tomizawa's last performance in the role. The OVA was released for VHS and DVD on December 18, 2002. Funimation dubbed the OVA and released it in North America on October 26, 2005 under the title Sakura Wars: Sumire. Tomizawa would eventually return to the role for 2019's Sakura Wars.
The original plans for Sakura Wars 4 were carried over into the next Sakura Wars game, which was being developed for the PlayStation 2. Titled Sakura Wars V: Farewell, My Love in Japan, it was released in Japan in 2005 and overseas in 2010 for both the PlayStation 2 and Wii as Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love. So Long, My Love formed part of the Sakura Wars World Project, a group of seven games being developed for the PlayStation 2 to expand the series' audience and eventually release internationally. Four games in the group were released, but only So Long, My Love was released overseas, while the remaining three projects were officially cancelled in September 2008.
Notes and references
Footnotes
Citations
External links
2002 video games
Red Entertainment games
4
Sega video games
Alternate history video games
Dreamcast games
Windows games
Steampunk video games
Japan-exclusive video games
Video games set in the 1920s
Video game sequels
Video games set in Tokyo
Video games scored by Kohei Tanaka
Video games developed in Japan |
2801839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Teale | Gary Teale | Gary Stewart Teale (born 21 July 1978) is a Scottish professional football player and coach.
Teale started his career in Scotland in 1995 with Clydebank and Ayr United. He moved to England in 2001 when he signed for Wigan Athletic and played an important part in the Wigan side that rose from the third tier (Division Two) to second (Division One) for the first time in the club's history and then went one step further to reach the top flight. Whilst at Wigan he started in the 2006 Football League Cup Final. He then left for Championship side Derby County where he achieved promotion to the Premier League for the second time, although Teale was not a member of the matchday 16 for the 2007 Football League Championship play-off final. During his time at Derby, he spent time on loan with Plymouth Argyle and Barnsley.
After three years and over 100 appearances for the club, Teale left Derby in June 2010 to sign for Sheffield Wednesday. Teale then moved to St Mirren in 2011, and he helped them win the Scottish League Cup in 2013. He became St Mirren manager in 2014, but left this position after the club were relegated in May 2015. Teale represented Scotland at international level, winning 13 caps for his country between 2006 and 2009.
Club career
Early career
Born in Glasgow, Scotland, Teale began his career at Clydebank. As a youth player he spent time training with Davie Cooper, who Teale felt had a major influence on his development and career. In 1995, he made his debut at the age of 16 in a Scottish League Cup match against Motherwell. During his first season at the club, he made most of his appearances as a substitute, and scored his first goal for the club towards the end of the season in a 2–1 win against St Mirren. In the summer of 1996, Clydebank were forced to take several cost-cutting measures, leaving Teale as one of only two players on full-time contracts at the club. He became a first team regular at the start of the 1996–97 season, and his impressive performances earned him a call up to the Scotland under-21s. Later in the season, he was given trials at Tottenham Hotspur and Newcastle United, but a move failed to materialise. He finished the season with six goals as the club were relegated to the Second Division. In October 1997, Teale was involved a car crash, later admitting that he was "lucky to be alive". The incident left him with a broken collarbone, and did not feature in the team until the end of the following month. He struggled to maintain his place in the first team during the 1997–98 season, starting in only 13 of 27 league appearances, and at one point was dropped from the team by manager Ian McCall "in the hope it would give him a kick up the backside." Clydebank finished the season as runners-up in the league, regaining promotion to the First Division.
In October 1998, due to Clydebank's growing financial difficulties, Teale was sold to Ayr United for a fee of £70,000, a signing described by McCall as "a Christmas bargain in October." Although there was interest from several English clubs, Teale opted to remain in Scotland as he felt he was not yet ready to leave his home country. He made his debut in a 2–0 win against St Mirren, and scored his first goal for the club on his home debut two weeks later in a 4–2 win against Falkirk. He played a pivotal role in a 3–0 Scottish Cup victory at home to local rivals Kilmarnock in 1999, winning a late penalty which was converted by Andy Walker, a goal that has gone down in history due to the humiliating manner in which Gordon Marshall the Kilmarnock goalkeeper was beaten.
Wigan Athletic
In 2001, Teale signed for Wigan Athletic for an initial fee of £275,000, which rose to £400,000 due to subsequent additional payments. He made his debut a day later against Oldham Athletic and scored his first goal for the club on 19 February 2002 in a 3–1 win against Notts County. He picked up a Second Division winners medal for the 2002–03 season.
In the 2004–05 season Wigan were promoted into the Premiership for the first time in their history, after which Teale signed a new two-year contract with the club. He also helped Wigan reach their first ever major cup final when they finished runners-up to Manchester United in 2006. Teale was the only player to feature in every match during the cup run, and played the full 90 minutes of the final itself. He eventually left Wigan after six years at the club to join Derby County for £600,000 on 11 January 2007.
Derby County
Teale was brought to Derby by Billy Davies to sustain Derby's push towards the Premiership and made his debut in a 1–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday on 13 January 2007, scoring his first goal with the opener in a 2–2 draw with Hull City on 10 February 2007. Despite this, he failed to hold a regular place in the Derby first team towards the end of the season and failed to make the squad for Derby's 1–0 win over W.B.A in the 2007 playoff final which earned Derby promotion.
Teale found himself in and out of the starting line up as Derby struggled to adapt to the top flight and despite playing a part in 22 games, primarily as substitute, over the 2007–08 season, he was loaned out to Championship side Plymouth Argyle by new Derby boss Paul Jewell until the end of the 2007–08 season because he needed to 'regain some confidence' Teale's loan spell at Plymouth impressed Argyle boss Paul Sturrock enough for him to want to sign the player on a permanent basis, though he was reluctant to meet Derby's £500,000 asking price. Teale was also believed to be interesting Leeds United in the 2008–09 pre-season, who would offer £400,000.
The 2008–09 season started in similar fashion as he was loaned out to Barnsley on a month's emergency loan deal, where he played three games. Upon his return to Derby Teale again sporadically appeared. However, with the resignation of Jewell and the appointment of Nigel Clough, Teale began to get a run in Derby's first eleven earning many accolades, with his form improving to the extent that it prevented a loan move to Motherwell in the January 2009. He got his second goal for the club, and his first career goal for two years on 7 February 2009 with the opener in a 3–0 victory at Plymouth Argyle. Such was the upsurgence in his form, he became something of a cult hero amongst the Derby support, earning himself the nickname Tealinho. Teale opened his goalscoring account for the 2009–10 season with an 87th-minute winner against Peterborough United and made his 100th appearance for the club as a second-half substitute in a 1–0 win over Nottingham Forest on 30 January 2010.
On 5 May 2010 it was announced that Teale would leave Pride Park after three and a half years when his contract expired. He left Derby on 30 June 2010 with 104 appearances and five goals.
Sheffield Wednesday
On 2 July 2010, Teale signed a two-year contract at Sheffield Wednesday and was given the number 21 shirt. He scored his first goal for Sheffield Wednesday against Southport in the FA Cup on 7 November 2010. Three days later he bagged his second goal as Wednesday beat Hartlepool in the Football League Trophy. Teale left Hillsborough by mutual consent on 1 July 2011, and signed a two-year deal with St Mirren.
St Mirren
After Teale left Hillsborough by mutual consent on 1 July 2011, and signed a two-year deal with St Mirren. Teale scored his first goal for Saints in a 2–0 victory in a friendly match against Dumbarton on 12 July 2011. After just 4 minutes David Barron played a ball over the Dumbarton defence, and Teale lobbed the Dumbarton goalkeeper.
Teale was part of the side that won the 2012–13 Scottish League Cup. St Mirren defeated Heart of Midlothian 3–2 in the 2013 Scottish League Cup Final at Hampden Park. Teale will be remembered for his great run down the right wing, and cross field pass that allowed Esmaël Gonçalves to score Saints equalising goal after 37 minutes. On 16 April 2013, it was announced that Teale had signed a new one-year deal with St Mirren, that will keep him at the club until the summer of 2014.
After limited appearances during season 2013–14, it was not known if Teale would be offered a new contract. On 13 May 2014 Teale signed a new two-year deal with the club, taking on a player-coach role to assist newly appointed St Mirren manager Tommy Craig. He was appointed caretaker manager after Craig was sacked in December 2014. In January 2015, Teale was appointed St Mirren manager on a contract until the end of the 2014–15 season. Teale was relieved of his managerial duties after the final game of the season, as St Mirren appointed Ian Murray as their new manager on 22 May 2015. On 1 June 2015, Teale left St Mirren by mutual consent, after failing to secure the manager's job on a permanent basis.
International career
Teale made his debut for Scotland under-21s against Latvia in 1996.
Teale's performances for Wigan earned him a call-up to the Scotland national football team for the first time in 2004, but was forced to withdraw from the squad due to injury. He won his first cap in a 3–1 defeat to Switzerland on 1 March 2006.
He has intermittently played for his country since, including some crucial appearances in Scotland's Euro 2008 qualifying campaign.
In 2008, he was called up to George Burley's first Scotland squad alongside fellow on loan Plymouth player Russell Anderson.
Career statistics
Career honours
Clydebank
Scottish Football League Second Division: Promotion (1997–98)
Wigan Athletic
Football League Second Division: Winner (2002–03)
Football League Championship: Promotion (2004–05)
Football League Cup: Runner-up (2006)
Derby County
Football League Championship playoffs: Winner (2006–07)
St Mirren
Scottish League Cup: Winner (2012–13)
Scotland
Kirin Cup: 2006
Managerial statistics
Includes statistics as caretaker manager.
References
External links
1978 births
Ayr United F.C. players
Barnsley F.C. players
Clydebank F.C. (1965) players
Derby County F.C. players
Living people
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players
St Mirren F.C. players
Premier League players
Scotland men's international footballers
Scotland men's under-21 international footballers
Scotland men's B international footballers
Scottish Football League players
Scottish men's footballers
Scottish Premier League players
English Football League players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Men's association football wingers
Scottish Professional Football League players
Scottish football managers
St Mirren F.C. managers
Scottish Professional Football League managers |
39899502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20minor%20planets%3A%20304001%E2%80%93305000 | List of minor planets: 304001–305000 |
304001–304100
|-bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304001 || || — || January 31, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=002 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304002 || || — || January 31, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=003 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304003 || || — || January 31, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=004 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304004 || || — || January 28, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=005 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304005 || || — || February 1, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=006 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304006 || || — || February 1, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.00 km ||
|-id=007 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304007 || || — || February 1, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=008 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304008 || || — || February 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=009 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304009 || || — || February 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=010 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304010 || || — || February 2, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=011 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304011 || || — || February 3, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=012 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304012 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m ||
|-id=013 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304013 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || KLI || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=014 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304014 || || — || February 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=015 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304015 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=016 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304016 || || — || February 21, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=017 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304017 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right | 1.00 km ||
|-id=018 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304018 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=019 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304019 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=020 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304020 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=021 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304021 || || — || February 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=022 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304022 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m ||
|-id=023 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304023 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=024 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304024 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=025 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304025 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=026 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304026 || || — || February 22, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=027 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304027 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m ||
|-id=028 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304028 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=029 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304029 || || — || February 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=030 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304030 || || — || February 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=031 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304031 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=032 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304032 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m ||
|-id=033 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304033 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m ||
|-id=034 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304034 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=035 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304035 || || — || February 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=036 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304036 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=037 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304037 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=038 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304038 || || — || February 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=039 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304039 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=040 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304040 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=041 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304041 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=042 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304042 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=043 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304043 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=044 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304044 || || — || February 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.58" | 580 m ||
|-id=045 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304045 || || — || February 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=046 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304046 || || — || February 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=047 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304047 || || — || February 28, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=048 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304048 || || — || February 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=049 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304049 || || — || March 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=050 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304050 || || — || March 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=051 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304051 || || — || March 3, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=052 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304052 || || — || March 3, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.99" | 990 m ||
|-id=053 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304053 || || — || March 3, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=054 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304054 || || — || March 4, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.55" | 550 m ||
|-id=055 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304055 || || — || March 4, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=056 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304056 || || — || March 5, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=057 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304057 || || — || March 5, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=058 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304058 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m ||
|-id=059 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304059 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=060 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304060 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=061 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304061 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=062 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304062 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.63" | 630 m ||
|-id=063 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304063 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=064 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304064 || || — || March 24, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || ERI || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=065 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304065 || || — || March 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.69" | 690 m ||
|-id=066 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304066 || || — || March 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=067 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304067 || || — || March 25, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=068 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304068 || || — || March 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=069 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304069 || || — || March 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=070 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304070 || || — || March 25, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || PHO || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=071 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304071 || || — || March 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=072 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304072 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=073 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304073 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=074 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304074 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=075 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304075 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.79" | 790 m ||
|-id=076 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304076 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m ||
|-id=077 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304077 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=078 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304078 || || — || April 7, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=079 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304079 || || — || April 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=080 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304080 || || — || April 4, 2006 || Črni Vrh || Črni Vrh || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=081 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304081 || || — || April 6, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=082 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304082 || || — || April 6, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=083 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304083 || || — || April 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=084 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304084 || || — || April 2, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=085 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304085 || || — || April 7, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=086 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304086 || || — || April 18, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m ||
|-id=087 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304087 || || — || April 18, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=088 bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 304088 || || — || April 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AMOcritical || align=right data-sort-value="0.51" | 510 m ||
|-id=089 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304089 || || — || April 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=090 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304090 || || — || April 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=091 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304091 || || — || April 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=092 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304092 || || — || April 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=093 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304093 || || — || April 23, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=094 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304094 || || — || April 19, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=095 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304095 || || — || April 20, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=096 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304096 || || — || April 26, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=097 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304097 || || — || April 26, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.72" | 720 m ||
|-id=098 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304098 || || — || April 26, 2006 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || CHL || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=099 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304099 || || — || April 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m ||
|-id=100 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304100 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|}
304101–304200
|-bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304101 || || — || April 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=102 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304102 || || — || April 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=103 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304103 || || — || April 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=104 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304104 || || — || April 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m ||
|-id=105 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304105 || || — || April 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=106 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304106 || || — || April 29, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=107 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304107 || || — || April 29, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=108 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304108 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=109 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304109 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=110 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304110 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.99" | 990 m ||
|-id=111 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304111 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.63" | 630 m ||
|-id=112 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304112 || || — || April 30, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=113 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304113 || || — || May 3, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=114 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304114 || || — || May 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAR || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=115 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304115 || || — || May 3, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=116 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304116 || || — || May 4, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=117 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304117 || || — || May 3, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=118 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304118 || || — || May 5, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=119 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304119 || || — || May 6, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=120 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304120 || || — || May 7, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EUN || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=121 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304121 || || — || May 9, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=122 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304122 Ameliawehlau || || || May 1, 2006 || Mauna Kea || P. A. Wiegert || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.72" | 720 m ||
|-id=123 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304123 || || — || May 18, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=124 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304124 || || — || May 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=125 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304125 || || — || May 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=126 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304126 || || — || May 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=127 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304127 || || — || May 20, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || JUL || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=128 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304128 || || — || May 20, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=129 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304129 || || — || May 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=130 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304130 || || — || May 18, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || JUN || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=131 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304131 || || — || May 20, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=132 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304132 || || — || May 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=133 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304133 || || — || May 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=134 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304134 || || — || May 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.80" | 800 m ||
|-id=135 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304135 || || — || May 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=136 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304136 || || — || May 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=137 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304137 || || — || May 22, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=138 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304138 || || — || May 24, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=139 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304139 || || — || May 24, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || MIT || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=140 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304140 || || — || May 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || ADE || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=141 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304141 || || — || May 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=142 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304142 || || — || May 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=143 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304143 || || — || May 22, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=144 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304144 || || — || May 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=145 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304145 || || — || May 26, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=146 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304146 || || — || May 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=147 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304147 || || — || May 29, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=148 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304148 || || — || May 26, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=149 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304149 || || — || May 29, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=150 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304150 || || — || June 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=151 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304151 || || — || June 17, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=152 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304152 || 2006 NH || — || July 3, 2006 || Hibiscus || S. F. Hönig || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=153 bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 304153 || || — || July 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || AMO +1km || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=154 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304154 || || — || July 18, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || JUN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=155 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304155 || || — || July 20, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || GER || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=156 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304156 || || — || July 20, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=157 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304157 || || — || July 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=158 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304158 || || — || July 18, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || CLO || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=159 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304159 || 2006 PF || — || August 2, 2006 || Pla D'Arguines || R. Ferrando || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=160 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304160 || || — || August 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=161 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304161 || || — || August 12, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=162 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304162 || || — || August 12, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=163 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304163 || || — || August 12, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=164 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304164 || || — || August 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || WIT || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=165 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304165 || || — || August 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=166 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304166 || || — || August 15, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || AGN || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=167 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304167 || || — || August 15, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=168 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304168 || || — || August 14, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || TIN || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=169 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304169 || || — || August 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=170 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304170 || || — || August 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=171 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304171 || || — || August 14, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=172 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304172 || || — || August 14, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=173 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304173 || || — || August 15, 2006 || Lulin Observatory || C.-S. Lin, Q.-z. Ye || GEF || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=174 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304174 || || — || August 6, 2006 || Lulin || C.-S. Lin, Q.-z. Ye || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=175 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304175 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=176 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304176 || || — || August 16, 2006 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=177 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304177 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=178 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304178 || || — || August 17, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || RAF || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=179 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304179 || || — || August 17, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=180 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304180 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || MAR || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=181 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304181 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MRX || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=182 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304182 || || — || August 16, 2006 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=183 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304183 || || — || August 17, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=184 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304184 || || — || August 23, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=185 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304185 || || — || August 23, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=186 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304186 || || — || August 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=187 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304187 || || — || August 23, 2006 || Črni Vrh || Črni Vrh || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=188 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304188 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=189 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304189 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=190 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304190 || || — || August 25, 2006 || Hibiscus || S. F. Hönig || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=191 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304191 || || — || August 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=192 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304192 || || — || August 23, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || INO || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=193 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304193 || || — || August 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=194 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304194 || || — || August 24, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=195 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304195 || || — || August 25, 2006 || Pises || Pises Obs. || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=196 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304196 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=197 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304197 || || — || August 16, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=198 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304198 || || — || August 22, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=199 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304199 || || — || August 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=200 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304200 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|}
304201–304300
|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304201 || || — || August 28, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=202 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304202 || || — || August 28, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=203 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304203 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Vallemare di Borbona || V. S. Casulli || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=204 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304204 || || — || August 23, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=205 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304205 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || DOR || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=206 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304206 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || HNA || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=207 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304207 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=208 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304208 || || — || August 27, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=209 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304209 || || — || August 29, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=210 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304210 || || — || August 29, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || DOR || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=211 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304211 || || — || August 29, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=212 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304212 || || — || August 17, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=213 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304213 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=214 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304214 || || — || August 24, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=215 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304215 || || — || August 30, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=216 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304216 || || — || August 16, 2006 || Lulin || C.-S. Lin, Q.-z. Ye || MRX || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=217 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304217 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=218 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304218 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MRX || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=219 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304219 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || INO || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=220 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304220 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=221 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304221 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=222 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304222 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=223 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304223 || || — || August 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NEM || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=224 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304224 || || — || August 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || DOR || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=225 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304225 || || — || August 29, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || DOR || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=226 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304226 || || — || August 29, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || JUN || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=227 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304227 || || — || August 30, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=228 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304228 || || — || August 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=229 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304229 || || — || August 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AER || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=230 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304230 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AST || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=231 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304231 || || — || August 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=232 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304232 || || — || August 24, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || TIN || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=233 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304233 Majaess || || || September 14, 2006 || Mauna Kea || D. D. Balam || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=234 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304234 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || GEF || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=235 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304235 || || — || September 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=236 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304236 || || — || September 12, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=237 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304237 || || — || September 12, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || NEM || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=238 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304238 || || — || March 17, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || BRA || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=239 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304239 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=240 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304240 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=241 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304241 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=242 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304242 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=243 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304243 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ADE || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=244 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304244 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=245 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304245 || || — || September 12, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=246 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304246 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=247 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304247 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=248 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304248 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=249 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304249 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=250 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304250 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=251 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304251 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=252 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304252 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=253 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304253 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=254 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304254 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=255 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304255 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=256 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304256 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || INO || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=257 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304257 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=258 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304258 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=259 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304259 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=260 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304260 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HNA || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=261 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304261 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || K-2 || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=262 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304262 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=263 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304263 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=264 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304264 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=265 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304265 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=266 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304266 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=267 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304267 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=268 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304268 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=269 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304269 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=270 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304270 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=271 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304271 || || — || September 6, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=272 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304272 || || — || September 11, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || MRX || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=273 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304273 || || — || September 14, 2006 || Mauna Kea || J. Masiero || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=274 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304274 || || — || September 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HEN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=275 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304275 || || — || September 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=276 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304276 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || HOF || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=277 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304277 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Vallemare Borbon || V. S. Casulli || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=278 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304278 || || — || September 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || DOR || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=279 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304279 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=280 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304280 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=281 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304281 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || GEF || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=282 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304282 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=283 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304283 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=284 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304284 || || — || September 20, 2006 || La Sagra || OAM Obs. || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=285 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304285 || || — || September 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=286 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304286 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || GEF || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=287 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304287 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || WIT || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=288 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304288 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || EUP || align=right | 5.9 km ||
|-id=289 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304289 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || PAD || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=290 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304290 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=291 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304291 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=292 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304292 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=293 bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 304293 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || APO || align=right data-sort-value="0.63" | 630 m ||
|-id=294 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304294 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=295 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304295 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=296 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304296 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=297 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304297 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=298 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304298 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || AGN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=299 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304299 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || PAD || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=300 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304300 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|}
304301–304400
|-bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304301 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=302 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304302 || || — || September 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=303 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304303 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || MRX || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=304 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304304 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || AGN || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=305 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304305 || || — || September 21, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=306 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304306 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || NAE || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=307 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304307 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=308 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304308 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || K-2 || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=309 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304309 || || — || September 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=310 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304310 || || — || September 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=311 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304311 || || — || September 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=312 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304312 || || — || September 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=313 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304313 || || — || September 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=314 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304314 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=315 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304315 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=316 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304316 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=317 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304317 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=318 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304318 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=319 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304319 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=320 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304320 || || — || September 22, 2001 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=321 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304321 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=322 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304322 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=323 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304323 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=324 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304324 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=325 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304325 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=326 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304326 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=327 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304327 || || — || September 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=328 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304328 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=329 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304329 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=330 bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 304330 || || — || September 30, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || APOPHA || align=right data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m ||
|-id=331 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304331 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NEM || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=332 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304332 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KAR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=333 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304333 || || — || June 13, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=334 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304334 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=335 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304335 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=336 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304336 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=337 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304337 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=338 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304338 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=339 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304339 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=340 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304340 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=341 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304341 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=342 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304342 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=343 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304343 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=344 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304344 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=345 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304345 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=346 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304346 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=347 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304347 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=348 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304348 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=349 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304349 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=350 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304350 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Calvin-Rehoboth || Calvin–Rehoboth Obs. || WIT || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=351 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304351 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=352 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304352 || || — || September 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=353 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304353 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304354 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=355 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304355 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=356 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304356 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=357 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304357 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=358 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304358 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=359 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304359 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=360 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304360 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=361 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304361 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=362 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304362 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=363 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304363 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=364 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304364 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=365 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304365 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=366 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304366 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=367 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304367 || || — || September 30, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=368 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304368 Móricz || || || September 26, 2006 || Piszkéstető || K. Sárneczky, B. Csák || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=369 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304369 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=370 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304370 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.79" | 790 m ||
|-id=371 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304371 || || — || September 16, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=372 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304372 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || INO || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=373 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304373 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=374 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304374 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=375 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304375 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=376 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304376 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=377 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304377 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=378 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304378 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || EOS || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=379 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304379 || || — || September 29, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=380 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304380 || || — || September 29, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=381 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304381 || || — || September 30, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=382 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304382 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || TEL || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=383 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304383 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=384 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304384 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=385 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304385 || || — || September 28, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KAR || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=386 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304386 || || — || September 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || XIZ || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=387 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304387 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=388 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304388 || || — || September 30, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=389 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304389 || || — || September 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=390 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304390 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=391 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304391 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=392 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304392 || || — || September 24, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=393 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304393 || || — || September 26, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=394 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304394 || || — || October 3, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=395 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304395 || || — || October 1, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || NEM || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=396 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304396 || || — || October 2, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || CHA || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=397 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304397 || || — || October 2, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || AGN || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=398 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304398 || || — || October 4, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KAR || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=399 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304399 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || WIT || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=400 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304400 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|}
304401–304500
|-bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304401 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || TEL || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=402 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304402 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=403 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304403 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=404 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304404 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=405 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304405 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=406 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304406 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=407 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304407 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=408 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304408 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=409 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304409 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=410 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304410 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=411 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304411 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=412 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304412 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=413 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304413 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=414 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304414 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=415 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304415 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=416 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304416 || || — || October 14, 2006 || Sandlot || Sandlot Obs. || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=417 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304417 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=418 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304418 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=419 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304419 || || — || October 10, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=420 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304420 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || GEF || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=421 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304421 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=422 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304422 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=423 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304423 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 5.4 km ||
|-id=424 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304424 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=425 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304425 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=426 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304426 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=427 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304427 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=428 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304428 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=429 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304429 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=430 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304430 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ALA || align=right | 6.4 km ||
|-id=431 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304431 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=432 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304432 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=433 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304433 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=434 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304434 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || HOF || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=435 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304435 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.8 km ||
|-id=436 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304436 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || Tj (2.99) || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=437 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304437 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=438 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304438 || || — || October 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=439 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304439 || || — || October 4, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=440 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304440 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=441 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304441 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=442 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304442 || || — || October 4, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=443 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304443 || || — || October 1, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=444 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304444 || || — || October 2, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=445 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304445 || || — || October 11, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=446 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304446 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Piszkéstető || K. Sárneczky, Z. Kuli || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=447 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304447 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || INO || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=448 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304448 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=449 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304449 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=450 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304450 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=451 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304451 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=452 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304452 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=453 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304453 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=454 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304454 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=455 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304455 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=456 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304456 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=457 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304457 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=458 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304458 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=459 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304459 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AGN || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=460 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304460 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=461 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304461 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=462 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304462 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || TEL || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=463 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304463 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=464 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304464 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=465 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304465 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=466 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304466 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=467 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304467 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=468 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304468 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ADE || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=469 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304469 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=470 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304470 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=471 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304471 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=472 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304472 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=473 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304473 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=474 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304474 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=475 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304475 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=476 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304476 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=477 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304477 || || — || September 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=478 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304478 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.6 km ||
|-id=479 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304479 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=480 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304480 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=481 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304481 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=482 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304482 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=483 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304483 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=484 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304484 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=485 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304485 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=486 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304486 || || — || October 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=487 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304487 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=488 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304488 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=489 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304489 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=490 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304490 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=491 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304491 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=492 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304492 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=493 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304493 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || AGN || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=494 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304494 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=495 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304495 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || HYG || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=496 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304496 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=497 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304497 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=498 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304498 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HNA || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=499 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304499 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || AGN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=500 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304500 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|}
304501–304600
|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304501 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=502 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304502 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=503 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304503 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || PAD || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=504 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304504 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=505 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304505 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=506 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304506 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=507 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304507 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.0 km ||
|-id=508 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304508 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=509 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304509 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=510 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304510 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=511 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304511 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || HEN || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=512 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304512 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || CHA || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=513 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304513 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=514 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304514 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=515 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304515 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=516 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304516 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=517 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304517 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=518 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304518 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Calvin-Rehoboth || L. A. Molnar || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=519 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304519 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Nyukasa || Mount Nyukasa Stn. || HYG || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=520 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304520 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || 615 || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=521 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304521 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=522 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304522 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=523 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304523 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.3 km ||
|-id=524 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304524 || || — || October 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=525 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304525 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || CHA || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=526 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304526 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=527 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304527 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=528 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304528 || || — || October 31, 2006 || Bergisch Gladbach || W. Bickel || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=529 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304529 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=530 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304530 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=531 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304531 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || CHA || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=532 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304532 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=533 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304533 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=534 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304534 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=535 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304535 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || URS || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=536 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304536 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=537 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304537 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=538 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304538 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=539 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304539 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=540 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304540 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=541 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304541 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=542 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304542 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=543 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304543 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.6 km ||
|-id=544 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304544 || || — || October 28, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=545 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304545 || || — || October 29, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=546 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304546 || || — || October 31, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=547 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304547 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=548 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304548 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=549 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304549 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || SAN || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=550 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304550 || || — || October 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=551 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304551 || || — || October 19, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=552 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304552 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=553 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304553 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || FIR || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=554 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304554 || || — || October 21, 2006 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=555 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304555 || || — || October 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=556 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304556 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=557 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304557 || || — || October 26, 2006 || Mauna Kea || P. A. Wiegert || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=558 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304558 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=559 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304559 || || — || October 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=560 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304560 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=561 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304561 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=562 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304562 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=563 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304563 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=564 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304564 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=565 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304565 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=566 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304566 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=567 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304567 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=568 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304568 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.6 km ||
|-id=569 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304569 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MEL || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=570 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304570 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=571 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304571 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=572 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304572 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km ||
|-id=573 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304573 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=574 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304574 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=575 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304575 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=576 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304576 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.6 km ||
|-id=577 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304577 || || — || October 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=578 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304578 || || — || October 22, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=579 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304579 || || — || November 12, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.1 km ||
|-id=580 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304580 || || — || November 1, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=581 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304581 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=582 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304582 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=583 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304583 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=584 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304584 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=585 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304585 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=586 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304586 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=587 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304587 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=588 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304588 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=589 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304589 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=590 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304590 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=591 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304591 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=592 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304592 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=593 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304593 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || LAU || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=594 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304594 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=595 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304595 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=596 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304596 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=597 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304597 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=598 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304598 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=599 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304599 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=600 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304600 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|}
304601–304700
|-bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304601 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=602 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304602 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=603 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304603 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=604 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304604 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=605 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304605 || || — || November 12, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=606 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304606 || || — || November 12, 2006 || Lulin Observatory || H.-C. Lin, Q.-z. Ye || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=607 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304607 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=608 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304608 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || CHA || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=609 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304609 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=610 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304610 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=611 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304611 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=612 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304612 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=613 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304613 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=614 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304614 || || — || November 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=615 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304615 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=616 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304616 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=617 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304617 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=618 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304618 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || TIR || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=619 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304619 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=620 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304620 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=621 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304621 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || VER || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=622 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304622 || || — || November 14, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=623 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304623 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=624 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304624 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=625 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304625 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.3 km ||
|-id=626 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304626 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=627 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304627 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=628 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304628 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=629 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304629 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=630 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304630 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=631 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304631 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=632 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304632 || || — || November 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=633 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304633 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=634 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304634 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || AER || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=635 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304635 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=636 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304636 || || — || November 9, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=637 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304637 || || — || October 27, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=638 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304638 || || — || November 15, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=639 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304639 || || — || November 11, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=640 bgcolor=#FFC2E0
| 304640 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || APO || align=right data-sort-value="0.53" | 530 m ||
|-id=641 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304641 || || — || November 18, 2006 || La Sagra || OAM Obs. || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=642 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304642 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=643 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304643 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=644 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304644 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.3 km ||
|-id=645 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304645 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=646 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304646 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=647 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304647 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.7 km ||
|-id=648 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304648 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=649 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304649 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=650 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304650 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.6 km ||
|-id=651 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304651 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=652 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304652 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=653 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304653 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=654 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304654 || || — || November 18, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || AGN || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=655 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304655 || || — || October 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=656 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304656 || || — || November 22, 2006 || 7300 Observatory || W. K. Y. Yeung || — || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=657 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304657 || || — || November 22, 2006 || 7300 || W. K. Y. Yeung || EOS || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=658 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304658 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=659 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304659 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=660 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304660 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=661 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304661 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=662 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304662 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km ||
|-id=663 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304663 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=664 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304664 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 7.7 km ||
|-id=665 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304665 || || — || November 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=666 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304666 || || — || November 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=667 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304667 || || — || November 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=668 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304668 || || — || November 18, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=669 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304669 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=670 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304670 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=671 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304671 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=672 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304672 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=673 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304673 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=674 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304674 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=675 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304675 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=676 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304676 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=677 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304677 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=678 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304678 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=679 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304679 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=680 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304680 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=681 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304681 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=682 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304682 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=683 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304683 || || — || November 21, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=684 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304684 || || — || November 22, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || TEL || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=685 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304685 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=686 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304686 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=687 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304687 || || — || November 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=688 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304688 || || — || November 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=689 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304689 || || — || November 20, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=690 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304690 || || — || March 12, 2003 || Palomar || NEAT || EOS || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=691 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304691 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km ||
|-id=692 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304692 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=693 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304693 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=694 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304694 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km ||
|-id=695 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304695 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.0 km ||
|-id=696 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304696 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=697 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304697 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=698 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304698 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || VER || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=699 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304699 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=700 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304700 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|}
304701–304800
|-bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304701 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304702 || || — || November 24, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=703 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304703 || || — || November 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||
|-id=704 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304704 || || — || November 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=705 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304705 || || — || November 27, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=706 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304706 || || — || November 29, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km ||
|-id=707 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304707 || || — || November 29, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km ||
|-id=708 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304708 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=709 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304709 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.0 km ||
|-id=710 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304710 || || — || November 25, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.3 km ||
|-id=711 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304711 || || — || November 19, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||
|-id=712 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304712 || || — || November 17, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=713 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304713 || || — || November 25, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||
|-id=714 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304714 || || — || December 11, 2006 || 7300 || W. K. Y. Yeung || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=715 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304715 || || — || December 1, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || TIR || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=716 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304716 || || — || December 1, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.8 km ||
|-id=717 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304717 || || — || December 7, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || LIX || align=right | 4.4 km ||
|-id=718 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304718 || || — || December 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.8 km ||
|-id=719 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304719 || || — || December 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=720 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304720 || || — || December 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || LUT || align=right | 6.7 km ||
|-id=721 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304721 || || — || December 11, 2006 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km ||
|-id=722 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304722 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km ||
|-id=723 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304723 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.9 km ||
|-id=724 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304724 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=725 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304725 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.7 km ||
|-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304726 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=727 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304727 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.7 km ||
|-id=728 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304728 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=729 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304729 || || — || December 15, 2006 || Farra d'Isonzo || Farra d'Isonzo || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=730 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304730 || || — || December 9, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304731 || || — || December 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUP || align=right | 5.1 km ||
|-id=732 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304732 || || — || December 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km ||
|-id=733 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304733 || || — || December 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=734 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304734 || || — || December 11, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=735 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304735 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=736 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304736 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=737 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304737 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=738 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304738 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || HYG || align=right | 3.0 km ||
|-id=739 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304739 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304740 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.8 km ||
|-id=741 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304741 || || — || December 12, 2006 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.9 km ||
|-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304742 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||
|-id=743 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304743 || || — || December 13, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=744 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304744 || || — || December 10, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=745 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304745 || || — || December 16, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.6 km ||
|-id=746 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304746 || || — || December 17, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || HYG || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=747 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304747 || || — || December 21, 2006 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m ||
|-id=748 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304748 || || — || December 22, 2006 || Piszkéstető || K. Sárneczky || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=749 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304749 || || — || November 16, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=750 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304750 || || — || December 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=751 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304751 || || — || December 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=752 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304752 || || — || December 21, 2006 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 6.4 km ||
|-id=753 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304753 || || — || December 23, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=754 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304754 || || — || December 21, 2006 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || HYG || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=755 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304755 || || — || January 8, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || TIR || align=right | 4.3 km ||
|-id=756 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304756 || || — || January 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=757 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304757 || || — || January 15, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || LIX || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=758 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304758 || || — || January 15, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || MEL || align=right | 4.5 km ||
|-id=759 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304759 || || — || January 17, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.5 km ||
|-id=760 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304760 || || — || January 24, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||
|-id=761 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304761 || || — || January 24, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=762 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304762 || || — || February 6, 2007 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m ||
|-id=763 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304763 || || — || February 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km ||
|-id=764 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304764 || || — || February 8, 2007 || Palomar || NEAT || HYG || align=right | 3.3 km ||
|-id=765 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304765 || || — || February 17, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.9 km ||
|-id=766 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304766 || || — || February 17, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=767 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304767 || || — || February 17, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.61" | 610 m ||
|-id=768 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304768 || || — || February 19, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||
|-id=769 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304769 || || — || February 23, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 2.6 km ||
|-id=770 bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 304770 || || — || March 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L5 || align=right | 17 km ||
|-id=771 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304771 || || — || March 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.68" | 680 m ||
|-id=772 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304772 || || — || March 13, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || H || align=right data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m ||
|-id=773 bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 304773 || || — || March 13, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L5 || align=right | 11 km ||
|-id=774 bgcolor=#C2FFFF
| 304774 || || — || April 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || L5 || align=right | 11 km ||
|-id=775 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304775 || || — || April 14, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m ||
|-id=776 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304776 || || — || April 15, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=777 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304777 || || — || April 18, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=778 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304778 || || — || April 16, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=779 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304779 || || — || April 25, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=780 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304780 || || — || June 12, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=781 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304781 || || — || June 14, 2007 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=782 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304782 || || — || June 18, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=783 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304783 || || — || June 18, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=784 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304784 || || — || June 20, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=785 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304785 || || — || June 21, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=786 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304786 || || — || June 23, 2007 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=787 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304787 || || — || July 11, 2007 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=788 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304788 Cresques || || || July 13, 2007 || La Sagra || OAM Obs. || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=789 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304789 || || — || July 12, 2007 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=790 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304790 || || — || July 15, 2007 || Tiki || S. F. Hönig, N. Teamo || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=791 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304791 || || — || July 15, 2007 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 2.1 km ||
|-id=792 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304792 || || — || July 16, 2007 || La Sagra || OAM Obs. || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=793 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304793 || || — || July 24, 2007 || Črni Vrh || Črni Vrh || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=794 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304794 || || — || August 7, 2007 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=795 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304795 || || — || August 4, 2007 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=796 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304796 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Tiki || S. F. Hönig, N. Teamo || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=797 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304797 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304798 || || — || August 6, 2007 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304799 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUT || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=800 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304800 || || — || August 10, 2007 || Tiki || S. F. Hönig, N. Teamo || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|}
304801–304900
|-bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304801 || || — || August 8, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=802 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304802 || || — || August 8, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=803 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304803 || || — || August 8, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=804 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304804 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=805 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304805 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Palomar || Palomar Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=806 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304806 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=807 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304807 || || — || August 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=808 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304808 || || — || August 13, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=809 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304809 || || — || August 13, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=810 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304810 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=811 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304811 || || — || August 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=812 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304812 || || — || August 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=813 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304813 Cesarina || || || August 16, 2007 || San Marcello || M. Mazzucato, F. Dolfi || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=814 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304814 || || — || August 18, 2007 || Purple Mountain || PMO NEO || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=815 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304815 || || — || August 22, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.77" | 770 m ||
|-id=816 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304816 || || — || August 22, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m ||
|-id=817 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304817 || || — || August 23, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || LCI || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=818 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304818 || || — || August 23, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=819 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304819 || || — || August 23, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=820 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304820 || || — || August 23, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.99" | 990 m ||
|-id=821 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304821 || 2007 RB || — || September 1, 2007 || Eskridge || G. Hug || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.73" | 730 m ||
|-id=822 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304822 || || — || September 2, 2007 || Pla D'Arguines || R. Ferrando || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m ||
|-id=823 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304823 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Dauban || Chante-Perdrix Obs. || FLO || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=824 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304824 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Remanzacco || Remanzacco Obs. || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=825 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304825 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Bisei SG Center || BATTeRS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=826 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304826 Kini || || || September 5, 2007 || Lulin Observatory || LUSS || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=827 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304827 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m ||
|-id=828 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304828 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=829 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304829 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.79" | 790 m ||
|-id=830 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304830 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=831 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304831 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=832 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304832 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=833 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304833 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=834 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304834 || || — || September 4, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=835 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304835 || || — || September 4, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=836 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304836 || || — || September 4, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=837 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304837 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=838 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304838 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=839 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304839 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=840 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304840 || || — || September 8, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || ERI || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=841 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304841 || || — || September 8, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=842 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304842 || || — || September 8, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || GAL || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=843 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304843 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.72" | 720 m ||
|-id=844 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304844 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m ||
|-id=845 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304845 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=846 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304846 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.73" | 730 m ||
|-id=847 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304847 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=848 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304848 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.78" | 780 m ||
|-id=849 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304849 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=850 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304850 || || — || September 9, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=851 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304851 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.64" | 640 m ||
|-id=852 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304852 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=853 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304853 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=854 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304854 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=855 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304855 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=856 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304856 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.65" | 650 m ||
|-id=857 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304857 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=858 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304858 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || CLA || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=859 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304859 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAR || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=860 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304860 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=861 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304861 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=862 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304862 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=863 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304863 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m ||
|-id=864 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304864 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=865 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304865 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=866 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304866 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=867 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304867 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=868 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304868 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=869 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304869 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m ||
|-id=870 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304870 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=871 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304871 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=872 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304872 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||
|-id=873 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304873 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Purple Mountain || PMO NEO || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=874 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304874 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=875 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304875 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.74" | 740 m ||
|-id=876 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304876 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=877 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304877 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=878 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304878 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || MAS || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=879 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304879 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.73" | 730 m ||
|-id=880 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304880 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=881 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304881 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=882 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304882 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.64" | 640 m ||
|-id=883 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304883 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=884 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304884 || || — || September 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=885 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304885 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m ||
|-id=886 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304886 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=887 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304887 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=888 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304888 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=889 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304889 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=890 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304890 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=891 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304891 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=892 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304892 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.95" | 950 m ||
|-id=893 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304893 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=894 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304894 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || LCI || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=895 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304895 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m ||
|-id=896 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304896 || || — || September 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || JUN || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=897 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304897 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.67" | 670 m ||
|-id=898 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304898 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.8 km ||
|-id=899 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304899 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=900 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304900 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|}
304901–305000
|-bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304901 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Purple Mountain || PMO NEO || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.83" | 830 m ||
|-id=902 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304902 || || — || September 11, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.89" | 890 m ||
|-id=903 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304903 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=904 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304904 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=905 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304905 || || — || September 15, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.86" | 860 m ||
|-id=906 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304906 || || — || September 15, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=907 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304907 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||
|-id=908 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304908 Steveoda || || || September 13, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=909 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304909 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=910 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304910 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.93" | 930 m ||
|-id=911 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304911 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=912 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304912 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m ||
|-id=913 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304913 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=914 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304914 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=915 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304915 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=916 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304916 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.62" | 620 m ||
|-id=917 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304917 || || — || September 15, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.69" | 690 m ||
|-id=918 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304918 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=919 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304919 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.8 km ||
|-id=920 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304920 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=921 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304921 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=922 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304922 || || — || September 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=923 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304923 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=924 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304924 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.75" | 750 m ||
|-id=925 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304925 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=926 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304926 || || — || September 5, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=927 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304927 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=928 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304928 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=929 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304929 || || — || September 13, 2007 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.91" | 910 m ||
|-id=930 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304930 || || — || September 12, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.85" | 850 m ||
|-id=931 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304931 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.90" | 900 m ||
|-id=932 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304932 || || — || September 14, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km ||
|-id=933 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304933 || || — || September 15, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||
|-id=934 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304934 || || — || September 15, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || GER || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=935 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304935 || || — || September 19, 2007 || Dauban || Chante-Perdrix Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=936 bgcolor=#FA8072
| 304936 || || — || September 19, 2007 || Altschwendt || W. Ries || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=937 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304937 || || — || September 26, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||
|-id=938 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304938 || || — || September 30, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.71" | 710 m ||
|-id=939 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304939 || || — || September 18, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=940 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304940 || || — || September 25, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.70" | 700 m ||
|-id=941 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304941 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Pla D'Arguines || R. Ferrando || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.76" | 760 m ||
|-id=942 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304942 || || — || October 6, 2007 || 7300 || W. K. Y. Yeung || HNS || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=943 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304943 || || — || October 6, 2007 || 7300 || W. K. Y. Yeung || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=944 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304944 || || — || September 3, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=945 bgcolor=#d6d6d6
| 304945 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || EUP || align=right | 8.0 km ||
|-id=946 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304946 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAS || align=right data-sort-value="0.84" | 840 m ||
|-id=947 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304947 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=948 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304948 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=949 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304949 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Cordell-Lorenz || Cordell–Lorenz Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.98" | 980 m ||
|-id=950 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304950 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km ||
|-id=951 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304951 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=952 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304952 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=953 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304953 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAR || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=954 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304954 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=955 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304955 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=956 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304956 || || — || March 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=957 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304957 || || — || October 4, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=958 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304958 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.87" | 870 m ||
|-id=959 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304959 || || — || October 12, 2007 || 7300 || W. K. Y. Yeung || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=960 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304960 || || — || October 5, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=961 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304961 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m ||
|-id=962 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304962 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=963 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304963 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=964 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304964 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=965 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304965 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=966 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304966 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.82" | 820 m ||
|-id=967 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304967 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HNS || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=968 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304968 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.99" | 990 m ||
|-id=969 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304969 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || HEN || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=970 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304970 || || — || October 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.88" | 880 m ||
|-id=971 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304971 || || — || October 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=972 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304972 || || — || October 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=973 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304973 || || — || October 9, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=974 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304974 || || — || October 11, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right data-sort-value="0.81" | 810 m ||
|-id=975 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304975 || || — || October 11, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=976 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304976 || || — || October 12, 2007 || Dauban || Chante-Perdrix Obs. || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=977 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304977 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||
|-id=978 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304978 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || JUL || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=979 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304979 || || — || October 13, 2007 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304980 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=981 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304981 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.97" | 970 m ||
|-id=982 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304982 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304983 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m ||
|-id=984 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304984 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=985 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304985 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||
|-id=986 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304986 || || — || October 7, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=987 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304987 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||
|-id=988 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304988 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||
|-id=989 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304989 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=990 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304990 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.96" | 960 m ||
|-id=991 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304991 || || — || October 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HNS || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304992 || || — || October 6, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.92" | 920 m ||
|-id=993 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304993 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||
|-id=994 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304994 || || — || October 11, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||
|-id=995 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304995 || || — || October 11, 2007 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value="0.94" | 940 m ||
|-id=996 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304996 || || — || October 8, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=997 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304997 || || — || October 10, 2007 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=998 bgcolor=#E9E9E9
| 304998 || || — || October 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||
|-id=999 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 304999 || || — || October 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|-id=000 bgcolor=#fefefe
| 305000 || || — || October 10, 2007 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right | 1.2 km ||
|}
References
External links
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (300001)–(305000) (IAU Minor Planet Center)
0304 |
29675170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut%20Kirchmeyer | Helmut Kirchmeyer | Helmut Franz Maria Kirchmeyer (born 30 June 1930) is a German musicologist, philologist and historian.
Career
Kirchmeyer was born in Düsseldorf. After grammar school, he studied musicology, German literature and philosophy at the University of Cologne, where he presented what is probably the first thesis in Germany on a living composer, Igor Stravinsky, in 1954. He then studied legal affairs, concentrating on medieval law and legal history, criminology and sociology in Cologne and church history at the University of Bonn.
Starting in 1947 he attended classes at the Robert-Schumann-Institut in Düsseldorf (whose director he became in 1972), Franzpeter Goebels (piano) and Jürg Baur (composition) were among his teachers, later Bernd Alois Zimmermann introduced him to instrumentation.
In 1982 he qualified as a university lecturer on musicology and musicological media studies at the University of Düsseldorf, he taught musicological bibliography and history at the Institut für Fachbibliographie in Cologne, and musicology at RWTH Aachen University, at the in Cologne, at the University and at the Robert Schumann Hochschule in Düsseldorf, at the latter he founded the first musicological institute at a German college of music, whose first head he became.
For years he worked as a critic; he worked for GEMA, edited the Instrumentenbau-Zeitschrift, developed programmes for the Westdeutscher Rundfunk. He founded the Düsseldorf College of Music. In 1962 he initiated and developed the record label and series on classic and contemporary German music WERGO, together with German art historian Werner Goldschmidt (1903–1975), hence the name: Wer[ner] Go[ldschmidt]. He also founded , containing the largest documentation of Gregorian chant (more than 500 pieces on 33 LP/CD).
He supported contemporary music and was in touch with many contemporary composers. Herbert Eimert, the founder of the first electronic studio who died in 1972, bequeathed his letters (about 400) to him.
During his time at the Robert Schumann Hochschule, the for orchestra rehearsals and chamber concerts was built there, which was awarded the title "exemplary artistic building". The crypt below it was decorated by Emil Schult, and Karlheinz Stockhausen composed the piece as musical illustration of Schult's work.
Private life
Kirchmeyer married Eva Maria Berke in 1966. They have four children and five grandchildren. In 2020, Kirchmeyer and his wife established the Kirchmeyer Family Foundation that consists of a collection of non-European instruments, about 200 exhibits from Africa, Asia and Australia, that was put together by the Kirchmeyer family over the course of several decades and is now on display at the Ausbildungskorps der Bundeswehr in Hilden.
Awards
Kirchmeyer has received the following medals and awards:
Richard-Wagner-Medal, 1975
Germany's Federal Cross of Merit, 1985
Knight of the Papal Ordo Sancti Gregorii Magni, 1995
Germany's Federal Officer's Cross of Merit, 1998
German Federal Armed Forces Cross of Merit in Gold, 2006
In 1992 Kirchmeyer was appointed Corresponding Member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences in Leipzig, Germany.
Methods
Kirchmeyer's studies are strongly influenced by bibliographical, legal and philological approaches, and by the thoughts of music ethnographer , Kant and Jaspers.
For the first time in German musicology, Kirchmeyer used newspapers and journals as sources for establishing what he calls "", a mosaic picture of the past by combining contemporary evaluations of minute events with almost criminological assessment of their relative reliability. The thus established historical picture enables understanding of musical history as a sequence of minute historical-cultural situations and protects historical events as well as pieces of art from distorting (polemic or apologetic) approaches.
Kirchmeyer's books on Stravinsky (1958) and Wagner (1972) were highly successful. In the former he connected monographical and biographical elements to form a new type of "ergography", which in 2002 he systematically followed up in his bibliography of the works of Stravinsky. Since its publication, Kirchmeyer has been working on his documentary on Wagner criticism again and he has begun to write his memoirs.
Selected bibliography
Books
Igor Strawinsky: Zeitgeschichte im Persönlichkeitsbild: Grundlagen und Voraussetzungen zur modernen Konstruktionstechnik (Kölner Beiträge zur Musikforschung 10). Regensburg: Bosse-Verlag, 1958.
Liturgie am Scheideweg: Betrachtungen zur Situation der Katholischen Kirchenmusik aus Anlass des Kölner Kongresses. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse–Verlag, 1962.
Aufbruch der Jungen Musik: Von Webern bis Stockhausen (Die Garbe: Musikkunde 4), sixth edition. Cologne: Gerig-Verlag, 1979. .
Quellentexte zur System- und Methodengeschichte der deutschen Musikkritik 1791–1833. Regensburg: Bosse-Verlag, 1990.
Robert Schumanns Düsseldorfer Aufsatz "Neue Bahnen" und die Ausbreitung der Wagnerschen Opern bis 1856: Psychogramm eines "letzten" Artikels (Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-historische Klasse 73, no. 6). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1993. .
Kleine Monographie über Herbert Eimert (Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-Historische Klasse 75, no. 6). Leipzig: Verlag der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig; Stuttgart: Hirzel-Verlag, 1998. .
Kommentiertes Verzeichnis der Werke und Werkausgaben Igor Strawinskys bis 1971 (Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-Historische Klasse 79). Stuttgart: Hirzel-Verlag; Leipzig: Verlag der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, 2002. .
Hugo Balzer - Eine Gedenkschrift aus Anlass seines 25. Todestages in Verbindung mit einer Studie zum Thema Künstler im Nationalsozialismus. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2012. .
System- und Methodengeschichte der deutschen Musikkritik vom Ausgang des 18. bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Supplement to the Archiv für Musikwissenschaft (AFMW-B) Band 78. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2017. .
Der Eimert-Nachlass. BoD Verlag Norderstedt, 2022. .
Publications
. Dokumentationen zu den gregorianischen Formen und Feiern unter der künstlerischen Leitung von Karlheinz Hodes
(Grundreihe 1–18: Einführung in den Gregorianischen Choral [Doppelplatte], Tractus, Graduale, Alleluia, Antiphon, Responsorium / Prozessionsgesänge, Introitus, Communio, Offertorium, Kyrie, Gloria, Credo / Kantillationen, Sanctus / Agnus Dei, Hymnus, Tropus, Sequenz, Reimoffizium, Litanei / Passion;
Supplementreihe I–XII: Martinsmesse, 3 Weihnachtsmessen [Dreierplatte], Stephanusmesse, Ostermesse, Pfingstmesse, Marienmesse, Totenmesse, Mariendonker Marien-Offizium [5 Platten: Erste Vesper / Komplet I, Matutin, Messe, Laudes / Mittagshore Sext, Zweite Vesper / Komplet II];
Appendixreihe A–C: Ergänzungsplatte Justus ut palma, Brautmesse, Friedensmesse) mit ausführlichem Begleit-, Noten-, Text- (lateinisch-deutsch) und Informationsmaterial, mit ausgewählten mittelalterlichen Quellentexten (lateinisch/griechisch-deutsch) und wissenschaftlichen Begleitaufsätzen (Schallplattenausgabe) bzw. viersprachigem (lateinisch, deutsch, französisch, englisch) Textheft (CD-Ausgabe), Motette Ursina Verlag Düsseldorf (Schallplattenausgabe 1985 bis 1995; CD-Ausgabe seit 1992ff.), see also: Winfried Schrammek: "Zur Ars gregoriana von Helmut Kirchmeyer", in Arbeitsblätter der Kommission für Kunstgeschichte, Literatur- und Musikwissenschaft der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Nr. 10.
References
External links
Annotated Online Catalog of Works and Work Editions of Igor Strawinsky till 1971, English and German
and English
German musicologists
German philologists
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1930 births
Living people
Writers from Düsseldorf
Stravinsky scholars |
2383498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland%20Cup | Queensland Cup | The Queensland Cup, currently known as the Hostplus Cup for sponsorship reasons, is the highest-level regional rugby league football competition in Queensland, Australia. It is run by the Queensland Rugby League (QRL) and is contested by fifteen teams, thirteen of which are based in Queensland, with one based in New South Wales and one in Central Province, Papua New Guinea.
The competition is the present-day embodiment of Queensland's top-level club competition. It replaced the Winfield State League in 1996 and accompanied the Brisbane Rugby League, before becoming the premier competition in 1998, following the disbanding of the Brisbane Rugby League.
History
Origin and establishment
Since its inaugural season in 1922, the Brisbane Rugby League was the premier competition in the state of Queensland. Like its counterpart, the Sydney Rugby Football League, the Brisbane Rugby League was thriving, boasting big crowds and large, loyal supporter bases with their respective clubs. The clubs were constant, with new teams rarely entering the competition. However, in 1956, when poker machines ("pokies") were introduced in New South Wales but not in Queensland, Sydney's clubs were able to recruit the best players from Brisbane, Rugby Union and overseas. Within the space of several years, the Sydney Rugby League had come to dominate the code within Australia.
In the 1980s, the NSWRFL began to further expand and supersede the Brisbane competition in popularity and media coverage. In 1982, the first clubs based outside of Sydney, the Canberra Raiders and Illawarra Steelers, were admitted. In 1988, two Queensland-based sides, the Brisbane Broncos and Gold Coast Giants, along with the Newcastle Knights, another team from regional New South Wales, were formed and gained entry into the competition. The Broncos would sign Brisbane Rugby League stars like Wally Lewis, Gene Miles and Allan Langer. In the space of one season, media coverage and match attendance for the Brisbane Rugby League dropped significantly.
1996–1997: The beginning
In 1996, the Queensland Cup was formed, replacing the Winfield State League, as new federal government laws banned cigarette companies from sponsoring sport. Originally branded the Channel Nine Cup, the 15 round regular season competition featured sixteen teams, fifteen from Queensland and one from Papua New Guinea. The Toowoomba Clydesdales were crowned the inaugural premiers, defeating the Redcliffe Dolphins in the Grand Final. In 1997, three teams withdrew from the competition and the Burleigh Bears joined, becoming the first Gold Coast-based side.
1998–2002: Premier competition
In 1998, the competition became the top level of rugby league in the state, following the end of the Brisbane Rugby League. Channel Nine also ended their sponsorship for the 1998 season, with competition going under name, the Queensland Cup. A sixteen-team competition returned in 1998, with the Bundaberg Grizzlies rejoining and the Gold Coast Vikings being formed.
In 1999, the Grizzlies and Vikings both left the competition, as well as inaugural club Brisbane Brothers and the Townsville Stingers, who played just one season.
In 2000, Bundaberg Rum began a two-year sponsorship of the competition and it was known as the Bundy Gold Cup. The 2000 season was also the first in which all twelve teams remained from the season prior. It would not last long though, as the Cairns Cyclones folded after the 2000 season, leaving no north Queensland representation in the competition. In 2002, the North Queensland Young Guns, a Townsville-based North Queensland Cowboys feeder club, were admitted into the competition. At the end of the 2002 season, the Logan Scorpions, an inaugural club, left the competition.
2003–2006: Interstate expansion
In 2003, the Tweed Seagulls joined the competition, becoming the first New South Wales-based side. The club had originally applied for the 2002 season but were unsuccessful. However, following a merger of the Logan Scorpions and Souths Magpies to form the Souths Logan Magpies, a spot was opened up and Tweed were admitted. Another inaugural club would leave the competition in 2004, with the Wests Panthers exiting, and Brothers-Valleys, a merger of Past Brothers and the Fortitude Valley Diehards, joining for a single season.
In 2005, the competition became known as the Queensland Wizard Cup, after Wizard Home Loans became the major sponsor.
2007: Loss of the Clydesdales
Although the QRL had anticipated that the same teams from 2006 would participate in the 2007 competition, it was announced on 5 December 2006 that inaugural club, the Toowoomba Clydesdales, who were the reigning minor premiers, would be withdrawing from the competition for financial reasons. Brisbane Broncos chairman Bruno Cullen said that "It didn't make sense to have this club up there running at what was looking like a $250,000 loss for the year." The following day it was announced that the Aspley Broncos would be replacing the Clydesdales, and acting as the Brisbane Broncos feeder club. The Aspley Broncos would play just a single season in the competition.
The 2007 season marked the first time a team based outside of Queensland would win the competition, with the Tweed Seagulls defeating the Redcliffe Dolphins in the Grand Final.
2008–2013: Further expansion
2008 saw the Queensland Cup once again have teams based in the northern cities of Cairns and Mackay after absences of seven and twelve years, respectively. These new teams replaced Aspley and North Queensland as part of the rationalisation of rugby league below the NRL level caused by the introduction of the NRL under 20s competition.
In 2009, the Sunshine Coast Falcons rejoined the competition after thirteen-year absence, after signing a partnership with the Manly Sea Eagles to develop rugby league on the Sunshine Coast. The side played as the Sea Eagles and won the premiership in their first year.
In 2010, Super was announced as the new major sponsor, with the competition becoming known as the Intrust Super Cup. From 2009 to 2013, the competition featured the same twelve teams for five straight seasons.
2014–2021: Papua New Guinea and Townsville return
In 2014, the PNG Hunters entered the competition, becoming the first Papua New Guinea based side in the competition since the Port Moresby Vipers in 1997. In their inaugural season, the side was based out of the East New Britain town of Kokopo. On 10 September 2014, QRL chairman Peter Betros announced that the Brothers Townsville-led Townsville Blackhawks bid had been successful and the side would compete in the 2015 season.
On 5 October 2014, the Northern Pride became the first Queensland Cup side to win the NRL State Championship, defeating the heavily favoured Penrith Panthers New South Wales Cup side in the inaugural final.
In 2017, the Hunters won their first Queensland Cup premiership, defeating the Sunshine Coast Falcons in the Grand Final and becoming the first team outside of Australia, and the second from outside of Queensland to win the competition.
On 27 March 2020, after round one of the season was completed, the 2020 Intrust Super Cup competition was suspended, and subsequently cancelled for the first time in its history due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with no premiers being crowned. In September 2020, the Easts Tigers were renamed as the Brisbane Tigers for the 2021 season onward. The Tigers had played under the name of Easts or Eastern Suburbs since the formation of the Queensland Cup in 1996.
2022–present: Hostplus Cup and return of the Clydesdales
In November 2021, Hostplus became the naming rights sponsor of the competition for the 2022 season, replacing Intrust Super after the two merged.
On July 17, the QRL announced that the Western Clydesdales, previously called the Toowoomba Clydesdales would (re)enter the competition for the 2023 season, becoming the competition's fifteenth team.
Queensland Cup teams
The Queensland Cup consists of 15 teams, 13 from Queensland, and 1 each from National Capital District of Papua New Guinea and New South Wales, and operates on a single group system, with no divisions or conferences and no relegation and promotion from other leagues.
A number of clubs in the Queensland Cup have an affiliation with a team in the Australian national competition, the National Rugby League.
Current teams
Former teams
As the Queensland Cup initially began as a representative competition that took over the old Winfield State League before becoming a proper club competition, many of the following clubs were "representative" sides that either withdrew (in the case of Mackay and Bundaberg) or folded (Cairns Cyclones and Port Moresby Vipers).
Season structure
Pre-season
The Queensland Cup pre-season typically begins in February and ends in early March. Clubs generally use this time to organise trial matches to test playing combinations. Usually, Queensland Cup teams will play each other in trials, while some face National Rugby League (NRL) sides. For example, in 2018, the Brisbane Broncos played trial matches against the Central Queensland Capras and PNG Hunters.
Regular season
The Queensland Cup regular season usually begins in early March and runs until late August. A round of regular season games is played every weekend for twenty-four weeks. In most rounds, matches are played on Saturday nights/afternoons and Sunday afternoons. Each team receives one bye during the regular season.
The regular season also features a number of themed rounds, where proceeds from the games go to various charities. In 2018, these rounds included ANZAC Round, Indigenous Round, Men of League Round, Women in League Round, "Turn to Me" Round and the annual Country Week.
Country Week
The Queensland Cup has the largest regional footprint of any professional sporting code in Queensland, hosting regular season and trial matches over a large geographical footprint.
It is also unique amongst professional sporting competitions in Australia, since 2012 in partnership with the Queensland Government the Queensland Cup has taken matches to regional Queensland, country towns and cities, to engage fans at a grassroots level. This round usually takes place in July.
Locations which have hosted Country Week games include:
2012: Blackwater, Kilcoy, Moranbah, Mount Isa
2013: Roma, Toowoomba, Whitsundays, Woodford, Yarrabah
2014: Emerald, Longreach, Mareeba, Moranbah, Kingaroy, Kokopo (East New Britain Province)
2015: Blackall, Bundaberg, Charters Towers, Dalby, Innisfail, Stanthorpe
2016: Barcaldine, Charleville, Gympie, Moranbah, Mount Isa, Ravenshoe
2017: Bamaga, Clermont, Julia Creek, Mundubbera, Winton, St George
2018: Bowen, Cooktown, Goondiwindi, Hughenden, Lae, MP, Maryborough, Normanton
2019: Ilfracombe, Ingham, Nanango, Pittsworth, Thursday Island
2020: Country Week was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic
2021: Atherton, Chinchilla, Dysart, Gladstone, Murgon, Quilpie, Richmond
2022: Ayr, Cunnamulla, Monto, Roma, Sarina, Springsure, Thursday Island
2023: Biloela, Kilcoy, Miles, Proserpine, Stanthorpe, Weipa, Wondai
In addition to this round games have also been played in regional locations during regular rounds in:
Atherton, Queensland, Australia
Bamaga, Queensland, Australia
Barcaldine, Queensland, Australia
Bundaberg], Queensland, Australia
Emerald, Queensland, Australia
Gladstone, Queensland, Australia
Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia
Lae, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea
Stradbroke Island, Queensland, Australia
Woorabinda, Queensland, Australia
Finals Series
The eight highest placed teams at the end of the regular season compete in the finals series. The system consists of a number of games between the top eight teams over four weeks in September, until only two teams remain. These two teams then contest the Grand Final, which is usually played in late September. Over the years, the Queensland Cup has used a number of different finals series systems, usually involving five to six and now eight teams. In 2019, the current eight team final series system will be adopted.
Grand Final
The Queensland Cup Grand Final, which determines the season's premiers, is one of the state's major sporting events. It is usually contested at Suncorp Stadium, having been held there annually since 2014, although other venues have been used, such as Dolphin Stadium, North Ipswich Reserve and Sunshine Coast Stadium.
The Grand Final had traditionally been played on Saturday afternoons, until moving to Sunday afternoons beginning in 2010.
Since 2007, the player judged to be the man-of-the-match is awarded the prestigious Duncan Hall Medal.
Premiership winners
List of most successful clubs
Teams are ranked in order of premierships won, grand final runners up then minor premierships won. To see the complete list of Queensland Cup records, see List of Queensland Cup records. Team names in bold are the teams currently playing in the Queensland Cup
NRL State Championship Match
Since 2014, The NSW Cup Grand Final Match has been played on the same day as the QLD Cup Grand Final, the weekend prior to the NRL Grand Final, allowing for the creation of the NRL State Championship which saw the NSW Cup premiers face off against the QLD Cup Premiers as a curtain raiser to the NRL Grand Final, originally following the National Youth Competition Grand Final from 2014 to 2017 and following the NRL Women's Grand Final in their inaugural premiership year in 2018.
In 2019 however, the State Championship was the first of three grand finals played on the day, preceding both the NRL Women's premiership and NRL premiership, with the exception of 2020 and 2021 State Championships being cancelled due to COVID-19. Northern Pride and Ipswich Jets became the first and so far only QRL teams to win in as many years with the next three championships won by the NSWRL.
Champions: Queensland Cup
Northern Queensland Pride (2014)
Ipswich Jets (2015)
NRL State Championship Match
Since 2014, The QLD Cup Grand Final Match has been played on the same day as the NSW Cup Grand Final, the weekend prior to the NRL Grand Final, allowing for the creation of the NRL State Championship which saw the QLD Cup premiers face off against the NSW Cup Premiers as a curtain raiser to the NRL Grand Final, originally following the National Youth Competition Grand Final from 2014 to 2017 and following the NRL Women's Grand Final since 2018. In 2019 the NRL State Championship was played prior the NRL Women's Grand Final. The 2020 State Championship was cancelled due to the Queensland and New South Wales competitions being cancelled after Round 1 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the 2021 State Championship was cancelled due to the COVID-19 lockdown in Sydney.
NRL State Championship winners
Honours
At the end of each season at the QRL presentation night, the Petero Civoniceva Medal is awarded to the Queensland Cup player voted as the best and fairest over the entire season. Formerly known as The Courier Mail Medal, in 2018, the medal was renamed after former Australian and Queensland representative Petero Civoniceva. After each game, the referees award three votes to the best player, two votes to the second-best player, and one vote to the third-best player. Previous winners include Australia and Queensland representatives Greg Inglis and Daly Cherry-Evans.
Since 2007, the man of the match in the Grand Final has been awarded the Duncan Hall Medal. The medal is named in honour of ARL Team of the Century member Duncan Hall, who played 24 games for Queensland and 22 games for Australia between 1948 and 1955. Past recipients include Tony Williams and Jake Granville, who would go onto win NRL premierships shortly after their Queensland Cup success.
20th Year Anniversary Team
On 21 September 2015, the QRL announced their Queensland Cup 20th Year Anniversary team. The 17-man team was chosen by a selection panel consisting of Brad Tallon (Queensland Rugby League statistician), Steve Ricketts (rugby league journalist), David Wright (former ABC commentator) and Mike Higgison (rugby league historian).
To be eligible for selection, a player must've played a minimum of 75 games in the competition. Rick Stone, who coached the Burleigh Bears from 1997 to 2005 (winning two premierships), was named coach of the side, while longtime referee Tony Maksoud was included as referee of the team.
Records
The following records are taken from the QRL's official website and are correct as of the end of the 2019 season.
Team
Most premierships – 6 Redcliffe Dolphins
Most minor premierships – 6 Redcliffe Dolphins
Most wooden spoons – 5 Central Queensland Capras
Highest score in a game – 98, Toowoomba against Western Suburbs Panthers (2003)
Longest winning streak – 17 matches, Northern Pride (2010–2011)
Longest undefeated streak – 22 matches, Tweed Seagulls (2010–2011)
Longest losing streak – 36 matches, Sunshine Coast Falcons (2013–2014)
Individual
Most games – Phil Dennis, 282 games
Most tries – Daniel Ogden, 155 tries
Most points – Nick Parfitt 1,421 points (113 tries, 483 goals)
Most points in a season 318, Liam Georgetown (2013)
Most tries in a season 34, Daniel Kennedy 2004
Most points in a game 40, Damien Richter 2002, Greg Bourke 2002
Most tries in a game 7, Chris Walker 2000, Anthony Zipf 2004
Media coverage & Sponsorship
Although the Queensland Cup has never had the same amount of media coverage that the pre-Brisbane Broncos Brisbane Rugby League did, in recent years it has experienced a resurgence in interest from both the Queensland media and from casual fans alike.
Television
In 2018, the match of the round was televised live on the Nine Network in Queensland at 1:00pm (AEST) on Saturdays. Previously, the match of the round had been broadcast by Nine on Sunday afternoons and before that, on ABC Television on Saturday afternoons. The match is later replayed during the week on Foxtel's Fox League channel. The match of the round returned to Sunday afternoons for the 2019 season.
The non-broadcast games are recorded for highlights and judiciary and coaching purposes.
Radio
From 2006 to 2013, community broadcaster Bay FM began broadcasting Wynnum Manly matches with commentators Mike Higgison and Troy Robbins.
In 2015, a group of community broadcasters including Switch 1197, Valley FM Esk and Phoenix Radio Ipswich began broadcasting matches featuring Ipswich Jets.
Online
Starting from 2022 Queensland Rugby League announced a new streaming deal with Cluch.tv under the website name Qplus.TV where fan can subscribe to watch every game live.
Sponsorship
Due to sponsorship, the Queensland Cup has gone under many different names since first being held in 1996. Originally known as the Channel Nine Cup, it has been known as the Hostplus Cup since 2022.
Channel Nine Cup (1996–1997)
Bundy Rum Gold Cup (2000–2001)
Wizard Cup (2005–2008)
Intrust Super Cup (2010–2021)
Hostplus Cup (2022–present)
See also
Hastings Deering Colts
FOGS Cup and FOGS Colts Challenge
Brisbane Rugby League premiership
Queensland Rugby League
Winfield State League
NSW Cup
References
External links
Queensland Cup News
Queensland Rugby League
Queensland Rugby League Queensland Cup Page
Rleague.com's Queensland page
League Unlimited's Queensland Page
Queensland Rugby League forums
Rleague's Queensland Forum
League Unlimited's Queensland Forum
Rugby league competitions in Queensland
Recurring sporting events established in 1996
1996 establishments in Australia
Sports leagues established in 1996
Multi-national professional sports leagues |
51711514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20L.%20Overmyer | Daniel L. Overmyer | Daniel L. Overmyer (August 20, 1935 – November 24, 2021) was a Canadian historian of religion and academic who was Professor Emeritus in the Department of Asian Studies and the Centre for Chinese Research at the University of British Columbia. Overmyer was a pioneer in the study of Chinese popular thought, religion, and culture; popular religious sects of the late traditional and modern periods and their texts; and local rituals and beliefs practiced in villages, especially North China.
In 2002 colleagues and former students organized a conference in honor of his retirement. The essays and presentations were published in a festschrift, The People and the Dao, (Monumenta Serica Monograph Series LX). In 1988, he was elected Fellow in the Royal Society of Canada, and elected to the American Society for the Study of Religion and Honorary Professor in the Faculty of Arts at Shanghai Normal University. He has been a member of the editorial board of China Review International, Journal of Chinese Religions, Minsu Quyi (A Journal Of Chinese Folk Drama, Literature, And Religion), and Ching Feng, a Hong Kong journal of ecumenical Christianity.
Early life and education
Overmyer was born on August 20, 1935, in Columbus, Ohio. His grandparents worked a farm south of the city. His parents went to China as Evangelical missionaries in 1940, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, and worked in Hunan province. Overmyer later recalled scenes of air battles between American Flying Tiger and Japanese planes. When American pilots were forced to land, Chinese villagers would bring them to the missionary compound. He spoke Chinese but he and his sister were home-schooled by his mother. The Japanese advance in 1944 forced the family to return to the States, but they returned to China briefly after the war.
He graduated in 1957 from Westmar College in Le Mars, Iowa, earning his B.A. in Biology. In 1960 he received a Bachelor of Divinity from Evangelical Theological Seminary in Naperville, Illinois.
He then earned a master's degree in the history of religions in 1966 and a PhD in Chinese religion in 1971 from the University of Chicago Divinity School, where he studied with Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Kitagawa among others. When he suggested folk popular sects as a topic for his dissertation, one of his advisers, Professor Ho Ping-ti said that these groups were only rebels and outlaws, but Professor Philip Kuhn encouraged him to pursue these heretics and bandits as a promising topic.
Overmyer then studied in Taiwan at the Inter-University Center for Chinese Language. He later described a turning point while in Taiwan when he discovered that the "heretics and bandits" were in fact popular religious sects much like those found in many parts of the world, including in some forms of Christianity. One evening while attending a scholarly lecture,
from across the street I heard the “tok tok” sound of a small wooden drum accompanying the chanting of scriptures, so I left the lecture room and found a small group of people wearing aqua colored jackets and pants dancing slowly in the street while thumping their chests. They appeared to be in trance; as taxis drove by, they were gently herded to the side by others, all of this in front of a small storefront chapel.
On an altar in the back of this chapel was the image of a female deity, Yaoji jinmu, “The Golden Mother of the Jasper Pond”, whom he recognized as a variant of Wusheng Laomu, “The Eternal Venerable Mother”, the chief deity of the groups he had been studying in traditional written texts.
Academic career
Overmyer's teaching career began in the Department of Religion at Oberlin College, Ohio, in 1970. After three years, he was invited to the University of British Columbia. He was granted tenure in 1977 and taught Chinese religion and philosophy there until he retired in 2001. During that time he held visiting professorships at Princeton University (1983), University of Heidelberg (1993), and The Chinese University of Hong Kong (1996–98).
Research interests and impact
Overmeyer's student Philip Clart wrote that Overmyer's scholarship was unique in its "attention to religion in its less well-known manifestations, religion located along paths less travelled by scholars," that is, the religious life of common people. Clart continues that Overmyer's "methodological choice to study religion as it was and is lived by real people rather than as an abstract system of ideas and doctrines is not limited to the study of popular religions, but has applicability across the sphere of Chinese religious traditions.
Overmyer's first book, Folk Buddhist Religion: Dissenting Sects in Late Traditional China, published by Harvard University Press in 1976, grew out of his doctoral dissertation. Paul Cohen's review of the field book, Discovering History in China says that Overmyer exploits new kinds of sources materials -- sectarian scriptures or "precious scrolls" (baojuan) -- to give a "bottom up" view and access an "interior view" of reality as experienced by participants rather than described by outsiders.
Another scholar called the book's subject "the twilight world of the sect". The book was awarded the American Council of Learned Societies Prize in 1979 for "the best first book written by an historian of religions in the last three years."
His next monograph, The Flying Phoenix: Aspects of Chinese Sectarianism in Taiwan (Princeton, 1986), written with David K. Jordan, was followed by survey written for undergraduates and the general public, Religions of China: The World as a Living System (Harper & Row, 1986).Precious Volumes: an Introduction to Chinese Sectarian Scriptures from the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Harvard, 1999) expanded on his insight that texts play a major role in the religious life of commoners, not only the canonical texts of the great traditions. This volume took these texts as its sole focus, arguing for their value as documents of popular religious thought and windows into the religious experience of commoners.
After retiring from teaching in 2001, Overmyer continued to publish. He edited Local Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century: The Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs. (E. J. Brill, 2009) and a special issue of The China Quarterly, "Religion in China Today." He was visiting scholar at the Graduate Institute of Religious Studies of National Chengchi University in Taipei, Taiwan, February to July 2002.
Among his students at Oberlin were Randall Nadeau and Stephen F. Teiser, and at British Columbia, Philip Clart and Paul Crowe.
Personal life
He and his wife Estella had two children. He died after a brief bout of cancer in Vancouver, on November 24, 2021, at the age of 86.
Selected publications
Books and edited volumes
Folk Buddhist Religion: Dissenting Sects in Late Traditional China. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, June, 1976. Harvard East Asian Series, #83.
The Flying Phoenix: Aspects of Chinese Sectarianism in Taiwan, by David K. Jordan and Daniel L. Overmyer. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1986. 329 pages.
Religions of China: The World as a Living System. San Francisco, Harper & Row, Publishers, March, 1986. “Religious Traditions of the World”. 125 pages. Reprinted with its nine co-volumes in a single volume edited by Byron H. Earhart, Religious Traditions of the World, also by Harper, 1992.
Chinese translation of Folk Buddhist Religion: Dissenting Sects in Late Traditional China. by Zhou Yumin and others (Dept. of History at the Shanghai Normal University), Zhong-guo min-jian zong-jiao jiao-pai yan-jiu [A study of Chinese folk-religious sects]. Shanghai, Chinese Classics Publishing House, 1993.
Precious Volumes: An Introduction to Chinese Sectarian Scriptures from the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Asia Center, 1999. 444 pages. Harvard-Yenching Monograph Series, 49.
Fei Luan. Chinese translation of the Flying Phoenix, translated by Zhou Yumin, edited by Sung Kuang-yu. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2005.
Ethnography in China Today: A Critical Assessment of Methods and Results. Edited, wrote Introduction and one chapter. Taipei, Taiwan, Yuan-liou Publishing Co. Ltd., 2002.
Interpretations of Hope in Chinese Religions and Christianity, co-edited with Lai Chi Tim. Wrote one chapter. Hong Kong, 2005.
Special Issue: “Religion in China Today”, The China Quarterly No.174 (June 2003). Edited, introduction. (re-published as Religion in China Today), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Chogoku minkan Bukkyo kyoha no kenkyu, Japanese translation of Folk Buddhist Religion book, translated by Rimbara Fumiko and Ito Michiharu. Tokyo, Kenbun shuppan, 2005.
Edited, Huabei nongcun minjian wenhua yanjiu (Collection of studies of popular culture in north China villages), co-edited with Fan Lizhu and others, Tianjin: Tianjin guji chubanshe, 2006–2007.
Local Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century: The Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs. Leiden: Brill, 2009.
Asian Religions in British Columbia, co-edited with Don Baker and Larry DeVries. Twelve reports by B.C. local scholars. Vancouver, B.C., University of British Columbia Press, 2010.
“Special Issue, Women in Chinese Religions”, Min-su ch’u-i'' (Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore), No. 168, June 2010, edited and wrote the Introduction.
References
Citations
Sources
Accessed September 2016.
.
External links
Publications Record Daniel L. Overmyer, Ph.D. The University Of British Columbia (Accessed December 2, 2018)
WorldCat Identity Page Overmyer, Daniel L. 1935-
1935 births
2021 deaths
Canadian historians of religion
Deaths from cancer
Oberlin College faculty
Academics from Columbus, Ohio
Academic staff of the University of British Columbia
University of Chicago alumni |
12749723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon%20talapoin | Gabon talapoin | The Gabon talapoin (Miopithecus ogouensis), also known as the northern talapoin, is a small species of African monkey native to riparian habitats in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the western Republic of the Congo and the far western Democratic Republic of Congo. It may have been introduced to Bioko and the Canary Islands. Classified in the genus Miopithecus, it was given the name Miopithecus ogouensis, based on the River Ogooué, distinguishing it from the other species, the Angolan talapoin, also known as Miopithecus talapoin.
Gabon talapoins are large headed monkeys with yellow-olive tinted coating, and can be differentiated from the Angolan talapoin by its flesh-coloured ears (not blackish). They are always found near watercourses, and are capable of diving and swimming away when disturbed. Males and females live together in mixed groups, but rarely interact with each other outside of mating season. Females tend to give birth annually during the rainy season, with mating season taking place during the dry season. Its diet constitute of mostly foraged fruits, seeds, leaves and insects, and crops raided from cultivated plantations. The Gabon talapoins are dependent on thick coverings to protect them from predation due to their small size, but their elusiveness have also made it difficult to observe their behaviors in the wild.
The Gabon talapoin is considered as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Assessed in 2017, its overall population trend is decreasing, with a continuing decline of mature individuals. Conservation efforts have been made to preserve its habitat and control trade on an international level.
Taxonomy
The Gabon talapoin is classified under the Cercopithecidae family, and is one of the only two species under the Miopithecus genus, with the other being the lesser known Miopithecus talapoin, also commonly known as the Angolan talapoin.
The Miopithcus genus was considered monotypic until 1969, when Machado suggested there was a northern and southern species separated by the Congo River. The southern species was described as M. talapoin and the northern species was left undescribed. It was not until 1997 that Jonathan Kingdon gave it the scientific name Miopithecus ogouensis, based on the Ogooué River in Gabon. Kingdon pointed out that the presently used binomial, where the specific name is a reference to the Ogooué River, is a nomen nudum:
A nomen nudum, 'Miopithecus ogouensis' is used here in anticipation of a formal description.
However, it can be argued that his description is valid per ICZN rules, as he included an illustration (thereby possibly providing a valid type), a description, and specifically said the name was intended for this new species, leading later authorities to accept it.
Description
Female Gabon talapoins have a head and body length ranging from , and weigh . Males are larger and take six years to reach full adult size, with head and body length ranging from , and weigh . Gabon talapoins have an average tail length ranging from . Infants weigh approximately at birth, and the size of a newborn's head is almost as big as its body.
Gabon talapoins are the smallest of the Old World monkey and are considered as dwarf guenons. They are large headed, and unlike the related Angolan talapoin, the Gabon talapoin has flesh-coloured (not blackish) ears and facial skin. There are no distinct colour differences between mature males and females and the young. The Gabon talapoin is short furred, and has a vivid, grizzled yellow-olive crown and back, with golden-yellow coating to its thin limbs, and a dark tipped tail. Its eyelids and lips are yellowish in colour, with noticeable dark streaks on its nose and cheeks. They also have cheek pouches that are useful for storing food. Females have a pink sexual swelling, and males are characterized by their large pale blue scrotum.
Geographic distribution
Distribution of the Gabon talapoin is centered around the River Ogooué, native to the equatorial coastal ridges between Cabinda and the Nyong River, and further extends to some Congo River branches. It can be found in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Republic of the Congo and the Cabinda province of Angola. Presence of Gabon talapoin have been documented along the Djérem River in the gallery forest, within the transition zone between the Central African forest block and the Guinea-Congolia/Sudania savannas. The distribution of the Gabon talapoin is thought to be even larger, but not all observations have been confirmed.
Habitat
Gabon talapoins are equatorial riverine creatures, and are always found within of waterbodies such as rivers and swamps. Owing to the nature of its small size, it is reliant on thick coverings to protect against predation. Usually found near dense riverbank vegetation and agriculture, the Gabon talapoin seldom ascends to higher levels in trees. Population density may double near human settlements, due to the availability of new sources of cultivated foods, secondary growth due to land clearing, and protection from predators due to presence of human activity.
Behavior
Diet and feeding
Gabon talapoins usually look for food on the ground, but such terrestrial foraging is seldom observed due to their small size and preference in inhabiting within dense coverings. Foraging is usually done in sub groups, with one feeding session in the morning and one in the late afternoon.
Fruits make up nearly 80% of the Gabon talapoin's diet, favouring plums (Uapaca), figs, umbrella tree (Musanga) and mokenjo (Pseudospondias), oil-palm nuts, and fruits of African ginger (Aframomum). Insects consist of about one third of its diet, mainly consisting of orthopterans, with the occasional beetles, caterpillars and spiders. Seeds and leaves form part of their diet as well. Cultivated plantations such as bananas, pawpaws and maize are also attractive food sources for the Gabon talapoin. Near human settlements, harvested cassava tubers soaked in rivers are also sought after by the Gabon talapoins when other food sources are scare. Their fruit and insect rich diets also support ecological balance through the dispersion of seeds and maintenance of insect colonies.
Social life and reproduction
Gabon talapoins are highly social creatures and are not known to be territorial. They live in mixed male and female groups of 12–20, with a larger proportion of females to males. Adult males guide the movements of the group, and safeguard the group by keeping lookouts during the night. Gabon talapoins move in subgroups during their daily travels, with pregnant, lactating females and their babies forming one subgroup; juveniles follow mixed male and females in a separate subgroup; and adult males leading and tailing the group. During daily resting periods, usually between 11:00a.m. and 2:00p.m., adult females and the young stay in the center of the group, enclosed by the adult males. Gabon talapoins sleep at night roosts together with other groups, in overhanging vegetation or near water, and are capable of diving and swimming away if alarmed.
Gabon talapoins fall prey to various carnivores, raptors and snakes due to their tiny size. They are capable of 11 types of vocalizations spanning across a wide pitch range. The Gabon talapoin have bird-like calls when disturbed and males often exhibit hostility by bobbing of the head, scowls and lashing of the tail tip. During foraging, adult females let out a short ''uh'' sound to make her location known to the others, and males make a lower pitched version of the same call. The young vocalize a ''coo'' sound instead.
Female Gabon talapoins are able to give birth once they reach the age of four. Mating season takes place during dry seasons between June and August, and a specific mating call is vocalized by either the male or the female, or both. Social dominance rank of the males can influence their sexual behaviors. Females present themselves to the males when they are ready to mate, both sexes engage in grooming and hand contact for a short interval before proceeding with copulation if both parties are interested. Harassing calls are known to be vocalized by juveniles towards the copulating pair. All females tend to give birth annually during rainy season when copious foods are available, between the months of November and April. Outside breeding seasons, males tend to segregate from the females and move higher up into the trees.
Gabon talapoins display affections towards their young and members of the same troop, but female aggression towards the male is also a key trait of their social structure. Mothers take on the role of carrying their young and is known to reject advances by other females to carry their infants.
Gabon talapoins have been known to live up to 28 years in captivity, but not much is known on their lifespan in the wild. Their miniature nature makes them hard to track down, and have made research in their natural habitat a difficult task. Their bird-like vocalizations can often mislead research teams that are not familiar with the species as well.
Conservation status
The Gabon talapoin is facing an overall decreasing population trend and was last assessed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2017. In its previous assessment in 2008, it had a stable population trend and was assessed as Least Concern with no significant threats.
Gabon talapoins were widespread and groups were often associated with villages in Gabon in the 1960s, but some groups have been disappearing. The decline in mature individuals have been attributed to increasing hunting activity. Owing to their small size and low meat yield, Gabon talapoins are difficult to catch and not typical hunting targets. However, the overhunting of larger animals has caused a shift in target and an increase in the hunting and trapping of smaller mammals like the Gabon talapoin. At least twenty-nine Gabon talapoins were impounded in Spain between 2002 and 2006. The monkeys were purchased from local hunters, smuggled into Europe, and have been offered by dealers in Belgium and the Czech Republic. Diet related diseases have been reported in captive talapoins.
Conservation sites across its range have been put in place to protect the land and water. On the level of legislation and trade control, the Gabon talapoin is listed (as the northern talapoin) under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Appendix II, and as Class B under the African Convention.
References
Gabon talapoin
Mammals of Cameroon
Mammals of Equatorial Guinea
Mammals of Gabon
Mammals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mammals of the Republic of the Congo
Fauna of Central Africa
Gabon talapoin
Primates of Africa
Primate conservation
Taxa named by Jonathan Kingdon |
22378444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan%20Boyle | Susan Boyle | Susan Magdalane Boyle (born 1 April 1961) is a Scottish singer. She rose to fame in 2009 after appearing as a contestant on the third series of Britain's Got Talent, singing "I Dreamed a Dream" from .
Boyle's debut studio album, I Dreamed a Dream, was released in November 2009; it became the UK's best-selling debut album of all time, beating the previous record held by Spirit by Leona Lewis, and set a record for first-week sales by a debut album, according to the Official Charts Company. In her first year of fame, Boyle made £5 million (£ million today) with the release of I Dreamed a Dream and its lead-off singles, "I Dreamed a Dream" and "Wild Horses". The success continued with her second studio album, The Gift (2010), where she became only the third act ever to top both the UK and US album charts twice in the same year, and was followed by Boyle's third studio album, Someone to Watch Over Me (2011). She subsequently released the studio albums Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage (2012), Home for Christmas (2013), Hope (2014), A Wonderful World (2016), and Ten (2019).
On 12 May 2012, Boyle returned to Britain's Got Talent to perform as a guest in the final, singing "You'll See". The following day, she performed at Windsor Castle for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Pageant singing "Mull of Kintyre". Having performed "I Know Him So Well" in a duet with one of her idols Elaine Paige in London in December 2009, Boyle performed with her other musical idol Donny Osmond in Las Vegas in November 2012, singing "This is the Moment", a duet from her fourth album. She is known for supporting various charitable causes, and has appeared on the UK charity telethons BBC Children in Need and Comic Relief. As of 2013, Boyle had sold over 19 million albums worldwide and received two Grammy Awards nominations. On 23 July 2014, she performed "Mull of Kintyre" at the Opening Ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in front of the Queen. To date, Boyle has released eight albums, including two Christmas releases, The Gift and A Wonderful World. In 2019, Boyle celebrated ten years in show business, with a compilation album titled Ten and a tour.
As of 2021, Boyle has sold 25 million records. Her debut album, I Dreamed A Dream (2009), is one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century, having sold over 10 million copies worldwide, and it was the best-selling album internationally in 2009.
Life and career
Early life and childhood
Boyle was raised in Blackburn, West Lothian. Her father, Patrick Boyle, was a miner and veteran of the Second World War who also worked as a singer at the Bishop's Blaize; her mother Bridget was a shorthand typist. Both her parents were born in Motherwell, Lanarkshire, but also had family links to County Donegal in Ireland. Born when her mother was aged 45 years, Boyle was the youngest of four brothers and five sisters. She was raised thinking that she had been briefly deprived of oxygen during a difficult birth resulting in a learning disability. However, she was told in 2012–13 that she had been misdiagnosed and is on the Autism spectrum with an IQ "above average". Boyle says she was bullied as a child.
After leaving school with few qualifications, Boyle took part in government training programmes, and performed at local venues.
Early musical training and career
Boyle took singing lessons from vocal coach Fred O'Neil. She attended Edinburgh Acting School and took part in the Edinburgh Fringe. She also long participated in her parish church's pilgrimages to the Knock Shrine, County Mayo, Ireland, and sang there at the Marian basilica.
In 1995, she auditioned for Michael Barrymore's My Kind of People.
In 1998, Boyle recorded three tracks—"Cry Me a River", "Killing Me Softly", and "Don't Cry for Me Argentina"—at Heartbeat Studio, Midlothian. She used all her savings to pay for a professionally cut demo, copies of which she later sent to record companies, radio talent competitions, local and national TV. The demo consisted of her versions of "Cry Me a River" and "Killing Me Softly with His Song"; the songs were uploaded to the Internet after her BGT audition.
In 1999, Boyle submitted a track for a charity CD to commemorate the Millennium produced at a West Lothian school. Only 1,000 copies of the CD, Music for a Millennium Celebration, Sounds of West Lothian, were pressed. An early review by Amber McNaught in the West Lothian Herald & Post said Boyle's rendition of "Cry Me a River" was "heartbreaking" and "had been on repeat in my CD player ever since I got this CD..." The recording found its way onto the internet following her first televised appearance, and the New York Post said it showed that Boyle was "not a one-trick pony". Hello! said the recording "cement[ed] her status" as a singing star.
After Boyle won several local singing competitions, her mother urged her to enter Britain's Got Talent and take the risk of singing in front of an audience larger than her parish church. Former coach O'Neil said Boyle abandoned an audition for The X Factor because she believed people were being chosen for their looks. She almost abandoned her plan to enter Britain's Got Talent, believing she was too old, but O'Neil persuaded her to audition nevertheless. Boyle said that she was motivated to seek a musical career to pay tribute to her mother. Her performance on the show was the first time she had sung in public since her mother died.
Britain's Got Talent (2008–2009)
In August 2008, Boyle applied for an audition for the third series of Britain's Got Talent (as contestant number 43212) and was accepted after a preliminary audition in Glasgow. When Boyle first appeared on Britain's Got Talent at the city's Clyde Auditorium, she said that she aspired to become a professional singer "as successful as Elaine Paige". Boyle sang "I Dreamed a Dream" from Les Misérables in the first round, which was watched by over 10 million viewers when it aired on 11 April 2009. Programme judge Amanda Holden remarked upon the audience's initially cynical attitude, and the subsequent "biggest wake-up call ever" upon hearing her performance.
Boyle was "absolutely gobsmacked" by the strength of the reaction to her appearance. Afterwards, Paige expressed interest in singing a duet with Boyle, and called her "a role model for everyone who has a dream". Boyle's rendition of "I Dreamed a Dream" was credited with causing a surge in ticket sales in the Vancouver production of Les Misérables. Cameron Mackintosh, the producer of the musical, also praised the performance, as thrilling and uplifting".
Boyle was one of 40 acts that were put through to the semi-finals. She appeared last on the first semi-final on 24 May 2009, performing "Memory" from the musical Cats. In the public vote, she was the act to receive the highest number of votes to go through to the final. She was the clear favourite to win the final, but ended up in second place to dance troupe Diversity; the UK TV audience was a record of 17.3 million viewers.
The Press Complaints Commission (PCC) became concerned by press reports about Boyle's erratic behaviour and speculation about her mental condition and wrote to remind editors about clause 3 (privacy) of their code of press conduct. The day after the final, Boyle was admitted to The Priory, a private psychiatric clinic in London, Talkback Thames explained, "Following Saturday night's show, Susan is exhausted and emotionally drained." Her stay in hospital attracted widespread attention, with Prime Minister Gordon Brown wishing her well. Simon Cowell offered to waive Boyle's contractual obligation to take part in the BGT tour. Her family said "she's been battered non-stop for the last seven weeks and it has taken its toll [...but...] her dream is very much alive", as she had been invited to the Independence Day celebrations at the White House.
Boyle left the clinic three days after her admission and said she would participate in the BGT tour. Despite health concerns, she appeared in 20 of the 24 dates of the tour, and was well received in cities including Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Dublin, Sheffield, Coventry, and Birmingham. The Belfast Telegraph stated that "Despite reports of crumbling under the pressure..., she exuded a confidence resembling that of a veteran who has been performing for years".
I Dreamed a Dream and tour (2009–2010)
Boyle's first album, I Dreamed a Dream, was released on 23 November 2009. The album includes covers of "Wild Horses" and "You'll See" as well as "I Dreamed a Dream", and "Cry Me a River". In Britain, Boyle's debut album was recognised as the fastest selling UK debut album of all time selling 411,820 copies, beating the previous fastest selling debut of all time, Spirit by Leona Lewis. I Dreamed a Dream also outsold the rest of the top 5 albums combined in its first week.
In the US, the album sold 701,000 copies in its first week, the best opening week for a debut artist in over a decade. It topped the Billboard chart for six straight weeks and although it narrowly failed to become the best-selling album of 2009, with sales of 3,104,000 compared to 3,217,000 for Taylor Swift's Fearless, it was one of only two albums to sell over 3 million copies in the US, and was also the top selling "physical" album of 2009, with only 86,000 of its sales coming from digital downloads. This has in turn garnered more media attention, as mentioned by People magazine.
In Italy, it was the first album of the month in the Italian No. 1 Account by a non-Italian artist ever. In only a week, it sold more than 2 million copies worldwide, becoming the fastest selling global female debut album.
On 13 December 2009 she appeared in her own television special "I Dreamed a Dream: the Susan Boyle Story", featuring a duet with Elaine Paige. It got ratings of 10 million viewers in the United Kingdom and in America was the TV Guide Network's highest rated television special in its history.
In November 2009 it was reported that Boyle's rendition of "I Dreamed a Dream" would be the theme song of the anime movie Eagle Talon The Movie 3 which was later released in Japan on 16 January 2010. Boyle performed for Pope Benedict XVI on his tour of Britain in 2010. In May 2010, Boyle was voted by Time magazine as the seventh most influential person in the world. Boyle's original song "Who I Was Born To Be" was the theme song of anime film Welcome to the Space Show, which opened in Japan on 26 June 2010.
The Gift and Someone to Watch Over Me (2010–2011)
On 9 July 2010, Boyle announced that her second album would be a Christmas album entitled The Gift. As part of the lead-up to the album, she held a competition called Susan's Search, the winner of which sang a duet with her on her new CD. The album was released on 8 November 2010.
The album was produced by Steve Mac, who said that "Now Susan's used to the studio and the recording process, this time round we might go even further down a traditional route of recording by getting a band together and rehearsing songs before we go into the studio to see what works, how she reacts with certain parts, and so we can change the arrangements that way. I think that's going to work much better....With Susan it's very important she connects with the public and the public connect with her. She doesn't want to sing anything that hasn't happened to her or she can't relate to."
In October 2010 Boyle's autobiography The Woman I Was Born To Be – My Story was published.
In November 2010, Boyle became one of only three acts ever to top both the UK and US album charts twice in the same year.
On 30 November 2010, in the United States, Boyle performed on ABC's The View singing "O Holy Night" and then on NBC's Christmas at Rockefeller Center programme performing "Perfect Day" and "Away in a Manger".
Boyle performed on the second semi-final results show of the sixth season of America's Got Talent, which aired on 31 August 2011. Her third studio album, Someone To Watch Over Me, was released the same year.
Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage (2012)
Boyle released her fourth album Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage in November 2012. She reportedly took piano lessons as she planned on playing it for the album. A reporter told The Sun "Susan loves the piano and always dreamed of being able to reach a standard which would allow her to play on stage and on her albums." In October 2012 renowned opera star Placido Domingo released his album Songs which included a duet with Boyle of Shania Twain's "From This Moment On".
Acting debut and Home for Christmas (2013–2014)
Boyle made her first acting appearance as Eleanor Hopewell in The Christmas Candle. The film is based on a book written by author Max Lucado about a 19th-century village of simple people in the English Cotswolds in need of a miracle. The film was released on 22 November 2013 in the US and 29 November 2013 in the UK. Talking about her first acting role, Boyle said, "I can't believe I'm making a film. I'm very excited to be a part of The Christmas Candle. Everyone on set is a delight to work with and it's a fantastic experience to be part of the team." In the movie Boyle sings an original song, "Miracle Hymn", the anthem for the film and a track from her album Home for Christmas, which also featured a duet with Elvis Presley singing "O Come All Ye Faithful". The album was released on 29 October 2013 in the US. Previously in television, Boyle starred as herself in I Dreamed a Dream: The Susan Boyle Story and in a 2011 documentary titled Susan Boyle: An Unlikely Superstar. Boyle also starred in a second documentary titled There's Something About Susan in the UK, which first aired on ITV on 12 December 2013. It aired in the US on Ovation Channel under the title Susan Boyle Her Secret Struggle with the premiere on 9 April 2014. In October 2013 American vocalist Johnny Mathis released an album titled Sending You a Little Christmas. The album includes "Do You Hear What I Hear?" a duet performed with Boyle.
Hope (2014–2016)
Boyle released her sixth album, Hope, in October 2014 in the US and in November 2014 in the UK. The album, whose theme is hope and inspiration, includes a recorded live performance by Boyle of "You Raise Me Up" with the Lakewood Church choir. Hope mostly contains renditions of classic ballad song, as well as uptempo songs themed around inspiration and hope as Boyle sees those as the "two elements we all need in our life to drive us forward and inspire us to go out and capture our dreams; they worked for me after all." Boyle stated that "I have really enjoyed making this album. I had a huge input in music suggestions and finally have been able to record one of my all time favourites, "Angel", originally by Sarah Mclachlan. I also am pleased to be able to sing some uptempo songs that show variation in my repertoire."
The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard 200 in the United States, becoming Susan Boyle's sixth consecutive top 20 album there. The album spent 35 weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Inspirational Albums chart. It has sold 115,000 copies in the United States .
The album spent 35 weeks at #1 on the Billboard Top Inspirational Albums chart.
Boyle performing at the 2014 Commonwealth Games opening ceremony in Glasgow, Scotland, performing "Mull of Kintyre" upon the arrival of the Head of the Commonwealth, Queen Elizabeth II.
Return to music and A Wonderful World (2016–2018)
Following the release of previous album, Hope in 2014, Boyle took a break during 2015 to "take a little me time and spend time at home with family and friends", and thus the recording of her seventh studio album was postponed to 2016. In October 2016, Boyle announced the release of A Wonderful World.
America's Got Talent: The Champions and Ten (2019–present)
In September 2018, Boyle was confirmed to be a contestant in America's Got Talent: The Champions. When asked why she joined the competition, she stated that she wanted to win this time. She performed on 7 January 2019, singing "Wild Horses" from her 2009 debut album I Dreamed a Dream and received a golden buzzer from judge Mel B. She progressed straight to the finals where she sang the song "I Dreamed a Dream" from her original audition back in 2009, but failed to finish in the top five.
Boyle's eighth studio album, Ten, was released on 31 May 2019 and features a duet with Michael Ball on the track "A Million Dreams".
On 21 August 2019, Boyle performed on the results show for season 14 of America's Got Talent.
Boyle's English-language cover of the Japanese folk song "Wings To Fly" was played during the release of the doves at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics Opening Ceremony in 2021.
Media impact
Websites such as YouTube, Facebook and Twitter have been crucial in facilitating Boyle's rapid rise to fame. The most popular YouTube video submission of her audition garnered nearly 2.5 million views in the first 72 hours. On the day following the performance, the YouTube video was the most popular article on Digg and made the front page of Reddit. Within a week, the audition performance had been viewed more than 66 million times, setting an online record, while on Wikipedia her biography attracted nearly half a million page views. A total of 103 million video views on 20 websites was reached within nine days. The Los Angeles Times wrote that her popularity on YouTube may in part be due to the broad range of emotion packed into a short clip which was "perfect for the Internet". In December 2009, her audition was named the most-watched YouTube video of the year, with over 120 million viewings, more than three times higher than the second-most-popular video.
Additionally, Boyle's first on-camera interview with Scots journalist Richard Mooney for her local newspaper the West Lothian Courier was named as YouTube's Most Memorable Video of 2009. The video went viral after being uploaded to YouTube on 14 April 2009, amassing more than 5.4 million views as of November 2022.
Many newspapers around the world (including China, Brazil and the Middle East) carried articles on Boyle's performance. Later, the British press took to referring to her by a short-form of her name, 'SuBo'. In the US, several commentators drew parallels between Boyle's performance and that of Paul Potts. ABC News hailed "Britain's newest pop sensation", and its Entertainment section headlined Boyle as "The Woman Who Shut Up Simon Cowell".
Within the week following her performance on Britain's Got Talent, Boyle was a guest on STV's The Five Thirty Show. She was interviewed via satellite on CBS's The Early Show, NBC's Today, FOX's America's Newsroom, The Oprah Winfrey Show, and via satellite on Larry King Live; she was also portrayed in drag by Jay Leno, who joked that they were related through his mother's Scottish heritage.
At the invitation of NHK, a major Japanese broadcaster, Boyle appeared as a guest singer for the 2009 edition of Kōhaku Uta Gassen, an annual songfest on New Year's Eve in Tokyo, Japan. She was introduced as the by the MCs and appeared on the stage escorted by Takuya Kimura; she sang "I Dreamed a Dream".
Although Boyle was not eligible for the 2010 Grammy Awards, its host Stephen Colbert paid tribute to Boyle at the ceremony, telling its audience "you may be the coolest people in the world, but this year your industry was saved by a 48-year-old Scottish cat lady in sensible shoes." There was also earlier controversy when Boyle was not nominated in any of the categories for the 2010 Brit Awards.
Stage musical
A stage musical of Boyle's life was originally planned with Boyle appearing as herself. She said she hated "having to sit watching people up there" who are actors. However it was later decided that actress Elaine C. Smith would portray her and that Boyle would join the cast of I Dreamed a Dream for a cameo appearance.
I Dreamed a Dream opened on 27 March 2012 with fans from all over the world occupying the Theatre Royal, Newcastle, for the opening week. The musical received generally warm reviews. The musical toured the UK and Ireland in 2012.
Boyle said she was initially upset by the show, because she was "not used to it". She called it "surreal", but later changed her mind and found it "clever and amusing".
Fox Searchlight has bought life rights to Boyle along with rights to the musical I Dreamed a Dream. Fox plans to develop a film version of the musical.
Social analyses
Judging by appearance
The Huffington Post noted that the producers of the show would have anticipated the potential of this story arc by deliberately presenting Boyle in a manner that would enhance this initial reaction. The Herald described Boyle's story as a modern parable and a rebuke to people's tendency to judge others based on their physical appearance. Similarly, Entertainment Weekly said that Boyle's performance was a victory for talent and artistry in a culture obsessed with physical attractiveness and presentation. In an interview with The Washington Post, Boyle said:
The Washington Post believed that her initial demeanour and homely appearance caused the judges and audience to be "waiting for her to squawk like a duck". New York's Daily News said that an underdog being ridiculed or humiliated but then enjoying an unexpected triumph is a common trope in literature, and the stark contrast between the audience's low expectations and the quality of her singing made Boyle's performance such an engaging piece of television.
Feminist view
R.M. Campbell, music critic for The Gathering Note, compared Boyle to iconic American jazz singer Ella Fitzgerald, who had a long and distinguished career despite being overweight: "[it is] really, really hard to make a career if a woman isn't attractive". In another Huffington Post article, Letty Cottin Pogrebin wrote that although people may "weep for the years of wasted talent", Boyle's performance was a triumph for "women of a certain age" over a youth culture that often dismisses middle-aged women. Tanya Gold wrote in The Guardian that the difference between Boyle's hostile reception and the more neutral response to Paul Potts in his first audition reflected society's expectation that women be both good-looking and talented, with no such expectation existing for men. Los Angeles vocal coach Eric Vetro stated, "She's an Everywoman as opposed to an untouchable fantasy goddess, so maybe that's why people react to her."
American Dream
Several media sources have commented that Boyle's success seemed to have particular resonance in the United States. An American entertainment correspondent was quoted in The Scotsman comparing Boyle's story to the American Dream, as representing talent overcoming adversity and poverty. The Associated Press described this as Boyle's "hardscrabble story", dwelling on her modest lifestyle and what they characterised as urban deprivation in her home town. Similarly, The Independents New York correspondent David Usborne wrote that the United States will always respond to "the fairy tale where the apparently unprepossessing suddenly becomes pretty, from Shrek to My Fair Lady".
Personal life
Boyle still lives in the family home, a four-bedroom ex-council house in Blackburn, which she purchased from her earnings in 2010. Her father died in the 1990s, and her eight siblings had left home. Boyle has never married, and she dedicated herself to caring for her ageing mother until her death in 2007 at the age of 91. A neighbour reported that when Bridget Boyle died, her daughter "wouldn't come out for three or four days or answer the door or phone". Boyle is a practising Roman Catholic and sang in her church choir at her church in Blackburn. Boyle remains active as a volunteer at her church, visiting elderly members of the congregation in their homes. On a 2010 episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show, Boyle summarised that her daily life was "mundane" and "routine" prior to stardom.
In 2012, Boyle was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome. She made her diagnosis public in a BBC interview in December 2013, and is also epileptic.
In November 2012, when asked if she had tried to find love through Internet dating, Boyle said she was too scared, saying: "Knowing my luck I'd go out on a date and you'd find my limbs scattered around various Blackburn dustbins!"
In July 2013, Boyle endorsed the Better Together campaign to keep Scotland as part of the United Kingdom in the 2014 independence referendum. In so doing, she stated, "I am a proud, patriotic Scot, passionate about my heritage and my country. But I am not a nationalist", going on to say, "We have still been able to retain our proud identity whilst being a part of Britain."
In November 2014, it was reported that Boyle was dating her first boyfriend, who was "around the same age" as she was.
Boyle had a minor stroke in 2022. She revealed the news during an appearance on June 4, 2023, after her performance on Britain's Got Talent.
Philanthropy
Charity performances
On 26 January 2010, Boyle sang together with other major artists on the charity recording "Everybody Hurts" put together by Simon Cowell for Haiti Relief for the victims of the Haiti earthquake. On 30 January 2010, Boyle performed at the Indsamling Charity Gala, a telethon for Haiti and Africa held at the Tivoli Concert Hall in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Boyle has appeared on the three major UK charity telethons. On 19 March 2010 she sang for the Sport Relief charity on BBC One. On 18 March 2011 she sang a duet of "I Know Him So Well" with Peter Kay on Comic Relief; in addition to the television performance, the duet was sold on CD, DVD, and MP3 download to raise more money for charity. The CD was #21 on the all-time Comic Relief CDs sold. She has performed for BBC Children in Need telethon five times thus far: on 19 November 2010; on 18 November 2011, and on 16 November 2012. on 16 November 2013. on 14 November 2014.
On 10 November 2010, Boyle performed at the Pride of Britain Awards in London. On 19 March 2011 in Glasgow at the Scottish Variety Awards Boyle performed; the money raised was donated to Cash for Kids Charity.
On 28 August 2013 Boyle travelled down with the Lothian Special Olympics Team to the Special Olympics Great Britain National Summer games in Bath. In the evening she performed at the Opening Ceremony of the Special Olympics GB at the Royal Crescent in Bath, England and also stayed to watch the events and hand out medals to the first day's winners.
On 14 August 2013 it was announced that Boyle would sing at the Prince & Princess of Wales Hospice 30th Anniversary Variety Performance at the Clyde Auditorium in Glasgow on 27 October 2013.
Community and faith
On 16 September 2010 Boyle sang at the Papal Mass performed for Pope Benedict XVI in Glasgow at Bellahouston Park in front of a crowd of 65,000.
For three years Boyle has launched the Wee Box campaign for the Scottish Catholic International Aid Fund (SCIAF) in Glasgow, on 9 March 2011, on 21 February 2012, and on 12 February 2013.
In May 2012 it was reported that Boyle would become patron of the struggling Regal Theatre, Bathgate where she first performed "I Dreamed a Dream".
On 24 October 2012 Boyle, together with the West of Scotland and Edinburgh Garrison Military Wives choirs, launched the Poppy Scotland appeal on the steps of the Glasgow Royal Concert Hall.
Other
In January 2012, Boyle donated a performance dress, which she had worn on America's Got Talent on 31 August 2011, to The Laura McPhee Memorial Fund (Asthma) UK Charity. The dress was sold at auction for £521 and helped raise awareness of the charity.
In July 2012 Boyle donated a performance dress designed by Suzanne Neville, which she had worn at performances in Madrid on the Ana Rosa Show on 12 February 2010 and in Paris on Vivement Dimanche on 17 February 2010. £6,523 was raised and presented to the Prince's Trust.
Also in June 2013 Boyle donated for auction a performance dress which she had worn on The Oprah Show on 19 October 2010, with proceeds of the auction going to Metro Radio Newcastle England's Cash For Kids Campaign, with all funds raised going to disadvantaged kids across the region. The winning bid was £400.
Prior to performing at the International Music Festival "White Nights of St. Petersburg", at the Ice Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia, on 13 June 2013, Boyle visited Children's Hospital Number 17 and presented to the hospital a gift of an anesthetic machine.
It was announced 28 October 2013 that Boyle is a new ambassador for Save the Children UK. Boyle released a music video 8 December 2013 featuring children from the FAST program singing "O Come All Ye Faithful" with Elvis Presley. All royalties will go towards Save the Children UK and money raised in the US will be donated to the Elvis Presley Charitable Foundation.
In popular culture
The Late Night with Jimmy Fallon show aired a comedy sketch showing the "feel good" effect that Boyle's performance has had on people.
The Simpsons aired a new commercial for its 20th-anniversary show "Springfield's Got Talent", in which Homer Simpson talks about his dreams "to be a great singer like Boyle".
A European trailer for the video game The Sims 3 includes a character mocked up as Boyle.
In June 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a short story called "I Dreamed a Dream" that was based on a combination of Boyle's appearances on Britain's Got Talent and the political difficulties of the then UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown.
The 5 November 2009 episode of the show 30 Rock showed recurring character Kathy Geiss (Marceline Hugot) – who has a dowdy appearance and awkward demeanor – singing in the style of Boyle as Liz Lemon and Jack Donaghy teared up.
In 2016 Boyle made a cameo appearance in Zoolander 2 where she is ambushed by paparazzi.
In the Brooklyn Nine-Nine episode "Return of the King", main character Charles Boyle mentions a cousin named Susan, who didn't know she could sing until her late 40s, hinting that said cousin is Boyle herself.
Discography
I Dreamed a Dream (2009)
The Gift (2010)
Someone to Watch Over Me (2011)
Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage (2012)
Home for Christmas (2013)
Hope (2014)
A Wonderful World (2016)
Ten (2019)
Concert tours
Susan Boyle in Concert (2013–2014)
TEN Tour (2019–2020)
Awards and nominations
Overview
Honorary doctorates
In 2012 Boyle was awarded an honorary doctorate for her contribution to the creative industries from Edinburgh's Queen Margaret University, where she obtained a Certificate of Higher Education in caring.
In 2015 Boyle was awarded an honorary doctorate in the field of music from the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, Glasgow.
Guinness World Records
In September 2010 Boyle was presented with three Guinness World Records which were featured in the Guinness World Records 2011 edition published 16 September 2010. The three records were for Fastest-selling Album by a Female (UK), Most Successful First Week UK Debut Album Sales, as well as Oldest Artist to Reach No. 1 with a Debut Album (US & UK).
On 20 November 2010 Boyle achieved another World Record for Oldest Female at No. 1 on UK Albums Chart with her second album The Gift.
On 20 November 2010 Boyle received two other Guinness World Records due to the success of The Gift, one record being "Only British female artist to top both the US and UK album charts with two releases" and the other being "Most successful Christmas album in the UK" – "On 20 November 2010, Susan Boyle's (UK) album The Gift became the first Christmas album to ever top the UK chart."
References
External links
1961 births
Living people
Britain's Got Talent contestants
Columbia Records artists
21st-century Scottish autobiographers
Scottish mezzo-sopranos
Scottish pop singers
Torch singers
Viral videos
World Music Awards winners
Alumni of Queen Margaret University
People from Blackburn, West Lothian
People with Asperger syndrome
People with epilepsy
Scottish people of Irish descent
Scottish Roman Catholics
20th-century Scottish women singers
21st-century Scottish actresses
21st-century Scottish women singers
Ballad musicians
Singers with disabilities |
149297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayum%20mummy%20portraits | Fayum mummy portraits | Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits are a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached to upper class mummies from Roman Egypt. They belong to the tradition of panel painting, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world. The Fayum portraits are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived. They were formerly, and incorrectly, called Coptic portraits.
Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the Faiyum Basin, particularly from Hawara and the Hadrianic Roman city Antinoopolis. "Faiyum portraits" is generally used as a stylistic, rather than a geographic, description. While painted cartonnage mummy cases date back to pharaonic times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the time of Roman rule in Egypt. The portraits date to the Imperial Roman era, from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century AD onwards. It is not clear when their production ended, but recent research suggests the middle of the 3rd century. They are among the largest groups among the very few survivors of the panel painting tradition of the classical world, which continued into Byzantine, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western traditions in the post-classical world, including the local tradition of Coptic Christian iconography in Egypt.
The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial. Extant examples indicate that they were mounted into the bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have now been detached from the mummies. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco-Roman artistic traditions than Egyptian ones. Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique: one of encaustic (wax) paintings, the other in tempera. The former are usually of higher quality.
About 900 mummy portraits are known at present. The majority were found in the necropolis of Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are frequently very well preserved, often retaining their brilliant colours seemingly unfaded by time.
History of research
Pre-19th century
The Italian explorer Pietro Della Valle, on a visit to Saqqara-Memphis in 1615, was the first European to discover and describe mummy portraits. He transported some mummies with portraits to Europe, which are now in the Albertinum (Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden).
19th-century collectors
Although interest in ancient Egypt steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy portraits did not become known before the early 19th century. The provenance of these first new finds is unclear; they may come from Saqqara as well, or perhaps from Thebes. In 1820, the Baron of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, but they became part of a whole shipload of Egyptian artifacts lost in the North Sea. In 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the Louvre, the other in the British Museum. Ippolito Rosellini, a member of Jean-François Champollion's 1828–29 expedition to Egypt, brought a further portrait back to Florence. It is so similar to de Laborde's specimens that it is thought to be from the same source. During the 1820s, the British Consul General to Egypt, Henry Salt, sent several further portraits to Paris and London. Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban Archon Pollios Soter, a historical character known from written sources, but this has turned out to be incorrect.
Once again, a long period elapsed before more mummy portraits came to light. In 1887, Daniel Marie Fouquet heard of the discovery of numerous portrait mummies in a cave. He set off to inspect them some days later, but arrived too late, as the finders had used the painted plaques for firewood during the three previous cold desert nights. Fouquet acquired the remaining two of what had originally been fifty portraits. While the exact location of this find is unclear, the likely source is from er-Rubayat. At that location, not long after Fouquet's visit, the Viennese art trader Theodor Graf found several further images, which he tried to sell as profitably as possible. He engaged the famous Egyptologist Georg Ebers to publish his finds. He produced presentation folders to advertise his individual finds throughout Europe. Although little was known about their archaeological find contexts, Graf went as far as to ascribe the portraits to known Ptolemaic pharaohs by analogy with other works of art, mainly coin portraits. None of these associations were particularly well argued or convincing, but they gained him much attention, not least because he gained the support of well-known scholars like Rudolf Virchow. As a result, mummy portraits became the centre of much attention. By the late 19th century, their very specific aesthetic made them sought-after collection pieces, distributed by the global arts trade.
Archaeological study: Flinders Petrie
In parallel, more scientific engagement with the portraits was beginning. In 1887, the British archaeologist Flinders Petrie started excavations at Hawara. He discovered a Roman necropolis which yielded 81 portrait mummies in the first year of excavation. At an exhibition in London, these portraits drew large crowds. In the following year, Petrie continued excavations at the same location but now suffered from the competition of a German and an Egyptian art dealer. Petrie returned in the winter of 1910–11 and excavated a further 70 portrait mummies, some of them quite badly preserved. With very few exceptions, Petrie's studies still provide the only examples of mummy portraits so far found as the result of systematic excavation and published properly. Although the published studies are not entirely up to modern standards, they remain the most important source for the find contexts of portrait mummies.
Late-19th- and early-20th-century collectors
In 1892, the German archaeologist von Kaufmann discovered the so-called "Tomb of Aline", which held three mummy portraits; among the most famous today. Other important sources of such finds are at Antinoöpolis and Akhmim. The French archaeologist Albert Gayet worked at Antinoöpolis and found much relevant material, but his work, like that of many of his contemporaries, does not satisfy modern standards. His documentation is incomplete, many of his finds remain without context.
Museums
Today, mummy portraits are represented in all important archaeological museums of the world. Many have fine examples on display, notably the British Museum, the National Museum of Scotland, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Louvre in Paris. Because they were mostly recovered through inappropriate and unprofessional means, virtually all are without archaeological context, a fact which consistently lowers the quality of archaeological and culture-historical information they provide. As a result, their overall significance as well as their specific interpretations remain controversial.
Materials and techniques
A majority of images show a formal portrait of a single figure, facing and looking toward the viewer, from an angle that is usually slightly turned from full face. The figures are presented as busts against a monochrome background which in some instances are decorated. The individuals are both male and female and range in age from childhood to old age.
Painted surface
The majority of preserved mummy portraits were painted on boards or panels, made from different imported hardwoods, including oak, lime, sycamore, cedar, cypress, fig, and citrus. The wood was cut into thin rectangular panels and made smooth. The finished panels were set into layers of wrapping that enclosed the body and were surrounded by bands of cloth, giving the effect of a window-like opening through which the face of the deceased could be seen. Portraits were sometimes painted directly onto the canvas or rags of the mummy wrapping (cartonnage painting).
Painting techniques
The wooden surface was sometimes primed for painting with a layer of plaster. In some cases the primed layer reveals a preparatory drawing.
Two painting techniques were employed: encaustic (wax) painting and animal glue tempera. The encaustic images are striking because of the contrast between vivid and rich colours, and comparatively large brush-strokes, producing an "Impressionistic" effect. The tempera paintings have a finer gradation of tones and chalkier colours, giving a more restrained appearance. In some cases, gold leaf was used to depict jewellery and wreaths. There also are examples of hybrid techniques or of variations from the main techniques.
The Fayum portraits reveal a wide range of painterly expertise and skill in presenting a lifelike appearance. The naturalism of the portraits is often revealed in knowledge of anatomic structure and in skilled modelling of the form by the use of light and shade, which gives an appearance of three-dimensionality to most of the figures. The graded flesh tones are enhanced with shadows and highlights indicative of directional lighting.
Subjects and social context of the paintings
People of Fayum
Under Hellenic rule, Egypt hosted several Greek settlements, mostly concentrated in Alexandria, but also in a few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten million native Egyptians, or possibly a total of three to five million for all ethnicities, according to lower estimates. Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans and cleruchs (elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed lands. Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over the country, notably the Nile Delta, Upper Egypt, Oxyrhynchus and Memphis, to undertake the labor involved in the land reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered papyri. It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the Ptolemaic period, with the rest being native Egyptians. By the Roman period, much of the "Greek" population of Faiyum was made-up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins. Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army, who, initially at least, were not Egyptian but people from disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds, settled in the area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local populations.
While commonly believed to represent Greek settlers in Egypt, the Faiyum portraits instead reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in the city. According to Walker, the early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations.
The portraits represent both descendants of ancient Greek mercenaries, who had fought for Alexander the Great, settled in Egypt and married local women, as well as native Egyptians who were the majority, many of whom had adopted Greek or Latin names, then seen as 'status symbols'. A DNA study shows genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman populations of Egypt, indicating that foreign rule impacted Egypt's population only to a very limited degree at the genetic level.
Age profile of those depicted
Most of the portraits depict the deceased at a relatively young age, and many show children. According to Susan Walker, C.A.T. scans reveal a correspondence of age and sex between mummy and image. She concludes that the age distribution reflects the low life expectancy at the time. It was often believed that the wax portraits were completed during the life of the individual and displayed in their home, a custom that belonged to the traditions of Greek art, but this view is no longer widely held given the evidence suggested by the C.A.T. scans of the Faiyum mummies, as well as Roman census returns. In addition, some portraits were painted directly onto the coffin; for example, on a shroud or another part.
Social status
The patrons of the portraits apparently belonged to the affluent upper class of military personnel, civil servants and religious dignitaries. Not everyone could afford a mummy portrait; many mummies were found without one. Flinders Petrie states that only one or two percent of the mummies he excavated were embellished with portraits. The rates for mummy portraits do not survive, but it can be assumed that the material caused higher costs than the labour, since in antiquity, painters were appreciated as craftsmen rather than as artists. The situation from the "Tomb of Aline" is interesting in this regard. It contained four mummies: those of Aline, of two children and of her husband. Unlike his wife and children, the latter was not equipped with a portrait but with a gilt three-dimensional mask. Perhaps plaster masks were preferred if they could be afforded.
Based on literary, archaeological and genetic studies, it appears that those depicted were native Egyptians, who had adopted the dominant Greco-Roman culture. The name of some of those portrayed are known from inscriptions; they are predominantly Greek.
Hairstyles and clothing are always influenced by Roman fashion. Women and children are often depicted wearing valuable ornaments and fine garments, men often wearing specific and elaborate outfits. Greek inscriptions of names are relatively common, sometimes they include professions. It is not known whether such inscriptions always reflect reality, or whether they may state ideal conditions or aspirations rather than true conditions. One single inscription is known to definitely indicate the deceased's profession (a shipowner) correctly. The mummy of a woman named Hermione also included the term grammatike (γραμματική). For a long time, it was assumed that this indicated that she was a teacher by profession (for this reason, Flinders Petrie donated the portrait to Girton College, Cambridge, the first residential college for women in Britain), but today, it is assumed that the term indicates her level of education. Some portraits of men show sword-belts or even pommels, suggesting that they were members of the Roman military.
Culture-historical context
Changes in burial habits
The burial habits of Ptolemaic Egyptians mostly followed ancient traditions. The bodies of members of the upper classes were mummified, equipped with a decorated coffin and a mummy mask to cover the head. The Greeks who entered Egypt at that time mostly followed their own habits. There is evidence from Alexandria and other sites indicating that they practised the Greek tradition of cremation. This broadly reflects the general situation in Hellenistic Egypt, its rulers proclaiming themselves to be pharaohs but otherwise living in an entirely Hellenistic world, incorporating only very few local elements. Conversely, the Egyptians only slowly developed an interest in the Greek-Hellenic culture that dominated the East Mediterranean since the conquests of Alexander. This situation changed substantially with the arrival of the Romans. Within a few generations, all Egyptian elements disappeared from everyday life. Cities like Karanis or Oxyrhynchus are largely Greco-Roman places. There is clear evidence that this resulted from a mixing of different ethnicities in the ruling classes of Roman Egypt.
Religious continuity
Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of Egyptian traditions. Egyptian temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd century. In contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of the population. The mummy mask, originally an Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style, Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult belongs in this general context.
Link with Roman funeral masks
Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among the Roman nobility of displaying imagines, images of their ancestors, in the atrium of their house. In funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the presence of the dead. Roman festivals such as the Parentalia as well as everyday domestic rituals cultivated ancestral spirits (see also veneration of the dead). The development of mummy portraiture may represent a combination of Egyptian and Roman funerary practices, since it appears only after Egypt was established as a Roman province.
Salon paintings
The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30 BC to the 3rd century. To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death, an idea perhaps contradicted by the multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme. The habit of depicting the deceased was not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier Egyptian masks, although the latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies, sometimes even in the same graves.
Style
The combination of naturalistic Greek portrait of the deceased with Egyptian-form deities, symbols, and frame was primarily phenomenon of funerary art from the chora, or countryside, in Roman Egypt. Combining Egyptian and Greek pictorial forms or motifs was not restricted to funerary art, however: the public and highly visible portraits of Ptolemaic dynasts and Roman emperors grafted iconography developed for a ruler's Greek or Roman images onto Egyptian statues in the dress and posture of Egyptian kings and queens. The possible combinations of Greek and Egyptian elements can be elucidated by imposing a (somewhat artificial) distinction between form and content, where 'form' is taken as the system of representation, and 'content' as the symbol, concept, or figure being portrayed.
Coexistence with other burial habits
The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated grave rites. There is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted by a multi-cultural ruling class. The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the Delta to Nubia, but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to a large extent by the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception of occasional pots or sprays of flowers.
End of the mummy portrait tradition
For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to the end of the 4th century, but recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd century. It is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the 3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together.
In the 3rd century the Roman Empire underwent a severe economic crisis, severely limiting the financial abilities of the upper classes. Although they continued to lavishly spend money on representation, they favoured public appearances, like games and festivals, over the production of portraits. However, other elements of sepulchral representation, like sarcophagi, did continue.
There is evidence of a religious crisis at the same time. This may not be as closely connected with the rise of Christianity as previously assumed. (The earlier suggestion of a 4th-century end to the portraits would coincide with the widespread distribution of Christianity in Egypt. Christianity also never banned mummification.) An increasing neglect of Egyptian temples is noticeable during the Roman imperial period, leading to a general drop in interest in all ancient religions.
The Constitutio Antoniniana, i.e. the granting of Roman citizenship to all free subjects changed the social structures of Egypt. For the first time, the individual cities gained a degree of self-administration. At the same time, the provincial upper classes changed in terms of both composition and inter-relations.
Thus, a combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear causality can be asserted.
Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and thus the centre of the distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at Alexandria. New finds from Marina el-Alamein strongly support such a view. In view of the near-total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman portrait painting.
Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion
Provincial fashions
Mummy portraits depict a variety of different Roman hairstyles. They are one of the main aids in dating the paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are frequently similar to those depicted in sculpture. As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures, especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus, they had a direct influence on the development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces than in the imperial court, or at least that diverse styles might coexist.
Hairstyles
Comparing the hairstyles on mummy portraits, it is revealed that the vast majority of them correspond to the fast-changing fashion of hairstyles used by the elite of the rest of the Roman Empire. They, in turn, often followed the fashion of the Roman emperors and their wives, whose images and coiffures can be dated through their depictions on coins. The female hairstyles are what is usually used for the dating of mummy portraits, because other than a number of elite boys who had long hair parted on the forehead and bound into a bun in the neck, male hairstyle does not differ by much. This is because Roman male was advised to avoid excessive attention to hairstyles as he may be criticized for unmanliness. Complex ringlets with nested plaits, and curls over the forehead was popular in the late first century, with small oval nested plaits popular in the time of Antonines. A later popular woman's hairstyle is one inspired by the Roman Empress, Faustina I, with longer strands at the middle of the scalp drawn back into twists or plaits that were then wound into a tutulus at the crown of the head. Central-parted hair-knots at the back of the neck were common later in the same period. Empress Julia Domna popularized fluffy waved hair. Straight hair was common in the same period while later plaits on the crown of the head were rarely present.
Clothing
Other than representations of their wealth and social status, the subject's clothing suggests their previous roles in their local communities. For instance, men depicted to show their bare upper torso were usually athletes. The most common attire is a cloak worn over a chiton. It is common to have a traditionally Roman decorative line, clavi, on the subject's clothing. Most of the decorative lines are dark colored. While painted mummy portraits are shown to bear the traditional Roman decorative lines, not a single portrait has been definitely shown to depict the toga. It should, however, be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of the 1st and early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to occur.
Jewelry
Apart from the gold wreaths worn by many men, with very few exceptions, only women are depicted with jewellery. This generally accords with the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East. Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are also depictions of precious or semi-precious stones like emerald, carnelian, garnet, agate or amethyst, rarely also of pearls. The stones were normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate colliers, with precious stones set in gold.
The gold wreath was apparently rarely, if ever, worn in life, but a number have been found in graves from much earlier periods. Based on the plant wreaths given as prizes in contests, the idea was apparently to celebrate the achievements of the deceased in life.
There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with a horizontal bar from which two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with pearls, fine diadems, and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold hairnets. Many portraits also depict amulets and pendants, perhaps with magical functions.
Art-historical significance
The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that panel painting rather than wall painting (i.e., painting on wood or other mobile surfaces) was held in high regard, but very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy portraits is the Severan Tondo, also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style.
Some aspects of the mummy portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly resemble later icon painting. A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that the mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of which later bore an influence on Late Antique and Byzantine Art. A pair of panel "icons" of Serapis and Isis of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the Getty Museum at Malibu; as with the cult of Mithras, earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or pottery figurines, but from the 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found.
Gallery
In popular culture
The Fayum mummy images were used to recreate Jewish faces from first-century Judaea for the 2021 Israeli film Legend of Destruction.
See also
Ancient Roman art
Coptic art
Coptic Museum
Pitsa panels
Malibu Painter
References
Bibliography
(chronological order)
Klaus Parlasca: Mumienporträts und verwandte Denkmäler, Wiesbaden 1966
Klaus Parlasca: Ritratti di mummie, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano Vol. B, 1-4, Rome 1969–2003 (Corpus of most of the known mummy portraits)
Euphrosyne Doxiadis: The Mysterious Fayum Portraits. Thames and Hudson, 1995
Barbara Borg: Mumienporträts. Chronologie und kultureller Kontext, Mainz 1996,
;
Wilfried Seipel (ed.): Bilder aus dem Wüstensand. Mumienportraits aus dem Ägyptischen Museum Kairo; eine Ausstellung des Kunsthistorischen Museums Wien, Milan/Wien/Ostfildern 1998; ;
Klaus Parlasca; Hellmut Seemann (Hrsg.): Augenblicke. Mumienporträts und ägyptische Grabkunst aus römischer Zeit [zur Ausstellung Augenblicke – Mumienporträts und Ägyptische Grabkunst aus Römischer Zeit, in der Schirn-Kunsthalle Frankfurt (30. Januar bis 11. April 1999)], München 1999,
Paula Modersohn-Becker und die ägyptischen Mumienportraits ... Katalogbuch zur Ausstellung in Bremen, Kunstsammlung Böttcherstraße, 14.10.2007–24.2.2008, München 2007,
Jan Picton, Stephen Quirke, Paul C. Roberts (ed): Living Images, Egyptian Funerary Portraits in the Petrie Museum, Walnut Creek CA 2007
External links
"Unraveling the mysteries of ancient Egypt's spellbinding mummy portraits" CNN feature on Getty Museum project
Mummy portraits in the Petrie Museum
Proportion and personality in the Faiyum Portraits, A.J.N.W Prag, November 2002
History of Encaustic Art
Petrie's report from 1911
Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in English)
Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in French)
Gallery of Fayum Mummy Portraits at Flickr
1st-century BC paintings
1st-century paintings
2nd-century paintings
3rd-century paintings
Ancient Roman paintings
Greek art
Portraits of ancient Greece and Rome
Roman Empire paintings
Early Christian art
Coptic art
Hellenistic art
Ancient Greek painting
Roman Egypt
Antiquities in the Pushkin Museum |
115042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloverport%2C%20Kentucky | Cloverport, Kentucky | Cloverport is a home rule-class city in Breckinridge County, Kentucky, United States, on the banks of the Ohio River. The population was 1,152 at the 2010 census.
History
The town was once known as Joesville after its founder, Joe Huston. Established around 1798 (or possibly 1808) on the east side of where Clover Creek meets the Ohio River. The town was the site of the ferry where, in 1816, Jacob Weatherholt piloted the family of Abraham Lincoln, then seven, across the Ohio River on its way to a newly acquired farm in Spencer County, Indiana.
Around 1820 a building was constructed that became the town's first school and was shared by the Baptist and Methodist congregations as a church on Sundays. The town's first graveyard, known as the Scott Cemetery, was beside this building which was located south of present Murray Avenue and east of Cherry Street.
The town was renamed Cloverport in 1828 after nearby Clover Creek. Seven years before, in 1821, the Kentucky Legislature had built a toll road between the town and Bowling Green. 1828 also saw the town open a post office with George LaHeist as post master.
In 1829, the Baptist congregation built their own church. In 1831, a new graveyard, known as the Murray Graveyard, was established on the north side of Main Street near the Cherry Street intersection. The Methodist congregation built their own church in 1840 on east Huston Street. The old building then became a church for the town's black residents. The Methodist moved again in 1871 to a site on Elm Street.
The town was the site of a button factory, which made use of mussel shells from the Ohio. In the nineteenth century, the Victoria Coal Mines (named in honor of the British queen) produced coal oil from cannel coal that was used to light Buckingham Palace.
In 1857, the first Roman Catholic church, St. Malachi, was built on Chestnut Street south of Huston Street. In 1887, a new church was built and named St. Rose of Lima across the railroad tracks from the old St. Malachi church. The church and rectory were both burned in 1894 and rebuilt at their present locations.
The town was formally incorporated by an act of the state assembly in 1860 and expanded to take in the growing number of homes on the west side of Clover Creek. Land was also donated that year for a Presbyterian church at the corner of Main Street and Lynn Street. A church was never built there but in 1889 the property was exchanged for land on east Main Street where a church was built.
The town had its own newspaper beginning on July 17, 1878. The Breckenridge News was started by John D. Babbage and run by his family until 1950 when it was sold to George and Edith Wilson. The Wilsons merged the paper with their other newspaper, the Irvington Herald, and formed the Breckinridge County Herald-News in 1956.
In 1892 Cloverport became the home of the maintenance shops for the Louisville, Henderson, and St. Louis Railroad. The town raised $20,000 to bring the shops and donated ten acres for the location. The shops employed two hundred men at one time. The shop burned down on March 13, 1916 but was rebuilt. The shops stayed open until 1929 when the Louisville, Henderson and St. Louis was bought out by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. The city and railroad company went to federal court in Louisville with the city trying to force the shops to stay open or for the railroad to pay the city back the original $20,000 that was raised for the shops plus $30,000 in interest. The dispute was settled out of court with the railroad paying back the original $20,000 plus returning the ten acres of land to the city. The city turned the land into an athletic park and a waste treatment facility.
Former United States Supreme Court Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge was born at nearby Tar Springs on July 20, 1894. Rutledge was the son of the pastor of Cloverport's Baptist church.
On March 13, 1901 a fire swept through the city leaving about half of the residents homeless and destroying almost all of the business buildings, including two full American Tobacco Company warehouses. The Lucille Memorial Presbyterian Church, whose congregation had just paid off the mortgage, was burned down as was the Methodist church. Damage was estimated to be over $500,000 in the city.
In 1903, The Murray Roofing Tile Company started a tile plant in the city. In 1959 the company merged with other companies to form the Ceramic Tile Division of National Gypsum. This division then became known as American Olean Tile Company.
Another fire struck Cloverport on March 14, 1910 and destroyed many homes on the east side of town. At the time, the closest fire truck was in Owensboro and men from the Louisville, Henderson, and St. Louis Railroad repair yard were credited with saving many homes.
The Methodist church on Elm Street burned down in 1943. Two years later the congregation moved into a renovated building at the intersection of Main Street and Elm Street and was named Grant Memorial Church for their minister, Rev. W. A. Grant. In 1971, Grant Memorial's congregation merged with Lucille Memorial Presbyterian church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church to form Cloverport United Methodist Church. This combined congregation purchased land for their new building in 1972 at their current site on south Elm Street.
Every August the town sponsors a festival named for Sacajawea who is purported to have stopped in the town during her journeys.
In 2003, the National Park Service transferred the Cloverport Access Site to the city so that a community riverfront park could be developed. The property included the boat ramp on Clover Creek and 15.7 acres of property.
Flooding
Being a river town, Cloverport has been subjected to several floods since its founding. The Ohio River Flood of 1884 had been what all other floods which have struck the city were compared to until 1937. A flood in January 1907 crested at two feet below the 1884 high water mark. The city was also struck by the Great Flood of 1913. The Phelps' Button factory flooded leaving many out of work and many other families were forced to leave their homes. It was reported that the flood waters were seven feet over the Tar Fork bridge and neck deep on a horse at Hites Run. All of the homes across the river in Tobinsport, Indiana were under water. The Ohio River flood of 1937 saw seventy percent of the town's residents hit by the flood waters. The crest of the flood at the downstream Cannelton Locks and Dam was measured at 60.8 feet. This is over six feet higher than the next highest flood, which was the 1945 flood that crested at 54.4 feet. Cloverport was also hit by large floods in 1997, 2011, and 2018.
Historic sites
Cloverport Historic District, comprises most of the old downtown business district
Oglesby-Conrad House, on U.S. 60
Fisher Homestead on U.S. 60
Skillman House on Tile Plant Road
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 3.74%, is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,256 people, 536 households, and 351 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 620 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.42% White, 2.47% African American, 0.08% Asian, 0.08% from other races, and 0.96% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.88% of the population.
There were 536 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 32.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.83.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 23.6% from 25 to 44, 27.4% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $30,917. Males had a median income of $30,156 versus $18,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,990. About 14.1% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.9% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Students in Cloverport attend Cloverport Independent Schools.
Cloverport High---1930 Class A 2nd-Region Boys Champs and 1932 6th-Region Boys Champs.
Cloverport has a public library, a branch of the Breckinridge County Public Library.
In 1871 and 1872 there was a school in town for black students supported by the Freedmen's Aid Society.
Beginning in 1900, St. Rose of Lima Catholic Church operated a parochial school in the city. The original school only lasted a couple of months but it was re-opened in 1916 with teaching duties being taken over my the Ursuline Sisters of Mount Saint Joseph. A high school and an elementary school were operated by the church until the early 1950's when the high school was closed. The elementary school was closed in the late 1960's.
Notable people
Joseph Seamon Cotter Sr., poet, writer, playwright, and community leader
Dora Dean, vaudeville dancer
James W. Flanagan, Lieutenant Governor of Texas
Webster Flanagan, member of the Texas State Senate
Rice E. Graves, Confederate artillery officer
Virginia Cary Hudson, New York Times best selling author
Joseph Holt, Commissioner of Patents, Postmaster General and Secretary of War in President Buchanan's administration, 1857-1861
Benjamin Franklin Mudge, first State Geologist of Kansas
Eli Houston Murray, Governor of the Utah Territory
Wiley Blount Rutledge, former United States Supreme Court jurist
See also
List of cities in Kentucky
List of cities and towns along the Ohio River
References
External links
Populated places established in 1808
Cities in Breckinridge County, Kentucky
Cities in Kentucky
Kentucky populated places on the Ohio River |
14949242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baymax | Baymax | Baymax is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Steven T. Seagle and Duncan Rouleau, Baymax first appeared in Sunfire & Big Hero 6 #1 (September 1998). Baymax begins his existence as Hiro Takachiho's science project. Originally designed to be a hydro-powered robotic synthformer programmed to serve as Hiro's personal bodyguard, butler and chauffeur, Baymax becomes Hiro's best friend and father figure after being programmed with his recently deceased father's brain engrams. When the Giri recruits Hiro into the fledgling super-team Big Hero 6, Baymax also joins the team, where his phenomenal strength, amazing surveillance and data analysis capabilities have proven useful.
Baymax is an artificial synthformer capable of synthtransing his body into various forms: a large humanoid male, "Battle-Dragon" and "Action-Mecha". The first serves as his default form, designed to be less conspicuous in public while attending to Hiro's daily needs. His other forms, significantly more powerful and imposing, are primarily used during undercover missions and other hostile operations. In all forms, Baymax has internal scanners and sensors able to detect and evaluate threats posed by nearby lifeforms. He is also programmed with fighting techniques from forms of combat including karate, tae kwon do, Western boxing and Wing Chun.
Baymax appears in the 2014 Disney animated film Big Hero 6 and its extended media, voiced by Scott Adsit. He is depicted as an inflatable robot built by Tadashi, the older brother of the protagonist Hiro Hamada, to serve as a healthcare companion. When he is with Big Hero 6, Baymax wears armor that has wings allowing him to fly, while his fists can detach like rocket punches. The armor also has magnets attached to his back for Hiro to stick on while flying. Baymax appeared in the sequel television series, which continued the story of the film which aired from 2017 to 2021 on Disney Channel and Disney XD. Baymax appeared in the spin-off series Baymax!, it premiered on June 29, 2022 on Disney+.
Publication history
Created by Steven T. Seagle and Duncan Rouleau in their spare time while working on another project, Baymax was first intended to appear with the rest of Big Hero 6 in Alpha Flight #17 (December 1998). However, the team first appeared in their own self-titled three-issue miniseries by writer Scott Lobdell and artist Gus Vasquez, which due to scheduling issues, was published before Alpha Flight #17. The character appeared with the team in a subsequent five-issue miniseries which was launched by Marvel Comics in September 2008.
Fictional character biography
Monster Baymax began his existence as a science project created by Hiro. He was originally designed to be a hydro-powered robotic synthformer programmed to serve as Hiro's personal bodyguard, butler, and chauffeur. However, prior to the project's completion, Hiro's father died and the young inventor programmed Baymax's artificial intelligence using the brain engrams of his recently departed father. With the thoughts and emotions of Hiro's father, Baymax became much more than a robotic bodyguard. He also functions as Hiro's best friend and father figure, and is by his side nearly every hour of every day. Baymax also feels a deep attachment to Hiro's mother; however, Hiro and Baymax decided it was not in her best interest to inform her that her departed husband's memories were used as the basis for Baymax's artificial intelligence, at least for the time being.
Baymax is programmed to serve and protect Hiro and therefore unable to allow his creator to be placed in possibly dangerous situations. When the Giri attempted to recruit Hiro into the fledgling super-team known as Big Hero 6, Baymax was also on their list of potential operatives. Baymax opposed the idea of Hiro being placed in harm's way but acquiesced to joining the team after the Everwraith, the astral embodiment of those killed in the 1945 nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, abducted Hiro's mother. Baymax continues to serve alongside Hiro on Big Hero 6, where his phenomenal strength, and amazing surveillance and data analysis capabilities have proven very useful.
Powers and abilities
Baymax is an artificial synthformer capable of synthtransing his body into various forms. His default form is a large humanoid male designed to be less conspicuous in public while attending to Hiro's daily needs. His other forms "Battle-Dragon" and "Action-Mecha", are significantly more powerful and imposing than his default humanoid form, and are primarily used during undercover missions and other hostile operations. When Baymax sustains physical injuries beyond his damage threshold, he automatically reverts to his humanoid form and becomes temporarily depowered.
In all forms, Baymax is equipped with internal scanners and sensors able to detect and evaluate the threat posed by lifeforms in the immediate vicinity. He can also deploy remote monitors to record events from afar. His feet are equipped with jet engines capable of generating a thrust sufficient to propel him at speeds up to Mach 4. He can send, receive, and intercept radio transmissions, and monitors all networks maintained by the Japanese Ministry of Defense. Baymax is also directly linked to Hiro's personal Core Cyber-Network (CCN). As a result, when Baymax is not in Hiro's vicinity, he can be immediately summoned via a communication device mounted on Hiro's wrist. Baymax is also connected to Hiro's cybernetic glasses, so that everything that Hiro sees and hears while wearing the glasses is stored in Baymax's databanks for later reference and analysis.
Baymax is programmed with fighting techniques from several forms of combat, including karate, tae kwon do, Western boxing, and Wing Chun. He possesses a durable, polymantium endo/exoskeleton resistant to most forms of small ballistics. Baymax uses water as his primary source of power for locomotion. His artificial intelligence system is memory-card-based and contains thoughts and emotions of Hiro's departed father, industrialist Tomeo Takachiho.
Reception
In 2020, CBR.com ranked Baymax 4th in their "Marvel Comics: Ranking Every Member Of Big Hero 6 From Weakest To Most Powerful" list.
In other media
Disney version
Film
In Big Hero 6, Baymax is voiced by Scott Adsit. This version is a white inflatable robot with a carbon fiber skeleton built by Hiro Hamada's older brother Tadashi to serve as a personal health care provider companion. Co-director Don Hall said "Baymax views the world from one perspective—he just wants to help people, he sees Hiro as his patient." Producer Roy Conli said "The fact that his character is a robot limits how you can emote, but Scott was hilarious. He took those boundaries and was able to shape the language in a way that makes you feel Baymax’s emotion and sense of humor. Scott was able to relay just how much Baymax cares." The film was released under the title Baymax in Germany and Japan. Baymax's design in the film drew influence from Japanese anime and Shogun Warriors toys. Mecha designer Shigeto Koyama, who previously did design work for mecha anime such as Gunbuster 2, Eureka Seven, Gurren Lagann and Rebuild of Evangelion, worked on the concept design for Baymax in the film.
Baymax is immediately activated from his charging bay at the sound of a person experiencing pain, which can often lead to unnecessary responses as he cannot distinguish genuine calls for distress from simple exclamations and euphemisms. Due to being a personal "healthcare companion" Baymax is calm and nurturing, thanks to the chip engineered by Tadashi, which contains "10,000 different medical procedures". Up to 4 chips can work in conjunction to empower him and shape his attributes. Hiro later designs a combat chip that instructs him on numerous forms of martial arts, so Baymax is not left defenseless if the need arises. It is shown that if Baymax is left alone with this, he becomes a lethal force. To coat his fragile and inflatable body, Baymax wears bright red armor with purple accents. The suit has wings and boosters for flight, as well as detachable rocket fists for combat and utility. Baymax's armor also has small magnets attached to his back that allow Hiro to stick to him in flight. At the end of the movie, Baymax remains behind in the portal, sacrificing himself to save Hiro and embedding his healthcare chip in a rocket fist. Hiro would later recover it and rebuild Baymax, allowing them to reunite.
Television
Baymax appears in Big Hero 6: The Series with Adsit reprising the role. The first episode, "Baymax Returns" takes place during the last part of the movie where Hiro rebuilds Baymax. Hiro changes his battle chip to a superhero chip so that Baymax won't turn evil like in the film. Later, Yama manages to copy his designs and creates evil versions of him though he and the Big Hero 6 destroy them. Baymax is also shown to have, slightly, developed some self-awareness capabilities as he caught on to Wasabi's implication of urinating in fear. Baymax is further shown to be versed in psychological evaluation and has even grasped the concept of emotional stress as seen in "Mr. Sparkles Loses His Sparkle". Hiro later builds two other Max's that aid the Big Hero 6. The first are introduced in "Mr. Sparkles Loses His Sparkle" called Skymaxes. They are six individually colored drones that contain and deliver the team's costumes where ever they are. The other is a miniature version of Baymax called Mini-Max (voiced by John Michael Higgins) that watches Fred whenever the rest of the team is in class. Fred himself seems to view him as a sidekick, and the team never corrects him. The episode "Portal Enemy", reveals that the original Baymax is still floating in the portal dimension.
Baymax appeared in the Disney+ spin-off series Baymax! with Adsit reprising the role.
Video games
Baymax, in his armored form, appears as a playable character in Disney Infinity 2.0 and Disney Infinity 3.0.
Baymax appears as a playable character in the world building video game Disney Magic Kingdoms, being a character to unlock for a limited time.
Both the original Baymax and the Baymax built by Hiro at the end of the film appeared in Kingdom Hearts III. Baymax appears as Sora's party member in the San Fransyoko world. According to Square Enix and the film's producer Roy Conli, the story of Big Hero 6s world is a sequel to the events of the film. In the game, the original Baymax is resurrected by a replica of Riku, who corrupts his fighting chip to destroy Big Hero 6. However, Sora and the second Baymax successfully defeat the corrupted Baymax and reprogram him into his original self.
Theme park attractions
The Happy Ride With Baymax, a rotating car ride centered on Baymax, opened in September 2020 at Tokyo Disneyland.
References
External links
Baymax at Marvel Wiki
Baymax at Comic Vine
Hiro & Baymax character profile at UncannyXmen.net
Everything You Need to Know About Disney’s “Baymax!” Series at BuddyTV
Characters created by Steven T. Seagle
Comics characters introduced in 1998
Film characters introduced in 2014
Fictional bodyguards
Fictional butlers
Fictional characters with healing abilities
Fictional dragons
Fictional mecha
Fictional medical personnel
Fictional monsters
Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics martial artists |
4613942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention%20tremor | Intention tremor | Intention tremor is a dyskinetic disorder characterized by a broad, coarse, and low-frequency (below 5 Hz) tremor evident during deliberate and visually-guided movement (hence the name intention tremor). An intention tremor is usually perpendicular to the direction of movement. When experiencing an intention tremor, one often overshoots or undershoots one's target, a condition known as dysmetria. Intention tremor is the result of dysfunction of the cerebellum, particularly on the same side as the tremor in the lateral zone, which controls visually guided movements. Depending on the location of cerebellar damage, these tremors can be either unilateral or bilateral.
Several causes have been discovered to date, including damage or degradation of the cerebellum due to neurodegenerative diseases, trauma, tumor, stroke, or toxicity. Currently, no pharmacological treatment has been established, but some success has been seen using treatments designed for essential tremors.
Signs and symptoms
Patients with intention tremors usually complain of difficulties with activities of daily living, including drinking from a cup, grabbing utensils to eat, and problems with coordination eye to an object or ambulation. Associated cerebellar signs can include nystagmus, dysmetria, dysdiadochokinesia, hypotonia, proprioception deficits, and gait ataxia.
Causes
Intention tremors are common among individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). One common symptom of MS is ataxia, a lack of coordinated muscle movement caused by cerebellar lesions characteristic of MS. The disease often destroys physical and cognitive function of individuals. Intention tremors can be a first sign of MS, since loss or deterioration of motor function and sensitivity are often one of the first symptoms of cerebellar lesions.
Intention tremors have a variety of other recorded causes, as well, including a variety of neurological disorders, such as stroke, alcoholism, alcohol withdrawal, peripheral neuropathy, Wilson's disease, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Guillain–Barré syndrome, and fragile X syndrome, as well as brain tumors, low blood sugar, hyperthyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, insulinoma, normal aging, and traumatic brain injury. Holmes tremor, a rubral or midbrain tremor, is another form of tremor that includes intention tremors, among other symptoms. This disease affects the proximal muscles of the head, shoulders, and neck. Tremors of this disease occur at frequencies of 2–4 Hz or more.
Intention tremor is also known to be associated with infections, such as West Nile virus, rubella, H. influenza, rabies, and varicella. A variety of poisons have been shown to cause intention tremor, including mercury, methyl bromide, and phosphine. In addition, vitamin deficiencies have been linked to intention tremor, especially deficiency in vitamin E. Pharmacological agents such as anti-arrhythmic drugs, anti-epileptic agents, benzodiazepine, cyclosporine, lithium, neuroleptics, and stimulants have been known to cause intention tremor. Some ordinary activities, including ingesting too much caffeine, cigarettes, and alcohol, along with stress, anxiety, fear, anger, and fatigue have also been shown to cause intention tremor by negatively affecting the cerebellum, brainstem, or thalamus, as discussed in mechanisms.
Mechanism
Intention tremors that are caused by normal, everyday activities, such as stress, anxiety, fear, anger, caffeine, and fatigue, do not seem to result from damage to any part of the brain. These tremors, instead, seem to be a temporary worsening of a small tremor that is present in every human being. These tremors generally go away with time.
More persistent intention tremors are often caused by damage to certain regions of the brain. Their most common cause is damage and/or degeneration in the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for motor coordination, posture, and balance, and especially fine motor movements. When the cerebellum is damaged, a person may have difficulty executing a fine motor movement, such as attempting to touch one's nose with one's finger. One common way for the cerebellum to become damaged is through the development of cerebellar lesions. The most common site for cerebellar lesions that lead to intention tremors has been reported to be the superior cerebellar peduncle, through which all fibers carrying information to the midbrain pass, and the dentate nucleus, which is also responsible for linking the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. Alcohol abuse is one typical cause of this damage to the cerebellum. The alcohol abuse causes degeneration of the anterior vermis of the cerebellum. This leads to an inability to process fine motor movements in the individual and the development of intention tremors. In MS, damage occurs due to demyelination and neuron death, which again produce cerebellar lesions and an inability for those neurons to transmit signals. Because of this tight association with damage to the cerebellum, intention tremors are often referred to as cerebellar tremors.
Intention tremors can also be caused as a result of damage to the brainstem or thalamus. Both of these structures are involved in the transmission of information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex, and between the cerebellum and the spinal cord, and then on to the motor neurons. When these become damaged, the relay system between the cerebellum and the muscle upon which it is trying to act is compromised, resulting in the development of a tremor.
Diagnosis
A working diagnosis is made from a neurological examination and evaluation. Parts of a complete examination include a physical examination, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), patient history, and electrophysiological and accelerometric studies. A diagnosis of solely intention tremor can only be made if the tremor is of low frequency (below 5 Hz) and without the presence of any resting tremors. Electrophysiological studies can be useful in determining frequency of the tremor, and accelerometric studies quantify tremor amplitude. MRI is used to locate damage to and degradation of the cerebellum that may be causing the intention tremor. Focal lesions such as neoplasms, tumors, hemorrhages, demyelination, or other damage may be causing dysfunction of the cerebellum and correspondingly the intention tremor.
Physical tests are an easy way to determine the severity of the intention tremor and impairment of physical activity. Common tests that are used to assess intention tremor are the finger-to-nose and heel-to-shin tests. In a finger-to-nose test, a physician has the individual touch their nose with their finger while monitoring for irregularity in timing and control of the movement. An individual with intention tremors has coarse side-to-side movements that increase in severity as the finger approaches the nose. Similarly, the heel-to-shin test evaluates intention tremors of the lower extremities. In such a test, the individual, in a supine position, places one heel on top of the opposite knee and is then instructed to slide the heel down the shin to the ankle while being monitored for coarse and irregular side-to-side movement as the heel approaches the ankle.
Important historical elements to the diagnosis of intention tremor are:
Age at onset
Mode of onset (sudden or gradual)
Anatomical affected sites
Rate of progression
Exacerbating and remitting factors
Alcohol abuse
Family history of tremor
Current medications
Secondary symptoms commonly observed are dysarthria (a speech disorder characterized by poor articulation and slurred speech), nystagmus (rapid involuntary eye movement, especially rolling of the eyes), gait problems (abnormality in walking), and postural tremor or titubation (to-and-fro movements of the neck and trunk). A postural tremor may also accompany intention tremors.
Management
Treat an intention tremor is very difficult. The tremor may disappear for a while after a treatment has been administered and then return. This situation is addressed with a different treatment. First, individuals are asked if they use any of the drugs known to cause tremors. If so, they are asked to stop taking the medication, and then are evaluated after some time to determine if the medication was related to the onset of the tremor. If the tremor persists, treatment that follows may include drug therapy, lifestyle changes, and more invasive forms of treatment, such as surgery and thalamic deep brain stimulation.
Intention tremors are known to be very difficult to treat with pharmacotherapy and drugs. Although no pharmacological treatment has been established for an intention tremor, several drugs have been found to have positive effects on them and are used as treatment by many health professionals. Isoniazid, buspirone hydrochloride, glutethimide, carbamazepine, clonazepam, topiramate, zofran, propranolol, and primidone have all seen moderate results in treating intention tremor and can be prescribed treatments. Isoniazid inhibits γ-aminobutyric acid-aminotransferase, which the first step in enzymatic breakdown of GABA, thus increasing GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. This causes a reduction in cerebellar ataxia. Another neurotransmitter targeted by drugs that has been found to alleviate intention tremors is serotonin. The agonist buspirone hydrochloride, which decreases serotonin's function in the central nervous system, has been viewed as an effective treatment of intention tremors.
Physical therapy has had great results in reducing tremors, but usually does not cure them. Relaxation techniques, such as meditation, yoga, hypnosis, and biofeedback, have seen some results with tremors. Wearing wrist weights to weigh down one's hands as they make movements, masking much of the tremor, is a proven home remedy. This is not a treatment, since wearing the weights does not have any lasting effects when they are not on, but they do help the individual cope with the tremor immediately.
A more radical treatment that is used in individuals who do not respond to drug therapy, physical therapy, or any other treatment listed above, with moderate to severe intention tremors, is surgical intervention. Deep brain stimulation and surgical lesioning of the thalamic nuclei has been found to be an effective long-term treatment with intention tremors.
Deep brain stimulation treats intention tremors, but does not help related diseases or disorders such as dyssynergia and dysmetria. Deep brain stimulation involves the implantation of a device called a neurostimulator, sometimes called a "brain pacemaker". It sends electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain, changing brain activity in a controlled manner. In the case of an intention tremor, the thalamic nuclear region is targeted for treatment. This form of treatment causes reversible changes and does not cause any permanent lesions. Since it is reversible, deep brain stimulation is considered fairly safe. Reduction in tremor amplitude is almost guaranteed and sometimes resolved. Some individuals have seen sustained benefits in MS progression.
Thalamotomy is another surgical treatment where lesions of the thalamic nucleus are created to disrupt the tremor circuit. Thalamotomy has been used to treat many forms of tremors, including those that arise from trauma, MS, stroke, and those whose cause is unknown. This is a very invasive, high-risk treatment with many negative effects, such as MS worsening, cognitive dysfunction, worsening of dysarthria, and dysphagia. Immediate positive effects are seen in individuals treated with a thalamotomy procedure, but the tremor often comes back, so is not a complete treatment. Thalamotomy is in clinical trials to determine the validity of the treatment of intention tremors with all its high risks.
Research directions
Research has focused on finding a pharmacological treatment that is specific for intention tremor. Limited success has been seen in treating it with drugs effective at treating essential tremor. Clinical trials of levetiracetam, typically used to treat epilepsy, and pramipexole, used to treat resting tremor, were completed in 2009–2010 to establish their effectiveness in treating kinetic tremor. A clinical trial for riluzole, typically used to treat amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, was completed at the Sapienza University of Rome to evaluate its effectiveness of treating cerebellar ataxia and kinetic tremor.
History
In 1868, French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot first characterized the distinction between MS, with its resulting intention tremor, and the resting tremor characteristic of Parkinson's disease. Intention tremor became known as part of Charcot's triad (not to be confused with the Charcot triad of acute cholangitis), which, along with nystagmus and scanning speech, act as strong indications of MS.
References
External links
Symptoms and signs: Nervous and musculoskeletal systems
Neurological disorders
Extrapyramidal and movement disorders |
71926385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%20Kansas%20City%20Royals%20season | 2023 Kansas City Royals season | The 2023 Kansas City Royals season was the 55th season for the franchise, and their 51st at Kauffman Stadium. It was also the team's first season under the management of Matt Quatraro. They were eliminated from playoff contention on August 29 for the eighth consecutive season. Their 56-106 record tied the 2005 season for the lowest win percentage (.346) in franchise history.
Offseason
The Royals finished the 2022 season 65–97, 27 games out of first place. They missed the playoffs for the seventh consecutive season.
On October 5, 2022, the Royals fired manager Mike Matheny shortly after the season ended. Matheny went over three seasons with the team.
Rule changes
Pursuant to the CBA, new rule changes will be in place for the 2023 season:
institution of a pitch clock between pitches;
limits on pickoff attempts per plate appearance;
limits on defensive shifts requiring two infielders to be on either side of second and be within the boundary of the infield; and
larger bases (increased to 18-inch squares);
Regular season
American League Central
American League Wild Card
Record against opponents
Roster
Game log
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 1 || March 30 || Twins || 0–2 || López (1–0) || Greinke (0–1) || Durán (1) || 38,351 || 0–1 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2 || April 1 || Twins || 0–2 || Gray (1–0) || Lyles (0–1) || López (1) || 16,633 || 0–2 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 3 || April 2 || Twins || 4–7 || Ryan (1–0) || Keller (0–1) || — || 14,589 || 0–3 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 4 || April 3 || Blue Jays || 9–5 || Singer (1–0) || Berríos (0–1) || — || 10,810 || 1–3 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 5 || April 4 || Blue Jays || 1–4 || Kikuchi (1–0) || Bubic (0–1) || Romano (2) || 12,123 || 1–4 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 6 || April 5 || Blue Jays || 0–3 || Manoah (1–0) || Greinke (0–2) || Romano (3) || 10,015 || 1–5 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 7 || April 6 || Blue Jays || 3–6 || Gausman (1–1) || Lyles (0–2) || Cimber (1) || 10,401 || 1–6 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 8 || April 7 || @ Giants || 3–1 || Keller (1–1) || Cobb (0–1) || Barlow (1) || 40,711 || 2–6 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 9 || April 8 || @ Giants || 6–5 || Clarke (1–0) || Doval (0–1) || Chapman (1) || 35,126 || 3–6 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 10 || April 9 || @ Giants || 1–3 || Brebbia (1–0) || Yarbrough (0–1) || Rogers (1) || 30,207 || 3–7 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 11 || April 10 || @ Rangers || 2–11 || Heaney (1–1) || Greinke (0–3) || — || 17,430 || 3–8 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 12 || April 11 || @ Rangers || 5–8 || Ragans (2–0) || Barlow (0–1) || — || 17,760 || 3–9 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 13 || April 12 || @ Rangers || 10–1 || Keller (2–1) || Eovaldi (1–2) || — || 18,380 || 4–9 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 14 || April 14 || Braves || 3–10 || Morton (2–1) || Singer (1–1) || — || 20,186 || 4–10 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 15 || April 15 || Braves || 3–9 || Elder (2–0) || Bubic (0–2) || — || 17,644 || 4–11 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 16 || April 16 || Braves || 4–5 || Anderson (1–0) || Barlow (0–2) || Minter (3) || 22,040 || 4–12 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 17 || April 17 || Rangers || 0–4 || Dunning (1–0) || Lyles (0–3) || — || 11,068 || 4–13 || L4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 18 || April 18 || Rangers || 2–12 || Eovaldi (2–2) || Keller (2–2) || — || 12,118 || 4–14 || L5
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 19 || April 19 || Rangers || 3–12 || Pérez (3–1) || Singer (1–2) || — || 10,388 || 4–15 || L6
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 20 || April 21 || @ Angels || 0–2 || Ohtani (3–0) || Yarbrough (0–2) || Quijada (4) || 44,741 || 4–16 || L7
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 21 || April 22 || @ Angels || 11–8 || Cuas (1–0) || Quijada (0–1) || Barlow (2) || 44,148 || 5–16 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 22 || April 23 || @ Angels || 3–4 || Warren (1–0) || Lyles (0–4) || Estévez (3) || 36,016 || 5–17 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 23 || April 24 || @ Diamondbacks || 4–5 || Chafin (2–0) || Chapman (0–1) || — || 9,815 || 5–18 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 24 || April 25 || @ Diamondbacks || 5–4 || Singer (2–2) || Nelson (1–1) || Barlow (3) || 13,835 || 6–18 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 25 || April 26 || @ Diamondbacks || 0–2 || Gallen (4–1) || Yarbrough (0–3) || Chafin (4) || 14,343 || 6–19 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 26 || April 27 || @ Twins || 1–7 || Stewart (1–0) || Greinke (0–4) || — || 12,862 || 6–20 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 27 || April 28 || @ Twins || 6–8 || López (2–2) || Lyles (0–5) || López (2) || 11,754 || 6–21 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 28 || April 29 || @ Twins || 3–2 || Chapman (1–1) || Durán (0–1) || Barlow (4) || 22,883 || 7–21 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 29 || April 30 || @ Twins || 4–8 || Gray (4–0) || Singer (2–3) || Durán (6) || 17,150 || 7–22 || L1
|-
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 30 || May 2 || Orioles || 7–11 || Wells (2–1) || Yarbrough (0–4) || — || 10,487 || 7–23 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 31 || May 3 || Orioles || 6–0 || Greinke (1–4) || Gibson (4–1) || — || 10,362 || 8–23 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 32 || May 4 || Orioles || 10–13 || Canó (1–0) || Chapman (1–2) || — || 11,514 || 8–24 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 33 || May 5 || Athletics || 8–12 || Muller (1–2) || Keller (2–3) || — || 15,966 || 8–25 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 34 || May 6 || Athletics || 4–5 || Waldichuk (1–2) || Singer (2–4) || Jackson (1) || 29,549 || 8–26 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 35 || May 7 || Athletics || 5–1 || Yarbrough (1–4) || Miller (0–2) || — || 12,740 || 9–26 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 36 || May 8 || White Sox || 12–5 || Cuas (2–0) || Cease (2–2) || — || 9,814 || 10–26 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 37 || May 9 || White Sox || 2–4 || Giolito (2–2) || Lyles (0–6) || Graveman (1) || 11,258 || 10–27 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 38 || May 10 || White Sox || 9–1 || Keller (3–3) || Lynn (1–5) || — || 12,187 || 11–27 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 39 || May 11 || White Sox || 4–3 || Barlow (1–2) || López (0–3) || — || 20,321 || 12–27 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 40 || May 12 || @ Brewers || 1–5 || Burnes (4–2) || Taylor (0–1) || — || 24,900 || 12–28 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 41 || May 13 || @ Brewers || 3–4 || Williams (3–0) || Hernández (0–1) || — || 35,766 || 12–29 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 42 || May 14 || @ Brewers || 6–9 || Lauer (4–4) || Lyles (0–7) || — || 33,188 || 12–30 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 43 || May 15 || @ Padres || 0–4 || Wacha (4–1) || Keller (3–4) || — || 43,828 || 12–31 || L4
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 44 || May 16 || @ Padres || 5–4 || Singer (3–4) || Lugo (3–3) || Barlow (5) || 36,060 || 13–31 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 45 || May 17 || @ Padres || 4–3 || Taylor (1–1) || Darvish (2–3) || Barlow (6) || 31,416 || 14–31 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 46 || May 19 || @ White Sox || 0–2 || Kopech (2–4) || Greinke (1–5) || Graveman (3) || 20,329 || 14–32 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 47 || May 20 || @ White Sox || 1–5 || Giolito (3–3) || Lyles (0–8) || — || 23,984 || 14–33 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 48 || May 21 || @ White Sox || 2–5 || Lynn (3–5) || Castillo (0–1) || Kelly (1) || 23,556 || 14–34 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 49 || May 22 || Tigers || 5–8 || Lange (2–0) || Barlow (1–3) || Cisnero (1) || 14,229 || 14–35 || L4
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 50 || May 23 || Tigers || 4–1 || Cuas (3–0) || Rodríguez (4–4) || Chapman (2) || 13,443 || 15–35 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 51 || May 24 || Tigers || 4–6 || Vest (1–0) || Taylor (1–2) || Lange (9) || 11,898 || 15–36 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 52 || May 26 || Nationals || 10–12 || Corbin (4–5) || Lyles (0–9) || Kuhl (1) || 15,878 || 15–37 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 53 || May 27 || Nationals || 2–4 || Thompson (3–2) || Taylor (1–3) || Finnegan (11) || 19,130 || 15–38 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 54 || May 28 || Nationals || 3–2 || Barlow (2–3) || Kuhl (0–3) || — || 18,319 || 16–38 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 55 || May 29 || @ Cardinals || 7–0 || Mayers (1–0) || Wainwright (2–1) || — || 45,911 || 17–38 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 56 || May 30 || @ Cardinals || 1–2 || Mikolas (4–1) || Hernández (0–2) || Gallegos (7) || 38,406 || 17–39 || L1
|-
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 57 || June 2 || Rockies || 2–7 || Suter (4–0) || Hernández (0–3) || — || 23,482 || 17–40 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 58 || June 3 || Rockies || 4–6 || Carasiti (1–0) || Lynch (0–1) || Lawrence (2) || 16,492 || 17–41 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 59 || June 4 || Rockies || 2–0 || Singer (4–4) || Freeland (4–7) || Barlow (7) || 13,128 || 18–41 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 60 || June 5 || @ Marlins || 6–9 || Garrett (2–2) || Mayers (1–1) || Floro (7) || 7,232 || 18–42 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 61 || June 6 || @ Marlins || 1–6 || Luzardo (5–4) || Greinke (1–6) || — || 7,342 || 18–43 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 62 || June 7 || @ Marlins || 1–6 || Cabrera (5–4) || Lyles (0–10) || — || 7,673 || 18–44 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 63 || June 9 || @ Orioles || 2–3 || Wells (5–2) || Lynch (0–2) || Bautista (17) || 18,076 || 18–45 || L4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 64 || June 10 || @ Orioles || 1–6 || Irvin (1–2) || Singer (4–5) || — || 34,136 || 18–46 || L5
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 65 || June 11 || @ Orioles || 3–11 || Gibson (8–3) || Mayers (1–2) || — || 23,255 || 18–47 || L6
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 66 || June 12 || Reds || 4–5 || Farmer (2–3) || Hernández (0–4) || Karcher (1) || 20,500 || 18–48 || L7
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 67 || June 13 || Reds || 4–5 || Williamson (1–0) || Lyles (0–11) || Díaz (16) || 16,931 || 18–49 || L8
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 68 || June 14 || Reds || 4–7 || Lively (4–4) || Lynch (0–3) || Díaz (17) || 13,731 || 18–50 || L9
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 69 || June 16 || Angels || 0–3 || Sandoval (4–6) || Singer (4–6) || Bachman (1) || 19,384 || 18–51 || L10
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 70 || June 17 || Angels || 10–9 || Chapman (2–2) || Devenski (3–1) || — || 21,056 || 19–51 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 71 || June 18 || Angels || 2–5 || Anderson (4–1) || Greinke (1–7) || Estévez (19) || 24,385 || 19–52 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 72 || June 19 || @ Tigers || 4–6 || Alexander (2–1) || Clarke (1–1) || Lange (11) || 18,438 || 19–53 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 73 || June 20 || @ Tigers || 1–0 || Lynch (1–3) || Lorenzen (2–5) || Barlow (8) || 18,409 || 20–53 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 74 || June 21 || @ Tigers || 4–9 || Boyd (5–5) || Singer (4–7) || — || 20,195 || 20–54 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 75 || June 22 || @ Rays || 6–5 || Chapman (3–2) || Fairbanks (0–2) || Barlow (9) || 10,436 || 21–54 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 76 || June 23 || @ Rays || 3–11 || Eflin (9–3) || Greinke (1–8) || — || 16,189 || 21–55 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 77 || June 24 || @ Rays || 9–4 || Lyles (1–11) || Chirinos (3–3) || — || 20,884 || 22–55 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 78 || June 25 || @ Rays || 1–3 || Poche (5–2) || Clarke (1–2) || Fairbanks (8) || 18,442 || 22–56 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 79 || June 27 || Guardians || 1–2 || Stephan (4–3) || Barlow (2–4) || Clase (24) || 15,718 || 22–57 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 80 || June 28 || Guardians || 1–14 || Sandlin (4–3) || Cox (0–1) || — || 11,978 || 22–58 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 81 || June 29 || Guardians || 4–3 || Chapman (4–2) || Clase (1–5) || — || 12,414 || 23–58 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 82 || June 30 || Dodgers || 3–9 || Miller (4–1) || Marsh (0–1) || — || 22,006 || 23–59 || L1
|-
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 83 || July 1 || Dodgers || 6–4 || Lynch (2–3) || Urías (5–5) || Barlow (10) || 21,004 || 24–59 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 84 || July 2 || Dodgers || 9–1 || Singer (5–7) || Gonsolin (4–3) || — || 19,058 || 25–59 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 85 || July 3 || @ Twins || 4–8 || Headrick (2–0) || Clarke (1–3) || — || 28,218 || 25–60 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 86 || July 4 || @ Twins || 3–9 || Maeda (2–5) || Greinke (1–9) || — || 25,033 || 25–61 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 87 || July 5 || @ Twins || 0–5 || López (5–5) || Marsh (0–2) || — || 19,692 || 25–62 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 88 || July 6 || @ Guardians || 1–6 || Morgan (4–1) || Garrett (0–1) || — || 17,464 || 25–63 || L4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 89 || July 7 || @ Guardians || 0–3 || Civale (3–2) || Lynch (2–4) || Clase (25) || 29,990 || 25–64 || L5
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 90 || July 8 || @ Guardians || 6–10 || Williams (1–1) || Singer (5–8) || — || 30,864 || 25–65 || L6
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 91 || July 9 || @ Guardians || 4–1 || Yarbrough (2–4) || Bieber (5–6) || Barlow (11) || 25,911 || 26–65 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#bbcaff;"
| colspan="11" | 93rd All-Star Game in Seattle, Washington
|- style="background:#bbb;"
| — || July 14 || Rays || colspan=7| Postponed (rain); Makeup: July 15
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 92 || July 15 || Rays || 1–6 || Glasnow (3–3) || Marsh (0–3) || — || 15,428 || 26–66 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 93 || July 15 || Rays || 2–4 || Poche (7–2) || Hernández (0–5) || Fairbanks (10) || 18,052 || 26–67 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 94 || July 16 || Rays || 8–4 || Singer (6–8) || Eflin (10–5) || — || 15,632 || 27–67 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 95 || July 17 || Tigers || 2–3 || White (2–2) || Clarke (1–4) || Lange (15) || 19,440 || 27–68 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 96 || July 18 || Tigers || 11–10 || Lynch (3–4) || Skubal (0–1) || — || 18,448 || 28–68 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 97 || July 19 || Tigers || 2–3 || Rodríguez (6–5) || Yarbrough (2–5) || Lange (16) || 17,903 || 28–69 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 98 || July 20 || Tigers || 0–3 || Lorenzen (5–6) || Greinke (1–10) || Foley (4) || 11,478 || 28–70 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 99 || July 21 || @ Yankees || 4–5 || Schmidt (6–6) || Marsh (0–4) || Holmes (12) || 46,242 || 28–71 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 100 || July 22 || @ Yankees || 2–5 || Peralta (3–1) || Hernández (0–6) || Holmes (13) || 44,401 || 28–72 || L4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 101 || July 23 || @ Yankees || 5–8 || Severino (2–4) || Lyles (1–12) || — || 44,130 || 28–73 || L5
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 102 || July 24 || @ Guardians || 5–3 || Yarbrough (3–5) || Allen (4–3) || Barlow (12) || 19,630 || 29–73 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 103 || July 25 || @ Guardians || 1–5 || Civale (4–2) || Greinke (1–11) || — || 22,177 || 29–74 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 104 || July 26 || @ Guardians || 3–8 || Sandlin (5–3) || Marsh (0–5) || — || 26,699 || 29–75 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 105 || July 28 || Twins || 8–5 || Clarke (2–4) || Durán (2–5) || — || 23,022 || 30–75 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 106 || July 29 || Twins || 10–7 || Lyles (2–12) || Ober (6–5) || Barlow (13) || 20,643 || 31–75 || W2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 107 || July 30 || Twins || 2–1 || Yarbrough (4–5) || Maeda (2–6) || Hernández (1) || 13,752 || 32–75 || W3
|-
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 108 || August 1 || Mets || 7–6 || Hernández (1–6) || Raley (0–2) || — || 16,140 || 33–75 || W4
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 109 || August 2 || Mets || 4–0 || Ragans (3–3) || Senga (7–6) || — || 13,630 || 34–75 || W5
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 110 || August 3 || Mets || 9–2 || Singer (7–8) || Carrasco (3–6) || — || 11,926 || 35–75 || W6
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 111 || August 4 || @ Phillies || 7–5 || Lyles (3–12) || Nola (9–8) || Cox (1) || 36,510 || 36–75 || W7
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 112 || August 5 || @ Phillies || 6–9 || Strahm (7–3) || Zerpa (0–1) || Kimbrel (19) || 42,326 || 36–76 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 113 || August 6 || @ Phillies || 4–8 || Walker (13–4) || Greinke (1–12) || — || 43,112 || 36–77 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 114 || August 7 || @ Red Sox || 2–6 || Jansen (3–5) || Hernández (1–7) || — || 32,732 || 36–78 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 115 || August 8 || @ Red Sox || 9–3 || Singer (8–8) || Crawford (5–6) || — || 30,997 || 37–78 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 116 || August 9 || @ Red Sox || 3–4 || Pivetta (8–6) || Lyles (3–13) || Jansen (25) || 35,495 || 37–79 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 117 || August 10 || @ Red Sox || 0–2 || Paxton (7–3) || Marsh (0–6) || Jansen (26) || 31,952 || 37–80 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 118 || August 11 || Cardinals || 12–8 || Zerpa (1–1) || Wainwright (3–7) || — || 26,271 || 38–80 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 119 || August 12 || Cardinals || 4–5 || Matz (4–7) || Ragans (3–4) || Romero (2) || 37,016 || 38–81 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 120 || August 14 || Mariners || 7–6 || Wittgren (1–0) || Brash (8–4) || — || 11,878 || 39–81 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 121 || August 15 || Mariners || 8–10 || Muñoz (3–5) || Davidson (1–2) || Saucedo (1) || 12,759 || 39–82 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 122 || August 16 || Mariners || 5–6 || Castillo (9–7) || Coleman (0–1) || Brash (3) || 11,091 || 39–83 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 123 || August 17 || Mariners || 4–6 || Campbell (3–0) || Hernández (1–8) || Brash (4) || 10,875 || 39–84 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 124 || August 18 || @ Cubs || 4–3 || Ragans (4–4) || Taillon (7–8) || Hernández (2) || 37,936 || 40–84 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 125 || August 19 || @ Cubs || 4–6 || Steele (14–3) || Singer (8–9) || Alzolay (17) || 39,525 || 40–85 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 126 || August 20 || @ Cubs || 3–4 || Hendricks (5–6) || Lyles (3–14) || Alzolay (18) || 36,949 || 40–86 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 127 || August 21 || @ Athletics || 4–6 || May (4–4) || Coleman (0–2) || — || 3,095 || 40–87 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 128 || August 22 || @ Athletics || 4–5 || Harris (3–6) || Zerpa (1–2) || May (13) || 4,021 || 40–88 || L4
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 129 || August 23 || @ Athletics || 4–0 || Ragans (5–4) || Martínez (0–2) || Hernández (3) || 5,075 || 41–88 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 130 || August 25 || @ Mariners || 5–7 || Campbell (4–0) || Singer (8–10) || Muñoz (9) || 45,175 || 41–89 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 131 || August 26 || @ Mariners || 2–15 || Gilbert (12–5) || Lyles (3–15) || — || 41,744 || 41–90 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 132 || August 27 || @ Mariners || 2–3 || Castillo (11–7) || Marsh (0–7) || Muñoz (10) || 38,829 || 41–91 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 133 || August 28 || Pirates || 0–5 || Oviedo (8–13) || Greinke (1–13) || — || 11,610 || 41–92 || L4
|- style="background:#993333;"
| 134 || August 29 || Pirates || 3–6 || Ortiz (3–4) || Hernández (1–9) || — || 11,233 || 41–93 || L5
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 135 || August 30 || Pirates || 1–4 || Jackson (1–1) || Zerpa (1–3) || Bednar (29) || 10,592 || 41–94 || L6
|-
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 136 || September 1 || Red Sox || 13–2 || Lyles (4–15) || Paxton (7–5) || — || 15,470 || 42–94 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 137 || September 2 || Red Sox || 5–9 || Houck (4–8) || Marsh (0–8) || Pivetta (1) || 20,527 || 42–95 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 138 || September 3 || Red Sox || 3–7 || Sale (6–3) || Greinke (1–14) || — || 15,785 || 42–96 || L2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 139 || September 4 || White Sox || 12–1 || Ragans (6–4) || Scholtens (1–7) || — || 10,646 || 43–96 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 140 || September 5 || White Sox || 7–6 || Kowar (1–0) || Santos (2–2) || — || 10,395 || 44–96 || W2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 141 || September 6 || White Sox || 4–6 || Toussaint (3–7) || Lyles (4–16) || Shaw (2) || 11,046 || 44–97 || L1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 142 || September 8 || @ Blue Jays || 4–5 || Green (2–0) || Hernández (1–10) || Romano (33) || 26,493 || 44–98 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 143 || September 9 || @ Blue Jays || 1–5 || Gausman (11–8) || Greinke (1–15) || — || 41,443 || 44–99 || L3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 144 || September 10 || @ Blue Jays || 2–5 || Berríos (10–10) || Clarke (2–5) || Romano (34) || 35,275 || 44–100 || L4
|- style="background:#bbb;"
| — || September 11 || @ White Sox || colspan=7| Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 12
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 146 || September 12 || @ White Sox || 2–6 || Cease (7–7) || Singer (8–11) || Santos (5) || || 44–101 || L5
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 146 || September 12 || @ White Sox || 11–10 || Clarke (3–5) || García (0–1) || Hernández (4) || 14,824 || 45–101 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 147 || September 13 || @ White Sox || 7–1 || Marsh (1–8) || Clevinger (7–8) || — || 15,593 || 46–101 || W2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 148 || September 15 || Astros || 4–2 || Zerpa (2–3) || Javier (9–4) || Clarke (1) || 15,465 || 47–101 || W3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 149 || September 16 || Astros || 10–8 || McArthur (1–0) || Neris (6–3) || Clarke (2) || 19,557 || 48–101 || W4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 150 || September 17 || Astros || 1–7 || Valdez (12–10) || Lyles (4–17) || — || 15,311 || 48–102 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 151 || September 18 || Guardians || 6–4 || Kowar (2–0) || Stephan (6–7) || McArthur (1) || 9,736 || 49–102 || W1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 152 || September 19 || Guardians || 7–6 || Marsh (2–8) || Allen (7–8) || Snider (1) || 15,254 || 50–102 || W2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 153 || September 20 || Guardians || 6–2 || Zerpa (3–3) || Giolito (8–14) || — || 12,162 || 51–102 || W3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 154 || September 22 || @ Astros || 7–5 || Ragans (7–4) || Valdez (12–11) || McArthur (2) || 41,033 || 52–102 || W4
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 155 || September 23 || @ Astros || 3–2 || Lyles (5–17) || France (11–6) || Clarke (3) || 41,692 || 53–102 || W5
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 156 || September 24 || @ Astros || 6–5 || Marsh (3–8) || Brown (11–13) || McArthur (3) || 41,438 || 54–102 || W6
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 157 || September 26 || @ Tigers || 3–6 || Foley (3–3) || Clarke (3–6) || — || 13,903 || 54–103 || L1
|- style="background:#bbb;"
| — || September 27 || @ Tigers || colspan=7| Suspended (rain); Rescheduled to September 28
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 158 || September 28 || @ Tigers || 0–8 || Díaz (1–0) || Bowlan (0–1) || — || || 54–104 || L2
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 159 || September 28 || @ Tigers || 3–7 || Cisnero (3–4) || Ragans (7–5) || — || 13,326 || 54–105 || L3
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 160 || September 29 || Yankees || 12–5 || Lyles (6–17) || Rodón (3–8) || — || 18,374 || 55–105 || W1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 161 || September 30 || Yankees || 2–5 || Montas (1–0) || Marsh (3–9) || Holmes (24) || 22,665 || 55–106 || L1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 162 || October 1 || Yankees || 5–2 || Greinke (2–15) || King (4–8) || McArthur (4) || 20,662 || 56–106 || W1
|-
Farm system
References
External links
Kansas City Royals Official Site
2023 Kansas City Royals at Baseball Reference
Kansas City Royals
Kansas City Royals seasons
Kansas City Royals |
4994729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne%E2%80%93Aachen%20high-speed%20railway | Cologne–Aachen high-speed railway | The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is the German part of the Trans-European transport networks project high-speed line Paris–Brussels–Cologne. It is not a newly built railway line, but a project to upgrade the existing railway line which was opened in 1841 by the Rhenish Railway Company. When it was continued into Belgium in 1843, it became the world's first international railway line.
The line inside Germany has a length of about . The first from Cologne to Düren have been rebuilt. Since 2002 the line allows for speeds up to . Separate tracks have been built parallel to the high-speed tracks for local S-Bahn traffic. The remaining line from Düren to Aachen allows speeds up to with some slower sections. Upgrades of Düren–Aachen are planned for the near future. In Belgium, the high-speed line is continued as HSL 3.
Regional-Express services on the line are RE 1 (NRW-Express) and RE 9 (Rhein-Sieg-Express) with push-pull trains with six double-decker carriages. Long-distance trains are operated by Thalys between Paris and Cologne (six pairs of trains each day), three pairs of ICE 3M trains daily between Frankfurt and Brussels Monday to Saturday and a morning ICE 2 between Aachen and Berlin.
History
Plans for the construction of a railway between Cologne and the Belgian border began in December 1833 with the issue of concession to the Cologne Railway Committee, which was to develop a line under the direction of Cologne Lord Mayor Johann Adolph Steinberger and the entrepreneur Ludolf Camphausen. The Cologne Railway Committee presented a draft route that would bypass Aachen to reduce costs: the line would run from Eschweiler to Kornelimünster along the Inde and from there to the Belgian border. Düren would also not have been connected to the railway. The Aachen merchants resisted this proposal and they founded the Aachen Railway Committee under the direction of David Hansemann and Philipp Heinrich Pastor. This was the beginning of the so-called Eisenbahnstreites zwischen Köln und Aachen (railway dispute between Cologne and Aachen). In October, the Aachen Railway Committee presented an alternative proposal for the route that ran from Cologne via Düren and Aachen to the Belgian border.
On 6 April 1836, a conference of representatives of the traders of Aachen and Cologne in Jülich, chaired by the Oberpräsident of the Rhine Province Ernst von Bodelschwingh, could not resolve to the railway dispute. Hansemann and the Aachen cloth manufacturer Joseph van Gülpen then travelled to Berlin and lodged an application for a line running through Aachen. In Berlin, lengthy negotiations took place between representatives of Aachen and Cologne. Prussian king Frederick William III decided on 12 February 1837 that the line would run through Aachen and thus ended the railway dispute.
In June 1837, the Aachen and Cologne representatives agreed to the merger of the two committees of their cities and founded the Rhenish Railway Company (Rheinische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft), which received a concession to build the line from Cologne to the Belgian border in Herbesthal. Construction of the line began on 11 April 1838.
The proposal to develop a direct line from Düren to Aachen was discarded due to the geological conditions of the northern Eifel and a curve to the north was adopted between Düren and Aachen that is still used by the line. The share capital of 9 million marks was raised to enable the Rhenish Railway to build the line by the issuing of shares. But due to the difficult route, construction costs increased to 21 million marks. The additional costs of 12 million marks were raised by issuing additional shares worth 4.5 million marks and bonds worth 7.5 million marks. The Belgian government alone acquired bonds for 3 million marks.
The first section from Cologne to Müngersdorf was opened on 2 August 1839, less than four years after the Nuremberg–Fürth railway, the first German railway, and was the seventh railway on German territory. To this end, open and closed carriages and wagons were delivered by Waggonfabrik Talbot of Aachen using road transport at the beginning of the year. Another section from Müngersdorf to Lövenich was opened on 2 July 1840. The last section from Lövenich to Aachen was opened on 1 September 1841 with an inaugural trip from Cologne to Aachen and back, during which a banquet for 360 invited guests was held. Regular passenger services on the whole route commenced on 6 September 1841. A panel on the east side of Düren station still marks this event.
With the connection of the line from Belgium, a special train ran from Antwerp to Cologne on 15 October 1843. This made the line between Cologne and Aachen part of the world's first cross-border railway. The Belgian railways were connected to the French railway network in 1845, so the Cologne-Aachen line handled traffic to and from France.
Operations until the First World War
Initially, the line was single-track and the timetable was set up so that trains leaving from Aachen and Cologne crossed at the multi-track Düren station. After the line on the Belgian side had been duplicated, the Rhenish Railway Company decided to duplicate the entire line in 1844. According to a report by Gustav von Mevissen, the president of the Rhenish Railway Company on 20 May 1845, the volume of traffic on the line between Cologne and Aachen exceeded the expectations of the planners in the early years. The passenger traffic was one of the largest in Prussia and the freight traffic was "the highest of all continental railways". Freight traffic exceeded passenger traffic in 1847. Work on the Aachen–Eschweiler section is documented as starting in 1848 and was completed in 1852. The Rhenish Railway Company covered the cost by issuing shares and taking out loans. During the German revolutions of 1848–1849, the Cologne–Aachen railway was used for occasional arms shipments.
Numerous factories were soon established along the line and coal mining was also important from the start. The Eschweiler Mining Association (Eschweiler Bergwerks-Verein) established coal storage at the stations of Aachen, Düren and Cologne immediately after the opening of a coal loading track. As a result of the opening of the line, the EBV's transport costs fell by two-thirds and contracts were also concluded with the Rhenish Railway Company for coal deliveries to supply its steam locomotives. Every second freight train on the Cologne–Aachen line transported coal from the Aachen coalfield in 1847. The coal from the individual mines was originally carried to the railway line by horsecars on field railway tracks, but were increasingly replaced by standard gauge steam trains. The Reserve colliery (Grube Reserve) was connected to the railway line between Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof and Nothberg in 1865 and the Mariagrube-Stolberg railway was opened in 1870.
First World War and the Occupation
The Cologne–Aachen railway also became increasingly strategic for military traffic to Belgium and for connecting the strategically important Vennbahn. Numerous improvements were carried out from 1912 to 1914 to improve the performance of the line, including the upgrade of tracks and the establishment of an overtaking loop in Derichsweiler. Quadruplication between Langerwehe and Nothberg was planned in 1914, but this was prevented by the outbreak of the First World War. During the war, the railway was used to transport troops and supplies to the western front. After the German declaration of war on France on 3 August 1914, the line was closed to civilian traffic and only used for the transport of troops. Regular traffic resumed in mid-September. The marshalling yard in Düren was extended for military reasons as late as 1917.
After the First World War, the Cologne–Aachen railway was located in the French occupation zone. France intended to transport raw materials via this line from the Ruhr, which was also occupied, but the German railway workers refused to work with them as passive resistance. During the occupation, the line was blocked to regular traffic several times so that French crews could operate coal trains from the Ruhr to France without having to observe German signalling and rail regulations. Occasional acts of sabotage to prevent these operations were mostly unsuccessful. The line was returned to German control with the end of the occupation of the Rhineland.
The Buir rail accident occurred between Düren and Horrem on 25 August 1929, resulting in 14 dead and 43 people injured. Due to construction work, trains towards Cologne had to be diverted on the wrong line and the affected points should have been operated at . Due to a mistake on the part of the dispatcher, the Paris–Warsaw express ran over these points at full speed and derailed.
Second World War
The Cologne–Aachen railway was used for military purposes again during the Battle of France. Trains carrying troops and war equipment ran over the line. During the war, the line was a frequent target of air raids, causing damage particularly in Aachen and Cologne. The last through train from Aachen to Cologne ran on 12 September 1944. A refugee train from Eschweiler was strafed on 15 September 1944. The locomotive of a passenger train occupied by about 200 was attacked, so it stopped at Hücheln near Langerwehe. Subsequently, a train formed of locked freight wagons was attacked with bombs and gunfire. About 80 people died in the process. Rail traffic from Eschweiler was discontinued on that day. Rail traffic from Düren was discontinued after the air raid on Düren on 16 November 1944. When German troops withdrew, they blew up bridges, such as parts of the Burtscheid Viaduct and the Three Arch Bridge (Dreibogenbrücke).
Postwar period
After the withdrawal of German troops, Allied troops gradually took over the towns along the line and restored operations, initially on one track. The first passenger trains ran from Aachen to Düren on 10 September 1945. A bus service between Düren and Cologne was temporarily established in January 1946. Operations were resumed on the whole line on 15 May 1946. Immediately after the line was restored to traffic, the volume of traffic was very high. On the one hand, there was a lack of alternative means of transport, such as trucks and private cars, on the other hand the number of passengers rose due to the return of soldiers, Heimatvertriebene ("homeland expellees") and Hamsterfahrten ("hamster trips", that is travel by townspeople to the countryside to barter for food). It was announced on 18 November 1947 that services would be severely limited due to a coal shortage.
The most significant single structure of this line was the -long Königsdorf Tunnel, which was demolished in 1954. A serious railway accident occurred in the resulting cutting on 27 May 1983 when an express crashed into a landslide at a speed of after heavy rainfall. Seven people died and 23 were injured. The cutting at Königsdorf was widened for the quadruplication of the line in 2000.
After the electrification of the federal German network reached Cologne from the south in the late 1950s, the Cologne–Aachen route was also electrified. This involved the conversion of several tunnels into cuttings. Due to the different power system of the Belgian State Railways, Aachen Hauptbahnhof was upgraded to become a system change station, the first (and for 42 years the only place) where the German and Belgian rail electrification systems met directly. With the change of timetable in May 1966, electric train operations commenced on the Cologne–Aachen–Liège route, using the standard Belgium system (3000 V DC) from Aachen. (Liège had been accessible for electric operations from Brussels since 1955.) At that time, Belgium already had a multi-system locomotive. In the autumn of 1966, DB also received its first multi-system locomotives, which could run under both the German and Belgian electric systems, but did not prove themselves, so that ultimately only some of the international express trains were hauled with Belgian multi-system locomotives and the others still had to change locomotive in Aachen until the 1990s.
With the dual-class Intercity system of DB introduced in 1979, the line benefitted at the edges of the day: a morning IC service from Cologne to Hamburg already started in Aachen, stopping in Düren, and connected in Cologne to become part of the IC regular interval pattern. It was given the name Karolinger (after Charlemagne) and returned from Hamburg to Aachen in the evening and remained a constant in the timetable for over two decades. A real cyclical service pattern did not develop between Cologne and Aachen until 1984, when the Belgian State Railways introduced its new nationwide timetable concept, which included a service every two hours from Cologne via Aachen and Brussels to Ostend, which was operated with air-conditioned Eurofima coaches. The rest of the services operated, on the other hand, was only switched to regular intervals when the regional rail regular interval timetable was established in 1991.
Line upgrade
The line is to be upgraded at a total cost of €952 million (as of 2013). The first and third of three sections designated under this project have been completed. The planning approval procedure for the second section, which includes passing tracks and increased speeds, was initiated at the Federal Railway Authority in August 2014. The works are divided into six phases of construction with commissioning due in the second quarter of 2020. Preparatory work began in June 2018.
Planning
The Cologne–Aachen line was already included in the Bundesverkehrswegeplan (Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan) of 1973 as one of eight planned upgraded lines (Ausbaustrecken) in the field of railways. After the development project was not included in the Koordiniertes Investitionsprogramm für die Bundesverkehrswege (coordinated investment program) of 1977, it was listed in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 1980 as a project to be completed by 1990 (stage I). The line was also included in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 1985.
Planning for the upgrade between Cologne and Aachen started in 1988. In November 1989, the transport ministers of the countries involved in the PBKA project agreed on a schedule according to which the line would be completed in 1995. The project was also included in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan of 1992. In 1992, it was planned to complete work by 1997. Of the estimated cost of DM 1.1 billion, around DM 800 million was to be allocated to the section between Cologne and Düren, half of which would be provided by the federal government and half would be funded under the municipal transport finance law (Gemeindeverkehrsfinanzierungsgesetz). Around DM 150 million (as of 1990) would be allocated to the section west of Düren.
The upgraded line project and the construction of a new Cologne–Horrem–Düren S-Bahn line (S 12 and S 13) on its own track were planned together.
The PBKA project is a European railway project that is connecting the cities of Paris, Brussels, Cologne and Amsterdam with high-speed lines. The project is funded by the EU as part of the TEN initiative under the acronym PBKAL (Paris, Brussels, Cologne, Amsterdam, London). This line described here was to be upgraded for high-speed traffic and upgraded for around €950 million. The timing of the completion of this project is open.
Reconstruction measures
The construction work began with a symbolic ramming on 22 October 1997. Among the guests of this event for the construction of section 1 (triangular junction near Cologne station) were Federal Minister of Transport Wissmann and state minister of transport Clement.
According to the then planning two new tracks would first be built between Cologne and Düren for the high-speed and the existing line would be upgraded for the S-Bahn line at a cost of DM 1.1 billion. More than 80 percent of the costs would be covered by the federal government and the rest by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Completion was expected in May 2002.
By the end of 2002, the existing line between Cologne and Düren had gained one or two more tracks and been upgraded to a high-speed line. Since 14 December 2003, the mainline tracks on this -long section can be operated at up to . All stations on this section of the line have been rebuilt and some of them have been converted into S-Bahn only stations.
The S-Bahn started operating at the timetable change in December 2002 on the S-Bahn tracks, which are now operationally separated from the main line. The tracks on the high-speed line are used by regional and international express train services. Until the opening of the Cologne/Bonn Airport station in mid-2004, line S13 of the Cologne S-Bahn (the southern part of the Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn) operated to Düren, but since then line S12 has run from Au (Sieg) via Hennef, Troisdorf and Cologne to Düren. Köln-Weiden West station, which serves as a link to Cologne Stadtbahn line 1, was opened on 28 May 2006. In particular, it is intended to facilitate arrivals and departures at events in the RheinEnergieStadion. The single-track S-Bahn line was duplicated over a length of between Buir and Sindorf to allow the equalisation of S-Bahn frequencies between Düren and Cologne. At night, the S13 runs beyond Horrem to Aachen and back. This gives the region a better connection to Cologne/Bonn Airport.
Around 2002 the line was used by around 150 passenger and 70 freight trains per day.
In mid-2003, the ICE S reached a speed of on the newly built high-speed section as part of approval and acceptance tests.
Development since 2003
The long-distance pair of tracks is designed for shared use by long-distance passenger and freight traffic from Ehrenfeld freight yard (line-kilometre 6) towards Aachen. The S-Bahn section between Cologne and Sindorf also has two tracks. Continuing towards Düren, single-track sections alternate with double-track passing sections. The entrance to Düren station (from Merzenich station) is single-track. The long-distance tracks are designed for operations at and the S-Bahn tracks for . From Merzenich station east of Düren (line-kilometre 34.480), the design speed of the long-distance tracks is , from line-kilometre 38.0 it is and from line-kilometre 39.6 it is . The S-Bahn was designed for a 20-minute cycle (during peak hour) with the possibility of shorter cycles. 53 S-Bahn trips per day and direction were planned. Regional trains running on the long-distance tracks between Cologne and Düren still stop in Horrem and Cologne-Ehrenfeld. No plans were made to run the S 6 to Horrem and thus create a ten-minute cycle between Horrem and Cologne.
In a second construction phase, the section between Düren and Langerwehe is to be upgraded for speeds of up to . The subsequent section via Eschweiler to Aachen is to be upgraded for . Currently, speeds of up to are possible between Eschweiler and Stolberg, although sometimes only up to . Top speeds of are already permitted on the rest of the line. It should be possible for trains to pass through Düren station at after completion of the second stage of construction. In the final state, it should be possible to run at a minimum of over an almost -long section between Cologne and Langerwehe.
The investment framework plan for federal transport infrastructure of 2010 (Investitionsrahmenplan bis 2010 für die Verkehrsinfrastruktur des Bundes) specified total costs of €951.7 million (as of 2006) for new construction and upgrading between Cologne and the German-Belgian border (including the Busch Tunnel). €769.8 million of this was spent up to 2005. Federal funds totaling €88.9 million were invested between 2006 and 2010. Beyond this period, there is a need for finance of €93.0 million (federal funds from 2011, own funds of Deutsche Bahn and contributions from third parties from 2006).
In November 2008, additional investments in the Aachen–Stolberg–Eschweiler section were approved as part of an economic stimulus package. It was planned that the Aachen-Rothe Erde–Stolberg section would be partially upgraded to three tracks from 2010. This project has not yet been implemented. Only the Aachen-Rothe Erde station has been modernised. Due to the construction delay, the European Commission cut funding for the project by €2.9 million at the end of 2010. In June 2010, EVS Euregio Verkehrsschienennetz (EVS) acquired Stolberger Hauptbahnhof including the entrance building. Only the dispatcher signal box and the mainline through tracks remained the property of Deutsche Bahn. The EVS started the reconstruction of Stolberg Hauptbahnhof in 2012 and the height of the main platform was increased to 760 millimetres.
In 2017, Deutsche Bahn began construction work on the island platform on the mainline through tracks at Stolberger Hauptbahnhof. The existing underpass is to be replaced by an overpass with lifts. The work was expected to take until the middle of 2019. Construction work on the Upgraded line 4, II. upgrade phase, 1. construction stage project at Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof began in 2018. Platforms at the Hauptbahnhof have been raised to and barrier-free access has been created to the island platform via lifts and the two passing tracks (platform 1 and 4) have been extended to a useful length of . The relay interlocking has been replaced by connecting the station to a computer-based interlocking and the last level crossing between Cologne and Aachen at Jägerspfad in Eschweiler is to be closed. Work in Aachen should also begin in 2019. In the district of Eilendorf, the third track is to be extended by about between Eilendorf and the former Aachen-Rothe Erde freight yard. Measures for noise and vibration protection are also planned.
The line between Stolberg Hauptbahnhof and Aachen Hauptbahnhof was declared an overloaded railway on 11 November 2019.
Route description
Cologne Hauptbahnhof
The original starting point of the Cologne–Aachen railway was a terminal station of the Rhenish Railway Company (Rheinische Eisenbahn). When the Cathedral Bridge made it possible for trains to cross the Rhine in 1859, the line ran to the Centralbahnhof (central station). This was a combined terminus and through station. The trains of the Rhenish Railway Company from Aachen ended at four terminal tracks. Two thoroughfares mainly served trains of the Cologne-Minden Railway Company (Cöln-Mindener Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft). Today's Cologne Hauptbahnhof (main station) was built from 1892 to 1894 because the capacity of the station was no longer able to cope with the increased traffic. The station was badly damaged during the Second World War and the station building had to be demolished and replaced by a new building. Around 1990, two tracks were added on the north side for S-Bahn traffic, which are independent of the rest of the infrastructure. Today's station is one of the busiest stations in Germany because all trains that use the Cologne–Aachen high-speed line stop here.
Köln Hansaring station
The halt (Haltepunkt, technically a station without points) of Köln Hansaring, which is named after the ring road it lies above, was opened at line-km 0.8 (on this line, distance from Cologne Hauptbahnhof) at the same time as the construction of two additional S-Bahn tracks at Cologne Hauptbahnhof and on the Hohenzollern Bridge in 1990. It is connected to the Cologne Stadtbahn station of the same name, which was opened in 1974, and has an island platform and is served by all S-Bahn trains that pass through the Hauptbahnhof, as well as Regionalbahn line RB 25 (Oberbergische Bahn), which is to be converted to an S-Bahn line.
Immediately behind the stop is the Cologne ICE workshop (Bahnbetriebswerk Köln), which is bypassed to the north by mainline trains running towards Aachen and the S-Bahn line and to the south by mainline trains running towards Cologne Hauptbahnhof. The S-Bahn line, which runs north of the tracks for other traffic near Cologne Hauptbahnhof, crosses to the south over a flyover between Köln Hansaring and Köln-Ehrenfeld and it remains to the south to its end in Düren.
Köln-Ehrenfeld station
Köln-Ehrenfeld station was built at line-km 3.7 between Cologne and Müngersdorf with the construction of the first section in 1839. Köln-Ehrenfeld station has two platforms with four platform tracks, to the north of which there are two tracks without a platform for through passenger and freight trains. Tracks 1 and 2 are used for S-Bahn traffic, tracks 3 and 4 for regional traffic. Cologne-Ehrenfeld is a scheduled stop for all regional services passing through it. Not far from the station is the Venloer Straße/Gürtel underground station of the Cologne Stadtbahn. The Cologne-Aachen high-speed railway crosses Ehrenfeldgürtel (Ehrenfeld belt), part of the Cologne ring road, at Köln-Ehrenfeld Cologne station.
In and around Köln-Ehrenfeld station, the railway runs on a viaduct. Some arches of this viaduct were formerly used as storage space, others were neglected. There were also problems with moisture penetration. The arches were to be refurbished in 2015, with self-supporting inner shells. Subsequently, a private investor was to create a shopping mile with restaurants. There is currently a discotheque in three of the arches.
Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark station
The halt of Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark is located in the east of Cologne's Müngersdorf district at line-km 5.9. It was established with the construction of the S-Bahn to Düren in 2002. The station has a partially covered island platform, which is connected by two sets of stairs and a lift to the street below, on which there is a Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe (Cologne Transport) bus stop.
Belvedere station
The first section of the Cologne–Aachen line, which was opened on 2 August 1839, ran to Müngersdorf, with the terminus of the line at Belvedere station (line-km 7.0) until the opening of Lövenich station. For excursion guests from downtown Cologne, a small station building that housed a restaurant was built on a hill north of the cutting through which the line ran. With the extension of the line to Aachen, Müngersdorf station, the “Belvedere house”, became less and less important. The station was never very important for operations and was closed before 1892. Today there are no operating facilities at the station. The station building, which has meanwhile been used as a residential building, still exists and is listed as the "oldest station in Germany in its original form" in the Cologne heritage list.
Lövenich station
Köln-Lövenich station was opened on 2 July 1840 with the second phase of construction of the line at line-km 9.0 and was the western terminus of the line for about a year. In 2002, an S-Bahn stop was built west of the station at . At the same time, the former Cologne-Lövenich station was dismantled and is now used only for passing loops. The S-Bahn stop has an island platform between the S-Bahn tracks.
Köln-Weiden West station
The halt of Köln-Weiden West was built in 2006 in the run-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup at line-km 11.1. At the same time, line 1 of the Cologne Stadtbahn was extended by about to the west and a new terminus was built with four tracks. The Cologne–Aachen line in Weiden West is located on an embankment. The Stadtbahn station is on ground level just south of the line, enabling direct interchange.
Frechen-Königsdorf station
With the extension of the line to Aachen in 1841, Großkönigsdorf station was established at line-km 13.8 km.
In 2000 the station was renamed Frechen-Königsdorf and in 2002 it was converted into an S-Bahn stop as part of the line upgrade. The station has an island platform and is connected to a pedestrian bridge running over the tracks. The station building north of the railway line still exists, but no longer has a platform and is currently used as a taxi control centre.
Königsdorf Tunnel
Königsdorf Tunnel was a -long tunnel between Großkönigsdorf and Horrem at line-km 15.0. Construction began in 1837 and was completed in 1841. Up to 2,000 workers were employed in its construction. When it opened, the tunnel was the longest railway tunnel in Europe. The maximum coverage of the tunnel was 35 metres. Chimneys were built at this height to remove the smoke caused by steam locomotives.
The masonry was continuously damaged by seepage and exhaust gases from the steam locomotives, so that the tunnel was in great need of restoration at the beginning of the 1930s. The tunnel was not exactly straight when built, so over time work was carried out to straighten it, which further reduced its stability. Refurbishment began in 1937, but was never completed due to the Second World War. After parts of the tunnel wall flaked off in early 1954 and protruded into the clearance profile, a third track was laid in the middle of the tunnel to make room for supporting scaffolding. In March 1954 the speed limit in the tunnel was . Because the electrification of the railway line was planned anyway, requiring an expansion of the structure gauge of the tunnel for the overhead wire, it was considered necessary to dismantle the tunnel and convert it into a cutting. By December 1955, 4 million cubic metres of soil had been excavated using bucket chain excavators and transported via a conveyor belt to a pit at a nearby briquette factory. At the same time, the Horrem Bridge was built for the North-South Railway from Rheinbraun (now part of RWE Power). The cutting was widened with the help of sheet piling and the line was raised to allow for the laying of two additional tracks for the S-Bahn in 2002. Today there is nothing left of the former tunnel. Parts of the east portal are commemorated.
Horrem station
Horrem station was opened in 1841 at line-km 18.7. It was converted into an S-Bahn station in 2002. The Erft Railway branches off from the Cologne-Aachen high-speed line at the station. It has two island platform tracks for operations on the Erft Railway and four platform tracks and three through tracks for operations on the high-speed line. Until 2001, Horrem station had a freight yard to its north. There are commuter parking spaces in this area. The forecourt and entrance building were fundamentally rebuilt from 2010 to 2014. A "green station" was built, with CO2-neutral operations. This involved the installation of photovoltaic and geothermal systems and the use of ecological building materials. There are now a waiting room, a kiosk and a bookshop in the entrance building.
There is a tectonic fault in the area of Horrem station. The long-distance tracks pass over this on a special structure that is underground and can hydraulically compensate for earth movements. The other tracks have special rail joints at this point.
Sindorf station
Sindorf station was opened at line-km 22.4 between Dorsfeld and Horrem in 1912. The station had a platform north and south of the old line. The former Dorsfeld station was abandoned at the same time. Dorsfeld was a junction for sidings to the nearby gravel pits. Dorsfeld station became the location of overtaking loops for freight traffic with the opening of the parallel S-Bahn line in 2002. The Blatzheim block post was located at line-km 25.8 from 1952 to 1966. With the commissioning of the S-Bahn line, Sindorf station was also relocated to line-km 21.4 and redesignated as a halt. The station is in the south-east of the Kerpen district of Sindorf and has a side platform on the south side of the S-Bahn line. This is bounded to the south by a noise barrier and the entrances and exits are at the ends of the platform.
Buir station
Buir station had two platform tracks at an island platform and a passing track from its construction at line-km 30.3 in 1841 to the reconstruction of the line in 2002. Since the upgrade of the line, the tracks used by timetable route 480 and two S-Bahn lines have run through the station. A malt factory located next to the station formerly had a siding.
While all of the S-Bahn only stations on the upgraded line have an island platform except for Sindorf station (single side platform), Buir station has two side platforms north and south of the S-Bahn tracks. The northern side platform is separated from the mainline tracks by a noise barrier. Access to the northern platform is via an underpass. In the Buir area, the Cologne–Aachen line runs for about next to the Hambach lignite mine railway and autobahn 4.
Merzenich station
There was a station in the Merzenich area from 1841 to 1880 at line-km 35.0 at the site of the former junction of the Düren–Neuss railway. This was never served by trains on the Cologne–Aachen line. The new Merzenich station opened on 29 April 2003 and put into operation for the S-Bahn. It has an island platform and a large commuter parking area. It is served by lines S 13 and S 19 and can be reached using tickets issued by both the Aachener Verkehrsverbund (Aachen Transport Association) and the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Sieg (Rhine-Sieg Transport Association). Overtaking loops were also built at line-km 36.7 as part of the upgrade of the line.
Düren station
Düren station was opened in 1841 at line-km 39.2 and soon developed into a hub for rail transport. By 1900, the Düren–Heimbach, Jülich–Düren, Düren–Neuss and Düren–Euskirchen lines had been established with Düren as the starting point. From 1933 to 1986 there was a motive power depot (Bahnbetriebswerk) in Düren. The entrance building was opened in 1874 and, unlike the city centre of Düren, was not destroyed in the air raid of 16 November 1944. It is located as an island station (Inselbahnhof) between the tracks for traffic to Jülich to the north and the tracks of the Cologne–Aachen line to the south. Regional express trains towards Aachen stop at the home platform (platform 1). The platforms for regional express trains and S-Bahn trains running towards Cologne and trains of the Euregiobahn towards Aachen can be reached via an underpass. Some long-distance trains also stop in Düren. Although there are other stations in the area of the city of Düren, Düren station does not bear the designation of Hauptbahnhof (main station), unlike most main stations in German towns with several stations.
Triangular Truss bridge
The Cologne–Aachen line crosses the Rur river over the Triangular Truss bridge (Dreigurtbrücke) at line-km 39.8. The bridge has a span of 78 metres and was built from 1928 to 1929 as a replacement for a brick bridge built with the original railway. The structure, which is now a listed building, is currently in a dilapidated condition. The economics of its renovation are doubtful.
Hubertushof and Gürzenich
The Hubertushof connection point as required (Bedarfsanschlussstelle) is located at line-km 41.3. This junction served the Bundeswehr (federal defence forces) for its premises in the Hürtgenwald (Gürzenicher Bruch). The Gürzenich block post was also located there from 1925 to 1952. About a kilometre south of the village, but still part of Gürzenich, there is a Bundeswehr depot where weapons and material were stored mainly for the Air Force airbase in Nörvenich, about away. The 150-hectare depot was closed in 2009.
Guerzenich also had a freight yard. The branch line to the freight yard branched off from the tram line to Guerzenich on today's Papiermühle (formerly Mühlenweg). There was a connecting track to the Distelrath–Schneidhausen railway (Ringbahn) at Breuer's Häuschen. The Gürzenich freight yard had a loading and transfer track and there was a connection to the Düren–Aachen railway. All freight traffic towards Rölsdorf and Lendersdorf was handled on this track from 1944 until the Rur Bridge of the Ringbahn was restored.
Derichsweiler and Merode
Until November 2002, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were located at line-km 44.3. It was a halt for passenger traffic from 1843 to 1928. When this section of the line was converted to computer-based interlocking technology, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were abandoned and the points and the catenary on the passing tracks were dismantled. The western part of the former yard is now controlled from the Langerwehe electronic signalling control centre, while the eastern part is controlled from Düren. The former signal box building has been preserved, but is no longer used. The Merode block post was established at line-km 46.5 in 1965/1966.
Langerwehe station
Langerwehe station (line-km 48.9) has two platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen line with side platforms north and south of the two through line tracks. The Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line, built in 2009, ends in Langerwehe. Euregiobahn trains from Eschweiler-Weisweiler arrive at a third platform built in 2009. The through platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen railway are used by Regional-Express services and Euregiobahn trains that are bound for Düren.
The two-storey station building dates from the time the line was built (1841) and was enlarged by two one-storey extensions at the beginning of the 20th century. As the platforms were moved a few metres to the west during the reconstruction of the line around 2000, the entrance building now has no direct access to the platform.
Nothberg station
The halt of Nothberg was built in 1905 at the southern end of the Eschweiler district of Nothberg at line-km 54.1. It had two side platforms and a small building with a ticket office until the 1970s. A road underpass west of the halt had to be used to connect the platforms. Recently, Nothberg station was only served by the Rhein-Sieg-Express every hour. When the new Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line went into operation in 2009, Nothberg station on the Cologne–Aachen railway was closed due to the low number of passengers and replaced by the Eschweiler-Nothberg Euregiobahn station. The platforms and a small parking lot at the western end still exist. Signs forbid entry to the closed station.
A siding branched off to the Reserve colliery between Nothberg station and Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof from 1864. The coal mined there was loaded onto trains at a yard at the mine site. After the coal mining ended, the colliery buildings including the siding were demolished. However, its course can still be seen in modern satellite images.
The Hücheln block post was built at line-km 52.0 in 1965/1966.
Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof
Since 1841, Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof has been located at line-km 56.9 in the Röthgen district of Eschweiler and has four tracks, three of which are platform tracks with the house platform (next to the entrance building) as a side platform and an island platform. The station is served by the NRW-Express and the Rhein-Sieg-Express. The Euregiobahn service stops instead at the Eschweiler Talbahnhof (valley station) on the Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway. The entrance building was built in 1860 and is now owned by the city of Eschweiler. A kiosk, a travel agency and a dental practice are located in the entrance building. In the past, the station was served by a line of the Aachen Tramway and handled freight. The tram line was discontinued in 1954 and general freight operations ended in 1984. The goods shed was replaced by a parking lot in 2008. The station is currently being renovated because it is not barrier-free due to its -high platforms and lack of lifts.
Ichenberg Tunnel
The Ichenberg tunnel is located at line-km 57.0 immediately west of Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof and is now 95 metres long. During the Second World War, it was blown up by retreating Wehrmacht troops and rebuilt by American pioneers. Since the cross-section of the tunnel was too narrow for the upcoming electrification, the tunnel was opened out for a length of 255 metres in 1962 and the modern shorter tunnel was rebuilt in concrete.
Three Arch bridge
The railway line crosses the Inde river and the Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway over the Three Arch bridge (Dreibogenbrücke) (line-km 57.9). The bridge is built of brick and has existed since the opening of the railway in 1841. In the Second World War, an arch was blown up and initially replaced by American pioneers with a temporary steel structure and then restored to its original design in 1950.
Stolberg Hauptbahnhof
Due to the changes in the route as a result of the railway dispute, Stolberg Hauptbahnhof was built in 1841, not in the centre of the city of Stolberg, but three kilometres north of Stolberg in what was then part of Eschweiler. Due to the location outside the centre of the town at line-km 60.3, there were large open areas that made it possible to develop Stolberg Hauptbahnhof into a railway junction. The Mönchengladbach–Stolberg, Stolberg–Walheim, Stolberg–Herzogenrath lines and the now closed Stolberg–Münsterbusch and Stolberg–Kohlscheid lines were built by 1900, all starting from Stolberg Hauptbahnhof. The entrance building was completed in 1888. Due to its location at the divergence of the Cologne–Aachen and the Stolberg–Walheim lines, Stolberg Hbf is a wedge-shaped station (Keilbahnhof). Freight tracks were built to the west, south and east of the station, which in the meantime were connected to each other by a connecting railway that used a bridge structure. A locomotive depot with a roundhouse was built south of the station. Of these facilities, only the freight tracks east of the station are still used today.
Stolberger Hauptbahnhof has three platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen line. The central platform is used for traffic with Regional-Express and Euregiobahn services to Aachen and the house platform for Euregiobahn services from Aachen. The station building was acquired in 2010 by EVS Euregio Verkehrsschienennetz, which renovated it for €3 million and converted it into a control centre. There is now a signal box for the lines maintained by EVS and used by the Euregiobahn.
Eilendorf Tunnel and Nirm Tunnel
A -long tunnel called the Nirmer Tunnel (Nirm Tunnel) was built between Stolberg and the location of modern Eilendorf at line-km 63.6 during the construction of the line and completed in 1841. Both miners from Eschweiler and workers from the Leipzig–Dresden railway were employed in the construction of the tunnel, using a method known as core construction (Kernbauweise—using three narrow tunnels to build the walls of the final tunnel before the tunnel core was removed). There were eight chimneys above the tunnel for the extraction of smoke produced by the steam locomotives. During the Second World War a bunker was built over the west portal. In 1963, it became clear that the cross-section of the tunnel, like the Königsdorf Tunnel and the Ichenberg Tunnel, was too narrow to allow the catenary to be installed. Therefore, the Nirm tunnel was partially opened out and converted into two smaller tunnels lined with concrete. The western tunnel is the Eilendorf Tunnel with a length of 357 metres (line-km 63.9) and the eastern tunnel is the Nirm Tunnel with a length of 125 metres. Although the two newly constructed tunnels were designed for speeds of up to and high-speed tests had been carried out with class E 03 locomotives, the permissible top speed today is .
From 1944 to 1986, the Nirm block post was located at line-km 63.2.
Eilendorf station
The halt of Eilendorf was opened at line-km 64.9 as Nirm halt along with the line on 1 September 1841. It later closed but reopened in 1897. In 1920, an entrance building was built, which was demolished in the 1980s. By 1963, Nirm had an island platform and a passing track. During the electrification of the line, the halt was renamed Eilendorf, the passing track was dismantled and two side platforms, which still exist, were built. In 2018, the platforms had a height of and were therefore below the boarding height of the rail vehicles operated, which prevented barrier-free entry. In 2018, the platforms were raised to to enable level, barrier-free entry into the trains. The platforms, which were previously over long, were shortened to . There is no connection between the two platforms with a bridge or a tunnel; instead a road bridge to the west or an underpass to the east must be used, both of which require several hundred metres of walking. Therefore, passengers often cross the tracks without authorisation.
Aachen-Rothe Erde station
Aachen-Rothe Erde station was built in 1875 as an interchange station for the Haaren–Aachen-Rothe Erde railway at line-km 68.2. From 1880 it was also used in passenger transport. The Vennbahn, which branched off the Cologne–Aachen railway in Rothe Erde was opened in 1885. The station received a locomotive depot and the freight yard was expanded. The current station building has existed since 1892 and is built into the railway embankment. After the Second World War, the connection with the Vennbahn and parts of the freight yard were closed. Today there is a shopping centre in the area. The passenger station has a platform with one-way tracks running towards Aachen and Cologne. To the east of this is a carriage yard for Euregiobahn railcars and for regional express sets. A branch line ran to the Aachen freight yard (Moltkebahnhof) from Rothe Erde station.
Aachen freight yard
Aachen freight yard, also known as the Moltkebahnhof (Moltke station) due to its location on Moltkestrasse (Moltke street), was a freight yard in the south of the city of Aachen, which was connected via a branch line to the Cologne–Aachen railway. The freight yard was opened in 1895, but freight traffic decreased from the mid-1960s, so that the freight yard was closed in the mid-1990s. Today there are, among other things, a park and a comprehensive school on the site.
Burtscheid Viaduct
Burtscheid Viaduct was built from 1838 to 1840 according to plans by engineers Wittfeld and Pickel. The originally -long viaduct was partially blown up during the Second World War and rebuilt. It now has a length of . A reinforced concrete pavement slab was added in the 1960s, and it was renovated from 2007 to 2009. Burtscheid Viaduct has two tracks. Aachen Hauptbahnhof is directly to its west.
Aachen Hauptbahnhof
The Rhenish Railway Company opened the Rheinischen Bahnhof (Rhenish station) as the terminus of the Cologne–Aachen railway (line-km 70.2) in 1841. The current entrance building and the station concourse date from 1905 when the station was rebuilt as part of its merger with Aachen Marschierthor station, the terminus of the Aachen–Mönchengladbach railway. In the run-up to the electrification of the station, the tracks within the station hall were rearranged in 1966. Since then, Aachen Hauptbahnhof has had nine platform tracks, four of which are designed to enable the transition between electrical systems: the overhead lines can be switched to use either the 15 kV/16.7 Hz AC used in Germany or the 3 kV DC used in Belgium. A 3-S-Zentrale (a DB Station&Service station control centres) has been located in the entrance building since 2003.
All local and long-distance trains stop at Aachen Hauptbahnhof. With the exception of ICE International, Thalys and Euregiobahn services, all trains start and end here. The rolling stock of the NRW-Express, the Rhein-Sieg-Express and Euregiobahn are maintained in a DB Regio NRW depot to the west of the station.
Rolling stock and operations
The Rhenish Railway Company started operations on the section to Müngersdorf with four steam locomotives, three of which were manufactured in England. The Carolus Magnus was built by the newly founded Dobbs & Poensgen locomotive factory in Aachen, but it was prone to failure and had to be rebuilt. It was only used to haul work trains and was sold early. The 10 locomotives were estimated to have operated a total at 5361 Prussian miles () in 1841. After the opening of the whole line, the number of locomotives used grew to a total of 21.
The original timetable provided three passenger trains (morning, noon and evening) between Cologne and Aachen per day and direction. Due to the line being single-track initially, trains were scheduled to cross in Düren. The two morning trains started or ended in Herbesthal. Passenger trains initially served all stops on the way until a pair of express trains was introduced between Cologne and Herbesthal in 1857. The first night train ran on the railway in May 1859. The first trains from Cologne to Paris were initially unlit, but lamps were eventually attached to the locomotives after an accident at a level crossing.
Prussian state railways
Under the nationalisation policy of Otto von Bismarck, the Cologne–Aachen railway became part of the Prussian state railways (Preußische Staatseisenbahnen). This greatly expanded the connections operated on the line. In 1913, there were also direct through coaches from Aachen via the line to Cologne, Berlin, Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hanover, Kiel, Munich and Wiesbaden. The Ostend–Vienna Express started as a luxury train in 1894 and later operated as an international express. It included coaches that were attached/detached to the Orient-Express and was one of the most important connections between Western Europe and the Balkans. The service only ended in 1993.
Deutsche Bundesbahn
After the Second World War, Deutsche Bundesbahn took over the line that had been operated by Deutsche Reichsbahn from 1920 to 1945. In the first few years, steam locomotives from the Reichsbahn era were predominantly used: class 01 and class 03 locomotives in front of express trains and class 38.10 locomotives in front of other passenger trains. Class 50 and class 55.25 locomotives hauled most freight trains. Individual trains were operated with VT 36.5 diesel railcars. In addition, the line was used by international express trains such as the Ostend–Vienna Express, which took only 1:03 hours from Cologne to Aachen.
In the 1960s and 1970s, several Trans Europ Express train pairs ran on the Cologne–Aachen line. Diesel railcars of class VT 11.5 (e.g. Hamburg–Paris) and trains with French TEE coaches were used. The VT 08 class was used for long-distance express (F) trains. In addition, international expresses hauled by Belgian steam locomotives ran to Cologne. Electrification was completed in 1966, and from then on electric locomotives were mostly used for passenger transport. Mainly class 110 and Belgian multi-system locomotives of class 16 and later also class 18 ran in long-distance transport and initially class 141 were operated in local transport. The new class 184 multi-system locomotives delivered in the autumn of 1966 (also marketed as Europalokomotiven—"European locomotives") were extensively tested in Germany–Belgium traffic, but were only rarely used later because the locomotives often failed due to frequent strong voltage fluctuations in the Belgian overhead line, so from 1971 they were no longer used for passenger services to Belgium and were relocated to the Saarland in 1979. The international daytime passenger services were therefore largely operated from the 1970s to the 1990s with Belgian multi-system locomotives. Locomotives for freight transport were changed in Aachen-West and locomotives for overnight express trains were changed in Aachen Hbf.
Current operations
Passenger services
In long-distance traffic, the Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is operated with ICE International services using class 406 sets and Thalys services using PBKA sets. This offer is supplemented by individual Intercity and Intercity Express services that run once a week and thus create direct connections to/from other regions in Germany at the weekend.
The Regional-Express services RE 1 (NRW-Express) and RE 9 (Rhein-Sieg-Express) serve the entire length of the line hourly and together provide an approximately 30-minute cycle. The NRW-Express is operated with push–pull trains composed of double-deck carriages from Bombardier and class 146.0 locomotives. The Rhein-Sieg-Express is operated with locomotives of class 146.0 or class 111 as well as Talent 2 railcars in coupled sets. Class 120.2 locomotives were also used until 2018.
Between Cologne Hauptbahnhof and Köln-Ehrenfeld, the RE 8 regional express (Rhein-Erft-Express) service is operated with class 425 multiple units and the Regionalbahn RB 27 service (Rhein-Erft-Bahn) with push-pull trains consisting of three double-decker coaches and a locomotive of class 143. Between Cologne and Horrem, the Regionalbahn RB 38 service (Erft-Bahn) is operated with class 644 railcars and S-Bahn services S 13 and S 19 with class 423 multiple units. The S 12 service also runs between Cologne and Düren with class 423 sets.
Euregiobahn services on the section between Aachen Hauptbahnhof and Stolberg Hauptbahnhof are operated with Bombardier Talent DMUs every 30 minutes in coupled sets on weekdays and in single sets on Sundays. The Euregiobahn services leave the Cologne–Aachen line between Stolberg and Langerwehe and return to Langerwehe and Düren, running hourly.
Freight transport
The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is used by numerous freight trains due to its location between the Köln-Eifeltor freight yard on the West Rhine railway and Aachen West, the eastern end of the Aachen–Tongeren railway. Much of the freight traffic is carried by DB Cargo and Cobra (Corridor Operations Belgium Rail), a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn, and SNCB. Other regular services are a SBB Cargo Combined transport train hauled by TRAXX locomotives and freight trains operated by Crossrail (now part of Cargologic) and RTB Cargo, which uses diesel-hauled goods exchange trains (Übergabegüterzuge) from Düren to Stolberg and back. The line is also used by freight trains to and from Mönchengladbach on the section between the Cologne-Ehrenfeld and Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark stations.
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
Trainspotting Bükkes: Cologne - Aachen - Brussels
High-speed railway lines in Germany
Transport in Cologne
Aachen
Railway lines in North Rhine-Westphalia
Railway lines opened in 1839
1839 establishments in Prussia
Buildings and structures in Rhein-Erft-Kreis
Buildings and structures in Düren (district)
Eschweiler
Stolberg (Rhineland)
Frederick William III of Prussia |
573826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimini | Bimini | Bimini is the westernmost district of the Bahamas and comprises a chain of islands located about due east of Miami. Bimini is the closest point in the Bahamas to the mainland United States and approximately west-northwest of Nassau. The population is 2,417 as of the 2022 census.
Geography
Bimini has three islands, North Bimini, South Bimini, and East Bimini. The largest islands are North Bimini and South Bimini. The District of Bimini also includes Cay Sal Bank, more than further south, which is geographically not a part of the Bimini Islands but a separate unit. North Bimini is about long and wide. Its main settlement is Alice Town, a collection of shops, restaurants, and bars on a road known as "The King's Highway". The second major road is called Queens Highway and runs almost the length of the island parallel to Kings Highway.
As a low-lying island, rising sea levels may cause the entire island to become submerged.
South Bimini (pop. 182) houses an airstrip, South Bimini Airport, and offers a quiet alternative to the slow bustle of North Bimini. There is a small community of homes on South Bimini known as Port Royale. For many years, South Bimini tourists were limited to boaters because there were few accommodations other than private homes.
Because Bimini is close to Miami, Florida, many American anglers go to the islands by boat to fish or to enjoy the local nightlife. Scuba diving and snorkeling are also popular activities, as there are many shipwrecks in the area, such as the wreck of the , which ran aground in 1926 during a hurricane. The top of the ship is exposed to the air while the bottom half is submerged. Parts of the wreck were stripped over the years and some of the wood was used in the construction of the Compleat Angler Hotel and bar on North Bimini.
History
Bimini is home to several landmarks said to contain mystical properties of obscure origins. Much of the historical data about these places is speculative in nature, and experts in various fields have opined across the full spectrum of explanation. The most contentious of these sites is The Bimini Road. The first inhabitants on the island were the Lucayans, and the name Bimini means "two islands" or "the twins" in the Lucayan language.
During the period of Prohibition in the United States, Bimini was a favorite haven and supply point for the rum-running trade. Some claim that the term "the real McCoy" was applied to the rum provided by William S. McCoy, who used Bimini to transport whiskey to America during the Prohibition, although the phrase pre-dates the Prohibition Era – it is first recorded in the US in 1908 – and the phrase is the subject of numerous fanciful folk etymologies.
Chalk's International Airlines operated seaplane flights between Miami Harbor and the Bahamas from 1917, so the company was an island institution for generations. As goods on the island were expensive because of shipping costs, many locals used Chalk's flights to buy cheaper goods in Florida and take the goods to Bimini.
A seaplane operated by Miami Airways ditched into the sea off the coast of Bimini on March 22, 1922. All five passengers subsequently drowned. A Grumman Turbo Mallard of Flight 101 was en route to Bimini when it crashed on December 19, 2005, killing all 18 passengers and 2 crew; at least eleven of the passengers were Bimini residents.
On January 13, 2006, one of the more famous establishments in Bimini, the Compleat Angler Hotel, was destroyed by fire. The bar is remembered for the photographs and memorabilia of Ernest Hemingway that lined its walls and were lost in the fire, which also took the life of owner Julian Brown.
The final scene of the 1991 film The Silence of the Lambs was shot in Alice Town. The movie's producers thanked the Bahamas Film Production Bureau as well as the district of Bimini in the end credits.
The Fountain of Youth
Juan Ponce de León and his search for the Fountain of Youth included references to Bimini ("Beniny"). Arawak and/or Taíno spoke of a land called Beimini where the fountain could be found. Although the location was erroneously associated with the Bahamas, the natives referred to a location in the Gulf of Honduras. Although de León's expedition brought him to Florida, the fountain was rumored to exist within the shallow pools of South Bimini. Today there is a small freshwater well with a plaque commemorating the Fountain of Youth, on the road leading to the South Bimini Airport.
Found within the brackish mangrove swamp that covers of the shoreline of North Bimini is The Healing Hole, a pool that lies at the end of a network of winding tunnels. During outgoing tides, these channels pump cool, mineral-laden fresh water into the pool. Because this well was carved out of the limestone rock by ground water thousands of years ago it is especially high in calcium and magnesium.
Endemic species
Bimini is home to several unique, endemic and threatened species. The Bimini Boa (Epicrates striatus fosteri), protected by Bahamian law, is the largest of the terrestrial reptiles on Bimini. The Bimini Ameiva (Ameiva auberi richmondi) is a very common, fast-moving lizard on the island. The smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) is one of the rarest fish in the world, sometimes listed as a critically endangered species by conservation groups.
The Bimini Biological Field Station (BBFS) has captured and recorded 13 species of sharks in the shallow waters around Bimini. However, the number of sharks around the island is higher, considering the sharks of the deep waters off Bimini's western shores. Along with the species featured below, the BBFS has witnessed and recorded captures of shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus), bigeye thresher (Alopias superciliosus), spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), and sixgill (Hexanchus sp.) sharks .
Bimini Biological Field Station (Shark Lab)
The Shark Lab is a world-famous facility owned and operated by shark biologist Dr. Samuel Gruber. The Shark Lab offers internships in marine biology to people interested in shark research and the conservation of the ocean's ecosystems. Located on South Bimini Island, it has done much research regarding the lemon shark.
Notable residents
Ernest Hemingway lived on Bimini from 1935 to 1937, staying at the Compleat Angler Hotel. He worked on To Have and Have Not and wrote a few articles, but mostly he fished aboard his boat Pilar, trolling the deep blue offshore waters for marlin, tuna and swordfish. Hemingway was attracted to Bimini by tales of the incredible fishing available in the Gulf Stream, the legendary “river” of warm water that rushes north past the Bahamas. An Atlantic blue marlin with a mass of caught off Bimini allegedly inspired Hemingway to write The Old Man and the Sea and Islands in The Stream.
While not a resident of the islands, Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. visited in 1964 and worked on his Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech while there.
South Bimini was home to Colonel Joseph C. Mackey, the founder of Mackey Airlines, which was later bought by Eastern Airlines. He built a home on the southern tip of South Bimini. This structure would become the Sunshine Inn and is currently a bar and restaurant, though the hotel was damaged by a hurricane and was subsequently demolished.
Among Port Royale's notable residents was Adam Clayton Powell Jr., who was excluded from the U.S. House of Representatives because of allegations that he misappropriated committee funds for personal use. He stayed in Bimini from January 1967 to April 1969 in self-imposed exile until the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the House had acted unconstitutionally when it excluded Powell, a duly elected member. In 1972, Powell died of cancer in Miami. Following his funeral in New York, his ashes were taken to Bimini and scattered in the waters surrounding the islands.
There is rumor of the famed Chicano civil rights lawyer, Oscar Zeta Acosta, of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas fame potentially meeting his end after returning from the island of Bimini to Key Biscayne in 1974 during a failed attempt to smuggle drugs. According to the story told to Hunter S. Thompson, upon their boat nearly reaching the shoreline of the southern tip Key Biscayne, Acosta and his companions were ambushed when they suddenly found themselves surrounded by bright lights from boats that "appeared out of nowhere". Gunfire erupted and one of Acosta's companions was immediately killed by being shot in the head. Acosta, acting quickly, floored the boat's throttle and plowed into and over one of the ambusher's boats and, upon making it to shore, he grabbed a small suitcase likely containing drugs and ran off inland into the island. It is worth noting that the veracity of this story was deemed questionable by Thompson, as he had heard it secondhand from the individual whose boat Acosta had borrowed for the smuggling attempt. This came to represent one of a number of possible Acosta sightings that Thompson had been told of, which he would term "buffalo sightings", from all around the world following Acosta's official disappearance in 1974 under suspicious circumstances.
In May 1987, Colorado Senator Gary Hart's presidential bid was derailed after media reports exposed a relationship with model Donna Rice. A well known photo of Rice sitting on Hart's lap on one of Bimini's docks was published by the National Enquirer after Hart suspended his presidential campaign.
Jody Weech, Miss Commonwealth Bahamas 1992, was from Bimini. She made the Top 10 in the Miss World contest in Sun City, South Africa. She received the title Miss World Caribbean.
Bimini Bay Resort controversy
In May 2008 marine conservationist Jean-Michel Cousteau criticized Bimini Bay Resort, now Resorts World Bimini by Hilton, calling it a "catastrophe" and announcing, "allowing Bimini Bay to continue with phase II would certainly strip this island paradise of its precious natural riches. Over time, visitors and residents alike will suffer the decline of economic, social and environmental prosperity."
See also
Bimini Island Air
Bimini Road
References
Further reading
External links
Bimini Police Royal Bahamas Police
Bimini Biological Field Station
Save Bimini Association
Nautical chart for Bimini and environs
Districts of the Bahamas
Islands of the Bahamas |
11622237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noongar%20language | Noongar language | Noongar (; also Nyungar ) is an Australian Aboriginal language or dialect continuum, spoken by some members of the Noongar community and others. It is taught actively in Australia, including at schools, universities and through public broadcasting. The country of the Noongar people is the southwest corner of Western Australia. Within that region, many Noongar words have been adopted into English, particularly names of plants and animals.
Noongar was first recorded in 1801 by Matthew Flinders, who made a number of word lists.
Varieties of the Noongar subgroup
It is generally agreed that there was no single, standard Noongar (or Nyungar) language before European settlement: it was a subgroup (or possibly a dialect continuum) of closely related languages, whose speakers were differentiated geographically and, in some cases, by cultural practices. The dialects merged into the modern Noongar language following colonisation. A 1990 conference organised by the Nyoongar Language Project Advisory Panel recognised that the Noongar subgroup included at least three distinct languages. This was highlighted by the 2011 Noongar Dictionary, edited by Bernard Rooney, which was based on the Yuat (Juat) variety, from the northwest part of the Noongar subgroup area.
The highlighted area of the map shown here may correspond to the Noongar subgroup. The subdivisions shown correspond to individual varieties. In modern Noongar, these varieties have merged. There is controversy in some cases as to whether all of these varieties were part of the original Noongar subgroup. Some may have been distinct languages and some may have belonged to neighbouring subgroups.
Many linguists believe that the northernmost language shown, Amangu, was not part of the Noongar subgroup, was instead a part of the Kartu subgroup, and may have been a dialect of the Kartu language Nhanda. (As such, Amangu may have been synonymous with a dialect known as Nhanhagardi, which has also been classified, at different times, as a part of Nhanda, Noongar, or Widi.)
There is a general consensus that the following varieties belong to the Noongar subgroup: Wudjari, Minang, Bibelman (a.k.a. Pibelman; Bibbulman), Kaneang (Kaniyang), Wardandi, Balardung (a.k.a. Ballardong; which probably included Tjapanmay/Djabanmai), and Yuat (Juat). Wiilman, Whadjuk (Wajuk) and Pinjarup are also usually regarded as dialects of Noongar, although this identification is not completely secure. The Koreng (Goreng) people are thought to have spoken a dialect of, or closely related to, Wudjari, in which case their language would have been part of the Noongar subgroup. Njakinjaki (Nyakinyaki) was possibly a dialect of Kalaamaya – a language related to, but separate from, the original Noongar subgroup. It is not clear if the Njunga (or Nunga) dialect was significantly different from Wudjari. However, according to Norman Tindale, the Njunga people rejected the name Wudjari and had adopted some of the customs of their non-Noongar-speaking eastern neighbours, the Ngadjunmaya.
Documentation
The Noongar names for birds were included in Serventy and Whittell's Birds of Western Australia (1948), noting their regional variations. A later review and synthesis of recorded names and consultation with Noongars produced a list of recommended orthography and pronunciation for birds (2009) occurring in the region. The author, Ian Abbott, also published these recommendations for plants (1983) and mammals (2001), and proposed that these replace other vernacular in common use.
A number of small wordlists were recorded in the early days of the Swan River Colony, for example Robert Menli Lyon's 1833 publication A Glance at the Manners and Language of Aboriginal Inhabitants of Western Australia. Lyon acquired much of his information from Yagan while Yagan was incarcerated on Carnac Island. Despite the significance of Lyon's work in being the first of its kind, George Fletcher Moore described Lyon's work as "containing many inaccuracies and much that was fanciful".
During August and October 1839 the Perth Gazette published Vocabulary of the Aboriginal people of Western Australia, written by Lieutenant Grey of HM 83rd Regiment. Grey spent twelve months studying the languages of the Noongar people and came to the conclusion that there was much in common between them. Just prior to publication, he received from Mr Bussel of the Busselton district a list of 320 words from that region which was near identical to those he had collected in the Swan River region. Much to Grey's disappointment, his work was published in an unfinished list as he was leaving the colony, but he believed that the publication would assist in communication between settlers and Noongar people. Also noted by Grey was that the Noongar language had no soft c sound, there was no use of f and that h was very rarely used and never at the start of a word.
Serious documentation of the Noongar language began in 1842 with the publication of A Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language in Common Use Amongst the Aborigines of Western Australia by George Fletcher Moore, later republished in 1884 as part of Moore's diary. This work included a substantial wordlist of Noongar. The first modern linguistic research on Noongar was carried out by Gerhardt Laves on the variety known as "Goreng", near Albany in 1930, but this material was lost for many years and has only recently been recovered. Beginning in the 1930s and then more intensively in the 1960s Wilfrid Douglas learnt and studied Noongar, eventually producing a grammar, dictionary, and other materials.
More recently, Noongar people have taken a major role in this work as researchers, for example Rose Whitehurst who compiled the Noongar Dictionary in her work for the Noongar Language and Culture Centre. In 2012 Tim McCabe finished a PhD on the Noongar language, having been taught a variety of the language by Clive Humphreys of Kellerberrin, and is teaching Noongar to inmates in Perth prisons.
Peter Bindon and Ross Chadwick have compiled an authoritative cross referenced "A Nyoongar Wordlist: from the South West of Western Australia", by assembling material from all of the above writers in their original spelling. It is clear from this reference that the orthographies used reflected not only dialectical differences, but also how the various authors "heard" and transcribed spoken Noongar.
Current situation
Neo-Nyungar
An English dialect with Noongar admixture, known as Neo-Nyungar, is the community dialect of the Nyungar people.
Number of speakers
On the 2016 census, 443 people identified themselves as speaking Noongar at home.
Since the late 20th century, there has been increased interest in reviving the Noongar/Nyungar language, including teaching it at many schools throughout the south west of Western Australia. it is one of the 24 Aboriginal languages being taught at 68 schools in Western Australia to around 10,000 students. Curtin University offers an open online Noongar language and culture course.
Noongar Language Centre
The Noongar Language and Culture Centre was set up at the Bunbury Aboriginal Progress Association in 1986, and grew to include offices in Northam and Perth. Authors such as Charmaine Bennell have released several books in the language. Educators Glenys Collard and Rose Whitehurst started recording elders speaking using Noongar language in 1990.
In 1997 at a meeting of around 200 Noongar people at Marribank, a standard orthography was agreed on for teaching the language in schools. A unanimous vote decided that the language would be spelt "Nyoongar", but later, as teaching and learning resources were being developed for the Languages Other Than English (LOTE) curriculum which would be taught in schools, it was decided to change to "Noongar".
By 2010, 37 schools in the South West and Perth were teaching the language.
In 2014, the Noongar Boodjar Language Cultural Aboriginal Corporation (NBLCAC) was incorporated, and the Commonwealth Government provided funding for four years from 2015 under the Indigenous Languages Support program to establish the Noongar Language Centre. The offices are located in Cannington.
Noongarpedia
In 2015 Professor Len Collard from the School of Indigenous Studies at the University of Western Australia challenged the science behind the claim that it is an endangered language, citing the lack of rigour in the data. Collard began leading a project to create the "Noongarpedia", recording the language in a wiki format, allowing for expansion over time. The project is continuing , with the site growing in the Wikimedia Incubator. It is the first Wikipedia in an Aboriginal Australian language site, but it is intended to be bilingual, so as to be used as a teaching aid in schools.
Language through the arts
Singer-songwriter Gina Williams has promoted the use of the language through song, including lullabies for children and a translation of the song "Moon River".
An adaption and translation of the Shakespearean tragedy Macbeth into Noongar was performed at the 2020 Perth Festival. The play, named Hecate, is produced by Yirra Yaakin Theatre Company with Bell Shakespeare, and performed by an all-Noongar cast. The play took years to translate, and has sparked wider interest in reviving the language.
Phonology
The following are the sounds in the Noongar language:
Vowels
Consonants
/r/ can be heard as either [r] or a glide [ɹ].
Vocabulary
Many words vary in a regular way from dialect to dialect, depending on the area. For example: the words for bandicoot include (south) and (west); the word for water may be (south) or (west), or the word for fire may vary from to .
A large number of modern place names in Western Australia end in -up, such as Joondalup, Nannup and Manjimup. This is because in the Noongar language, -up means "place of". For example, the name Ongerup means "place of the male kangaroo". The word , or in Noongar meant "a gathering". Daisy Bates suggests that central to Noongar culture was the , referring to those that gather around the hearth ().
Noongar words which have been adopted into Western Australian English, or more widely in English, include the given name Kylie, "boomerang", or , the freshwater crayfish Cherax quinquecarinatus, and or , "spear". The word for smoke, , was adopted for the family of compounds known as karrikins. The word "to be hit on the head" comes from the term for a stone axe. The word quokka, denoting a type of small macropod, is thought to come from Noongar.
Pronunciation
Grammar
Noongar grammar is fairly typical of Pama–Nyungan languages in that it is agglutinating, with words and phrases formed by the addition of affixes to verb and noun stems. Word order in Noongar is free, but generally tends to follow a subject–object–verb pattern. Because there are several varieties of Noongar, aspects of grammar, syntax and orthography are highly regionally variable.
Verbs
Like most Australian languages, Noongar has a complex tense and aspect system. The plain verb stem functions as both the infinitive and the present tense. Verb phrases are formed by adding suffixes or adverbs to the verb stem.
The following adverbs are used to indicate grammatical tense or aspect.
later (, "will eat later")
future (, "will eat after a while")
conditional (, "should eat")
Some tense/aspect distinctions are indicated by use of a verb suffix. In Noongar, the past or preterite tense is the same as the past participle.
-inyprogressive (, "eating")
-gapast (, "ate, had eaten")
A few adverbs are used with the past tense to indicate the amount of time since the event of the verb took place.
a long time (, "ate a long time ago")
a short time (, "ate a little while ago")
just now (, "just ate")
Nouns
There are no articles in Noongar.
Nouns (as well as adjectives) take a variety of suffixes which indicate grammatical case, specifically relating to motion or direction, among other distinctions.
-(a)klocative (, "in the tree")
-(a)kpurposive (, "for meat")
-(a)linstrumental (, "by means of a spear")
-an/anggenitive (, "your grandmother")
-(a)pplace-of (, "place of trees")
-koorlillative (, "towards the water")
-oolablative (, "away from the water")
-ngatadessive (, "near the water")
-(a)binytranslative (, "becoming strong")
-mokinysemblative (, "like a dog")
-booronghaving or existing (, "getting dark")
-brooabessive (, "without a coat")
-kadakcomitative (, "with food")
-mitused-for (, "a spear is used for hunting kangaroos")
-koopbelong-to, inhabitant of (, "river dweller")
-djilemphatic (, "very good")
-martspecies or family (, "crow species")
-(i)lagentive suffix used with ergative
The direct object of a sentence (what might be called the dative) can also be expressed with the locative suffix -ak.
Grammatical number is likewise expressed by the addition of suffixes. Nouns that end in vowels take the plural suffix -man, whereas nouns that end in consonants take -gar. Inanimate nouns, that is, nouns that do not denote human beings, can also be pluralized by the simple addition of a numeral.
Pronouns
Noongar pronouns are declined exactly as nouns, taking the same endings. Thus, possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the regular genitive suffix -ang. Conversely, object pronouns are formed by the addition of the -any suffix. Notably, there does not appear to be a great deal of pronominal variation across dialectal lines.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Subject !! Object !! Possessive
|-
!I
|||||
|-
!he/she/it
|||||
|-
!they
|||||
|-
!you
|||||
|-
!we
|||||
|}
Noongar features a set of dual number pronouns which identify interpersonal relationships based on kinship or marriage. The "fraternal" dual pronouns are used by and for people who are siblings or close friends, "paternal" dual pronouns are used by and for people who are paternal relatives (parent-child, uncle-niece and so forth), and "marital" pronouns are used by and for people who are married to each other or are in-laws.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Fraternal !! Paternal !! Marital
|-
!1st person
|||||
|-
!2nd person
|||||
|-
!3rd person
|||||
|}
Typically, if the subject of a sentence is not qualified by a numeral or adjective, a subject-marker pronoun is used. Thus: (lit. "kangaroo it on-rock standing"), "the kangaroo is standing on the rock."
Adjectives
Adjectives precede nouns. Some adjectives form the comparative by addition of the suffix -jin but more generally the comparative is formed by reduplication, a common feature in Pama-Nyungan languages. The same is also true for intensified or emphatic adjectives, comparable to the English word very. The superlative is formed by the addition of -jil.
Negation
Statements are negated by adding the appropriate particle to the end of the sentence. There are three negation particles:
used generally with verbs
used generally with adjectives
There is also an adverbial negation word, , roughly equivalent to the English less or without.
Interrogatives
Questions are formed by the addition of the interrogative interjection alongside the infinitive root of the verb.
See also
Boodjar Nyungar Placenames
Notes
References
External links
Bibliography of Bibbulman language and people resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Noongarpedia word list (under construction)
Billardong Noongar Waangkany Ballardong Noongar dictionary
Digital Daisy Bates, digitised and geo-tagged lists of Aboriginal words, including Noongar |
60335150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/173rd%20Siege%20Battery%2C%20Royal%20Garrison%20Artillery | 173rd Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery | 173rd Siege Battery was a unit of Britain's Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) formed during World War I. It served on the Western Front, including the Battles of Vimy Ridge, Third Ypres and Cambrai, and the crushing victories of the Allied Hundred Days Offensive in 1918.
Mobilisation
173rd Siege Battery was formed at Falmouth, Cornwall under Army Council Instruction 1239 of 21 June 1916, based upon a cadre of 3 officers and 78 other ranks (the establishment of a TF garrison company) supplied by the Cornwall (Duke of Cornwall's) Royal Garrison Artillery, a coast defence unit of the Territorial Force based in Falmouth. It went out to the Western Front on 3 October 1916, manning four 6-inch 26 cwt howitzers, and joined 48th Heavy Artillery Group (HAG) in Third Army on 10 October.
Service
Ancre Heights
The practice was to move batteries between HAGs as required, and 173rd Siege Bty rapidly transferred to 40th HAG with Fifth Army on 18 October. Fifth Army was engaged in the Battle of the Ancre Heights, the last phase of that summer's Somme Offensive. The fighting ground on despite increasingly bad weather, culminating in the Battle of the Ancre (13–18 November). 173rd Siege Bty remained with Fifth Army during the winter, switching to 10th HAG on 11 December, and back to 40th HAG on 2 February, while Fifth Army carried out a series of small Operations on the Ancre, January–March 1917.
Vimy
On 21 March 1917, 173rd Siege Bty was transferred north to join 63rd HAG with First Army, which was preparing for the Battle of Vimy Ridge. 63rd HAG was assigned to I Corps. The artillery plan for the heavy guns before the attack emphasised counter-battery (CB) fire. At Zero hour, while the field guns laid down a Creeping barrage to protect the advancing infantry, the heavy howitzers fired further ahead to hit the rear areas on the reverse slope of the ridge, especially known gun positions. The attack went in on 9 April with I Corps and Canadian Corps successfully capturing Vimy Ridge while Third Army attacked further south near Arras. The only hold-up on 9 April was at Hill 145, near the north end of the Canadian attack, and the capture of this position was completed the next day. Fighting in the southern sector (the Battle of Arras) continued into May.
Ypres
173rd Siege Bty switched to 79th HAG on 16 April and 15th HAG on 5 May, while remaining with First Army. Then on 10 July 1917 it moved to 56th HAG which was joining Fifth Army for the forthcoming Third Ypres Offensive. Gun batteries were packed into the Ypres Salient where they were under observation and CB fire from the Germans on the higher ground. Casualties among guns and gunners were high, even before the offensive opened with the Battle of Pilckem Ridge on 1 August, when Fifth Army failed to make much progress. A second push on 16 August (the Battle of Langemarck) suffered from rushed artillery planning and was unsuccessful. The offensive continued through the summer and autumn of 1917, but after a short spell with 55th HAG (8–17 September) 173rd Siege Bty was relieved and sent back to Third Army, where it joined 17th HAG, changing to 4th HAG on 14 November.
Cambrai
Third Army was preparing for its surprise attack with tanks at the Battle of Cambrai. There was to be no preliminary bombardment or registration shots, and the guns were to open fire at Zero hour firing 'off the map' at carefully surveyed targets. When the battle began with a crash of artillery at 06.20 on 20 November the German defenders were stunned, and the massed tanks completed their overcome. In most areas the attack was an outstanding success. Exploitation over succeeding days was less spectacular, though some bombardments were set up to help the infantry take certain villages. On 30 November the Germans put in a heavy counter-attack against the weakened troops in the ill-organised captured positions, which they quickly overran, and Third Army had to scramble to set up a defensible line for the winter.
173rd Siege Bty continued to change command within Third Army, to 32nd HAG on 14 December and then 54th HAG on 29 December. However, by now HAG allocations were becoming more fixed, and on 1 February 1918 they were converted into permanent RGA brigades. 54th Brigade was defined as an 8-inch Howitzer Brigade, though most of the batteries like 173rd were equipped with 6-inch howitzers. 173rd Siege Bty remained with this brigade until the Armistice.
Spring Offensive
When the German spring offensive began on 21 March 1918, part of Third Army was engaged in the desperate fighting, but overall it was not obliged to retreat as far or to abandon as many heavy guns as Fifth Army further south. The German offensive had been halted on Third Army's front by 5 April.
Hundred Days
Third Army joined in the Allies' victorious Hundred Days Offensive with the Battle of Albert on 23–24 August, and continued with the Battles of the Scarpe (26–30 August), the Drocourt-Quéant Switch Line (2–3 September) Havrincourt (12 September), Épehy (18 September), Canal du Nord (27 September–1 October) and Second Cambrai (8–10 October).
By 17 October, Third Army had closed up to the River Selle ; now it prepared to seize a substantial bridgehead for further advances. 54th Brigade was assigned to V Corps for the assault crossing on 20 October (the Battle of the Selle), which was to be carried out as a surprise, with no preliminary bombardment, with a Zero hour of 02.00, when the moon would be full. Half of the corps' heavy artillery fired a creeping barrage, halting at each objective in turn, while the remainder carried out CB fire and bombarded specific targets. The infantry of 17th (Northern) and 38th (Welsh) Divisions crossed their footbridges, fought their way over the railway, through the village of Neuvilly and up onto the second of three successive ridges. The third ridge, the final objective for the day, proved troublesome, so a fresh barrage as put down on it at 16.00 and it was taken without further problems.
After the crossing of the Selle, and shortly afterwards of the Sambre Canal, the offensive turned into a pursuit, and most of the siege batteries had to be left behind. Fighting was ended on 11 November by the Armistice with Germany. Demobilisation began early in 1919. In the interim order of battle for the postwar army the battery was supposed to form 128th Bty RGA, but this was rescinded after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, and the battery was disbanded in 1919.
Notes
References
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 4: The Army Council, GHQs, Armies, and Corps 1914–1918, London: HM Stationery Office, 1944/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Gregory Blaxland, Amiens: 1918, London: Frederick Muller, 1968/Star, 1981, .
Nigel Cave, Battleground Europe: Arras: Vimy Ridge, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, .
Bryan Cooper, The Ironclads of Cambrai, London: Souvenir Press, 1967/Pan Books, 1970, .
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol II, Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele), London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Imperial War Museum and Naval and Military Press, 2009, .
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds & Lt-Col R. Maxwell-Hyslop, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol V, 26th September–11th November, The Advance to Victory, London: HM Stationery Office, 1947/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, .
Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Western Front 1914–18, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1986, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol III, The Battle of Cambrai, London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Naval and Military Press, 2009, .
War Office, Army Council Instructions Issued During June 1916, London: HM Stationery Office, 1916.
Leon Wolff, In Flanders Fields: The 1917 Campaign, London: Longmans, 1959/Corgi, 1966.
Siege batteries of the Royal Garrison Artillery
Military units and formations in Cornwall
Military units and formations in Falmouth, Cornwall
Military units and formations established in 1916
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919 |
387427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga-Dnepr%20Airlines | Volga-Dnepr Airlines | Volga-Dnepr Airlines, LLC () is an airline based in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It specializes in providing air charter services through all-cargo aircraft certified for global operations. Volga-Dnepr Airlines serves governmental and commercial organizations in the petrochemical, energy, aerospace, agriculture, and telecommunications industries well as humanitarian and emergency service organizations with its services through its 17 aircraft fleet. Its main base is Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport (ULY), Ulyanovsk and it has a hub at Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo Airport (KJA), Krasnoyarsk. The airline also operates an operations base in Houston, Texas, USA at George Bush Intercontinental Airport.
History
Formation through 2000
In August 1990, the airline was created as a joint stock company by its major shareholders: aircraft manufacturer Aviastar, aircraft manufacturer Aviant (now known as Antonov Serial Production Plant), aircraft design bureau Antonov Aeronautical Scientific-Technical Complex (now known as Antonov State Company), and aircraft engine manufacturer Progress Design Bureau (now known as Motor Sich). It started operations in October 1991, when it carried 120-ton cargo from Amsterdam to Almaty.
In April 1995, the airline hosted a meeting of companies involved in the design, manufacturing, and operation of the An-124, creating a Joint Coordination Council to plan and implement improvements for that aircraft model.
In November 1996, Volga-Dnepr began scheduled passenger service between Ulyanovsk and Moscow, using Yakovlev Yak-40 aircraft. In the following year, Volga-Dnepr expanded its scheduled passenger service to include St. Petersburg and Sochi, as well.
In 1997, the airline joined ATRAN and Atlant Soyuz to form an Association of Air Cargo Operators to represent the Russian cargo industry in negotiations with regulators.
Aviastar sold its 34% holding in the airline to Russian insurance firm NIK in 1999.
In April 2000, the privately owned Russian defense industry investor Kaskol Group acquired a 16% stake in the airline, of which the majority was from the Ukrainian state property fund. Kaskol later raised its stake to 49% of the airline. At the end of 2005, Kaskol sold its stake in the airline, due to its discontent with the company's management's strategy.
2001 to present
The airline terminated its joint venture with HeavyLift on 1 February 2001, with the stated reason to enable the airline to attract the investment that it needed to expand its fleet. The airline also set up marketing subsidiaries in London, UK and Houston, Texas.
Shortly afterward, HeavyLift joined its UK competitor, Air Foyle, which was the worldwide sales agent of Volga-Dnepr Airlines' Ukrainian competitor, Antonov Airlines, to form a new joint venture, Air Foyle HeavyLift.
In 2001, the Volga-Dnepr Group was formed, with Volga-Dnepr Airlines being its first company and the key element of its chartered cargo subgroup. In 2004, the Group created AirBridgeCargo to be the key element in the Group's scheduled cargo services subgroup.
In 2002, the airline suspended funding of an An-124-100M being produced by Aviastar due to a dispute between Aviastar and local politicians in Ulyanovsk in which the local government seized the aircraft. According to Volga-Dnepr, the founder of Aviastar refused to bribe local politicians and businessmen to secure their cooperation. Volga-Dnepr threatened to move its headquarters from Ulyanovsk at the time, saying that the airline was well known for having "a clear accounting system and good business reputation", and that it would move "from Ulyanovsk in order to preserve these qualities". The dispute was resolved and the airline resumed funding production of the aircraft.
The airline began flying chartered missions for the US Air Force Air Mobility Command in 2003, eventually ferrying thousands of tons of vital military equipment to U.S. operating forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2005, the airline established a subsidiary in Houston, Texas that committed to making An-124 aircraft available to Air Mobility Command in the event of a national emergency, qualifying Volga-Dnepr to bid for cargo charters from Air Mobility Command and other US government agencies.
In 2005, the airline and its Ukrainian competitor, Antonov Airlines, formed a partnership, Ruslan SALIS, which signed a three-year contract with NATO to provide strategic airlift services to the alliance's Strategic Airlift Interim Solution (SALIS). The contract was renewable through 2012 and required Ruslan to maintain two An-124 aircraft in a ready state in Leipzig, Germany, with an additional four An-124 aircraft available if needed.
Antonov Airlines terminated its joint venture with Air Foyle HeavyLift on 30 June 2006 to allow it to pursue a joint marketing venture with its competitor Volga-Dnepr Airlines under the name Ruslan International, building on their Ruslan Salis success.
In 2007, Volga-Dnepr and its Irish subsidiary were debarred from U.N. contracting after it surfaced during the trial of Vladimir Kuznetsov, formerly the highest-ranking Russian diplomat at the United Nations, that bribes were paid to Alexander Yakovlev, a U.N. procurement official, and laundered by Kuznetsov. Kuznetsov was found guilty and Yakovlev pled guilty, and testified against Kuznetsov, for crimes of fraud and money-laundering related to the bribes. Both were imprisoned as a result. Yakovlev claimed to provide consulting services and billed in excess of US$700,000 to Volga-Dnepr in order to help them win tenders. The Office of Internal Oversight Services Procurement Task Force found that, between March 2000 and November 2004, Yakovlev received funds exceeding US$1.8 million into an off-shore bank account from Volga-Dnepr and ICT, a company working on contract procurement for Volga-Dnepr at the time. The report found that the actual sum received could be even higher, as the sources for substantial other sources of funds could not be identified. In a response letter to the report, Volga-Dnepr admits to making payments to Yakovlev, but insists Yakovlev was a paid consultant, and the company was unaware of involvement or influence over the bidding process. In the same period, The UN contracted over US$134 million to Volga-Dnepr. The World Bank has listed Yakovlev and Kuznetsov as corruption case asset recovery targets for the Stolen Asset Recovery Initaitive. As of 2019, following years of sustained effort to institute extensive measures (e.g., external annual audits and a strong Code of Ethics) to address and ensure proper employee conduct in procurement matters. Volga Dnepr was awaiting UN action on its request for reinstatement as a UN vendor.
In 2011, ATRAN became a 100% subsidiary of Volga-Dnepr Group.
In December 2012, Ruslan Salis' NATO contract was extended through the end of 2014, having previously been extended in 2008 and 2010. Prior to the annexation of Crimea, it appeared likely that the contract would be extended for yet another two-year term.
In early 2015, without notice to the company or affording the company an opportunity to be heard, US TRANSCOM removed privately owned Volga Dnepr from its approved airlift vendor list together with several government-owned Russian flag air carriers. Despite a FOIA action which it eventually abandoned, Volga-Dnepr never received a United States Department of Defense explanation for its removal from the TRANSCOM vendor list. From the redacted reports obtained by journalists, however, it was heavily implied, but never proven, that Volga-Dnepr was blacklisted by the US military for delivering Russian-built fighter aircraft on behalf of Rosoboronexport to Vietnam in December 2014. Notably, during that same year, the U.S. Army took delivery from Rosoboronexport of the last lot of Russian-built Mi-17 helicopters (45 in all) which it had purchased for transfer to Afghanistan, and U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry lifted U.S. sanctions against Vietnam.
In August 2015, Volga-Dnepr paid $11,250 for a speaker's fee for Michael T. Flynn's appearance at a Washington, D.C. event on economic security in the Middle East it co-hosted with another American company. Danny Yatom, former director of the Israeli Mossad, was also a distinguished guest at that event. The event was held nearly 6 months after Volga-Dnepr was removed from the TRANSCOM vendor list. Because of Volga-Dnepr's crucial airlift role in the U.S. war effort in Iraq and Afghanistan, the company had become acquainted with a wide variety of senior U.S. military and diplomatic officials, active and retired. Indeed, a serving U.S. Air Force general officer who later served as Air Force Chief of Staff actually took the controls and piloted a Volga-Dnepr An-124-100 in flight during a mission to Scott Air Force Base. Michael Flynn's appointment as national security adviser came long after Volga-Dnepr's removal from the TRANSCOM airlift list and long after Flynn's retirement. As the company later explained: "At that time General Flynn was a retired military officer, not a member of President Trump's election team, and his nomination as National Security Adviser more than a year after the conference was not a factor in his being invited as a speaker".
In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, Volga-Dnepr Group's scheduled cargo carriers, AirBridgeCargo and ATRAN operating Asia-Europe, Asia-North America and Europe-Russia routes though their Moscow hub, tripled their e-commerce package volumes.
In July 2021, Volga-Dnepr stated that it is preparing to place its first bond issue worth up to US$96.4 million to refinance its existing debt.
As of March 2022, Volga-Dnepr's subsidiaries AirBridgeCargo and ATRAN were both forced to suspend all operations due to sanctions against Russia.
Notable missions
According to Moscow Defense Brief, the company has transported gigantic excavators and yachts, missile launchers, airplanes and helicopters, elephants and whales, entire mini-factories and power plants, the latest release of Beaujolais Nouveau wine, and unique museum collections over the past 18 years. Deliveries of equipment for the heavy machine building, oil and gas, and aerospace sectors are most in demand. In 2008, Volga-Dnepr transported Kibo, the Japanese Experiment Module for the International Space Station (ISS), from Japan to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. It is the largest single ISS module.
In 2008, ExxonMobil PNG Limited asked Volga-Dnepr to assist in building a gas conditioning plant as part of the PNG LNG Project in Papua New Guinea, which is estimated to deliver nine trillion cubic feet of gas over a 30-year period. Due to the mountainous nature of the terrain and 350 inches of rainfall a year, this task was extremely difficult to accomplish using conventional means. Exxon considered an "air bridge" option to transport very heavy and delicate equipment that simply could not come to the site via the road. Volga-Dnepr specialists helped to design a new airfield in Komo to handle An-124-100 flights by providing advice on the airport's optimal location and the technical characteristics of its runway, which is in length and wide. In 2012, Volga-Dnepr won the tender to deliver equipment for the PNG LNG Project's Hides Gas Conditioning Plant to the Komo site, and in 2013 the company operated 88 cargo flights carrying over 6,000 tons of equipment and materials in the space of 103 days.
On 18 May 2020, a wrapped up for shipment, the first stage of the Atlas V rocket that will launch NASA's Perseverance rover arrived at Cape Canaveral aboard a Ukrainian-built Antonov An-124 cargo plane.
In July, 2020, Volga-Dnepr Airlines partnered with freight forwarder Geodis to complete 48 An-124 flights delivering medical supplies to France.
In February 18, Arianespace released a video on YouTube about OneWeb-18's behind the scenes, it has revealed that Volga-Dnepr's An-124 always deliver OneWeb satellites to Kourou, French Guiana
Military missions
The airline began flying chartered missions for the US Air Force Air Mobility Command in 2003, and opened a US-based subsidiary in Houston, Texas in 2005, further committing resources to Air Mobility Command in the event of a national emergency.
Through its Ruslan Salis joint venture with its Ukrainian competitor, Antonov Airlines, the airline provided strategic airlift services to NATO's Strategic Airlift Interim Solution (SALIS) since 2005.
Accidents and Incidents
On 24 July 1992, a Volga-Dnepr Antonov 12BK flight was damaged beyond repair after straying off course while trying to circumnavigate a thunderstorm, 26 km SE of Skopje Airport, Macedonia The airplane impacted a mountain near Lisec village; there were eight fatalities.
On 31 March 2007, an Antonov An-124 Ruslan operated by Volga-Dnepr Airlines inbound from Greer, South Carolina, landed on runway 03/21 at Gander International Airport but failed to stop and ran off the runway.
On 13 August 2012, a Volga Dnepr Ilyushin Il-76 overran the runway on landing in St. John's, Newfoundland. The occurrence aircraft landed with a tail wind that far exceeded the aircraft manufacturer limitations.
On 26 February 2013, a Volga-Dnepr Antonov An-124 cargo plane arrived at Kazan International Airport (KZN) following a flight from Ulyanovsk (ULY). While taxiing to its stand, the left wing tip of the An-124 struck the top of the fuselage of a parked Yakovlev 42 belonging to Tulpar Air.
In November 2019, an Antonov An-124 made a hard landing while delivering a General Electric GE9X engine for the Boeing 777X program from GE Aviation to Boeing, damaging the delivered engine in the process.
On 13 November 2020, An-124-100 RA-82042 operating Volga-Dnepr Airlines Flight 4066 suffered damage from a runway excursion at Novosibirsk Airport on an emergency landing after the No. 2 engine suffered an uncontained failure. On 25 November, the airline grounded its entire fleet of An-124 aircraft, but one An-124 returned to service on 29 December.
Services
Passenger operations
Volga-Dnepr formerly operated a small passenger service connecting Moscow with various destinations (Ulyanovsk-Moscow Vnukovo Airport flights in 1996) which were all domestic destinations along the Volga river. Service was offered using the airline's small fleet of Yakovlev Yak-40's to Nizhniy Novgorod, Penza and Ulyanovsk.
Fleet
The Volga-Dnepr Airlines fleet includes the following aircraft (as of January 2018):
There are further aircraft in subsidiaries AirBridgeCargo and ATRAN fleets.
The airline's first upgraded Ilyushin Il-76TD-90VD, fitted with Stage IV compliant PS90 engines, was delivered in June 2006 and has been heavily used on cargo charter flights to Europe, North America, Australia, and Japan, from where the freighter had previously been banned due to stringent changes in environmental and noise legislation. Currently, the company operates five aircraft of this type.
In July 2018, the airline ordered an additional 5 Boeing 747-8F aircraft and issued a letter of intent for 29 Boeing 777 Freighter aircraft.
In July 2021, it was announced that Volga-Dnepr might become the possible launch customer of the Irkut MC-21-200 freighter version, if produced.
References
External links
Airlines of Russia
Companies based in Ulyanovsk
Cargo airlines of Russia
Airlines established in 1990
1990 establishments in the Soviet Union
Cargo airlines |
70154286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Brother%20Canada%20%28season%2010%29 | Big Brother Canada (season 10) | Big Brother Canada 10 is the tenth season of the Canadian reality television series Big Brother Canada. The series began filming on February 26, 2022, and premiered on March 2, 2022, on Global. Hosted by Arisa Cox, the show revolved around sixteen contestants (known as HouseGuests), who volunteered to reside in a house under constant surveillance and without any communication with the outside world as they compete to win a grand prize of CA$100,000.
The season concluded on May 5, 2022, after running for 69 days. It was won by Kevin Jacobs, who defeated Josh Nash in a final 8-1 jury vote. Meanwhile, Marty Frenette won an online vote to become this season's Canada's Favourite HouseGuest. The finale of the season was watched by 835 thousand viewers.
Production
Development
The tenth season was produced by Insight Productions, in association with Corus Entertainment and Banijay. The season was first announced on July 6, 2021, at the Corus upfronts for the 2021–22 Canadian network television schedule. Arisa Cox continued as the host and as an executive producer for this season. Casting began on July 14, 2021, with Kassting Inc. returning to cast for the season. Due to restrictions stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, no in-person casting calls were held. Casting closed on November 19, 2021, with the final cast being revealed on February 23, 2022.
Expedia, Wendy's and Muskoka Spirits returned to sponsor the season. Additionally, the show has three new sponsors: Winners, Belairdirect insurance and Philips Sonicare Oral Care.
Prizes
The winner of the series, determined by the previously evicted HouseGuests, wins CA$100,000 in cash along with CA$10,000 in clothing from Winners, and a Holiday from Expedia while the runner-up receives CA$20,000. The HouseGuest selected as Canada's Favourite HouseGuest receives $10,000. Several other prizes were given out throughout the season.
Production design
On February 22, 2022, Global released images of the new kitchen, dining area and a then-unknown room which featured a gold phone. More images of the house were released on March 1, 2022, with a full house tour being released the following day.
In the house tour, it was revealed this season's house was built to simulate the theme of game shows and to give way for twists and tasks as seen in the numerous mystery doors that line the house. According to host Arisa Cox, it took 22,000 man hours to design and assemble the season's house.
The lounge area features a wheel used to select players for the PoV competition, with the archway to the backyard displaying an eye with a dollar symbol ($) on its pupil. The house's pantry features a showcase of several items called the "Sloppers Showcase", which was used as the subject for the Week 4 HoH competition. The pantry also houses a Wendy's delivery window, in which the HoH receives advice from past winners, along with their a for themselves, and a HouseGuest of their choice. The HoH room features designs inspired by the trends of the 70s with the two regular bedrooms being decorated with dollar symbols and question marks (?).
International broadcast
Big Brother Canada was made available to stream in Australia on 7Plus. The first 8 episodes were made available on March 31, with further episodes airing weekly.
HouseGuests
The HouseGuests' images and profiles were released on Wednesday, February 23, 2022. Prior to the full reveal, the images of the HouseGuests were revealed in a series of adverts for the season. The HouseGuests moved into the house on February 26, more than a week before the premiere.
Guests
As the show's "milestone" tenth season, an unprecedented number of HouseGuests (including all past winners) from previous seasons made an appearance on the season.
Format
Big Brother Canada follows a group of contestants, known as HouseGuests who move into a custom-built house outfitted with cameras and microphones, recording their every move 24 hours a day. The HouseGuests are sequestered in the Big Brother Canada House with no contact with the outside world. During their stay, the HouseGuests share their thoughts on events and other HouseGuests inside a private room referred to as the Diary Room. At the start of each week in the house, the HouseGuests compete for the title of Head of Household, often shortened to simply HoH. The winner of the HoH competition is immune from eviction and will name two HouseGuests to be nominated for eviction. After the nominees are determined, the Power of Veto competition is played. Five players will compete in the competition: the two nominees and three random players, with the winner receiving the Power of Veto. If a HouseGuest chooses to exercise the Power of Veto, the Head of Household is obligated to name a replacement nominee. The holder of the Power of Veto is safe from being nominated as the replacement nominee. On eviction night, all HouseGuests must vote to evict one of the nominees, with the exception of the nominees and the Head of Household. The eviction vote is by secret ballot, with HouseGuests casting their votes orally in the Diary Room. In the event of a tied vote, the Head of Household will cast a tie-breaking vote publicly. The nominee with the majority of the votes is evicted from the house. Midway through the season, the evicted HouseGuests go on to become members of the "jury"; the jury is responsible for choosing who wins the series. The final Head of Household competition is split into three parts; the winners of the first two rounds compete in the third and final round. Once only two HouseGuests remain, the members of the jury cast their votes for who should win the series.
Twists
Phone Room
Room 5 features a gold phone that rang occasionally throughout the season.
On Day 1, Jay was the first to answer the phone and as a result they received immunity for the week.
On Day 26, the number to the phone was "leaked" and was subject to calls that would challenge the HouseGuests to complete various tasks. As a reward for answering the calls, the HouseGuests received a stocked pantry and the Household was relieved of their slop punishment.
On Day 44, Jacey-Lynne found a clue to call a number through the phone, leading her on a hunt throughout the House, and ultimately finding a Secret Power of Veto.
Belairdirect Eviction Protection Insurance
Occasionally throughout the season, Immunity would be awarded to HouseGuest by various means. This immunity was sponsored by BelAirDirect
On Day 1, in the Final Round of the First HoH competition, 2 of the 3 doors would award the door's holder immunity (the third had the HoH title). Moose and Josh each won immunity for the week.
On Day 13, it was announced that the viewers would be voting to decide which HouseGuest would receive immunity from nominations for Week 3. The voter may vote for multiple HouseGuests with no vote limits being imposed. Marty received the most votes and received the immunity.
On Day 48, it was announced that the viewers would be voting to decide which HouseGuest would receive immunity from nominations for Week 8. The voter may vote for multiple HouseGuests with no vote limits being imposed. As a result of winning the last Belairdirect Eviction Protection Insurance, Marty was ineligible to be voted for the immunity. Summer received the most votes and was made immune.
Chain of Safety Double Eviction
Week 5 featured a Double Eviction, in which two HouseGuests were evicted on the same night. Unlike a typical Double Eviction (in which the regular game format is played over the course of the night), the second game cycle was determined by a "Chain of Safety" selection process. Beginning with Moose, who won that night's first challenge, each HouseGuest would select another HouseGuest to save until three are left unselected, who would then compete for safety in a second challenge to determine that night's second set of nominees.
Below is the full selection order for the safety chain selection.
Canada's Jury Vote
In the penultimate episode for the season, it was announced that Canada would join the jury as its ninth and final member. The recipient of the vote was determined by an online vote held prior to the finale which was exclusive to Canadian residents unlike in previous online votes. Arisa would cast the vote on Canada's behalf, and it was revealed to be cast for Kevin.
Summary
Episodes
Have-Nots
Occasionally, a group of HouseGuests are selected to be Have-Nots for a certain week. Those selected to be a Have-Not would be restricted to a slop diet and cold showers. There was no official Have-Not room for this season. There were no official Have-Nots for the entire pre-jury phase of the season. Although the entire house was put on slop for weeks 4 and 5, no official Have-Nots were named. In week 7, those who failed to obtain a "Have" card in the HoH competition were automatically made Have-nots, with the exception of Gino, who was granted "have" rights by virtue of being the HoH.
Voting history
Notes
: On Night 1, Jay answered Big Brother's Phone, awarding them immunity for the week. As a result, they did not compete in that night's HOH competition.
: For winning each of the 3 heats in the first HOH competition, Hermon, Moose, and Josh each earned the chance to win HOH through a random choice of 3 doors. Hermon won HOH, while Moose and Josh each won immunity for the week.
: Following the Week 2 and Week 7 evictions, Canada voted for a Houseguest to receive immunity for the following week. Any previous winners were not eligible a second time. Marty was voted to be immune for Week 3, and Summer was voted to be immune for Week 8.
: This week featured a Chain of Safety Double Eviction. Following the regular eviction, the remaining HouseGuests participated in a Competition followed by the Chain of Safety Ceremony to determine the night's nominees. At the Chain of Safety Ceremony, the Housemates participated in a selection process to determine the nominees. Beginning with the Competition winner, (indicated by ), each HouseGuest would select another HouseGuest to be safe until three remained. The three HouseGuests left unselected competed in the second challenge, with the winner (indicated by ) being safe. The two remaining HouseGuests were the final nominees and faced the House's Vote.
: During Week 7, a Secret PoV was hidden in the house. The winner could remove a nominee only at the Week 7 Veto Ceremony. Jacey-Lynne found the Secret POV, and chose not to use it.
: This week featured a Triple Eviction. Following the regular eviction, the remaining HouseGuests played a modified week's worth of games, including HoH and Veto competitions and their respective ceremonies during the remainder of the live show, culminating in a second eviction that evicted two HouseGuests. The Head of Household was obliged to nominate three HouseGuests for eviction and the voting HouseGuests would vote to save (indicated by ) rather than to evict, with the HouseGuest with the most votes to save being the sole nominee surviving the vote for that cycle.
: The Jury voted to crown the winner of Big Brother Canada 10.
: As part of a twist, Canada would join the jury as its ninth jury member, with the vote itself being cast and revealed by Arisa on behalf of Canada.
Reception
Critical reception
The season was generally well received by critics and viewers, with many praising the cast and the gameplay of the eventual winner Kevin Jacobs. Justin Carrerio of The Young Folks praised the season, commenting that Big Brother Canada 10 delivered an exciting and fun season that kept us on our toes, and its finale ended the season on a high. In a review published prior to the season finale, Lee Whitten of ScreenRant commented that the season has been near-perfect.
Viewing figures
References
Notes
External links
Global official site
2022 Canadian television seasons
Big Brother Canada seasons |
37968330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last%20Tango%20in%20Halifax | Last Tango in Halifax | Last Tango in Halifax is a British comedy-drama series that began broadcasting on BBC One on 20 November 2012 until its final episode which was broadcast on 15 March 2020. Screenwriter Sally Wainwright loosely adapted the story of her mother's second marriage. The series stars Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid as Alan and Celia.
The series has been praised for its depiction of the older generation, strong acting, and believable dialogue. A critic for The Daily Telegraph summarised the series as "a triumph against TV's ageism", and it has been endorsed by an executive member of the charity Age UK. Last Tango in Halifax accrued four nominations for the 2013 British Academy Television Awards and won the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series.
Overview
Celia Dawson and Alan Buttershaw are both widowed and in their 70s. They were attracted to each other in the 1950s, but never expressed their feelings, and Celia moved away with her parents. In the present day, they are reunited after being persuaded to join Facebook by their respective grandchildren. Alan has loved Celia since he was 16 years old, whilst Celia is described as a woman who is "unfulfilled" and was unhappily married to a man she grew to hate. After their reunion, Alan and Celia discover that they still feel as passionately for each other as they did when they were teenagers. Their story is described as a "testament of the uplifting power of love at any age".
Alan and Celia's romance is depicted alongside the troubles of their own grown daughters, and the series' official description says that its portrayal of family is "as dark as it is comic". Alan's daughter, Gillian, and Celia's daughter, Caroline, are complete opposites: widowed Gillian runs a farm and works part time in a supermarket, whilst Oxford-educated Caroline is the principal of an exclusive independent school. Their parents' engagement affects both daughters' lives. Gillian wonders how she and her son will cope without her father around to help, whilst Caroline, struggling with depression and her feelings for a female colleague, feels that her mother's unconventional romance gives her "permission to finally admit to being who she really is".
Production
Concept and writing
The series is based on lead writer Sally Wainwright's personal experiences. She described it as "the most personal thing I've ever written". Her mother, Dorothy, lost contact with a childhood friend, Alec Walker, when she was 15, but they reconnected on the social networking website Friends Reunited 60 years later and within six months were married. When she told the story to her colleague Nicola Shindler, Shindler suggested she turn her experience into a television series. Shindler became the series' executive producer.
Through Caroline, the series explores various LGBT themes. A source of contention for Celia is her daughter entering into a same sex relationship and later coming out to her. Anne Reid spoke positively of the storyline, stating that she believes a lot of people of her own generation are homophobic. She felt that her own character "might show them [and] might change them" just as Celia must become more accepting to avoid losing Alan. Jacobi concurred: Alan has "a streak of tolerance in him ... that perhaps Celia doesn't". In series three, the division between Celia and Caroline widens after Celia refuses to attend Caroline's wedding to her girlfriend. Wainwright felt that killing off Caroline's partner, Kate, would be the most effective way to propel the drama onwards and to develop the emotional lives of the remaining characters - however 'killing the lesbian' is a well-known homophobic film trope. She was conflicted over this decision, having grown attached to the character of Kate and actress Nina Sosanya, and wrote two versions of the fourth episode; the unaired one would have seen Kate survive.
Characters and casting
Discussing the casting of Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid, Wainwright stated: "we went for the best and we got them". The Guardian felt that one of the series' successes was the unlikely casting of a "theatrical knight" (Jacobi) and a "TV Stalwart" (Reid).
Jacobi was surprised to be offered the role of Alan; as his reputation centred on parts that were either "posh", "classical" or "costume". He enjoyed having the chance to play someone who is "an ordinary fellow". He also felt the series provided a chance to depict a "love story between two older characters that isn't patronising or stereotyped in any way".
Reid and Jacobi also influenced the creative process—after Reid discovered Jacobi could jive, they implored Wainright to include a dance scene in an episode. Jacobi also inspired a scene in which two of Alan's friends (played by Roy Barraclough and Paul Copley) vie to be his best man. A teenage version of Alan is portrayed in flashback by Nico Mirallegro.
Reid was Wainwright's personal choice for the role of Celia. Reid hoped that Last Tango in Halifax would "give hope to older people".
Reid identified herself with Celia's personality – believing herself to be quite reckless and outgoing – though stated that unlike her character she has no desire to enter another relationship. Reid described filming the series as "one of the best times in my career" and stated that she was proud of the work put in. Amelia Young plays a teenage Celia during a flashback sequence in episode six.
Lancashire discerned that the series was "very special" within reading two pages of the script. Other factors that persuaded her to commit to the series included the casting of Reid and Jacobi, and the series' juxtaposition of a heart-warming story with elements of humour. In terms of her character, Lancashire identified with Caroline being "a working woman trying to keep everything under control". She stated the series' ensemble cast was "the closest I’ve come to being in a theatre company on television" due to how well the actors worked together.
The cast had all assumed that Last Tango in Halifax would run for only one series. Filming of the second series clashed with filming of the second series of the BBC One period drama The Paradise, which also starred Sarah Lancashire. This necessitated her having to leave her role in The Paradise halfway through the second series in order to reprise her role as Caroline in Last Tango in Halifax. In an interview in 2013 Lancashire stated that the decision to return to Last Tango in Halifax was the easiest she had made in her working life, stating "as an actor you can wait an entire career to be involved in a project like this."
The role resulted in her receiving the most fan mail of her career. Lancashire was surprised and humbled by the responses from women stating that Caroline's same-sex relationship had personally inspired them. She stated that in her approach to the character she did not focus on Caroline's sexuality but the "humanity of her". Due to the underrepresentation of gay characters on television, Lancashire felt it particularly important that Caroline's experience would not be portrayed inaccurately. In 2014 Wainwright recalled being "blown away" by Lancashire's performances in the rushes for the series, which partly inspired her to write the script for the series Happy Valley, in which Lancashire plays the lead role.
Nicola Walker completes the main cast as Gillian. She admired the character's honesty, bravery and lack of self-pity and identified strongly with her tendency to speak before thinking things through and her deep love for her father. In 2014 The Daily Telegraph described the role as a "game-changer" in the trajectory of Walker's career. Though ultimately successful in winning the role, Walker initially believed that she would not get the part owing to a lack of confidence in her northern accent and the presence of northern actresses in the audition.
Her approach to the character saw her delve into Gillian's psychology, with Walker particularly interested in the contradiction between Gillian's sexual confidence and her use of sex as a form of self-punishment. She felt the series showed a very adult approach to storytelling, stating that she had "never come across a character like Gillian before" and praising the variety of strong female roles.
The Independent noted the significance of the series having three female leads over the age of 40, stating that this, alongside Caroline's lesbian storyline and Gillian's attitude towards sex, made the series "quietly subversive" when compared with primetime television as a whole.
In addition to its main characters, Last Tango in Halifax features a regular supporting cast. Nina Sosanya plays Caroline's romantic partner, Kate, whom she decides to marry over the course of the series. Gerard Gilbert of The Independent describes the relationship between the couple as "one of the most normalised lesbian relationships ever shown on the small screen." Nina Sosanya noted that she enjoyed filming with Sarah Lancashire and that the pair would "giggle a lot like completely juvenile idiots" whilst filming their love scenes.
Other characters introduced in the first series include Caroline's ex-husband, John (Tony Gardner), and his lover, Judith (Ronni Ancona), Gillian's brother-in-law, Robbie (Dean Andrews), and Paul (Sacha Dhawan), a young man with whom Gillian has a sexual relationship. Josh Bolt plays Gillian's son, Raff, whilst Edward Ashley and Louis Greatorex play Caroline's teenage sons, William and Lawrence. The second series expanded the families of Alan and Celia. Timothy West appears as Alan's brother, Ted, whilst Gemma Jones plays Celia's sister, Muriel. The third series later introduces Rupert Graves as Gary, who is revealed to be Alan's illegitimate son, and Michelle Hurst as Kate's mother, Ginika.
Filming
The first series was filmed in Yorkshire and in Altrincham between January and April 2012. Altrincham was used to represent scenes set in Harrogate, such as those set at Caroline's house. The second series began filming in July 2013. Filming took place at Holdsworth House in Halifax in August 2013 and also at Hoghton Tower, a fortified manor house in Lancashire, in August 2013. This resulted in the Tower's being closed to the public between 19 and 28 August. In September the University of York supplied ten students from the Department of Theatre, Film and Television to work as extras on the series. Filming for the third series began in Yorkshire and at Peover Hall, near Knutsford, Cheshire, in July 2014.
In November 2017, explaining why the series had no starting date for filming its next series, a BBC spokesperson said "Sally [Wainwright] is presently engaged with another BBC project, but has every intention of revisiting Last Tango when she is able to." Wainwright's new period drama series, Gentleman Jack, was scheduled to air on BBC One in 2018, and she was also working on a third series of Happy Valley.
Episodes
Broadcast audiences
The series premièred to overnight ratings of 6.160 million viewers, 25.6% of the available audience, as the highest rated show at 9 pm on 20 November. The first series' finale, airing 19 December 2012, also won its time-slot, achieving an overnight series high of 6.290 million viewers, 26.6% of the available audience. Consolidated figures released by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) revealed that the series première achieved a consolidated rating of 7.304 million viewers, whilst the finale had 7.480 million. The overall series average in terms of viewing figures was 7.316 million viewers. The Independent reported that the early consolidated ratings received by the programme made it the highest rated new mid-week television drama of 2012. In September 2013, the series began airing on the American broadcast television network PBS.
Critical reception
Rotten Tomatoes critic ratings are 94% for Series 1 and 100% for Series 2 and 3.
The series has attracted mostly positive reviews, largely focused on the depiction of its two septuagenarian lead characters. Jane Shilling of The Daily Telegraph labelled the series "a triumph against TV's ageism" in an examination of the portrayal of elderly people in the media. Shilling singled out Jacobi and Reid's performances, stating that they provide a "mixture of gravity and levity" that "brings a transcendent quality to their characters' resolute ordinariness".
Lucy Harmer, an executive member of the charity Age UK, also praised the series for portraying two "normal, healthy and sane" older characters, citing the depiction of Internet use by the elderly as something ordinary. She compared the treatment of older characters in the series to Hilary Boyd's novel Thursdays in the Park and the film The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2012).
The Huffington Posts Caroline Frost thought the series was reminiscent of the dialogue and sensibility of the playwright Alan Bennett. She wrote the story was poignant and praised a central theme underlining "how many people make do with their day-to-day business and responsibilities, while still holding on to their private dreams".
Andrew Anthony of The Guardian had his "low expectations ... squarely confounded", giving particular praise to the dialogue and the central performances. Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror felt that Last Tango in Halifax experienced a mid-series dip, though she praised what she felt was a triumphant finale. She also praised Wainwright's script and the lead quartet of Jacobi, Reid, Lancashire, and Walker for creating "characters you can believe in even when they're behaving appallingly".
The series was reviewed favourably by the American website AfterEllen, which reports on the depiction of gay and bisexual women in the media. Correspondent Jill Guccini stated that she "started off watching this series thinking it was a cute little show about some oldies falling in love", but at the end of the series believed it was "some of the finest television I've seen, anywhere, ever".
Critical reception in the United States was also largely positive following PBS' acquisition of the show. Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times labelled the series as "the best new show of the fall", describing it as "a rapturous mix of absurdly fairy-tale-romance and frantic modern complications, set in the picturesque drear of Yorkshire and brought to life by masterfully shaded performances." She opined that Reid and Jacobi "are capable of doing more with a startled look or careful smile ... than most actors can do in seven pages of dialogue".
Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe acknowledged that the US public might not find the series appealing based on its title and premise alone, stating that PBS' description of the programme made it sound "as saccharine and hackneyed as a Geritol commercial". Upon viewing the series, however, he praised the added dimensions of the series and wrote that it was "so much more interesting" than the central premise suggested. He also felt that Walker and Lancashire played an important part, "both add[ing] a necessary amount of bitter to the sweet".
Mike Hale of The New York Times was more cynical about the series, describing it as a "warm comforter of a series" and "treacle". However, he felt that series also distinguished itself from this category of media by its "relatively dry style and careful modulation of tone and volume" in addition to "a crackerjack cast".
Accolades
The first series of Last Tango in Halifax was nominated for four awards at the 2013 British Academy Television Awards, which took place on 12 May 2013. Actors Derek Jacobi, Anne Reid, and Sarah Lancashire earned respective nominations in the Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Supporting Actress categories. The series itself was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series, and ultimately won. Additionally, Wainwright was named best Drama Writer at the 2013 British Academy Television Craft Awards for her writing of the series. The series was nominated for Best Drama Series at the 2013 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards whilst Sally Wainwright was nominated for the writer's award for her contribution to both Last Tango in Halifax and Scott & Bailey.
In 2014, Sarah Lancashire and Nicola Walker were both nominated for a British Academy Television Award in the category for "Best Supporting Actress" for their roles in Last Tango in Halifax. Lancashire won the award for her role as Caroline.
Possible adaptations
In October 2013, it was reported in news outlets that American actress, screenwriter and producer Diane Keaton had acquired the rights to remake Last Tango in Halifax for American audiences on the subscription cable channel HBO. Sally Wainwright mentioned this development at a Broadcasting Press Guild event and stated that, though she did not expect to be closely involved in the remake, she would have an associate producer role. However, the following day Red Production Company released a statement stating that a remake would probably be delayed since the original series was still airing on American channel PBS. In April 2014, it was reported that the series would be remade for French television by BBC Worldwide France and the production company NEWEN.
Notes
References
External links
Last Tango in Halifax on PBS
2012 British television series debuts
2020 British television series endings
2010s British drama television series
2020s British drama television series
BAFTA winners (television series)
BBC high definition shows
BBC television dramas
Television series by Red Production Company
British comedy-drama television shows
2010s British LGBT-related comedy television series
2020s British LGBT-related comedy television series
English-language television shows
Lesbian-related television shows
Television series about old age
Television series created by Sally Wainwright
Television shows set in West Yorkshire
Television shows shot in Manchester
Television shows shot in Yorkshire
2010s British LGBT-related drama television series
2020s British LGBT-related drama television series |
1463207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achille%20Starace | Achille Starace | Achille Starace (; 18 August 1889 – 29 April 1945) was a prominent leader of Fascist Italy before and during World War II.
Early life and career
Starace was born in Sannicola, province of Lecce, in southern Apulia. His father was a wine and oil merchant.
Starace attended the Lecce Technical Institute and earned a degree in accounting. In 1909 he joined the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) and by 1912 had become a second lieutenant (sottotenente) of the Bersaglieri.
A dedicated bellicist, he entered singlehanded in a brawl with pacifist demonstrators at the Biffi Cafe in Milan in August 1914 and gained quite a reputation by this action.
Seeing action during World War I, Starace was highly decorated for his service, winning one Silver Medal of Military Valor plus four bronze. After the war, he left the army and moved to Trento, where he first came into contact with the growing Fascist movement. He also joined the Freemason lodge La Vedetta ("The Sentinel") in Udine in March 1917.
An ardent nationalist, Starace joined the Fascist movement in Trento in 1920 and quickly became its local political secretary. In 1921, his efforts caught the attention of Benito Mussolini, who put Starace in charge of the Fascist organization in Venezia Tridentina. In October 1921, Starace became vice-secretary of the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF). In 1922, Starace participated in the March on Rome (Marcia su Roma), leading a squad of Blackshirts (Camicie Nere, or CCNN) in support of Mussolini.
Prominence
Later in 1922, Starace was appointed party inspector of Sicily and made a member of the Executive Committee of the PNF. In 1923, after resigning as vice-secretary of the party, he was made commander of the National Security Volunteer Militia (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale or MVSN) in Trieste. The MVSN was an all-volunteer militia created to organize former Blackshirts.
In 1924, Starace was elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies and made national party inspector. In 1926, Achille Starace once again became vice-secretary of the PNF, and, in 1928, he was appointed secretary of the Milan branch of the party.
Party secretary
In 1931, his career reached its peak when he was made party secretary of the PNF. He was appointed to the position primarily for his unquestioning, fanatical loyalty to Mussolini. As secretary, Starace staged huge parades and marches, proposed Anti-Semitic racial segregation measures, and greatly expanded Mussolini's cult of personality.
Although Starace was successful in increasing party membership, he failed in the later years of his tenure as secretary to reorganize the Italian Fascist Youth Organization (Opera Nazionale Balilla) along the lines of the Hitler Youth (Hitler-Jugend). He also failed to inspire a nationwide enthusiasm for Fascism on par with the popularity that the Nazi Party enjoyed in Germany. Starace served as secretary for a total of eight years. This was longer than any other Secretary had served. But, by the mid-1930s, he had gained numerous enemies in the party hierarchy.
Role in the invasion of Ethiopia
In 1935, Starace, a Colonel, took a leave of absence as PNF Party Secretary to participate in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia and fought on the northern front. In March 1936, after the Battle of Shire, he was given command of a mixed group of Blackshirts and Bersaglieri being assembled in Asmara, Eritrea. Later that month, Starace and his truck-transportable "mechanized column" prepared to advance over rough tracks to seize Gondar, the capital of Begemder Province. Before setting out, "the Panther Man" (L'uomo pantera) gave the following speech to his men:
The roadbuilding skills of Starace's men played an equally important role to their combat prowess. The following morning, April 1, Starace and the column entered Gondar in triumph and two days later reached Lake Tana, securing the border region with British Sudan. The East African Fast Column (Colonna Celere dell'Africa Orientale) had covered approximately 120 km in three days.
Return to party secretary
After Ethiopia, Starace resumed his duties as Party Secretary. He continued to be controversial. For example, he decreed that all party flags must be made from an Italian-created textile fabric called "Lanital." Based on casein, a phosphoprotein commonly found in mammalian milk, Lanital was invented in 1935 and, according to Starace, it was a "product of Italian ingenuity." In 1936, Dino Grandi, the Italian Ambassador to Great Britain, appeared in London wearing a suit said to have been made from forty-eight pints of skimmed milk.
During the Munich Crisis in 1938 which ended with Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland, Starace was a vocal proponent that the French should agree to cede Tunisia to Italy.
Starace in Italian sport
Starace was a sports fanatic and instituted president of the CONI (Italian National Olympic Committee). He is remembered for such unlikely sports stunts as jumping through a fire circle at the Marmi Stadium in 1938 or horse jumping over a saloon car.
He wanted party officials to look virile and fit and on official ceremonies had them parading at the bersaglieri pace, an Italian variant of goose stepping.
He is specially and more significantly remembered also for a policy of enrollment of the Italian people (either young or not) in Fascist party-linked organizations that bore some semblance to the Scout movement: Opera Balilla, Figli della lupa, Avanguardisti, Giovane fascista and the labour-related Organizzazione del Dopolavoro (after-work sports).
Sports were of particular importance in Fascist propaganda, heavily exploiting the successes of Italian athletes in international competitions (like boxer Primo Carnera or the Italy national football team), and Starace was quite instrumental in this field, tackling both the mass organisation and the elite side of Italian sports.
Dismissal
In October 1939, Starace was finally dismissed as party secretary in favor of the popular aviator Ettore Muti. He was made chief of staff of the Blackshirts and he held this position until being dismissed for incompetence in May 1941. He was succeeded by Enzo Galbiati.
Imprisonment and death
In 1943, following the demise of Mussolini's regime, Starace was arrested by Pietro Badoglio's Royalist government. He was arrested even though his real power under Mussolini had ended two years earlier.
After unsuccessfully attempting to regain Mussolini's favor in the German-backed Italian Social Republic of Salò, Starace was again arrested. This time he was imprisoned in a concentration camp in Verona and was arrested by his former colleagues on charges that he had weakened the party during his tenure as Party Secretary.
Starace was eventually released and moved to Milan. On 29 April 1945, during his morning jog, he was recognized and captured by anti-Fascist Italian partisans. Starace was taken to Piazzale Loreto and shown the body of Mussolini, which he saluted just before he was executed. His body was subsequently strung up alongside Mussolini's.
In Italian daily life
Starace was one of the main objects of political satire and popular jokes under Fascism. The citations of his sayings are innumerable, and most of them, if separated for a moment from the tragic historical circumstances of their origin, demonstrate that Starace had moved away from practical sense in his pursuit of a path for propaganda for the regime:
"I wonder why the expectation is still to consider the end of the year to conform to the metric of 31 December rather than 28 October [the date of the March on Rome in 1922]. The attachment to this custom is indicative of non-fascist mentality."
"At the word" comizio (roman for meeting) "from now on please replace the word" gathering of propaganda. "The word comizio reminds us of times passed forever."
On one occasion he had to preside officially at a high-level medical symposium, but, much to the displeasure of the participants, turned up one hour late for the opening address, explaining that he had been on his daily hour of horse riding.
Far from offering excuses to the infuriated audience, he sharply cut short the protests with a famous phrase: "do less medicals, just drop your books and do more gymnastics, dedicate yourself to equestrian sports" (datevi all'ippica in Italian).
The motto stuck and in the 21st century Datevi all'ippica still is a proverbial catchphrase to tell someone that he is incompetent and should try his hand at some unskilled job.
He tried to phase some Anglo-Saxon and foreign words and manners out of Italian daily life, with a moderate degree of success: The word 'volleyball' was (and still is) replaced in Italian usage by 'pallavolo', a word Starace is said to have invented.
Similarly 'tramezzino' was substituted for 'sandwich' and 'autorimessa' for 'garage', but the abstruse Italian replacements for words like 'cognac', 'bar', 'cocktail', 'tennis', and so forth never caught on.
The "British" handshake greeting was forbidden and replaced by the compulsory raised-arm Roman-style salute. He even tried to have the "Viva Il Duce" motto made compulsory as the ending in public and private correspondence but Mussolini bluntly put a stop to this particular move, which he found ludicrous, saying: "how stupid would be a condolence letter that went: 'Harry is dead. Viva il Duce'".
He insisted on having the plan of Quartiere Romano di San Basilio (three blocks of council housing flats) shaped in such a way that they would form a gigantic D U C E when seen from a passing aircraft, as an homage to Mussolini.
All in all he was considered by the other high-ranking Fascist gerarchi as a devoted but not too bright follower of the Duce, and Mussolini himself said of Starace "Un cretino, sí, ma un cretino obbediente" ("a cretin, yes, but an obedient cretin").
About his fanatical devotion to Mussolini, his own daughter later said of him: 'He breathed only by the Duce's order.'
The man in the street was more or less of the same opinion and Starace was regularly lampooned almost openly by student songs and poems that circulated almost freely despite the Fascist regime and the political police.
It was said, about the "bestiary" symbolic of Fascism: "The wolf, which is voracious; the lion which is ferocious; the eagle, which is rapacious, the goose; which is Starace." («La lupa, che è vorace; il leone ch'è feroce; l'aquila, che è rapace; l'oca, che è Starace»)
A mock epitaph was coined by students, written on walls even during the Fascist period, which read: "Here lies Starace, dressed in orbace [wool, see below], capable of nothing, Requiescat in pace."( «È morto Starace, vestito d'orbace, di nulla capace, requiescat in pace»). Another variation of this rhyme read: "Here lies Starace / clad in orbace / rapacious in peace / in war a fleeting type / in bed a pugnacious one," («Qui giace Starace / vestito d'orbace / in pace rapace / in guerra fugace / a letto pugnace») recalling the exhortation he addressed his compatriots, according to which "all party organs work: have to work so, even the genitals."
(Orbace was a special sort of raw wool cloth made in Sardegna that Starace had made compulsory for Fascist party officials' uniforms, as part of the Fascist autarky policy, and is said to have been very itchy.)
Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son in law and foreign affairs minister wrote of Starace in his diary: "The Italians are people that may pardon anybody who treated them wrong... but they won't pardon somebody who has been breaking their... boxes (polite substitute for... balls)".
When his grandchild, socialite Giò Stajano publicly underwent a male-to-female gender transition, she released her first post-operation interview with the journalist Francesco D. Caridi of Il Borghese, who asked her "Who knows what your grandfather Achille Starace would say if he saw you, he who wanted all Italians to be male and strong... ". Stajano jokingly replied: "He would say that after so much virility in the family, you need a little relaxation".
Awards and decorations
Knight of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Officer of the Military Order of Savoy (24 August 1936), previously a Knight (17 May 1919)
Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy
Silver Medal of Military Valour
Bronze Medal for Military Valour, 4 times
Cross of Merit of War - Grant for Military Valor
Cross of Merit of War
Commemorative Medal for the Italo-Austrian War 1915–1918
Commemorative Medal of the Unity of Italy
Allied Victory Medal 1914-1918
Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome
in gold "on the occasion of his appointment as Secretary of the PNF" (7 December 1931)
in silver "awarded to the 19 commanders of the columns of the organized teams to converge on Rome" (1923)
Cross of seniority (20 years) in the Voluntary Militia for National Security
Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle
See also
Italian order of battle for the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
References
Sources
Carlo Galeotti, Achille Starace e il vademecum dello stile fascista, Rubbettino, 2000 ISBN 88-7284-904-7
External links
Time, April 13, 1936 "Hit & Run"
Time, August 29, 1938 "Wool from Cows"
The New Yorker, Description of his death
1889 births
1945 deaths
People from Gallipoli, Apulia
Italian military personnel of World War I
Italian military personnel of World War II
Executed politicians
Italian soldiers
Italian generals
Knights of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
Officers of the Military Order of Savoy
Recipients of the Bronze Medal of Military Valor
Executed Italian fascists
People executed by Italy by firing squad
Italian propagandists |
21747358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphyglottis | Scaphyglottis | Scaphyglottis (abbreviated Scgl.) is a genus of orchids native to Mexico, Central America, northern South America and parts of the Caribbean. The current concept of this genus is the result of combining several genera which have been described at various times. The concept is characterized by the growth habit: not only are new pseudobulbs added at the base of the old ones (as is typical of sympodial orchids), but new pseudobulbs also grow at the apices of the old ones. Many species are quite similar and difficult to distinguish, but some are clearly distinct. A few have showy colors. The genus comprises nearly 70 species.
Description
The plants are epiphytic, or sometimes lithophytic. They show considerable variation in size, ranging from a few cm to nearly 1 m tall. They all have narrow, elongated pseudobulbs covered at the base by numerous evanescent sheaths. Each pseudobulb bears up to three long, narrow apical leaves. The pseudobulbs are superposed i. e. tend to grow in stacked chains, one arising from the apex of another.
The inflorescence grows from the apex of the pseudobulb, and differs from most sympodial orchids in that one pseudobulb will sometimes produce inflorescences for several years. This, combined with the habit of new pseudobulbs growing from the apices of old ones, creates the impression that there are inflorescences growing from the middle of the stem. The inflorescence can be solitary, successive, racemose or paniculate.
The flowers are small, and nearly always white, cream, or a pale shade of green or lavender, with the exception of two species of Hexisea, which are mostly brilliant red. The petals and sepals have nearly the same length, but the petals are usually wider, and the lip is usually the largest perianth segment. The anther is terminal, and contains four to six pollinia.
Most Scaphyglottis are pollinated by insects; nearly all species produce nectar which accumulates in the nectary formed by the base of the lip and the bottom of the column. The two species of Hexisea are possibly also pollinated by hummingbirds, which are especially known to visit red flowers.
Taxonomic history
The genus was published by Eduard Friedrich Poeppig and Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher in 1835. In 1960, Robert Louis Dressler designated Fernandezia graminifolia Ruiz & Pavon, now known as Scaphyglottis graminifolia, to be the type species. The generic epithet comes from the Greek skaphe, concave or hollow, and glotta, tongue, in reference to the shape of the floral labellum.
This definition of Scaphyglottis was unclear for a long time. There is a large group of species clearly belonging to the genus, such as the now defunct three small genera Tetragamestus, Leaoa, and Hexadesmia, which were brought into synonymy decades ago. In 1993, a review of Scaphpyglottis was published which did not include a complete synonymy, but which was nevertheless useful in clarifying many of the species in the genus.
Many of the species belonging to Scaphyglottis before the unification are also confusing and variable, forming various complexes of reproductively isolated groups that seem morphologically identical.
Synonymy
In 2004, several other genera were brought into synonymy with Scaphyglottis as the concept is used today:
Hexadesmia This genus containing 27 species was described by Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart in 1843. It consisted of several different species separated from Scaphyglottis because the flowers had six pollinia instead of four. Because all of these species are in the basal clade of Scaphyglottis, six pollinia seems likely to be the ancestral condition of Scaphyglottis. Several other authors, including Schlechter and Reichenbach, placed additional species in Hexadesmia.
Leaoa: In 1922, Rudolf Schlechter and Paulo de Campos Porto erected this small genus for a species that had previously been called Hexadesmia monophylla, which had a very long inflorescence, rather than the short inflorescence typical of Hexadesmia, as well as the typical six pollinia. More species were added to the genus by Leslie Andrew Garay in 1955<ref>Leslie Andrew Garay (1955)Archivos do Jardim Bôtanico do Rio de Janeiro 13:45.</ref> and by Freidrich Gustav Brieger in 1976, bringing the total to four.Tetragamestus: Heinrich gustav Reichenbach described Tetragamestus modestus in 1854. Three additional species have been assigned to this genus, the last by Schlechter in 1818. The most widely known species is T. modestus, a name which can be confused with reichenbachanthus modestus, a synonym of S. brasiliensis. The name Tetragamestus is widely used by orchid enthusiasts, many of whom reject the inclusion of this genus in Scaphyglottis.Reichenbachanthus: João Barbosa Rodrigues published Reichenbachanthus modestus in 1882. Four species of pendant epiphytes which occur from Central America to southeastern Brazil in tropical rain forests have been included in this genus, the last in 1997 by Dressler. The terete (= narrowly cylindrical) pseudobulb is difficult to distinguish from the single terete leaf. The base of the full or slightly trilobate lip forms a nectary together with the column, the column foot, and the base of the lateral sepals. The column is long and thick with an apical anther containing four pollinia. The pale yellow or green flowers feature lanceolate petals, smaller than the sepals.
Reichenbachanthus modestus, originally published as Fractiunguis brasiliensis and also published in 1877 as Hexisea reflexa (Reichenbach) is now Scaphyglottis reflexa.
Reichenbachanthus reflexus, also published as Fractiunguis reflexus and Hexisea reflexa is now Scaphyglottis emarginata.Reichenbachanthus cuniculatus, originally published as Fractiunguis cuniculatus in 1923, also published as Hexisea cuniculata in 1925, is now Scaphyglottis cuniculata (Schltr.) Dressler (2002).Reichenbachanthus subulatus (Schltr.) Dressler (1997) was originally published as Scaphyglottis subulata Schltr. (1910). It has also been published as Reichenbachanthus lankesteri (Ames) DE Mora-Retana & JB García-Castro (1992) and Hexisea lankesteri Ames (1925).Fractiunguis was published by Schlechter in 1922, and has been considered a synonym of Reichenbachanthus almost from that time. It consisted of three species:Fractiunguis reflexus Schlechter (1922)Fractiunguis cuniculatus Schlechter (1923)Fractiunguis cuniculatus var gracilis Schlechter (1923)Hexisea: In 1834, John Lindley published Hexisea bidentata. The generic epithet refers to the six perianth segments being nearly equal in size and shape. Fourteen species have been placed in this genus before it was reduced to synonymy under Scaphyglottis, despite having priority to Scaphyglottis.
The plants are epiphytic or rupicolous (rock dwelling) and caespitose, sometimes hanging down from branches of trees. They grow naturally in tropical and equatorial, humid, low-altitude forests from southern Mexico to northern and northwestern South America.
The original two species (H. bidentata and H. imbricata, originally published as H. bidentata var. imbricata) are distinguished from Scaphyglottis by small, almost entirely red flowers, with nearly equal perianth segments. It is the only group pollinated by hummingbirds.
The vegetative morphology is similar to Scaphyglottis. The pseudobulbs are typically cylindrical or fusiform, bear deciduous linear-lanceolate leaves, and grow one from at the apex of another to form articulated chains. The racemose inflorescence is apical or from the nodes of the joints between pseudobulbs, with few flowers open simultaneously (generally only two or three) being produced over several years.
The red or orange flowers have lanceolate sepals and petals. The labellum is simple and folded down, the same color as the other perianth segments. In some species (e.g., H. bidentata) there is a bright yellow callus in the form of two teeth near the base of the labellum. The pollinarium contains four pollinia.
According to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, Hexisea is the name that should be used for all Scaphyglottis, because the name Hexisea (for one of these species) was published before Scaphyglottis. However, Dressler suggested that the name Scaphyglottis be retained to avoid changing the names of a large number of well known species., and that the formally correct name Hexisea be used only when referring to those species which had been traditionally known as Hexisea. On the strength of this recommendation, Kew has made Scaphyglottis the accepted name, and reduced the correct name Hexisea to synonymy.Euothonaea was published by Reichenbach in 1852, but was invalid for technical reasons This genus has always been relegated to synonomy under Hexisea.Euothonea oppositifolia (A.Rich. & Galeotti) Rchb.f. (1852) was previously published as Epidendrum oppositifoliium A.Rich. & Galeotti (1854). In 1850, it was published as Diothonea oppositifolia (A.Rich. & Galeotti) Rchb.f. and in 1862 as Hexisea oppositifolia (A.Rich. & Galeotti) Rchb.f. In 2002, Dressler reduced it to synonymy under Hexisea imbricata by publishing the name Scaphpyglottis imbricata.Costaricaea was erected by Schlechter in 1923 for Costaricaea amparoana, which was moved to Hexisea amparoana in 1934 and then to Scaphyglottis amparoana in 1964.Platyglottis was proposed in 1942 by Louis Otto Williams for the new Panamanian species Platyglottis coriacea. In 2004, Dressler transferred it to Scaphyglottis coriaceae. Although the pseudobulbs of this species grow from the apices of previous pseudobulbs like the rest of the genus Scaphyglottis, this species differs by having wide. flat, coriaceous, alternate leaves, and an apical racemose inflorescence with up to four pale flowers open at once, featuring long ovaries and large bracts at the base of the peduncle. Both the vegetative and floral morphology make this species easy to distinguish for the other species of Scaphyglottis.Helleriella. In 1974 Garay and Sweet transferred Scaphyglottis punctulata (Reichenbach f.) C. Schweinfurth, (Ponera punctulata Reichenbach f., Epidendrum dussii Cogniaux) to the Andean genus Helleriella without any explanation. A comparison of S. punctulata with the two species of Helleriella shows that it fits poorly into that genus. Except for a somewhat unusual habit it is a typical Scaphyglottis. This is also confirmed by molecular data.
Subtaxa
A study of inner transcribed spacer data has suggested that the illegitimate name Pachystele Schltr. (1923) corresponds to a well-supported clade distinct from the remainder of the modern concept of Scaphyglottis, as does the species S. livida. The authors of the study noted that this "Pachystele clade" corresponds roughly to Hexisea sensu lato:
S. amparoana S. arctata S. bidentata S. chlorantha S. confusa S. cuniculata S. corallorrhiza S. densa S. fasciculata S. gentryi S. gigantea S. imbricata S. jimenezii S. reflexa S. sigmoideaThe paper did not publish any names for these three suggested sub-taxa of Scaphyglottis, but did publish three new combinations.
Species
S. acostaei (Schltr.) C.Schweinf. (1941)
S. amparoana (Schltr.) Dressler (1964)
S. antillana is not listed by Kew
S. arctata (Dressler) B.R.Adams (1988)
S. atwoodii Dressler (1997)
S. aurea (Rchb.f.) Foldats (1959)
S. behrii (Rchb.f.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Hemsl. (1884)
S. bicallosa Dressler (2000)
S. bicornis (Lindl.) Garay (1967)
S. bidentata (Lindl.) Dressler (2002)
S. bifida (Rchb.f.) C.Schweinf. (1941)
S. bilineata (Rchb.f.) Schltr. (1918)
S. boliviensis (Rolfe) B.R.Adams (1988)
S. brasiliensis (Schltr.) Dressler (2004)
S. caricalensis (Kraenzl.) Correll (1941)
S. cernua Dressler (2004)
S. chlorantha B.R.Adams (1988)
S. clavata Dressler (2004)
S. condorana Dodson (1998)
S. conferta (Ruiz & Pav.) Poepp. & Endl. (1831)
S. confusa (Schltr.) Ames & Correll (1942)
S. corallorrhiza (Ames) Ames, F.T.Hubb. & C.Schweinf. (1934)
S. coriacea (L.O.Williams) Dressler (2004)
S. crurigera (Bateman ex Lindl.) Ames & Correll (1942)
S. cuniculata (Schltr.) Dressler (2002)
S. densa (Schltr.) B.R.Adams (1988)
S. dunstervillei (Garay) Foldats (1968)
S. emarginata (Garay) Dressler (2004)
S. fasciculata Hook. (1841)
S. fusiformis (Griseb.) R.E.Schult. (1957)
S. geminata Dressler & Mora-Ret. (1993)
S. gentryi Dodson & Monsalve (1998)
S. gigantea Dressler (1979)
S. grandiflora Ames & C.Schweinf. (1931)
S. hirtzii Dodson (1998)
S. hondurensis (Ames) L.O.Williams (1950)
S. imbricata (Lindl.) Dressler (2002)
S. jimenezii Schltr. (1918)
S. laevilabium Ames (1921)
S. leucantha Rchb.f. (1850)
S. limonensis B.R.Adams (1988)
S. lindeniana (A.Rich. & Galeotti) L.O.Williams (1941)
S. livida (Lindl.) Schltr. (1918)
S. longicaulis S.Watson (1888)
S. mesocopis ( & Rchb.f.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Hemsl. (1884)
S. michelangeliorum Carnevali & Steyerm. (1984)
S. micrantha (Lindl.) Ames & Correll (1942)
S. minutiflora Ames & Correll (1942)
S. modesta (Rchb.f.) Schltr. (1926)
S. monspirrae Dressler (2000)
S. pachybulbon (Schltr.) Dressler (2000)
S. panamensis B.R.Adams (1988)
S. prolifera (R.Br.) Cogn. (1898)
S. propinqua C.Schweinf. (1955)
S. pulchella (Schltr.) L.O.Williams (1941)
S. punctulata (Rchb.f.) C.Schweinf. (1955)
S. reflexa Lindl. (1939)
S. robusta B.R.Adams (1988)
S. sessiliflora B.R.Adams (1988)
S. sickii Pabst (1956)
S. sigmoidea (Ames & C.Schweinf.) B.R.Adams (1988)
S. spathulata C.Schweinf. (1941)
S. stellata Lodd. ex Lindl. (1839)
S. sublibera (C.Schweinf.) Dressler (1964)
S. subulata Schltr. (1910)
S. summersii L.O.Williams (1940)
S. tenella L.O.Williams (1941)
S. tenuis L.O.Williams (1941)
S. triloba B.R.Adams (1988)
DistributionScaphyglottis species grow over a large area, stretching from southern Mexico and the Caribbean Islands to southern Bolivia and much of Brazil, ranging from hot, humid tropical rain forests near sea level through dry forests of the uplands to the cloud forests high in the Andes. The center of diversity is in southern Central America. They usually grow high in trees, or in other highly illuminated locations.
Cultivated hybrids
A few greges produced by hybridizing Scaphyglottis species have been registered:
Scaphingoa Little Gem was registered in 1964 by WWG Moir with the nothogeneric epithet Domindesmia. It was produced by pollinating a Domingoa haematochila with pollen from a S. pulchella (then known as Hexadesmia pulchella).
Scaphyglottis (Seahexa) Gold was registered in 1983 by WWG Moir with the nothogeneric epithet Seahexa. It was produced by pollinating a S. pulchella (then known as Hexadesmia pulchella) with a S. aurea (then known as Hexisea aurea).
Epiglottis Rumrill Elf was registered in 1985 by J Rumrill. It was produced by pollinating a S. crurigera with an Epidendrum radicans.
Medical use
In response to reports of the use of Scaphyglottis species in popular medicine for pain relief, a study was performed which showed that oral administration of certain substances (5alpha-lanosta-24,24-dimethyl-9(11),25-dien-3beta-ol, cyclobalanone, gigantol, and 3,4'-dihydroxy-3',4,5-trimethoxybibenzyl) found in S. livida'' produced anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects in rats and mice, apparently (at least partially) by activation of opioid receptors.
References
R Govaerts, A Campacci (Brazil, 2005), D Holland Baptista (Brazil, 2005), P Cribb (K, 2003), Alex George (K, 2003), K. Kreuz (2004, Europe), J Wood (K, 2003, Europe) (Novembro 2008). World Checklist of Orchidaceae. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
External links
Laeliinae genera
Epiphytic orchids
Taxa named by Eduard Friedrich Poeppig |
2360567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Essien | Michael Essien | Michael Kojo Essien (born 3 December 1982) is a Ghanaian former professional footballer who played as a midfielder and is currently a member of Danish Superliga club Nordsjælland's coaching staff. He was also capped for the Ghana national team more than 50 times. During his prime, Essien was considered one of the best midfielders in the world. Essien was known not only for his defensive ability, but also his knack for scoring long-range goals.
Essien started his career playing for Liberty Professionals in Ghana. In 2000, he moved to France to join Bastia, where he would spend three seasons and appear in over 60 matches before joining Ligue 1 title holders Lyon in 2003. At Lyon, Essien won back-to-back league titles in 2003–04 and 2004–05, and won Ligue 1 Player of the Year in 2005. During his five-year stint in France, he acquired French citizenship. In 2005, Essien signed with Premier League side Chelsea for a £24.4 million transfer fee and, at the time of his signing, was the most expensive African footballer in history. At Chelsea, Essien helped the club win the Premier League in 2006 and 2010, as well as three FA Cups and one League Cup. He won the UEFA Champions League in 2011–12, while also placing as runner-up in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League. He has won the Chelsea Goal of the Season award twice, in the 2006–07 and 2008–09 seasons.
Essien is a former Ghanaian international. At youth level, he represented his country at the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship and 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship, with the latter team finishing as runner-up. Essien made his senior team debut in January 2002 and has represented his nation at three Africa Cup of Nations tournaments. Essien has also represented Ghana at the 2006 and 2014 FIFA World Cups.
Early life
Born in Accra to Aba Gyandoh and James Essien, Essien attended Gomoa Nyanyano DC Primary and JSS. He began his football career after graduating from St. Augustine's College in Cape Coast, playing at a local club called Liberty Professionals.
Essien broke through when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand. European scouts began to take notice, and Essien had a trial at Manchester United in April 2000. He played in the club's under-17 team's defeat to Derby County.
Manchester United offered him a contract, but he was ineligible to obtain a work permit in the United Kingdom. He, therefore, considered joining Belgian feeder club Royal Antwerp until he was eligible to move to England. However, his mother meanwhile preferred a move to France instead.
Club career
Bastia
In July 2000, Essien was signed by Division 1 club Bastia and made his debut for the club on 30 September 2000 in a league match against Metz, appearing as a substitute for captain Laurent Casanova. Essien did not immediately command a consistent place in the team, being deployed in various positions in the back four. He ultimately finished the 2000–01 campaign with only 13 league appearances and one goal, which came in the return leg against Metz in a 3–2 defeat. The following season, Essien was given an opportunity by manager Robert Nouzaret to play in central midfield and flourished in this new role. Essien formed midfield partnerships with Nicolas Dieuze and Cyril Jeunechamp and scored vital goals in victories over Nantes, Lorient and Guingamp. On 12 January 2002, Essien scored the equalising goal against Marseille at the Stade Vélodrome to even the match at 2–2. He also scored a goal in the Coupe de la Ligue against Le Mans. Future Chelsea teammate Didier Drogba converted a goal for Le Mans in the match.
In the 2002–03 season, Essien developed into an undisputed starter under new manager Gérard Gili. However, his tenacious and physical style of play also began to take form as he received 12 yellow cards in league play. He opened the new campaign by scoring on his season debut against Lens in a 1–1 draw and converted five more league goals, which included one in a 2–0 victory over the defending champions Lyon. Following the campaign, in which Bastia finished mid-table for the third consecutive season, Essien drew interest from Paris Saint-Germain, Lyon and Marseille.
Lyon
Paris Saint-Germain made Bastia the highest offer and it was accepted. However, Essien rejected PSG's contract offer, instead of agreeing to terms with the two-time defending champions Lyon, who paid Bastia €7.8 million for the transfer. Upon his arrival, Essien was assigned the number 4 shirt and played as a box-to-box midfielder, which allowed him the freedom to protect and assist playmaker Juninho while defensive midfielders Edmílson and Mahamadou Diarra assisted the defence and directed the distribution. Essien made his club debut in the team's 2003 Trophée des champions match against Auxerre on 27 July 2003. In just the fifth minute of play, Essien scored his first goal for the club, and four minutes later, Diarra scored a goal. Lyon won the match 2–1, giving Essien his first club honour as a player. In just the third match of the campaign, Essien scored his first league goal for the club in a 3–1 victory over Monaco. He featured regularly for the rest of the campaign, making 33 more league appearances and scoring two more goals, against Bordeaux and Rennes respectively. On 23 May 2004, Lyon sealed their third consecutive league title by defeating Lille 3–0 at the Stade Gerland. Essien appeared as a substitute in the match. In the UEFA Champions League, Essien appeared in eight of the ten matches Lyon contested and the club was ultimately eliminated by eventual champions, Porto.
In his final season at Lyon, Essien appeared in all but one league match as Lyon were crowned champions for the fourth straight season. The match he missed was as a result of a red card endured in the previous league match. Essien also scored three goals and collected 11 yellow cards, tied for second-worst in the league. His performances in the league resulted in him being voted the 2005 Player of the Year by France's National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP). Essien also helped Lyon to reach the quarter-finals of the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League where he put in dynamic performances and scored five goals in the tournament. Lyon was eventually eliminated from the tournament in a penalty shoot-out against PSV. At the end of the season, he was named Ligue 1 Player of the Year. His honour started a record streak of UNFP Player of the Year awards for Lyon players, with the streak coming to an end in 2008 following Karim Benzema's victory. He was also nominated for the 2005 FIFA World Player of the Year Award. He placed 22nd in 2005. His acclaim drew attention from Chelsea, which he eventually signed for.
Chelsea
On 14 August 2005, Lyon and Chelsea agreed a £24.4 million fee for Essien, ending one of the longest-running transfer sagas. At the time, the fee made Essien Chelsea's most expensive signing of all time, surpassing the £24 million Chelsea paid for Didier Drogba the previous summer. The transfer went through on 19 August. The transfer came under scrutiny in the Stevens inquiry report, which expressed concerns because of the lack of co-operation from agents Pini Zahavi and Barry Silkman.
Essien made his debut as a second-half substitute against Arsenal on 21 August 2005, wearing the number 5 on his shirt. The match ended in a 1–0 victory to Chelsea. He made an assist in his full debut against West Bromwich Albion, and he replaced the injured Claude Makélélé in the defensive midfield role against Sunderland in the 2–0 win on 10 September 2005. He soon cemented his place in José Mourinho's side, starting in 31 domestic league matches, as well as 11 appearances in other cup competitions.
On 15 December 2005, Essien was given a two-match ban by UEFA for a controversial tackle on Dietmar Hamann, which resulted in his suspension from Chelsea's Champions League second round tie with eventual European champions Barcelona. Essien apologised to Hamann for the challenge, stating that while he desires to be perceived as a player who "unsettles" opponents, he was not a malicious or an unsporting player; Hamann publicly accepted Essien's apology. In January 2006, Essien was himself stretchered off the field after a challenge from West Ham United captain Nigel Reo-Coker, and was sidelined for three weeks.
Essien scored his first goal for Chelsea from a low cross from Shaun Wright-Phillips on 11 March 2006, in a 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. His second goal came on 17 April 2006, against Everton with a powerful strike after an assertive burst through the defensive line. Essien ended his maiden season in England with two goals, both in the Premier League.
Essien was nominated for the 2006 FIFA World Player of the Year Award on 12 October 2006, where he placed 22nd. One week later, he was nominated for the 2006 Ballon d'Or. He was voted as the third Best African Footballer of the Year in 2006, a feat he also achieved in 2005. He won the 2006 BBC African footballer of the year award.
The following season, Essien scored several important goals, including his first Champions League goal for Chelsea in a 2–0 victory over Werder Bremen on 12 September 2006. Later in the competition, Essien scored a late winner in the quarter-final second leg against Valencia at the Mestalla Stadium to send Chelsea through to the semifinals with a 2–1 victory on the night and a 3–2 win on aggregate. It was his first match back in the team after several weeks out with a knee injury. Essien also scored a stunning late equaliser at home against Arsenal on 10 December 2006, as the match was going to end Chelsea's long unbeaten run.
On 15 May 2007, Chelsea fans voted Essien as Chelsea Player of the Year for his contributions in the 2006–07 season, becoming the first African to receive the honour. His late dramatic equalising goal against Arsenal was also voted as Chelsea Goal of the Season for 2006–07.
On 12 August 2007, Essien scored the winner with his first goal of the 2007–08 Premier League campaign, as Chelsea defeated Birmingham City to set an English record for unbeaten league matches at home, eclipsing Liverpool's previous top-flight record of 63 sets between 1978 and 1981.
On 10 October 2007, Essien was nominated for the prestigious 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Award for the third consecutive year and on 21 October 2007, he was also nominated for the 2007 Ballon d'Or Award for the third consecutive year. He was voted 15th Best Player in the World at the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Awards. On 12 December 2007, he was nominated for the 2007 African Footballer of the Year, the third consecutive time he had been nominated. He was runner-up to that year's winner, Frédéric Kanouté.
On 22 July 2008, Essien signed a new five-year deal with Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2013. He also extended his contract on 12 March 2007.
It was feared Essien would miss the 2008–09 Premier League season after sustaining anterior cruciate ligament damage on 5 September while playing for Ghana. However, on 7 March 2009, he came on as a substitute in the second half of the FA Cup match against Coventry City. In his second match back from the knee injury, Essien scored just before half-time to give Chelsea a vital away goal against Juventus in the Champions League first knockout round. Chelsea went on the draw the match 2–2 and through to the quarter-finals 3–2 on aggregate. He made his first league start from injury against Manchester City, scoring the only goal in the match.
On 6 May 2009, Essien scored a left-footed volley in the second leg of the Champions League semifinal against Barcelona, a tie that Chelsea ultimately lost due to the away goal rule. The goal was later voted as Chelsea's Goal of the Season by the club's fans.
In the 2009–10 Premier League season, Essien put in an excellent performance against Blackburn Rovers on 24 October 2009 and scored his first goal of the season with a swerving 35-yard shot on 52 minutes in a 5–0 victory at Stamford Bridge. He scored his first brace for Chelsea against Wolverhampton Wanderers with a header and a low shot from outside the box and came close to completing his first hat-trick for the club with a flurry of second-half shots, one of which was tipped onto the bar by Wolves goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey. Essien was injured on international duty during the 2010 African Nations Cup and missed the remainder of the English domestic season. On 4 June 2010, he signed a two-year extension to his existing contract which would have kept him at the club until 2015. Essien returned to action on 17 July 2010 in a friendly against Crystal Palace and scored the only goal of the match to give Chelsea the win.
After missing the 2010 FIFA World Cup through injury, Essien had a bright start to the season for Chelsea. He scored the only goal in a pre-season friendly win against Crystal Palace and was an ever-present in Chelsea's unbeaten month of August. He scored a brace against West Ham United, and he scored against MŠK Žilina in the UEFA Champions League. Essien also put in impressive performances against Marseille, Blackburn Rovers and Fulham, the latter a match in which he scored the only goal and received a red card. However, Essien would again incur an injury and missed two months of the season, during which Chelsea won just one out of nine matches. He returned to score in the penalty shoot-out loss in the FA Cup against Everton but ultimately had a poor second half of the season. After Chelsea's final match, the Ghana Football Association announced Essien had returned to the international squad.
In pre-season training for the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus, undergoing surgery on 11 July 2011. His recovery was said to take up to six months. However, he began training lightly in late November 2011 and made his comeback on 9 January 2012, playing 75 minutes of the reserves' 3–2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion. He made his 150th Premier League appearance for Chelsea as a substitute in a 1–0 win over Sunderland. On 21 January 2012, Essien featured as late substitute in Chelsea's 0–0 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road.
Due to missing most of the beginning half of the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien was unable to gain favour with manager André Villas-Boas. On 21 February 2012, during a Champions League match against Napoli, Villas-Boas left Frank Lampard, Essien and Ashley Cole on the substitutes' bench. Chelsea lost 3–1 and the club's technical director asked for an explanation of the team selection on behalf of Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich. On 4 March 2012, following a 1–0 league defeat against West Brom which left Chelsea three points adrift of Arsenal in the battle for fourth place in the Premier League, Villas-Boas' employment was terminated by Chelsea, with assistant manager Roberto Di Matteo being appointed as caretaker manager on an interim basis until the end of the season. Di Matteo immediately showed favour towards veteran Chelsea players like Essien, Lampard and John Terry. Subsequently, Essien started in Chelsea's second leg champions league fixture against Napoli, with Chelsea winning 4–1 – and 5–4 on aggregate – in an entertaining match allowing Chelsea to advance to the quarter-final, where they met Benfica. Essien subsequently remained an unused substitute in Chelsea's Champions League run, culminating in the Blues victory over Bayern Munich in the final, making Chelsea the first London-based club to win the title.
Real Madrid (loan)
On 31 August 2012, Essien signed a season-long loan deal with Real Madrid, reuniting him with his former manager at Chelsea, José Mourinho. At his introductory press conference with Real Madrid, Mourinho affectionally referred to Essien as "his son" while Essien referred to Mourinho as his "Daddy". On 3 November, Essien scored his first goal for Real Madrid. During the last match of the season – and Essien's last game as a Madrid player – Essien scored his second goal for Madrid, which he dedicated to Mourinho.
AC Milan
Essien signed for Italian club AC Milan on a one-and-a-half-year contract on 27 January 2014.
Panathinaikos
On 2 June 2015, Essien signed a two-year contract with Greek club Panathinaikos. The deal made him the club's highest-paid player, with an annual salary of €800,000. He spent the first three months of the season recovering from a leg injury. He was due to make his debut on 21 November 2015 against Panathinaikos' archrivals Olympiacos, but the match was cancelled. He played his first match one week later. On 24 January 2016, he scored his first goal for Panathinaikos in a 2–0 away league win over Levadiakos. After a season in Greece, Essien was omitted from Panathinaikos' squad for the 2016–17 season, with the expectation he would be released from his contract. His termination by the club was confirmed almost three months later after the two parties reached a mutual agreement over his release.
After the agreement was reached and Essien was released from his contract, the club failed to remit the money owed to him and Essien appealed to the competent court for football affairs in Greece, which ordered Panathinaikos to pay him the outstanding sum of about €36,000 or face the deduction of three points in the coming 2018/19 competition.
Persib Bandung
Essien rejected an offer from Australian A-League club Melbourne Victory in September 2016.
On 13 March 2017, Essien joined the Indonesian club side Persib Bandung, signing a one-year contract with an option to extend for an additional year. He took the number 5 shirt for the 2017 Liga 1 season, the same number he wore during his nine years at Chelsea. Speaking about his move to Indonesia, Essien told the club's official website, "I hope I am the prelude to other world players moving to Indonesia." On 22 April, he scored his first goal from the header in a 2–2 draw over PS TNI.
On 17 March 2018, Persib's club chief executive, Zainuri Hasyim said that Persib has released Essien because the club has already filled their maximum quota of foreign players based on the PSSI's regulation.
Sabail
On 16 March 2019, Essien signed a one-and-a-half-year contract with Sabail FK of the Azerbaijan Premier League, which will also see him coach their U19 team.
International career
Essien's international career started with the Ghana under-17 national team, the Black Starlets when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand and won the bronze medal. In 2001, despite being one of the youngest players in the tournament, Essien participated in the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship with the Black Satellites in Argentina, where the nation finished runners-up to Argentina. His exceptional performances captured the attention of many and was widely tipped to be one of Africa's next rising stars.
Essien made his competitive senior debut in the 2002 Africa Cup of Nations against Morocco on 21 January 2002. but had played for Ghana in a pre-tournament friendly against Egypt on 4 January 2002.
On 16 May 2006, Essien was selected to be part of the team that represented Ghana at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. He played in midfield with team captain Stephen Appiah and Sulley Muntari. Essien played in Ghana's 2–0 defeat to Italy, their 2–0 victory over the Czech Republic, and the 2–1 victory over the United States, and helped Ghana become the only African team to reach the second-round of the 2006 World Cup. However, he was suspended for Ghana's second round match against Brazil and could only watch as Ghana lost 3–0. Upon the team's return to Ghana, Essien said the team had gained invaluable experience and would be aiming to make the next finals, held in Africa for the first time in the tournament's history at the 2010 World Cup.
In the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, Essien turned in another strong performance, driving the team to the semifinals with his power-packed performances. In the quarter-final against Nigeria, when team captain John Mensah was dismissed on the stroke of the hour for a professional foul on Nigeria's Peter Odemwingie, Essien assumed the captaincy for the remainder of the match as Ghana eventually won 2–1. He was voted as an All-Star Player during the tournament. The Team of the Tournament was decided by the Technical Study Group (TSG) after careful observations of all the tournament's matches.
During an international match played against Libya on 5 September 2008, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament playing for Ghana in the World Cup qualification stage and was out of action for six months, missing the majority of the 2008–09 season, before returning on 4 March to play for Chelsea Reserves against Aston Villa Reserves. He scored the last goal in the 4–3 loss. He still managed to take part in 10 of Ghana's 11 qualification matches, amassing more than 800 minutes of game time as Ghana finished at the top of their group to seal qualification to the 2010 World Cup. However, it was announced on 27 May 2010 that Essien would miss the World Cup after he was told he would not fully recover from his knee injury until the end of July, more than two weeks after the tournament was to end. Since then, Essien has announced that he will be standing down from the Ghana national side for the near future to focus on his career with Chelsea, having suffered two significant injuries while playing for Ghana in recent years. Having recovered from those injuries, Essien subsequently promised his availability to his nation "very soon".
Essien returned to Ghana's squad in August 2013 for the team's final 2014 World Cup qualifiers. He appeared as a second-half substitute in a 2–1 defeat of Zambia as the Black Stars secured qualification to the final round. He started in both play-off matches against Egypt and was named in Ghana's squad for the tournament finals. He made one appearance, coming on as a second-half substitute in the opening 2–1 defeat to the United States.
In July 2018, Essien has announced his retirement from international football, after over 12 years of active service with Ghana. He said that he even retired before the 2014 FIFA World Cup but he was called back by former Ghana coach, James Kwesi Appiah to come and help the team.
Coaching career
Nordsjælland
On 19 August 2020 it was revealed, that Essien was training with Danish Superliga club Nordsjælland, where he also got the opportunity to be part of the work around the Superliga team and several of the club's academy teams, just as he got a better knowledge of the teaching and development of young people off the field in FCN, as inspiration for his ongoing coaching education. Nordsjælland is in partnership with Right to Dream Academy in Ghana.
However, the club confirmed on 9 September 2020, that they had affiliated with Essien as part of the club's coaching team for the 2020–21 season. He would thus be part of the coaching team in an assistant role at the same time, participating in the training sessions to implement the exercises in the best possible way and able to contribute with new input to the coaching team's evaluations.
Style of play
Essien was a physically strong midfielder, who often played in a central midfield role. He was often touted as a box-to-box midfielder for his ability to exert energy in supporting both offensive and defensive play, and for his powerful and tough tackling playing style, which has earned him the nickname "The Bison". Essien can also play as a defender, both on the right of defence and in the centre. In addition to his work-rate, physicality, and defensive skills, Essien also possessed good technique, vision, tactical intelligence, and leadership qualities, and was a powerful striker of the ball from distance.
Career statistics
Club
International
HonoursLyonLigue 1: 2003–04, 2004–05
Trophée des Champions: 2003, 2004ChelseaPremier League: 2005–06, 2009–10
FA Cup: 2006–07, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2011–12
Football League Cup: 2006–07
FA Community Shield: 2009
UEFA Champions League: 2011–12; runner-up: 2007–08GhanaAfrica Cup of Nations runner-up: 2010; third place: 2008
FIFA U-17 World Cup runner-up:1999
FIFA U-20 World Cup runner-up: 2001Individual'
Ligue 1 Player of the Month: October 2004
Ligue 1 Player of the Year: 2004–05
Ligue 1 Team of the Year: 2002–03, 2004–05
CAF Team of the Year: 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009
BBC African Footballer of the Year: 2006
Ghana Player of the Year: 2007
Chelsea Player of the Year: 2007
Chelsea Goal of the Year: 2006–07 vs Arsenal, 2008–09 vs Barcelona
2008 Africa Cup of Nations: Team of the Tournament
See also
References
External links
Premier League Profile
1982 births
Living people
Fante people
Ghanaian Roman Catholics
Footballers from Accra
Ghanaian men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football utility players
St. Augustine's College (Cape Coast) alumni
Liberty Professionals F.C. players
SC Bastia players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Chelsea F.C. players
Real Madrid CF players
AC Milan players
Panathinaikos F.C. players
Persib Bandung players
Sabail FK players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
La Liga players
Serie A players
Super League Greece players
Liga 1 (Indonesia) players
Azerbaijan Premier League players
UEFA Champions League winning players
Ghana men's under-20 international footballers
Ghana men's international footballers
2002 African Cup of Nations players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
2008 Africa Cup of Nations players
2010 Africa Cup of Nations players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Ghanaian expatriate men's footballers
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in France
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in England
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Indonesia
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Azerbaijan
Ghanaian expatriate sportspeople in Denmark
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Expatriate men's footballers in Greece
Expatriate men's footballers in Indonesia
Expatriate men's footballers in Azerbaijan
Naturalized citizens of France
FC Nordsjælland non-playing staff
Association football coaches |
31407023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianapolis%20Art%20Center | Indianapolis Art Center | The Indianapolis Art Center is an art center located in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. The center, founded in 1934 by the Works Project Administration during the Great Depression as the Indianapolis Art League, is located along the White River. It features fine art exhibitions, art classes and studios, a library with over 5,000 titles, and the ARTSPARK nature and art parks. As of 2008 the Indianapolis Art Center featured over 50 annual exhibitions and had over 3,000 members.
History
William Kaeser founded the non-profit Indianapolis Art League in 1934. The group that would eventually become the Indianapolis Art Center was funded as a Works Progress Administration project under President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration during the Great Depression. Kaeser, an Austrian graduate of the Herron School of Art and Design, had started organizing adult education art study groups, starting with a group of ten women at Public School 72. In 1938, the art study groups formed into the Indianapolis Art Students' League, its name and character influenced by the populist Art Students League of New York.
Due to gas rationing during World War II, classes were located at various venues throughout Indianapolis, eventually settling at Public School 66. By the 1950s, the group had to seek other quarters and finally settled at the Holliday House at Holliday Park in 1952. The House served as the first permanent venue for the Indianapolis Art League until it burned down in 1958.
After the fire, the Art League began raising funds for a new facility, and in 1960 they became incorporated as the Indianapolis Art League Foundation. Major gifts were made by members, corporations, the public, the Elsie Sweeney Foundation and the Indianapolis Foundation, as well as a land gift at 3103 North Pennsylvania St. by John and Marguerite Fehsenfeld. The Art League built its first new facility with two art studio classrooms and a lobby.
Twelve to fifteen years later, the League sought new space, and in 1976 raised $300,000, with large gifts from the Indianapolis Foundation and Lilly Endowment. With director M. Steele Churchman, they built a new . venue along the White River in Broad Ripple Village; it had five studios, a gallery, a library and offices. Classes doubled within the first year—totaling 40 a week. With these successes, in 1976 the Art League hired its first executive director Joyce Sommers; she was a former student who had become a board member at the center.
In the early 1980s the Center attempted to run a retail store on site, but it failed and they closed it. The sale allowed the center to buy more land. The Art League's architectural expansion began in 1989 with the Riverfront Performance Terrace. By 1993 the Art League hosted 100 classes a week with 55 part-time faculty members.
By 1994 they had raised $7.6 million in their capital campaign and completed the new building in 1996. That year the Art League changed its name to the Indianapolis Art Center, in accordance with its major expansion. In 2009 Sommers retired after 33 years of service.
After a national search Patrick Flaherty became president and executive director in September 2014.
Architecture
The Indianapolis Art Center's building was designed by Indiana-born architect Michael Graves. Graves, a former high school classmate of director Joyce Sommers, was handpicked by Center leaders. He was given complete creative control over the project, $6 million at the time of original construction. Funds were raised by a capital campaign, a major contribution from the Ruth Lilly, the Lilly Endowment and other corporate and civic organizations. Construction was completed by Indianapolis-based Shiel-Sexton Company, who was chosen by a committee of local architects, and was completed on time and on budget.
The first phase was started in October 1994 and completed in August 1995 with a stucco building housing a 225-seat auditorium, art gallery and six art studios. Upon the demolition of the original building, the second phase began, to be opened May 31, 1996. The new $8.2 million facility would feature three art galleries, 13 art studios, a gift shop and auditorium. It is four times larger than the previous building. The Center features Grave's signature style: the building's entry portico has columns, large rectangular and round windows flank smaller counterparts throughout the facade, and the stucco is painted peach, red ochre and blue. The back of the building features another portico that overlooks the White River and a sculpture garden.
The two buildings are connected by the Churchman-Fehsenfeld Studio. The west building is home to the Ruth Lilly Library, an octagonal two-story atrium with -diameter circular windows on all sides, and a fireplace with ceramic tiles fired in the center's own kiln. The west building features the center's administrative offices, the Stan & Sandy Hurt conference room, a studio prep and storage area, painting, drawing, printmaking, photography and computer graphics studios. The east half of the building consists of studios for woodworking, glassblowing, ceramics, metalsmithing, steel and stone sculpture and benchwork.
With this building, Graves was not seeking an Indianapolis connection in the architectural design, but a look related to the industrial look of studio art spaces and renovated industrial spaces of San Francisco or SoHo. The east and west side of the building are capped by chimneys—one for the library and one for the kiln, adding to the industrial look and feel of the space. Upon its completion, Sommers stated, "The new building has given us greater visibility and a much stronger community profile."
Education
Historically the Art Center's program has been influenced by Western art history and techniques. Artists such as Elmer Taflinger taught at the Art League until 1965. The mid-1990s renovations allowed for new art studio and classrooms to be built. An overhead crane is on campus for transporting steel and stone into the sculpture studio. The glassblowing studio had enabled the center to become one of only nine facilities in the country to allow regular public classes. As of 2008 the center was working towards a fundraising goal of $15 million to complete a master plan for the glass art program.
The Marilyn K. Glick School of Art serves as the center's on-site educational facility, with programming including classes about glass making, woodworking, steel fabrication, ceramics, metalsmithing, textiles, painting, furniture refinishing, and photography. The center also offers artist referral services and a library with over 5,000 volumes that are open to the public.
IAC offers nearly 300 courses per semester to the public, with the fall and spring semesters hosting over 4,000 students. Summer school is also offered working with upwards of 1,400 students. The IAC's Fine Arts Day Camp which teaches children ages 7–12 a variety of creative skills and youth age 10–13 specialized skills. Picasso Camp serves pre-school children and involves learning about fine art and music. These youth camps hosted 400 youth in 2009. In 2010 IAC started providing educational programming for Fall Creek Academy, providing students with access to the campus and classes taught at the center and at the school. IAC offers scholarships, opportunities in continuing education, selected certifications and classes for Marian University credit.
Exhibitions
The Indianapolis Art Centers's exhibition programming began in 1937, featuring the work of artists from Indiana and the Midwest region. They held their first annual art competition at the Lyman Brothers art gallery and throughout the city with exhibitions such as "The Indianapolis Art Students' League Annual Exhibition" which was held at the William H. Block Co. for 15 years, the "500 Festival of Arts" in downtown storefronts until 1973, "Art 500" at the Indianapolis Convention Center, and since 1976 the biannual "Indiana Directions and Regional" at the Art League galleries.
With its current home, three exhibition spaces anchor the Main Gallery in the center of the building, which stretches from the entrance to the rear exit. IAC hosts a juried student show with prize money and opportunities for students to sell their work. The top five student winners receive the opportunity to exhibit during the faculty show.
The center also hosts traveling exhibitions alongside its own curated exhibitions. In 1999 IAC hosted "Graham Nash and Nash Editions", organized by the Butler Institute of American Art, featuring the photographs of Graham Nash and related photographs from his Nash Editions. As of 2010 Patrick Flaherty has served as exhibition director who through his work at IAC "would like to see is a demystification of art."
Notable exhibitions
A Life in Art: Works by George Rickey
In the summer of 2009 IAC played host to a retrospective exhibit on the kinetic sculptures, models and sketches of Indiana artist George Rickey. The center also worked with the Arts Council of Indianapolis and the City of Indianapolis to exhibit works of Rickey's throughout the city.
Gardens and grounds
The Art Center's semi-wooded grounds cater to private and public events including the Indy Jazz Fest, Indiana Microbrewers Festival, Broad Ripple Music Fest, and the Broad Ripple Art Fair. Located to the west of the main building is the Cultural Complex which was acquired by the Art Center in 2003 as a home for the fabric department, Writer's Center of Indianapolis, and a studio space.
ARTSPARK
Founded in 2005, designed also by Michael Graves and located on IAC grounds, the ARTSPARK is a sculpture garden connected to the Monon Trail and with access to the White River. With a goal to bring "art, artists, and the community together through multi-sensory sculptures in an open-air setting," the park serves as a gallery without walls and a space for creating art outside. Features of the ARTSPARK include the Nina Mason Pulliam Sensory Path, an amphitheater, a riverfront deck, and over 30 public artworks. The concept for the ARTSPARK formed in 1996 upon the completion of the Grave's designed building. Funds began to be raised in the early 2000s (decade) and, by 2003, the center had raised $2.6 million, with a goal of $5.5 million. Groundbreaking took place for the park the first weekend of June, during the celebration of the 70th birthday of the IAC, A special groundbreaking took place that Friday at the Indiana School for the Blind and Visually Impaired to celebrate an area of the ARTSPARK dedicated to the students, which would feature the artwork Circle created by artist Sadashi Inuzuka and students from the school. The park features artworks by Gary Freeman, Robert Stackhouse, Truman Lowe, Arnaldo Pomodoro, John Spaulding, among others.
Administration
The Indianapolis Art Center is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit directed by Patrick Flaherty and as of 2009 consists of 32 staff members and 616 volunteers. IAC is governed by a board of 36 individuals and is led by Board Chair Marnie Maxwell. Board members represent a variety of regional organizations including Indiana University, Eli Lilly and Company, Fifth Third Bank, IUPUI, KeyBank, as well as former chief executive Joyce Sommers. The Art Center's endowment consists of nine individual funds and entrance is free to the Center and grounds.
Outreach
From the 1950s into the 1980s IAC provided outreach programming for prisons and mental health programs, sending volunteers to teach art classes to those imprisoned and suffering from mental disabilities. The center began working with the city to create murals at public housing sites, creating art experiences for 10 housing sites, as well as the Indiana School for the Blind and Visually Impaired and St. Vincent New Hope.
In 1989 the Art Center started its ArtReach program which strives to bring art awareness to youth at risk. ArtReach programming provides young people with two hours of weekly art training, visits to the ARTSPARK for exploration of the art and grounds, and an opportunity to participate in the Michael Carroll ArtReach Exhibition in the Spring, allowing the students to have their artwork professionally exhibited at the center. On the success of the program, former director Joyce Sommers states: "It's not over dramatic to say that art has helped so many kids find a way to find faith in themselves ... when they start making art they are looking inside of themselves and they end up with a product and their self esteem builds. We use the instrument of art for that, besides its intrinsic value." In 2009 IAC introduced The American Scene, which during its inaugural year hosted 56 youth ages 5–18. The American Scene encourages young people to make an impact within their community with public art. Students work with a professional artist to select the location for the artwork, and collaborate with each other and the artist to create a themed artwork relating to Indianapolis. The American Scene ended with artwork made by the children and individuals of the Wheeler Mission being exhibited at the "Beyond Perceptions" exhibition. The SMART program allows 14 young people and their mentors to attend 16 class sessions, three workshops and field trips in the summer.
Events
IAC hosts a number of events to fundraising purposes with the most notable being the Broad Ripple Art Fair. Major indoor events and lectures take place at the facilities Frank M. Basile Auditorium. IAC's summer gala fundraiser is ArtSparkle, which hosts upwards of 400 people, benefiting the center's educational programming. Film series are also part of event programming, taking place within the Basile Auditorium. In 2008 the IAC hosted the Klipsch Chinese Film Festival.
Broad Ripple Art Fair
Every year the IAC hosts over 22,000 visitors for the Broad Ripple Art Fair. Started in 1971, the first "art fair" was held in a private home, then the streets of Broad Ripple; the IAC directly benefits from the admission fee paid by guests. The festival features over 225 juried artists and craftspeople from the United States and Canada, live music, children's activities and food.
Day of the Dead
From 2000 to 2012, the Art Center marked the annual Day of the Dead (also known as All Saints Day) on November 1 to celebrate the growing Latino ethnic population in Indianapolis. Through bringing people of different backgrounds together, the Art Center seeks to share the historical, artistic and cultural experiences of the holiday to the city. A major exhibition of altars and shrines took place, Latino artists are exhibited, and workshops and a celebration are featured. After hosting the 2011 exhibition, the Indianapolis Art Center turned the festivities over the Indiana State Museum.
References
External links
Arts centers in Indiana
Non-profit organizations based in Indianapolis
Culture of Indianapolis
Museums in Indianapolis
Works Progress Administration in Indiana
Arts organizations based in Indiana
Art schools in Indiana
Adult education in the United States
Michael Graves buildings
Modernist architecture in Indiana
Glassmaking schools
Glass museums and galleries
Charities based in Indiana
New Classical architecture |
68814792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20churches%20in%20Hamar | List of churches in Hamar | The list of churches in Hamar is a list of the Church of Norway churches in the Diocese of Hamar in Norway. It includes all of the parishes in Innlandet county plus the parishes in Lunner Municipality in Viken county. The diocese is based at the Hamar Cathedral in the city of Hamar in Hamar Municipality.
The list is divided into several sections, one for each deanery (; headed by a provost) in the diocese. Administratively within each deanery, the churches within each municipality elects their own church council (). Each municipality may have one or more parishes () within the municipality. Each parish elects their own councils (). Each parish has one or more local church. The number and size of the deaneries and parishes has changed over time.
The Diocese of Hamar was first established in 1153 when Norway was part of the Catholic Church. During the Reformation in Norway, in 1537, the diocese was incorporated into the Diocese of Christiania. In 1864, the Diocese of Hamar was re-established and at that time, it included all of Hedmark and Oppland counties. Originally, the diocese was divided into Hedemarken prosti (later Hamar domprosti), Gudbrandsdalen prosti, Valdres prosti, and Hadeland, Ringerike og Hallingdal prosti. Over the years, the various deaneries have been subdivided and changed. Currently, there are 10 deaneries. On 1 January 2020, the two counties were merged into Innlandet county except for the municipalities of Lunner and Jevnaker which were merged into Viken county, so the diocese includes all of Innlandet plus the two municipalities in Viken. As of 2018, the diocese had 308,697 members (about 82% of the population).
Hamar domprosti
This arch-deanery () covers several municipalities in the central part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Hamar, Løten, and Stange. The arch-deanery is headquartered at the Hamar Cathedral in the city of Hamar in Hamar Municipality.
Hadeland og Land prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in the southern part of the diocese. It is the only deanery in the diocese to span parts of two counties. It includes the municipalities of Gran, Nordre Land, and Søndre Land in Innlandet county and Jevnaker and Lunner in Viken county. The deanery is headquartered at Ål Church in the village of Jaren in Gran Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1864 when Jevnaker and Lunner from the Hadeland, Ringerike og Hallingdal prosti and Nordre Land and Søndre Land from the Valdres prosti were joined to form the newly created Hadeland og Land prosti.
Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in the northwestern part of the diocese. It includes churches in the municipalities of Dovre, Lesja, Lom, Nord-Fron, Sel, Skjåk, and Vågå. The deanery is headquartered at Sel Church in the north side of the town of Otta in Sel Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1871 when the old Gudbrandsdalen prosti was divided into Søndre Gudbrandsdalen prosti and Nordre Gudbrandsdalen prosti. A royal resolution on 19 May 1922 changed the deanery name from "Nordre Gudbrandsdal prosti" to "Nord-Gudbrandsdal prosti", both meaning "northern Gudbrandsdalen". Also in 1922, Sel municipality was transferred out of this deanery to the new Midtre Gudbrandsdal prosti ("middle Gudbrandsdal"). In 1972, the Midtre Gudbrandsdal prosti was dissolved and the municipalities of Sel and Fron were transferred into this deanery at that time.
Nord-Østerdal prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in the northeastern part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Alvdal, Folldal, Os, Rendalen, Tolga, and Tynset. The deanery is headquartered at Tynset Church in the village of Tynset in Tynset Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1868 when the old Østerdalen prosti was divided into Søndre Østerdalen prosti and Nordre Østerdalen prosti. A royal resolution on 19 May 1922 changed the deanery name from "Nordre Østerdalen prosti" to "Nord-Østerdal prosti", both meaning "northern Østerdalen".
Ringsaker prosti
This deanery () covers the municipality of Ringsaker in the central part of the diocese. The deanery is headquartered at Ringsaker Church in the village of Moelv in Ringsaker Municipality.
The deanery was established in 2007 when it was separated from the Hamar domprosti.
Solør, Vinger og Odal prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in the Glåmdal river valley in the southeastern part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Eidskog, Kongsvinger, Nord-Odal, Sør-Odal, Grue, Våler, and Åsnes. The deanery is headquartered at Vinger Church in the town of Kongsvinger in Kongsvinger Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1855 when the old Øvre Romerike prosti was divided. It was originally called Solør and Odal prosti. In 1868, northern part of Solør (Våler and Åsnes parishes) was transferred to the then newly established Sør-Østerdal prosti. In 1922, the southern part of Solør (Hof, Grue, and Brandval parishes) were separated to join the newly created Solør prosti. The remaining parts of this deanery then changed its name to Vinger og Odal prosti. In 1990, the parish of Brandval was transferred from Solør prosti to Vinger og Odal prosti. In 2013, the deanery regained its original boundaries when the old Solør prosti was merged back. The deanery's name was then changed to Solør, Vinger og Odal prosti.
Sør-Gudbrandsdal prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in central part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Gausdal, Lillehammer, Ringebu, Sør-Fron, and Øyer. The deanery is headquartered at Lillehammer Church in the town of Lillehammer in Lillehammer Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1871 when the old Gudbrandsdalen prosti was divided into Nordre Gudbrandsdalen prosti and Søndre Gudbrandsdalen prosti. A royal resolution on 19 May 1922 changed the deanery name from "Søndre Gudbrandsdal prosti" to "Sør-Gudbrandsdal prosti", both meaning "southern Gudbrandsdalen". Also in 1922, Ringebu municipality was transferred out of this deanery to the new Midtre Gudbrandsdal prosti ("middle Gudbrandsdal"). In 1972, the Midtre Gudbrandsdal prosti was dissolved and the municipality of Ringebu was transferred into this deanery.
Sør-Østerdal prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in the east-central part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Elverum, Engerdal, Stor-Elvdal, Trysil, Åmot. The deanery is headquartered at Elverum Church in the town of Elverum in Elverum Municipality.
The deanery was established in 1868 when the old Østerdalen prosti was divided into Søndre Østerdalen prosti and Nordre Østerdalen prosti. A royal resolution on 19 May 1922 changed the deanery name from "Søndre Østerdalen prosti" to "Sør-Østerdal prosti", both meaning "southern Østerdalen".
Toten prosti
This deanery () covers three municipalities in the southern part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Gjøvik, Vestre Toten, and Østre Toten. The deanery is headquartered at Gjøvik Church in the town of Gjøvik in Gjøvik Municipality. The deanery was established in 1853 when the old Toten og Valdres prosti was divided into Valdres prosti and Toten prosti.
Valdres prosti
This deanery () covers several municipalities in Valdres in the southwestern part of the diocese. It includes the municipalities of Etnedal, Nord-Aurdal, Sør-Aurdal, Vang, Vestre Slidre, and Øystre Slidre. The deanery is headquartered at Aurdal Church in the village of Aurdal in Nord-Aurdal Municipality.
Valdres prosti was established in 1853 when the old Toten og Valdres prosti was divided into Valdres prosti and Toten prosti. In 1864, the municipalities of Nordre Land and Søndre Land were transferred from this deanery to the Hadeland og Land prosti.
References
Hamar |
4851360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallory%20Park | Mallory Park | Mallory Park is a motor racing circuit situated in the village of Kirkby Mallory, just off the A47, between Leicester and Hinckley, in central England. Originally used for grass-track until 1955, a new, basically oval hard-surfaced course was constructed for 1956, with a later extension forming a loop with a hairpin bend.
With the car circuit measuring only it is amongst the shortest permanent race circuits in the UK. However, chicanes introduced to reduce speeds in motorcycle events mean that the Superbike Circuit is now slightly longer, at . Shorter UK circuits are Lydden Hill, Brands Hatch Indy circuit, Scotland's Knockhill and Silverstone's diminutive Stowe circuit.
The Circuit
The circuit has a number of formations, founded on a basic one-mile oval, with the majority of configurations including the northerly extension to the tight, 180° Shaw's Corner. When used without the hairpin-loop, to achieve the shorter-length lap (one mile) configuration, the link section was known as Castrol Chicane.
At the other end of the circuit lies the long right-hand Gerard's Bend. Gerard's is about a third of a mile long and turns through nearly 200°. It was named after local racing hero Bob Gerard, who opened the newly reconstructed circuit on 25 April 1956. Unusually, there are a number of large lakes occupying approximately half of the circuit infield. Despite its short length and Shaw's Corner, also known as The Hairpin, the tightest corner of any UK track, (other than the hairpin on Cadwell Park's short circuit,) Mallory is a fast circuit. To reduce speeds for motorcycle racing a pair of chicanes were introduced, together with a revised exit to Gerard's. Edwina's was added toward the end of the straight following Gerard's, named after former managing director of the circuit Edwina Overend, and the Bus Stop Chicane on the descent to the sweeping left kink, the Devil's Elbow, a blind, downhill, off camber left-hander before the start–finish line on Kirkby Straight. In 2003 a new complex was added toward the end of Gerard's curve. This sequence of bends was designed to reduce speeds on entry to Edwina's, and to prevent motorcycles from colliding as they jockey for position into the chicane. Mallory is the only major oval course remaining in Britain following the closure of Rockingham Motor Speedway.
Mallory Park does not have any true permanent garage facilities, although there are a handful of open garages in the pitlane.
History
Origins – 1950s
The estate at Mallory Park has many historical connections, the oldest being the unique Anglo-Saxons defended moat which is now known as Kirkby Moats, while a Roman road passes through the estate. Fast forward to the 18th century, when in 1762, Sir Cleoberry Noel became Viscount Wentworth, the title descended on the distaff side. Lord Byron married into the Wentworth family and it is said on his visits to Mallory, he wrote beneath the shade of the Lebanon cedar tree which still stands in the grounds of Kirkby Hall. The last occupant of Kirkby Hall was Herbert Clarkson who died in 1941, when it was sold.
During the Second World War, the circuit started life as Royal Air Force Kirkby Mallory, a satellite landing ground (SLG) and closed in 1947. The hall was a large house which was demolished in 1952, leaving only the stable block and the coach house which now forms the circuit offices, workshops, hotel, pub and restaurant.
The estate of 300 acres was sold by auction in 1953 and was bought by a Mr. Moult of Derby who planned to have horse racing on the disused pony trotting track. Following the war, Mallory became a pony trotting circuit in the late 1940s, which defined the outline of the oval track still in use today. After the financial collapse of the equestrian club responsible for the circuit (Kirkby Mallory Racing Association), the track was hired by various motorcycle clubs for grass track motorcycle and motorcycle sidecar racing. For example, between September 1949 until 1954, the Leicester Query Motorcycle Club held grass track races. In 1955, the estate was purchased by Clive Wormleighton, under whose influence, the present tarmac was constructed at a cost of £60,000 in 1956. Upon completion of the building work, a circuit test was held on 26 April, when local Grand Prix driver Bob Gerard and Maurice Cann respectively conducted a Cooper-Bristol Formula Two car and a Moto Guzzi motorcycle around the track, Gerard managing an 81 mph lap.
The very first race was held on 29 April, when the Leicester Query Club organised a motorcycle meeting. A large crowd in excess of 20,000 spectators attended the Grand Opening event on 13 May 1956. 248 riders arrived in Leicestershire for this meeting, which saw George Salter set the first lap record at a speed of 84.08 mph, riding a Norton bike. Cars first appeared at the Whit Monday meeting, the event being organised by Peter Fulke Greville of the Nottingham Sports Car Club. The first car race victory went to D. Rees in an Austin.
Many famous racing stars have raced at Mallory over the years, indeed a young John Surtees raced against his father, Jack Surtees. While Jack was a successful grass track racer at Mallory, John went on to be only World Champion on both two and four wheels.
Famous competitors who have raced at Mallory, include John Surtees who won the first ‘Race of the Year’ in 1958. While, the 1960 race, saw Mike Hailwood win and set a new lap record of 89 mph. Both Hailwood and Surtees, along with Jim Clark and Colin Chapman are commemorated with Statues at the front gate. Around this time, Clive Wormleighton added the lakes, which were formed by adding the sluice gate across the Brook.
1960s
Clive Wormleighton continued to run the circuit very successfully until 1962 when ownership passed to Grovewood Securities in July, the previous owner remaining in a consultancy capacity until the end of September. Before this, on 11 June 1962 Mallory Park saw it first non-championship Formula One (International 2000 Guineas) race, won by John Surtees aboard a Lola Mk4 from the privately entered Lotuses of Jack Brabham and Graham Hill. Surtees was now a major race winner at Mallory on both 2 and 4 wheels.
Over the next two years, a considerable amount of money was spent on Mallory with the building of new spectator stands and a new commentators’ press and timekeepers’ boxes. Further developments took place raising the standard of the track. Crowds grew and in 1962, over 50,000 people paid to see the Post TT International Motor Cycle meeting, when Mike Hailwood won, improving the lap record to 91.70 mph. This led to it Race of the Year and Sidecar race of the Year being sponsored by the Daily Mail. Under the control of Peter Fulke Greville, Grovewood Securities, Mallory enjoyed its golden days in the 1960s and 1970s with some of the greatest names in motorsport competing there. Amongst these, a young Austrian who arrived for the Whit Sunday meeting in 1964, for his first race in England in a new Formula Two Brabham – Jochen Rindt. He asked Denny Hulme if he could follow him round to learn the circuit and then proceeded to set fastest time in qualifying; despite being delayed in the race, he finished third behind the reigning World Champion, Jim Clark and his experienced team-mate Peter Arundell.
1970s
Throughout the Sixties and Seventies, the circuit hosted almost every major British car and bike championship. However, on occasions there were European Championship events. For example, 12 March 1972, saw FIA European Formula Two Championship, with Dave Morgan winning in his Reeves Racing Brabham-Ford BT35, from the future Ferrari pairing of Niki Lauda and Carlos Reutemann.
1970 saw Mallory used as a venue for cycle racing with the World road race championships being run on a road course starting and finishing at Mallory and incorporating the circuit (reversed) each lap. The professional event was won by ill-fated Belgian Jean-Pierre Monseré.
Formula Two returned again 1973, this time Morgan could only finish third. The victor was Frenchman, Jean-Pierre Jarier in his works March-BMW 732. Second was Dave McConnell.
After a little over 20 years the owners of Mallory Park decided that enough was enough and offered the estate for sale; no doubt the expense of bringing Brands Hatch (which Grovewood also owned) up to current Grand Prix standards had some effort on the decision and the re-opening of Donington Park, which was only some 20 miles away, may have influenced the decision. Whatever the reasons, Mallory was once more on the market but, reportedly with a restriction in its future use for motor sport on its future use for motor racing, although planning permission had been obtained for the erection of 30 dwelling on the estate.
Meanwhile, famously the Bay City Rollers tartan army played a concert during a BBC-organised 'Fun Day' on 18 May 1975, on a stage specifically constructed in the middle of the lake.
1980s and onwards
Edwina Overend was the competitions secretary of the Midlands Centre of the British Racing and Sports Car Club (BRSCC); during the close of the 1982 season, the expected cessation of racing at Mallory loomed large and various time wasters had come and gone, Overend approached Chris Meek with a view to his purchasing the estate. Meek was a well-known racing driver and businessman who effected the purchase late in 1982, and reopened the circuit on 29 May 1983, the first race of the new era being organised by the 750 Motor Club.
In late 1983, the reported owners – Motor Circuit Developments (MCD) announced that the circuit would close due to restriction of usage – being limited to race-days only – meant the circuit was not viable without alternative-use of the track for practice days.
There was no interruption to the programme and Mallory went from strength to strength, apart from a hiccup from in December 1985 when the local borough council served a Noise Nuisance Order which restricted use of the circuit to 40 days a year. On Sundays there is an absolute curfew and no racing engines must be run after 6 pm.
In late 1987, Edwina and Ron Overend trading as Mallory Park (Motorsport) Ltd., negotiated a long term lease with Chris Meek's Titan Properties to ensure the future of racing at Mallory.
Mallory Park has hosted all major motor racing formulae to be contested in post-war England – European Formula Two Championship, British Formula One Championship, Group 7 sport cars, European Formula 5000, British Formula Three Championship and British Saloon Car Championship. In the 1981 programme the name of Damon Hill appears as one of the ‘Ams’ in the Yamaha RD350 Pro-Am series.
The British Superbike Championship was last hosted at Mallory for the 2010 season, where it was used since 1995 (with the exception of 2003).
Annually in October, The Festival of Sidecars takes place. No solo machines compete, but sidecars of all categories are entered, including three-wheelers such as those made by the Morgan Motor Company.
From the mid-1990s, the BRSCC promoted EuroCars, V6 and V8 saloon-outline cars which had graduated from the stock car circuits. At Mallory Park, they ran anticlockwise on the oval circuit.
Records
The history of the lap at the Leicestershire circuit is interesting; the first one was a long time coming, for it was not until 1966 that it finally happened when on 29 May, Denny Hulme took a Lola T70 round in 47.6sec at a speed of . Two years later, Roy Pike established the first Formula Three lap in a Titan, which he took round in 48sec (). With coming of the large capacity single-seater like the Formula 5000 and Formula One cars, the outright record continue to fall until, in 1979, Ricardo Zunino took an Arrows A1 round in 40.065sec at an incredible . 22 years after the late, Vincenzo Sospiri established the first such lap in a Formula Ford when he drove a Van Diemen RF88 at in 48.44sec.
By the end of the 20th Century, the outright lap record on the full circuit, which still stands to the credit of Johan Rajamäki, driving a Formula One Footwork-Judd FA13 in the BOSS Formula at in 38.23secs. it was set on 5 May 1997.
On the oval circuit, the record has stood since May 1995, the credit of a V6 Ford Mondeo Eurocar of Ian Fewings at in 33.840sec.
While on two wheels, the full lap record was set during the 2017 ‘Race of the year’ at 50.660s, at , by Bradley Ray abroad a Suzuki GSX-R1000.
In the karting world John Riley in his Division 1 Superkart set the lap record of 44.071s, at in June 2006. At this point he was already the lap record holder in the Formula 250 National Superkart class with a laptime of 45.141s, at set in August 2001.
Lap records
As of October 2017, the fastest official race lap records at the Mallory Park are listed as:
Other uses
Motocross Circuit
Adjacent to the road course is a purpose-built motocross circuit which played host to the Grand Prix of Great Britain in 2008. The event was being organised by off-road promotions company RHL, who originally planned to use the former Grand Prix circuit at Foxhill, near Swindon, until it became apparent that the infrastructure at the Wiltshire venue would not be sufficient for such a high-profile event.
The event was seen as a success by fans, with over 30,000 fans in attendance over the weekend. However, the Grand Prix only returned once more in 2009.
The circuit has been unused since late 2013 and has fallen into disuse. Motocross activities ended due to noise concerns and, in the interests of improving relations with the local community, the new owners of the circuit have no plans to recommence Motocross.
Cycling
The park is used as a venue for Triathlon training, with the tarmac circuit offering traffic-free conditions for endurance training in cycling and distance-running. The lake enables open water swimming. Occasionally, family cycling fun-events are held.
Major race results
British Grasstrack Championship
Note: Bill who finished second in the 1951 Sidecars went on to complete many laps around Mallory in Road Racing. He is the father of Mick Boddice, the record breaking Isle of Man TT competitor.
Formula One Non-World Championship races
International Formula Two Championship
European Formula 5000 Championship
The BRSCC's European Formula 5000 Championship, organised in the UK but taking in events across Europe, was first contested in 1969. The title sponsorship moved from Guards to Rothmans to Shellsport before the series let in F1, F2 and F. Atlantic cars for 1976.
British Formula Three
British Touring Car Championship
British Superbike Championship
"Race of the Year" (Motorcycles)
FIM Motocross World Championship
Further reading
Gareth Rogers. Mallory Park: 50 Years at the Friendly Circuit. The History Press Ltd. .
Notes
References
External links
Official website
https://grasstrackgb.co.uk/honours/domestic-honours/
Motorsport venues in England
Sports venues in Leicestershire |
2080079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KOIN | KOIN | KOIN (channel 6) is a television station in Portland, Oregon, United States, affiliated with CBS. It is owned by Nexstar Media Group alongside Salem–licensed CW owned-and-operated station KRCW-TV (channel 32). Both stations share studios in the basement of the KOIN Center skyscraper on Southwest Columbia Street in downtown Portland, while KOIN's transmitter is located in the Sylvan-Highlands neighborhood of the city.
History
Radio origins
KOIN's history traces back to a radio station at 970 AM that launched on November 9, 1925, as KQP; the station changed its call sign to KOIN on April 12, 1926. It became an affiliate of the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), now known as the CBS Radio Network, on September 1, 1929. During the golden years of radio, KOIN was one of Portland's major radio stations, with an extensive array of local programming, including live music from its own studio orchestra.
As a CBS radio affiliate, KOIN was the local home for CBS radio programs such as the CBS World News Roundup, Lux Radio Theater and Suspense. An FM station, KOIN-FM (at 101.1 Mc.), was launched in 1948. Both stations were owned by Field Enterprises, Inc. from 1947 until sold in 1952 to the Mount Hood Radio and Television Broadcasting Corporation.
Radio stations KOIN and KOIN-FM were sold on May 1, 1977 to the Gaylord Broadcasting Company, and effective May 12, 1977, their call signs changed to KYTE and KYTE-FM, respectively. Its affiliation with CBS ended, and the CBS Radio Network's programming in the Portland market moved to KYXI at that time. The stations using the former KOIN frequencies currently are KUFO (AM) and KXL-FM.
Television station
KOIN-TV began broadcasting on October 15, 1953, as Portland's first VHF television station. It took on an affiliation with the CBS Television Network, to match the radio station (channel 6 has always been a primary CBS station, and as such, it is the only Portland TV station to never change its primary affiliation). At the time, it was jointly owned by Mount Hood Radio and Television Broadcasting Corporation; Newhouse Broadcasting Corporation (now Advance Publications), owner and publisher of The (Portland) Oregonian; local investors and Marshall Field's department stores. The station took its calls from KOIN radio (AM 970 and 101.1 FM), which was a joint venture of Mount Hood Broadcasting and Newhouse. Eventually, Marshall Field sold its stake to Newhouse. Lee Enterprises purchased KOIN-TV in April 1977 from the Mount Hood-Newhouse group.
KOIN's first color television broadcast was made on August 14, 1954, only three days after then-NBC-affiliate KPTV (channel 12) had made Portland's first such broadcast.
In the 1950s, KOIN ran a Sunday afternoon program, Report to the People, hosted by the governor of Oregon.
On February 27, 1971, both transmitter towers used by KOIN-FM and KOIN-TV—the main tower and the auxiliary tower—collapsed during an ice and wind storm. The two KOIN (AM) towers, located on the same property, were not damaged. Nine days later, on March 9, 1971, KOIN-FM and KOIN-TV returned to the air when a temporary tower was erected on the site of the collapsed auxiliary tower. During those nine days off the air, CBS programming was provided to the Portland market (and, by extension, most of Oregon) by independent station KVDO-TV in Salem (Oregon Public Broadcasting later purchased KVDO and moved the station to Bend as KOAB-TV). In 1978, a production company, MIRA Mobile Television, was founded.
During the 1970s, KOIN still had a handful of locally produced programs on the air, including RFD 6, Hi! Neighbor, the cooking show KOIN Kitchen, and public affairs programs such as News Conference Six and Northwest Illustrated. In 1976, KOIN-TV became the second television station in the Portland market (after KPTV) to broadcast Portland Trail Blazers basketball games. Selected Blazers games aired on KOIN-TV until 1996, when the Blazers moved to KGW. KOIN was the first flagship station of the Trail Blazers' radio network, beginning in the inaugural 1970–71 season, and ending when the station was sold shortly before the Trail Blazers won the 1976–77 NBA championship, which was broadcast on KOIN-TV via CBS' coverage (KOIN also broadcast all Blazers games that were aired through CBS Sports from 1973 to 1990).
By the 1980s, one of KOIN's past general managers—Richard M. "Mick" Schafbuch—served one term in 1981 as President of the CBS Network Affiliates Group. In 1982, C. Stephen Currie, KOIN's program operations manager, was elected to serve as the president of the National Association of Television Program Executives. During KOIN-TV's 30th anniversary week in 1983, the station aired classic CBS programming from the 1950s and 1960s. By this time, the station had moved into its new location at KOIN Center. In 1984, the station aired the Japanese program From Oregon With Love. The "-TV" suffix was dropped on August 31, 1992, fifteen years after KOIN radio was sold off.
In October 2000, the Lee Enterprises television group, including KOIN was purchased by Emmis Communications. On January 27, 2006, Emmis sold KOIN (along with KHON-TV in Honolulu, Hawaii, KSNT in Topeka, Kansas and KSNW in Wichita, Kansas) to Montecito Broadcast Group for $259 million.
Due to a dispute over fees, Comcast did not offer KOIN's high definition feed for over two years after it started offering other Portland area stations in HD. After Montecito took ownership, Comcast started carrying KOIN in high definition on February 28, 2006. KOIN was also in a dispute with DirecTV over transmission of its HD feed, as both sides claimed the other to be the problem. In August 2008, KOIN's HD feed began to be carried on DirecTV.
KOIN updated its website in September 2006 as part of a partnership with WorldNow. KOIN expected the switch to lead to over $1 million in revenue during its first year; it was characterized by KOIN general sales manager Bob Singer as a "creative new way" to boost revenue for a station with a "somewhat average ratings position."
On July 24, 2007, Montecito announced the sale of all of its stations (KOIN, plus KHON-TV and its satellites, KSNW and its satellites, and KSNT) to New Vision Television. The sale closed on November 1, 2007.
In March 2008, KOIN relaunched its website through Newport Television subsidiary Inergize Digital, replacing the old WorldNow-powered site. The websites of several of its sister stations in other markets also switched to the Inergize platform in late December 2008 and early January 2009. In October 2008, KOIN converted its central Oregon translators into a locally focused semi-satellite, KBNZ, which was sold off in 2010. During the year 2008, KOIN rebranded as "KOIN Local 6", mostly inspired by the "Local Mandate" used for Post-Newsweek's Television Stations.
On December 30, 2008, one of the 15 guy wires on the main transmitter tower snapped, putting the tower in danger of collapsing (as with the 1971 tower collapse, this incident followed a prolonged snow and ice storm). The Portland Police Bureau evacuated about 500 local residents and closed several roads around the tower, including a portion of Skyline Boulevard, the main north-south road through the West Hills of Portland. At first, officials feared that the wire itself—which is over long and weighs several tons—had snapped, which would have taken several weeks to manufacture and install a replacement. Upon inspection, it was revealed that one of the high frequency insulators incorporated into the guy wire assembly had shattered. Repair crews replaced the insulator by 4:00 p.m. the next day and the surrounding neighborhood was reopened to residents and car traffic. KOIN had to pay $1,500 to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
On May 7, 2012, LIN Media announced that it would acquire KOIN and the other New Vision stations for $330.4 million and the assumption of $12 million in debt. The FCC approved the sale on October 2, and it was completed ten days later on October 12, 2012. The group deal reunited KOIN, KHON, KSNW and KSNT with several former Emmis-owned stations which had been purchased by LIN seven years earlier, such as KRQE in Albuquerque, New Mexico, WALA-TV in Mobile, Alabama, and WLUK-TV in Green Bay, Wisconsin (KOIN, KRQE, KSNW, and KSNT had also been sister stations under Lee Enterprises).
On March 21, 2014, Media General announced that it would purchase LIN Media and its stations, including KOIN, in a $1.6 billion merger. The merger was completed on December 19. Less than a year later, on September 8, 2015, Media General announced that it would acquire the Meredith Corporation for $2.4 billion, with the combined group to be renamed Meredith Media General once the sale is finalized by June 2016. Because Meredith already owns Fox affiliate KPTV (channel 12), and the two stations rank among the four highest-rated stations in the Portland market in total day viewership, the companies would have been required to sell either KPTV or KOIN to comply with FCC ownership rules as well as recent changes to those rules regarding same-market television stations that restrict sharing agreements; KPTV's MyNetworkTV-affiliated sister station KPDX (channel 49) could have remained with either KPTV or KOIN or be spun off to the suitor as its total day viewership ranks below the top-four ratings threshold.
However, the proposed deal with Meredith would later fall through, and on January 27, 2016, it was announced that Nexstar Broadcasting Group would buy Media General for $4.6 billion. KOIN became part of "Nexstar Media Group" and is the company's first station in Oregon.
On December 3, 2018, Nexstar announced it would acquire the assets of Chicago-based Tribune Media—which has owned CW affiliate KRCW-TV (channel 32) since 2003—for $6.4 billion in cash and debt. Nexstar included the overlap between KOIN and KRCW-TV among the television stations in thirteen markets where the group may consider making divestitures to address national ownership cap issues related to the Tribune transaction and/or to comply with FCC local ownership rules preventing it from owning two or more stations in the same market. However, KRCW does not rank among the four highest-rated stations in the Portland market in total day viewership, and FCC regulations no longer preclude legal duopolies that would leave fewer than eight independently owned television stations in a single market (a KOIN/KRCW combination would leave only seven full-power commercial television stations with independent ownership remaining in the market, barring a second legal duopoly in the market under the previous "eight-voices test" rules repealed by the FCC in November 2017), hence there are no legal hurdles in place which would otherwise preclude a KOIN/KRCW duopoly. The sale was approved by the FCC on September 16 and was completed on September 19, 2019.
News operation
KOIN presently broadcasts hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with hours each weekday and hours each on Saturdays and Sundays). On February 1, 2007, KOIN became the first television station in the Portland market to being broadcasting its local newscasts in 16:9 widescreen standard definition. According to Oregon Media Insiders, during Montecito's ownership of KOIN, its local news ratings declined in all time periods; among the four news-producing stations in the Portland market, KOIN had the greatest loss in audience share.
For the first time in ten years, KOIN finished in first position in the 11 p.m. news in the May 2008 NSI sweeps. KOIN News 6 at 11—unlike a year earlier when it lost over 20 percent of its CBS lead-in share—held its prime time share throughout its 11 p.m. newscast in the May 2008 NSI sweeps. In January 2008, KOIN's then-owners, New Vision Television, fired news director Jeff Alan and replaced him with Lynn Heider. Afterwards, KOIN dropped its slogan "Bringing News Home" as Jeff Alan had trademarked it under his name in 2000 before he worked at KOIN.
Under new news director Heider and long-time creative services director Rodger O'Connor, KOIN's 11 p.m. newscast increased its household ratings from May 2007 to May 2008 by 12 percent and its household share by 19 percent. It increased its household ratings by 30% from February 2008 to May 2008 and its household share by 33%. According to general manager Christopher Sehring, "The defining moment for KOIN News came in the third week of the sweeps. Up until then, we were having a strong ratings run against some terrific competition. Unfortunately, we then lost two straight nights – and I was worried that these losses might shake our new-found confidence. Fortunately, our team roared back on Thursday night, delivering an 8 household rating by increasing Without A Traces 19 share lead-in to a 21 share. This type of comeback is indeed the sign of a station that refuses to toss in the towel – and will go a long way to helping us continue New Vision's plan to reenergize this great operation." This was the first time in a decade that KOIN's newscasts has won any timeslots.
On September 9, 2009, KOIN launched a new local program airing weekdays at 4 p.m., called Keep It Local. The show explored local neighborhoods and highlighted events taking place in Portland. The program was hosted by Priya David, with Mike Donahue and Araksya Karapetyan serving as its reporters. In 2010, Keep It Local was reformatted into Studio 6, a product and lifestyles magazine, hosted by Jenny Hansson, Anne Jeager, Hayley Platt and Jake Byron.
On July 26, 2010, KOIN became the third television station in the Portland market to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition. It was also the first in the market to broadcast all aspects of its news programming, including field reporting, studio and weather segments completely in the format. KPTV was the only station remaining in the market that broadcast its local newscasts in 16:9 widescreen standard definition until it upgraded to HD on August 26, 2013.
Notable current on-air staff
Jeff Gianola – anchor
Notable former on-air staff
Carlos Amezcua – reporter (now weekday morning anchor for KUSI-TV in San Diego)
Christine Chen – reporter
Priya David – Keep It Local host (2009–2010; now spokesperson for the Golden Gate Bridge District)
Jenni Hogan – traffic reporter (Co-Founder of Tagboard & JHM, current Real Estate Agent in Utah)
Tim Joyce – meteorologist (now with KCPQ in Seattle)
Lars Larson – morning show host of The Buzz (1998–2000; now a talk radio personality at KXL-FM)
Rick Metsger – sports reporter (now working as a lobbyist)
Charles Royer – reporter (later mayor of Seattle)
Barry Serafin – reporter (now with ABC News)
Anne State – weeknights anchor (now with KGTV)
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
On January 11, 2016, KOIN activated digital subchannel 6.2, which carried a standard definition version of KOIN and CBS programming for the next twenty days. At 12:05 a.m. PST on February 1, 2016, subchannel 6.2 began carrying GetTV programming.
On March 10, 2016, KOIN activated digital subchannel 6.3 and began carrying Decades programming until it was replaced with Bounce TV in September 2019. On September 1, 2021, KOIN's digital subchannel 6.3 replaced Bounce TV with SportsGrid, only for it to be replaced by Rewind TV on October 20, 2022.
Analog-to-digital conversion
KOIN shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 6, on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 40, using PSIP to display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 6.
As part of the SAFER Act, KOIN kept its analog signal (also heard at 87.7 FM like other channel 6 analog stations throughout the country) on the air from 7:28 a.m. on June 12 until June 27 to inform viewers of the digital television transition through a loop of public service announcements in English and Spanish from the National Association of Broadcasters. On June 27, 2009, at 7:06 a.m., KOIN broke from the nightlight PSA loop to air the station's 25th-anniversary special (originally broadcast in 1978) for the station's final 24 minutes of analog broadcasting; the analog signal permanently shut down at 7:30 that morning. As a result of the digital transition, those in the market lost access to KOIN's audio feed that was transmitted over the 87.7 FM frequency.
Translators
Astoria
Baker Valley
Grays River, etc., WA
Hood River
La Grande
La Grande
Lincoln City–Newport
Madras
Milton-Freewater
Pendleton
Prineville
Rockaway Beach
The Dalles
Low-power translators in Cascadia, Florence, Heppner, Monument, Rainier, Seaside, Sisters, Wallowa, and Trout Lake, Washington have been discontinued.
References
External links
CBS network affiliates
Get (TV network) affiliates
Rewind TV affiliates
Television channels and stations established in 1953
OIN
1953 establishments in Oregon
Nexstar Media Group |
25606859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaudhary%20Charan%20Singh%20International%20Airport | Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport | Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport is an international airport serving Lucknow, the capital of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located in Amausi, from the city centre, and was earlier known as ''Amausi Airport''. It was later renamed in 2008 after Chaudhary Charan Singh, the fifth Prime Minister of India. It is owned and operated by the Lucknow International Airport Limited (LIAL), a public–private consortium led by Adani Group.
The airport is the 11th busiest airport in terms of passenger traffic in India. It handled more than 5 million passengers, with more than 42,000 aircraft movements in the fiscal year 2022–2023, and handled around 5.5 million passengers, with 38,494 aircraft movements in the fiscal year 2019–2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, passenger traffic declined by 55.1% in the FY 2020-2021 and aircraft movements by 40.4% in the same year.
The airport has two operational terminals (1 and 2), and one under construction passenger terminal (3) that will be completed by the end of 2023.
History
The airport was constructed in 1986 to facilitate service to corporate and government officials. With an increasing number of passengers, AAI decided to upgrade and expand the airport in 1996, owing to an increased number of passengers and the introduction of private operators in the sector.
On 17 July 2008, the Government of India officially renamed Amausi Airport to Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport.
The second terminal (Terminal 2), equipped with latest technology, was then built in 2012 to handle the increasing domestic traffic. Terminal 2 was inaugurated and granted international status on 19 May 2012.
The construction of a third terminal (Terminal 3) for international operations was announced in 2016 in order to cater for the increasing passenger traffic. In 2018, the Government of India approved the new terminal 3 which is being built at INR 13.83 billion.
In February 2019, the Adani Enterprises led - Lucknow International Airport Limited (LIAL) won the rights of operations, management and development of the airport under the public-private partnership (PPP) model. As per the agreement, the airports would be handed to the company for a period of 50 years at the highest bid of 171 per passenger. The company will pay the per-passenger fee (PPF) to AAI for every domestic and international passenger handled at the airport.
Runway
Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport has ILS CAT IIIB capability on runway 27, which enables landing in low visibility conditions.
Delhi, Lucknow, Bangalore, Kolkata, Jaipur, and Amritsar are the only 6 airports in India with ILS CAT IIIB which helps flights land safely even with visibility as low as 50 metres.
Terminals
The airport has two operational terminals and one under construction:
Terminal 1
The original terminal, built to complement Charbagh Railway Station's architecture.
It has two arrival and three departing gates as well as two immigration counters.
The terminal was expanded in 1996.
It is now used for international flights after the opening of Terminal 2 in 2012.
Terminal 1 will be demolished in the second phase of the CCSI airport expansion project to link Terminal 2 and Terminal 3.
Demolition of terminal 1 is expected to start by October 2023 and will be completed by December 2023.
Terminal 2
Terminal 2 was originally built to become the international terminal. However, owing to the growing domestic traffic it was made the domestic terminal, leaving Terminal 1 to be the international terminal.
The terminal building’s elevation to the sky resembles the folded wings of the paper plane. Large wing-like cantilevers on either side of the 200m long terminal building suggest lightness and swiftness. The building itself appears as a dynamic object preparing to take flight. Inside, the gently curving ceiling gives the feeling of being under the belly of a giant aircraft. The design of the building does not labour to represent the culture and heritage of the city, instead gets imprinted with the architects’ own experiences: nightmares about an aircraft crashing down through the roof, the exhilaration of flight, lightness, the indented front of the city as it wraps around the Gomti river, the ruins of the British Residency after the 1857 mutiny-ancient and unhomely, etc. Frosted etchings on the glass façade of the building bear the intricate patterns of chikankari work, Lucknow’s famous embroidery work.
The terminal was inaugurated by then civil aviation minister Ajit Singh on 19 May 2012 before opening on 2 June 2012. With five boarding gates, Terminal 2 is used for domestic flights.
Terminal 2 of Lucknow Airport deals with huge passenger traffic every year.
Air traffic growth has put some pressure on aerodromes as of 2017.
Minister of State for Civil Aviation said, "project management consultant has been awarded for expansion of existing terminal building for an estimated cost of Rs 8.80 billion".
Having area of 17,000 square metre, the terminal can handle 1200 passengers per hour and around 4 million passengers per year. The terminal was being used more than its capacity which led LIAL increasing the passenger handling capacity per hour by 200 passengers.
The terminal was refurbished by the Adani Group in 2022 after takeover in 2020 as per it's plan to refurbish terminals of airports taken over form the AAI. There are also plans to increase the commercial area at the terminal by up to 17 times taking it from to .
After commissioning of terminal 3, terminal 2 will be converted into an administrative building
Terminal 3
In 2018, Suresh Prabhu, the then Minister of Civil Aviation, announced that a new third passenger terminal building will be constructed with an area of 1,11,367 sq.m., including a basement area of 20,461 sq.m. and a connecting corridor between Terminal 2 and Terminal 3, which will cover 6,646 sq.m. area. It will be able to serve more than 13 million passengers annually.
Its features are as follows:
It is being built at a cost of ₹ 1,383 crore (US$173 million).
Peak Hour Handling (PHP) capacity of the new terminal will be 4,000 passengers (3,200 domestic & 800 international).
There will be total 75 check-in counters (60 for domestic and 15 for international passengers) and 18 check-in kiosks for the passengers travelling through the terminal.
It will be installed with 14 aerobridges through which the passengers can board directly to the flight from their respective boarding gates. 8 will be installed in the first phase while 6 in the second phase.
It will be equipped with 30 lifts and 5 escalators.
In 2018, the construction of the terminal building was started by Nagarjuna Construction Company (NCC).
All design and interiors have been designed by the Pascal+Watson.
The first phase which includes the construction of Terminal 3 will be completed by the end of the year 2022. The second phase which includes the extension of part of Terminal 3 after demolition of Terminal 1 and constructing a connecting corridor between Terminal 2 and Terminal 3 will be completed by March 2023.
On 25 February 2019, Adani Group was awarded with the operations and expansion of the existing as well as the new Terminal 3.
It will be a multi-story terminal building with departures at the first floor and arrivals at the ground floor.
The terminal architecture will endeavour to express the position of Lucknow as a key city and will display the culture and heritage of Uttar Pradesh.
Strong references to traditional culture will be expressed by the building's architecture.
Arriving and departing passengers will sense this identity and reference to place.
The building will be provided with interior decorations to match the modern structure.
Along with the terminal, a multi-story parking facility is also under construction, which will have a parking of 1,500 vehicles. Terminal 3 is expected to be completed by mid-2023.
Over 5-km-long storm water drains are being constructed parallel to the runway on either side and the outflow of the water will go into the Bijnor nala.
Cargo Terminal
Opened in March 2022.
The facility has increased the cargo handling. capacity of the CCSI airport by 40 per cent to 7000 tonne per year. The airport plans to increase the capacity to over 1000 tones per month by the end of 2022–2023.
At present, e-commerce, courier, auto parts, Post Office mails, general cargo, valuables, mobile phones, and perishables are exported as well as imported at Lucknow Airport.
The airport is also in talk with various multi-national companies to use Lucknow as a regional distribution hub.
New integrated cargo terminal with a capacity of 30,000 tonnes is planned at Lucknow Airport by the administration.
Airlines and destinations
Statistics
Future
Airport expansion
The runway expansion from 2744 m to 3200 m started on 23 February and will last until July.
The Adani Group will invest Rs 10,700 crore into Lucknow Airport's expansion so that its annual passenger handling capacity zooms from 4 million passengers per annum (MPPA) to 39 MPPA.
The airport's expansion plan received clearance from the Union Environment Ministry on 15 December. However, the plan submitted to the ministry did not mention the deadline for the expansion.
The plan of Lucknow International Airport Limited (LIAL), an Adani group company, said: “CCSIA (Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport) in Lucknow has a total land area of 509.41 hectares (1258.80 acres), making it one of the most land-constrained airports in India.” LIAL now proposes expansion of CCSIA within an area of 457.1 hectares, it added.
Along with Terminal 3, a new terminal building (Terminal 4), 3 parallel taxiways along the runway with associated infrastructure, support facilities, and utilities will be built to accommodate 39 MPPA, the plan noted.
Total built up area for Terminal 4 along with Terminal 3 modification would be 4,26,131 square meter whereas the total footprint area of Terminal 4 and Terminal 3 modification would be 1,39,020 square meters
LIAL's plan said a cargo complex would be developed at CCSIA in a total area of 23.14 hectares to handle cargo up to 0.25 million tonnes per annum.
During its construction phase, the expansion project will employ about 2,000 people directly and indirectly, and once operational, about 25,000 people will be employed, the plan said.
A multi-modal transport hub — which includes metro connectivity, multi-level car parking, cityside check-in and self-bag drop facility, and curbside facilities for passengers/visitors arriving at the airport from surrounding areas — will also be developed, it said.
LIAL has proposed multi-level car parking to accommodate 4,000 car spaces, the plan noted.
“Pedestrian walkways are planned to connect multi-level car parking to terminal departure and arrival areas, for passengers and greeters to park in multi-level car parking and walk down to the pick-up/drop off kerbs,” it mentioned.
About 9.6 million litres per day (MLD) of water would be required to handle 39 MPPA, it said. 4.5 MLD will be supplied by the Uttar Pradesh government or borewells and the remaining 5.1 will be sourced from the sewage treatment plant for landscaping and flushing, it added.
New integrated cargo terminal with a capacity of 30,000 tonnes, new fuel storage facility with 5,000 KL capacity are among other key initiatives that have been planned at the Lucknow International Airport by the administration.
Aero City
A concession Agreement for Operation, Maintenance, Management & Development of Airside and Landside area of Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport (CCSIA) has been signed between Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Lucknow International Airport Limited (LIAL) (earlier known as Adani Lucknow International Airport Limited) on 14 February 2020. As a part of concession agreement between AAI & LIAL, 110 acres has been allotted to LIAL for City Side development. Adani Airport Holdings Limited has been granted rights to undertake development, operation, management and maintenance of City Side of Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport (CCSIA) Airport vide a Master Services Agreement dated 18 May 2021 ("MSA") executed between Lucknow International Airport Limited (LIAL) and Adani Airport Holdings Limited and is authorised to obtain required approvals from statutory authorities.
Out of the total land area available for City Side Development. M/s Adani Airport Holdings Limited proposes its phase-I development, on plot area of about 15.36 acres, i.e. 62,182.69 sqm and Built-up area of 3,47,423 sq. m, for which Environment Clearance is being sought. Under the provision of EIA notification 2006, amended until date.
The project is a mixed-use development that comprises the following:
Retail space (Multiplex, Entertainment, Virtual Reality, and F&B)
Business Centre (Convention Center and Flexi Office)
Hotel
Associated connectivity, utilities and facilities
The total population of project will be 31,108 persons.
Adequate provision will be made for the heavy vehicle parking at the project site to allow smooth movement at the site. The proposed parking area will be 4087 ECS.
The total project cost of the proposed City Side Development project is 1116.50 crores.
The Aero City will be constructed between the new Terminal 3 and the CCSIA Metro Station. Estimated date of completion for the project is 2026.
Ground transport
Railways
Amausi railway station is one of the suburban railway stations of Lucknow. It lies on the Lucknow - Kanpur Suburban Railway Line and is just from the airport.
Metro
CCSIA and Amausi are the metro stations on the Red Line of the Lucknow Metro that connects the airport to the rest of the city.
CCSIA metro station is situated at the front of the Terminal 2.
Amausi metro station is situated at just 1 km from the Terminal 2.
Local buses
The Lucknow City Transport Services supplies the Air-Conditioned and Non-AC buses from the Airport to the Charbagh Railway Station as well as the rest of the city.
Awards
The airport was awarded AAI's "Best Airport" award in July 2013 along with Jodhpur Airport.
Lucknow Airport was rated second-best in the category of small airports catering to 5–10 million passengers per annum by Airports Council International, a global non-profit organisation of airport operators.
In 2018, Lucknow Airport was awarded the best airport in the category "Best Airport by Size and Region (2–5 million passengers per year in Asia-Pacific Region)" by the Airports Council International.
The Passenger Terminal 2 Building's Architects, S. Ghosh & Associates were awarded the NDTV-Grohe Infrastructure Architecture Design of the Year Award in 2014 for the project.
In 2019, the Airport was awarded first position in ASQ awards in Asia Pacific region for 5 to 15 million capacity pet annum by Airport Council International (ACI).
In January 2021, Lucknow Airport was accredited in the Airports Council International (ACI) Airport Health Accreditation programme. The global recognition demonstrates extraordinary proactive measures put in place by the airport to ensure passenger safety.
In January 2023, Assocham announced the best regional airport awards for Lucknow and Ahmedabad airports.
See also
Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport
Airports in India
List of busiest airports in India
References
External links
Transport in Lucknow
Airports in Uttar Pradesh
International airports in India
Buildings and structures in Lucknow
Memorials to Chaudhary Charan Singh
Airports established in 1986
1986 establishments in Uttar Pradesh
20th-century architecture in India
Adani Group |
8266911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd%20L.%20Burke | Lloyd L. Burke | Lloyd Leslie Burke (September 29, 1924 – June 1, 1999) was a soldier in the United States Army during the Korean War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions on October 28, 1951.
Military career
In 1943, Burke was eighteen years old when he dropped out of Henderson State College (now Henderson State University) in Arkansas. He joined the United States Army and served two years during World War II with combat engineers in Italy. After being discharged, he joined the ROTC when he returned to Henderson State College, where the ROTC program today is nicknamed "Burke's Raiders." There he became a member of Phi Sigma Epsilon fraternity. In 1950, he graduated as a Distinguished Military Graduate.
After accepting his commission, he was dispatched to Korea five months later. At the time, he was the leader of Company G, 2nd Battalion, 5th Cavalry Regiment. When Chinese forces crossed the Yalu River, Burke managed to lead his platoon to safety. As a result of his action, he was awarded the Silver Star, which was later upgraded to the Distinguished Service Cross, and two Purple Hearts.
Hill 200
Burke's tour of duty was almost over in October 1951. At the time, Burke was found at the rear of his regiment. He had a plane ticket in his pocket and was eager to see his wife and infant son. away, Burke's company was attempting to cross the Yokkok-chon River. The company was hindered by a large and well-entrenched Chinese force on Hill 200. The battle raged for days, with the 2nd Battalion's attacks being constantly repulsed. At first, Lieutenant Burke kept up with the reports. Eventually, he could no longer remain on the sidelines. As he himself stated, "I couldn't see leaving my guys up there without trying to do something."
When Burke was at the base of Hill 200, he was shocked to witness his company's strength reduced to 35 traumatized survivors. Burke described the condition of his company:
These men were completely beat. They lay huddled in foxholes, unable to move. They all had the thousand-yard stare of men who'd seen too much fighting, too much death.
Burke dragged up a 57 mm recoilless rifle and shot three rounds at the closest enemy bunker. The bunker itself was a wooden-fronted structure covering a cave, which was dug into the overall hillside. The Chinese attacked American troops by hurling grenades from their trenches. Burke aimed his M1 rifle at the trench line and shot at every Chinese soldier who rose to throw a grenade. Unfortunately, the grenades were still being thrown. After firing an eight-round clip, Burke decided to take more drastic measures. As he recalled, "I considered myself a pretty fair shot, but this was getting ridiculous. I had to do something."
After laying down his rifle, Burke took a grenade and ran approximately to the Chinese trench line. He avoided enemy fire by hurling himself at the base of a dirt berm that was high. When the Chinese momentarily stopped firing, Burke jumped into one of the trenches with a pistol in one hand and a grenade in the other. He shot five or six Chinese soldiers in the forehead. Burke also fired at two Chinese soldiers from further down the trench. Afterwards, he threw his grenade in their direction, jumped out of the trench, and placed himself against the dirt berm. The Chinese were aware of Burke's location and began throwing grenades at his position. Most of the grenades thrown rolled down the hill and harmlessly exploded. Some of the grenades, however, did explode near Burke. He managed to catch three of them and toss them back at the Chinese. At the same time, troops from Burke's company threw grenades. However, some of those grenades exploded near Burke.
Burke abandoned the dirt berm by crawling off to the side, where he found cover in a gully. The gully itself ended further up Hill 200 at a Korean burial mound. After edging his way up the hill, Burke peeked over the top of the burial mound. He saw the main Chinese trench, which was approximately away. The trench was covered in enfilade, was curved around the hill and contained many Chinese troops. Surprisingly, the Chinese were relaxing, with some of them talking, sitting, and laughing, while others were throwing grenades and firing mortars. Burke went down the gully to Company G's position and told Sergeant Arthur Foster, the senior NCO, "Get'em ready to attack when I give you the signal!" Burke then dragged the last functioning Browning model 1919 machine gun and three cans of ammunition back up the hill. On top of the burial mound, he mounted the machine gun, set the screw to free traverse, and prepared his 250-round ammunition box. He began firing at the nearest part of the Chinese trench where the mortars were located. After Burke shot at all of the Chinese mortar squads, he then fired upon a machine gun emplacement. Afterwards, Burke fired up and down the trench at Chinese soldiers too shocked to react. Eventually, the Chinese fled down the trench in a panic. Burke continued to fire until his Browning jammed. While he attempted to clear his weapon, an enemy soldier started throwing grenades at him. Burke not only ignored this, he also ignored the grenade fragments that tore open the back of his hand. Eventually, Burke was able to clear his weapon and kill the Chinese grenadier.
Meanwhile, Sergeant Foster led a small group to Burke's location and was told by Burke to provide extra firepower. Burke and the others were convinced that they were under siege from a full-sized force instead of a few adamant skirmishers. As the Chinese retreated, Burke wrapped his field jacket around the Browning's hot barrel sleeve and tore the 31-pound weapon off its tripod. He then wrapped the ammunition belt around his body, walked towards the trench, and fired upon retreating units. Foster and his men followed. When Burke ran out of Browning ammunition, he used his .45 automatic and grenades in order to clear out bunkers. At Hill 200, Burke killed over 100 men and decimated two mortar emplacements and three machine gun nests. For his actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor at a White House ceremony on April 11, 1952.
Vietnam and later
He was the commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division, at Bien Hoa on 1965. On 22 July 1965, while commanding combat operations from a helicopter, Burke was shot down by small arms fire. He had to return to the United States and was hospitalized for an extended period of time. Once out of the hospital, he was assigned to Germany. Overall, he spent 35 years in the US Armed Forces, served as the Army's liaison officer to the United States Congress, and retired with the rank of full colonel in 1978.
He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.
Awards and decorations
Colonel Burke's awards include:
Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: First Lieutenant, U.S. Army
Company G, 5th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division
Place and date: Near Chong-dong, Korea, October 28, 1951
Entered service at: Stuttgart, Arkansas Born: September 29, 1924, Tichnor, Arkansas
G.O. No.: 43.
Citation:
1st Lt. Burke, distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and outstanding courage above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy. Intense enemy fire had pinned down leading elements of his company committed to secure commanding ground when 1st Lt. Burke left the command post to rally and urge the men to follow him toward 3 bunkers impeding the advance. Dashing to an exposed vantage point he threw several grenades at the bunkers, then, returning for an Ml rifle and adapter, he made a lone assault, wiping out the position and killing the crew. Closing on the center bunker he lobbed grenades through the opening and, with his pistol, killed 3 of its occupants attempting to surround him. Ordering his men forward he charged the third emplacement, catching several grenades in midair and hurling them back at the enemy. Inspired by his display of valor his men stormed forward, overran the hostile position, but were again pinned down by increased fire. Securing a light machine gun and 3 boxes of ammunition, 1st Lt. Burke dashed through the impact area to an open knoll, set up his gun and poured a crippling fire into the ranks of the enemy, killing approximately 75. Although wounded, he ordered more ammunition, reloading and destroying 2 mortar emplacements and a machine gun position with his accurate fire. Cradling the weapon in his arms he then led his men forward, killing some 25 more of the retreating enemy and securing the objective. 1st Lt. Burke's heroic action and daring exploits inspired his small force of 35 troops. His unflinching courage and outstanding leadership reflect the highest credit upon himself, the infantry, and the U.S. Army.
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
Notes
References
Kirchner, Paul. The Deadliest Men: The World's Deadliest Combatants throughout the Ages. Colorado: Paladin Press, 2001.
1924 births
1999 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
People from Arkansas County, Arkansas
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
American United Methodists
20th-century Methodists
American expatriates in Italy |
29867079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th%20Satellite%20Awards | 15th Satellite Awards | The 15th Satellite Awards is an award ceremony honoring the year's outstanding performers, films, television shows, home videos and interactive media, presented by the International Press Academy at the Hyatt Regency Century Plaza in Century City, Los Angeles.
The nominations were announced on December 1, 2010. The winners were announced on December 19, 2010.
Special achievement awards
Auteur Award (for his work as a documentary film director and producer) – Alex Gibney
Humanitarian Award (for community involvement and work on social causes) – Connie Stevens
Mary Pickford Award (for outstanding contribution to the entertainment industry) – Vanessa Williams
Nikola Tesla Award (for his work as film preservationist and historian) – Robert A. Harris
Motion picture winners and nominees
Best Actor – Drama
Colin Firth – The King's Speech
Javier Bardem – Biutiful
Leonardo DiCaprio – Inception
Michael Douglas – Solitary Man
Robert Duvall – Get Low
Jesse Eisenberg – The Social Network
James Franco – 127 Hours
Ryan Gosling – Blue Valentine
Best Actor – Musical or Comedy
Michael Cera – Scott Pilgrim vs. the World
Steve Carell – Dinner for Schmucks
Romain Duris – Heartbreaker
Andy García – City Island
Jake Gyllenhaal – Love & Other Drugs
John Malkovich – Red
John C. Reilly – Cyrus
Best Actress – Drama
Noomi Rapace – The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
Nicole Kidman – Rabbit Hole
Jennifer Lawrence – Winter's Bone
Helen Mirren – The Tempest
Natalie Portman – Black Swan
Tilda Swinton – I Am Love
Naomi Watts – Fair Game
Michelle Williams – Blue Valentine
Best Actress – Musical or Comedy
Anne Hathaway – Love & Other Drugs
Annette Bening – The Kids Are All Right
Sally Hawkins – Made in Dagenham
Catherine Keener – Please Give
Julianne Moore – The Kids Are All Right
Mary-Louise Parker – Red
Marisa Tomei – Cyrus
Best Animated or Mixed Media Film
Toy Story 3
Alice in Wonderland
Despicable Me
How to Train Your Dragon
The Illusionist
Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole
Best Art Direction and Production Design
Inception
Alice in Wonderland
Black Swan
Coco Chanel & Igor Stravinsky
I Am Love
Scott Pilgrim vs. the World
Shutter Island
Best Cinematography
Inception
127 Hours
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1
I Am Love
Salt
Secretariat
Shutter Island
Unstoppable
Best Costume Design
Alice in Wonderland
Black Swan
Eat Pray Love
The King's Speech
Robin Hood
Best Director
David Fincher – The Social Network
Ben Affleck – The Town
Darren Aronofsky – Black Swan
Danny Boyle – 127 Hours
Lisa Cholodenko – The Kids Are All Right
Debra Granik – Winter's Bone
Tom Hooper – The King's Speech
David Michôd – Animal Kingdom
Christopher Nolan – Inception
Roman Polanski – The Ghost Writer
Best Documentary Film
Restrepo
Behind the Burly Q
Client 9: The Rise and Fall of Eliot Spitzer
Countdown to Zero
A Film Unfinished
Inside Job
Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work
Sequestro
The Tillman Story
Waiting for "Superman"
Best Editing
Please Give
Inception
Shutter Island
The Social Network
The Town
Unstoppable
Best Film – Drama
The Social Network
127 Hours
Animal Kingdom
Blue Valentine
Get Low
The Ghost Writer
Inception
The King's Speech
The Town
Winter's Bone
Best Film – Musical or Comedy
Scott Pilgrim vs. the World
Cyrus
The Kids Are All Right
Made in Dagenham
The Other Guys
Please Give
Red
Best Foreign Language Film
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (Sweden)
Biutiful (Mexico)
I Am Love (Italy)
Mother (Korea)
Outside the Law (Algeria)
Soul Kitchen (Germany)
White Material (France)
Best Original Score
Inception
127 Hours
Black Swan
The Eclipse
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1
Salt
The Social Network
Unstoppable
Best Original Song
"You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" – Burlesque
"Alice" – Alice in Wonderland
"Country Strong" – Country Strong
"Eclipse (All Yours)" – The Twilight Saga: Eclipse
"If I Rise" – 127 Hours
"What Part of Forever" – The Twilight Saga: Eclipse
Best Screenplay – Adapted
The Social Network
127 Hours
Fair Game
The Ghost Writer
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
Scott Pilgrim vs. the World
The Town
Winter's Bone
Best Screenplay – Original
The King's Speech
Biutiful
The Eclipse
Get Low
Inception
The Kids Are All Right
Toy Story 3
Best Sound
Unstoppable
127 Hours
Inception
Iron Man 2
Nowhere Boy
Secretariat
Shutter Island
Best Supporting Actor
Christian Bale – The Fighter
Pierce Brosnan – The Ghost Writer
Andrew Garfield – The Social Network
Tommy Lee Jones – The Company Men
Bill Murray – Get Low
Sean Penn – Fair Game
Jeremy Renner – The Town
Geoffrey Rush – The King's Speech
Best Supporting Actress
Jacki Weaver – Animal Kingdom
Amy Adams – The Fighter
Marion Cotillard – Inception
Anne-Marie Duff – Nowhere Boy
Vanessa Redgrave – Letters to Juliet
Rosamund Pike – Barney's Version
Kristin Scott Thomas – Nowhere Boy
Dianne Wiest – Rabbit Hole
Best Visual Effects
Alice in Wonderland
127 Hours
Inception
Iron Man 2
Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole
Unstoppable
Television winners and nominees
Best Actor – Drama Series
Bryan Cranston – Breaking Bad
Kyle Chandler – Friday Night Lights
Josh Charles – The Good Wife
Michael C. Hall – Dexter
Jon Hamm – Mad Men
Stephen Moyer – True Blood
Best Actor – Musical or Comedy Series
Alec Baldwin – 30 Rock
Steve Carell – The Office
Thomas Jane – Hung
Danny McBride – Eastbound & Down
Matthew Morrison – Glee
Jim Parsons – The Big Bang Theory
Best Actor – Miniseries or TV Film
Al Pacino – You Don't Know Jack
Benedict Cumberbatch – Sherlock
Idris Elba – Luther
Ian McShane – The Pillars of the Earth
Barry Pepper – When Love Is Not Enough: The Lois Wilson Story
Dennis Quaid – The Special Relationship
David Suchet – Agatha Christie's Poirot: Murder on the Orient Express
Best Actress – Drama Series
Connie Britton – Friday Night Lights
January Jones – Mad Men
Julianna Margulies – The Good Wife
Elisabeth Moss – Mad Men
Anna Paquin – True Blood
Katey Sagal – Sons of Anarchy
Best Actress – Musical or Comedy Series
Laura Linney – The Big C
Jane Adams – Hung
Toni Collette – United States of Tara
Edie Falco – Nurse Jackie
Tina Fey – 30 Rock
Lea Michele – Glee
Mary-Louise Parker – Weeds
Best Actress – Miniseries or TV Film
Claire Danes – Temple Grandin
Hope Davis – The Special Relationship
Judi Dench – Return to Cranford
Naomie Harris – Small Island
Ellie Kendrick – The Diary of Anne Frank
Winona Ryder – When Love Is Not Enough: The Lois Wilson Story
Ruth Wilson – Luther
Best Miniseries
Sherlock
Carlos
Emma
The Pacific
The Pillars of the Earth
Small Island
Best Series – Drama
Breaking Bad
Boardwalk Empire
Dexter
Friday Night Lights
The Good Wife
Mad Men
The Tudors
Best Series – Musical or Comedy
The Big C
30 Rock
Glee
Modern Family
Nurse Jackie
Raising Hope
United States of Tara
Best Supporting Actor – Miniseries or TV Film
David Strathairn – Temple Grandin
Ty Burrell – Modern Family
Bruce Campbell – Burn Notice
Chris Colfer – Glee
Alan Cumming – The Good Wife
Neil Patrick Harris – How I Met Your Mother
Aaron Paul – Breaking Bad
Martin Short – Damages
Best Supporting Actress – Miniseries or TV Film
Brenda Vaccaro – You Don't Know Jack
Julie Bowen – Modern Family
Rose Byrne – Damages
Sharon Gless – Burn Notice
Jane Lynch – Glee
Catherine O'Hara – Temple Grandin
Archie Panjabi – The Good Wife
Best TV Film
Temple Grandin
The Diary of Anne Frank
The Special Relationship
When Love Is Not Enough: The Lois Wilson Story
You Don't Know Jack
Awards breakdown
Film
Winners:
3 / 7 The Social Network: Best Director / Best Film – Drama / Best Screenplay – Adapted
3 / 11 Inception: Best Art Direction and Production Design / Best Cinematography / Best Original Score
2 / 4 Scott Pilgrim vs. the World: Best Actor – Musical or Comedy / Best Film – Musical or Comedy
2 / 5 Alice in Wonderland: Best Costume Design / Best Visual Effects
2 / 6 The King's Speech: Best Actor – Drama / Best Screenplay – Original
1 / 1 Burlesque: Best Original Song
1 / 1 Restrepo: Best Documentary Film
1 / 2 The Fighter: Best Supporting Actor
1 / 2 Love & Other Drugs: Best Actress – Musical or Comedy
1 / 2 Toy Story 3: Best Animated or Mixed Media Film
1 / 3 Animal Kingdom: Best Supporting Actress
1 / 3 The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo: Best Actress – Drama / Best Foreign Language Film
1 / 3 Please Give: Best Editing
1 / 5 Unstoppable: Best Sound
Losers:
0 / 9 127 Hours
0 / 5 Black Swan, The Kids Are All Right, The Town
0 / 4 Get Low, The Ghost Writer, I Am Love, Shutter Island, Winter's Bone
0 / 3 Biutiful, Blue Valentine, Cyrus, Fair Game, Nowhere Boy, Red
0 / 2 The Eclipse, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1, Iron Man 2, Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, Made in Dagenham, Rabbit Hole, Salt, Secretariat
Television
Winners:
3 / 4 Temple Grandin: Best Actress – Miniseries or TV Film / Best Supporting Actor – Miniseries or TV Film / Best TV Film
2 / 2 The Big C: Best Actress – Musical or Comedy Series / Best Series – Musical or Comedy
2 / 3 Breaking Bad: Best Actor – Drama Series / Best Series – Drama
2 / 3 You Don't Know Jack: Best Actor – Miniseries or TV Film / Best Supporting Actress – Miniseries or TV Film
1 / 2 Sherlock: Best Miniseries
1 / 3 30 Rock: Best Actor – Musical or Comedy Series
1 / 3 Friday Night Lights: Best Actress – Drama Series
Losers:
0 / 5 Glee, The Good Wife
0 / 4 Mad Men
0 / 3 Modern Family, The Special Relationship, When Love Is Not Enough: The Lois Wilson Story
0 / 2 Burn Notice, Damages, Dexter, The Diary of Anne Frank, Hung, Luther, Nurse Jackie, The Pillars of the Earth, Small Island, True Blood, United States of Tara
References
External links
International Press Academy website
Satellite Awards ceremonies
2010 film awards
2010 television awards
2010 video game awards |
10457575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orval%20Hobart%20Mowrer | Orval Hobart Mowrer | Orval Hobart Mowrer (January 23, 1907 – June 20, 1982) was an American psychologist and professor of psychology at the University of Illinois from 1948 to 1975 known for his research on behaviour therapy. Mowrer practiced psychotherapy in Champaign-Urbana and at Galesburg State Research Hospital. In 1954 Mowrer held the position of president of the American Psychological Association. Mowrer founded Integrity Groups (therapeutic community groups based on principles of honesty, responsibility, and emotional involvement) and was instrumental in establishing GROW groups in the United States. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Mowrer as the 98th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
Early life and education
Mowrer spent his early years on the family farm near Unionville, Missouri. His father retired from farming and moved the family to town when Hobart reached school age. The death of the elder Mowrer when Hobart was 13 changed his life radically. A year later he suffered the first in a series of major depressions which would recur throughout his life. Nevertheless, he did well in high school and entered the University of Missouri in 1925. Having decided on psychology as a career, he became laboratory assistant to the university's first and only psychology professor, Max Friedrich Meyer. Meyer had earned a PhD in physics before emigrating from Germany in the 1890s and was a rigorous behaviorist. Although Mowrer's initial hope was that psychology would help him to understand himself and his own problems, he readily adapted to Meyer's behavioral approach. Mowrer began his college years as a conservative Christian, but lost his faith as he adopted progressive and scientific views prevalent in academia.
In his senior year, as a project for a sociology course, Mowrer composed a questionnaire to investigate sexual attitudes among students. It was distributed anonymously and the responses were to be returned anonymously. The questionnaire was accompanied by a letter from a non-existent "Bureau of Personnel Research" which began:
Dear University Student:
During the last several decades it has become increasingly apparent that there is something seriously wrong with the traditional system of marriage in this country. But, unfortunately, the whole matter has been so inextricably bound up with religious dogmas, moral sentiments, and all manner of prudish conventionalities as to make it exceedingly difficult to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the precise reasons for this situation.
There were slight differences in wording between the questionnaires sent to women and those sent to men, but each contained 11 groups of questions requesting the student's opinions about illicit sexual relations, whether the student would marry a person who had engaged in sexual relations, how s/he would react to unfaithfulness in marriage, whether s/he had engaged in sex play as a child or sexual relations as an adult, and whether s/he would favor the legal establishment of "trial marriage" or "companionate marriage."
Some of the students sent the questionnaires on to their parents, who complained to the administration. Two faculty members were aware of the questionnaire and allowed it to be distributed, sociology professor Harmon O. DeGraff and psychology professor Max Friedrich Meyer, although neither had read the cover letter. Ultimately both men lost their jobs, and Meyer never held an academic position again. The American Association of University Professors censured the University for violation of academic freedom, in the first such action taken by the AAUP.
The scandal had little impact on Mowrer's career. He left the university without a degree in 1929 (the degree was granted a few years later), entering Johns Hopkins University, where he worked under Knight Dunlap. Mowrer's PhD research involved spatial orientation as mediated by vision and the vestibular receptors of the inner ear, using pigeons as subjects. During his time at Johns Hopkins he also underwent psychoanalysis for the first time, in an attempt to resolve another episode of depression. After completing his doctorate in 1932 he continued his work on spatial orientation as a post-doctoral fellow at Northwestern University and then Princeton University.
Yale, then Harvard
Academic positions were scarce during the Great Depression, so in 1934 Mowrer began a Sterling Fellowship at Yale University researching learning theory. Yale psychology was then dominated by the stimulus-response approach of Clark Hull. Mowrer's wife, Willie Mae (Molly) had been a fellow student at Hopkins and remained there as an instructor for several years after Mowrer left. When she moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the couple served as houseparents at a residential home for infants and children. Mowrer used the home as an informal behavioral science laboratory. He and his wife developed the first bedwetting alarm while working there.
In 1936, Mowrer was hired by the Yale Institute of Human Relations, then a relatively new project funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, as an instructor. The institute was designed to integrate psychology, psychoanalysis and the social sciences. One product of the institute's unique approach was a detailed study of aggression by sociologist John Dollard with psychologists Mowrer, Leonard Doob, Neal Miller and Robert Sears. Each of the five contributors had training in psychoanalysis or had been individually psychoanalyzed, but the language of the book reflected the objective behaviorism of the day.
During the late 1930s Mowrer began experimenting with the use of electric shock as a conditioning agent. At the time, most psychologists agreed with William James that fear (in this usage, synonymous with anxiety) was an instinctive response. Mowrer suspected fear was a conditioned response and designed a way to create fear in the laboratory. The unusually generous funding available at the institute allowed him to use human subjects for the first time. The subjects were attached to galvanic skin response recorders and to electrodes which could deliver an electric shock. They were then exposed to a light stimulus which was sometimes (randomly) followed by a shock. Mowrer discovered two unexpected phenomena. There was a substantial galvanic stress response to the first presentation of the light stimulus, before any shock had been administered. The anticipation was apparently more aversive than the shock, which would not have been predicted by traditional behavioral theory. Mowrer also noticed that after each shock the subjects experienced a marked degree of relaxation. Together with fellow psychologist Neal Miller, Mowrer gives his name to the "Miller-Mowrer Shuttlebox" apparatus.
Using animals in similar experiments, he found that a cycle could be produced in which the subject became more and more responsive to conditioning. He concluded that anxiety was basically anticipatory in nature and ideally functions to protect the organism from danger. However, because of the circumstances of conditioning, the degree of fear is often disproportionate to the source. Anxiety can be created artificially, and relief of anxiety can be used to condition other behaviors. Mowrer's term for the state of expectancy produced by carefully timed aversive stimuli was the "preparatory set," and it was foundational to his later thinking in both learning theory and clinical psychology.
In 1940 Mowrer became Assistant Professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. While there, he became involved with Henry A. Murray and his group at the Harvard Psychological Clinic. Mowrer, Murray, Talcott Parsons, Gordon Allport and others formed a group which eventually led to the formation of the Harvard Department of Social Relations, partially in response to the success of the Yale Institute of Human Relations.
During this time Mowrer's faith in Freudian theory was fading. His primary professional loyalty had always been to learning theory, but he continued to assume that neurotic symptoms and depression were best addressed through analysis. His first psychoanalyst had treated him for only a few months. When his depression returned he underwent a second, much lengthier analysis and felt that he was much improved. His symptoms soon returned, leading him to question Freud's premises. In spite of his doubts he underwent a third analysis during the time he was at Harvard, this time with the prominent Freudian disciple Hanns Sachs.
War work
In 1944 Mowrer became a psychologist at the Office of Strategic Services developing assessment techniques for potential intelligence agents. Mowrer's experience with the laboratory induction of psychological stress, along with the work of other psychologists, was utilized to construct an environment in which recruits could be assessed for their ability to withstand highly stressful situations.
As part of his work there, he participated in a seminar led by Harry Stack Sullivan. Sullivan's theories on the role of disturbances in interpersonal relationships with "significant others" in the etiology of mental disorders had a profound effect on Mowrer's thinking. When Mowrer returned to Harvard, he began counseling students in addition to his faculty duties. He used the principles he had learned from Sullivan, questioning them about their interpersonal relationships and confronting them when he felt they were being dishonest.
Move to Illinois
In 1948, Hobart Mowrer accepted a research-only position at the University of Illinois and moved to Urbana, Illinois with Molly and their three young children. He was now involved with two essentially separate lines of work, learning theory and clinical psychology. Mowrer's primary achievements in learning theory followed from his work with aversive conditioning or avoidance learning. He formulated a two-factor learning theory, arguing that conditioning (sign learning) is distinct from habit formation (solution learning). This theory was initially described in a 1947 paper. In the 1950s he modified the theory to allow for only one type of learning but two types of reinforcement.
Mowrer's interest in clinical psychology was primarily a hobby during the 1950s, but it would eventually eclipse his work as a learning theorist. He had given up on psychoanalysis after 1944, partially as a result of the failure of his own analysts to cure his problems. Most importantly, Harry Stack Sullivan had persuaded him that the key to mental health lay in healthy, scrupulously honest human relationships, not in intrapsychic factors. Mower took Sullivan's ideas to heart and confessed to his wife some guilty secrets concerning his adolescent sexual behavior, and that he had had an affair during the marriage. She was upset, but convinced (as was Mowrer) that those secrets might explain his bouts of depression. The depressive symptoms did remain in remission for eight years.
In 1953, at the height of his career and on the eve of accepting the presidency of the American Psychological Association, he suffered the worst psychological collapse of his life. He was hospitalized for three and a half months with depression complicated by symptoms resembling psychosis. Few effective treatments were available. A few years later, Mowrer was successfully treated with one of the first tricyclic antidepressants.
Religious views
During most of Mowrer's adult life he had no involvement with religion. He recognized that his theories about the importance of guilt were similar to traditional religious ideas, but he had arrived at his convictions through a secular process and the religious concepts of guilt and sin did not at first interest him. Freud, in Mowrer's view, had made a fatal error in attributing emotional distress to inappropriate guilt. Mowrer had concluded that mental disorders, including even schizophrenia, were the result of real, not imagined, guilt. Mowrer did not see this as a religious issue. He had been raised to associate religion with "otherworldly" values, with the relationship of individuals to God, and his own focus was on the relationship of individuals to one another.
In 1955 Mowrer read a religious novel which changed his thinking. His daughter was reading Magnificent Obsession by Lloyd C. Douglas and told her father that it might interest him. Mowrer was impressed by Douglas' thesis, expressed through a fictional character, that the Bible was a superb handbook of human relations. A central theme of the novel is a secret shared by a small group of people who have found great spiritual and material success. It is derived from Jesus' suggestion to "do alms in secret", not letting anyone know. In the book, however, good deeds done in secret invest the characters with almost magical power. Mowrer turned the concept around to place the emphasis on the pathological potential of misdeeds when they are kept secret. He summed it up the phrase, "You are your secrets," sometimes reworded as "You are as sick as your secrets."
After reading other fictional and non-fictional works by Lloyd Douglas, who had left the Congregationalist ministry to devote himself to writing, Mowrer became a member of the Presbyterian Church. He was soon disappointed. He had condemned psychoanalysis for being soft on sin, and now he found that the church was dominated by similar permissive assumptions. It was not only the modernist influences in churches to which Mowrer objected, however, but some traditional beliefs such as the doctrine of justification by faith. He set out to restore to churches the consciousness of personal sin and guilt he felt they had lost. He was able to acquire funding from the Lilly Endowment for a fellowship in morality and mental health. The program brought students from seminaries and divinity schools (among others, Jay E. Adams) to Champaign-Urbana, where they learned Mowrer's counseling and group techniques.
Integrity therapy
After Mowrer's positive experiences as a result of his disclosures to his wife in 1945, he began to counsel students using several simple premises: that neurotic people often are being deceptive in some way with people they care about; that they suffer from conscience pangs but resist or repress the prompting of the conscience; and that this causes their symptoms. When Mowrer was counseling someone who could not be induced to confess anything of significance, he would "model" confession for them by disclosing something from his own life. Group therapy was coming into fashion, and although most groups were dominated by the same psychotherapeutic ideas Mowrer had rejected, he saw hope of using groups in a way that would increase the opportunities for confession and emotional involvement.
In a 1972 article detailing the procedures of the groups, Mowrer described the intake interviews as "very unlike a social case-work interview" and "more like those followed in intakes at Synanon or Daytop." The prospect was first put at ease by "sharing" offered by the interviewers. Committee members would then zero in on some point on which the person seemed to be evasive, inconsistent or defensive. If the person immediately "came clean" to the satisfaction of the committee, s/he would be rewarded with verbal approval and admission to the group. If any resistance was shown, there would be further confrontation, then deliberation by the committee in the presence of the prospective member. According to Mowrer it was rare for someone to be flatly turned down, although they might be asked to seek help elsewhere (with a "psychiatrist of our choice") and come back when they were able to be honest as defined by the group.
Meetings lasted at least three hours. No one could leave before the three hours were up, and anyone who walked out during a "run" (i.e. while the target of group confrontation) was permanently excluded from the group. Any language was acceptable, including profanity and yelling, but no physical violence or threat thereof. Feelings were to be expressed in "gut-level" language and verbal aggression was common. Embraces and physical expressions of affection were also common. All significant details of member's everyday lives were to be shared with the group, and members had contracts detailing steps they would take toward honesty and restitution. These agreements were recorded in a "commitment book" and the member had to answer to the group for any failure to keep a commitment.
Mowrer dropped the term "Integrity Therapy" in favor of "Integrity Groups," to avoid the impression that it was possible to outgrow the need for Group attendance. He considered membership in an Integrity Group to be a lifelong commitment (members were shuffled among groups to avoid fixed relationships). Criticism of the Integrity Group concept centered on Mowrer's negativity about human nature, and the questionable value of investing a group with supreme authority over one's life.
When it was suggested that his techniques resembled brain-washing, Mowrer repeated the response of Charles Dederich (as quoted by Yablonsky) to a similar question: "Yes, that's right, we do engage in a good deal of 'brain-washing.' Most of the people who come here have very dirty brains, and we try to clean them up a bit!" Eugene May noted with respect to this remark that the people entering Synanon generally had severe drug problems and were alienated from family and community, while most participants in Mowrer's community and university groups were leading fairly normal lives.
Later years
The popularity of Integrity Groups faded during the 1970s. Mowrer's techniques in fact were to have a substantial legacy in the alcohol and drug rehabilitation field, but community groups did not last. Mowrer recognized the irony of this. Opposition to professionalism in therapy had been a guiding principle for both Molly and Hobart Mowrer and for years they resisted the temptation to sponsor formal training in I.G. leadership. Times were changing, however, and it seemed that the only future available for Mowrer's approach was in the hands of paid professionals. He did continue to have some non-professional influence through the Grapevine articles he wrote for Alcoholics Anonymous, an organization he very much admired.
Hobart Mowrer was an advocate of the idea that mental illness has a substantial biological and genetic basis. He held this conviction in spite of his equally strong belief in the importance of the "pathogenic secret." Mowrer accepted the importance of biological factors at a time when many people did not, and was in this respect ahead of his time. He regarded his own affliction as in some sense a "gift," the driving force behind his innovative ideas, but also the great misery of his life.
Mowrer had hoped to remain professionally active in retirement, but circumstances forced him to slow down shortly after he retired in 1975. Molly became seriously ill and he developed medical problems of his own. Molly's death in 1979 was a great loss, and also left him with few responsibilities. He had accepted that his periodic depressions would never be entirely cured, and had long held the opinion that suicide was a reasonable choice in some circumstances. He died by suicide in 1982 at the age of 75.
References
1907 births
1982 deaths
People from Unionville, Missouri
University of Missouri alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty
Harvard Graduate School of Education faculty
Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty
People from Urbana, Illinois
Presidents of the American Psychological Association
20th-century American psychologists
1982 suicides |
51200589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20A.%20Fitzpatrick | Earl A. Fitzpatrick | Earl Abbath Fitzpatrick (September 22, 1904 – June 22, 1984) was a Virginia lawyer and member of the Virginia General Assembly representing Roanoke between 1940 and 1959, first as a delegate and then as a state Senator. A lieutenant in the Byrd Organization, Fitzpatrick was active in the Massive Resistance to racial integration vowed by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd after the U.S. Supreme Court decisions in Brown v. Board of Education. He introduced much of the segregationist legislation and was vice-chairman of the Boatwright Committee which investigated the NAACP for litigating on behalf of civil rights, before being defeated in the 1959 Democratic primary.
Early and family life
Fitzpatrick was born in Roanoke to Frank Abbath and Maggie Thomas Fitzpatrick. The family included two brothers, Horace S. Fitzpatrick (1913 - 1990) and Beverly Thomas Fitzpatrick (1919-2000), and a sister, Margaret Elizabeth Fitzpatrick Mayes (1906 - 1984). Beverly Fitzpatrick followed in his elder brother's footsteps at Jefferson High School and Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia and in becoming a lawyer, but served in the U.S. Navy during World War II and became a judge. Earl Fitzpatrick married Mary Linn Petty (1905-2002) and was active in the Presbyterian Church.
Political career
Fitzpatrick served as Roanoke's city attorney from until . In 1935, Roanoke's voters had elected Marion S. Battle and Raye O. Lawson to serve as their delegates in the Virginia General Assembly, but Lawson was not certified by the Committee on Privileges and elections in the extra session, so his seat remained vacant. In 1937 Fitzpatrick and Walter H. Scott won election to the Virginia General Assembly as the two delegates allotted Roanoke. Both were re-elected in 1939 and 1941; Walter W. Wood replaced Scott and served as Roanoke's delegate alongside Fitzpatrick in 1943 and 1945.
In 1947, Fitzpatrick won election in the relatively new Virginia Senate District 36 (representing Roanoke City). He replaced independent Democrat Leonard G. Muse (what the Byrd Organization called an "Anti", meaning Anti-Byrd Organization). Beginning in January 1936, Muse had previously served over a decade, mostly alongside Byrd Democrat Harvey B. Apperson of Salem, Virginia (seat of Roanoke County) in the 21st District, which then had two seats and encompassed Radford as well as Franklin, Montgomery and Roanoke Counties. When District 36 was created in 1943 to cover the City of Roanoke, Muse had been elected to the seat, but Fitzpatrick denied him re-election four years later, and he was appointed to the Virginia School Board. Apperson failed to qualify in the contested 1943 senatorial election for District 21, but was his fellow delegates selected him to serve as a judge on the Virginia State Corporation Commission; in the special election that followed, Republican Ted Dalton of Radford was elected as District 21's senator, and re-elected several times. Roanoke City is now again in District 21, along with Giles County and parts of Roanoke and Montgomery Counties. In any event, upon his election, Fitzpatrick sat in the Virginia Senate next to the Byrd Organization's heir-apparent, Harry F. Byrd, Jr., who was also first elected there in 1948 and represented Winchester, Virginia together with its surrounding counties (and served there until his father retired from the U.S. Senate). Fitzpatrick was re-elected as Roanoke City's senator in 1951 and 1955, although in the latter election the Roanoke City senatorial district was renamed District 35.
Massive Resistance and Roanoke
As part of Massive Resistance, the Virginia General Assembly passed the Stanley Plan in September 1956, which included provisions for pupil placement boards, as well as to close any school that integrated, even pursuant to a court order. Dalton became a leading opponent of school closures, while Fitzpatrick followed the Byrd/Stanley strategy.
Roanoke had always considered itself more progressive than, for example, Prince Edward County, whose schools were a companion case to Brown. Roanoke's school board already had an African American member, Dr. Lylburn Downing, and it had recently built Lucy Addison High School and several elementary schools for its African-American community. However, the quality of those facilities was worse than those for white children, with some schools overcrowded, some heated only by wood stoves and/or lacking indoor plumbing as well as cafeterias and auditoriums. In January 1956 over NAACP opposition, Virginia's voters approved an amendment to the state constitution which allowed tuition grants to private schools (which became known as segregation academies). In early 1956, the Roanoke NAACP local's new president, attorney Reuben Lawsen, sent the Roanoke School Board a letter demanding desegregation. The school board delayed, then in 1958 proposed to issue bonds to construct new schools and improve facilities, which required voter approval. The school bond market by then was terrible because the Stanley Plan implemented in the fall of 1956 included not only provisions closing any school that integrated, it also established an expensive system of vouchers supporting segregation academies for parents who did not wish their children to attend integrated schools.
On February 18, 1958, the General Assembly passed (and Governor Almond signed) additional legislation protecting segregation, what the Byrd Organization called the "Little Rock Bill" (responding to President Eisenhower's use of federal powers to assist the court-ordered desegregation of schools in Little Rock, Arkansas, allowing the governor to permanently shut down schools policed by federal authority or near such a school). As the legislation's sponsor, Fitzpatrick watched as Governor Almond signed it into law.
Anti-NAACP laws and the Boatwright Committee
In addition to the pupil placement, school closure and school voucher laws overtly supporting segregation, the Stanley Plan included seven laws expanding the common law legal offenses of champerty, maintenance, barratry, running and capping, as well as the statutory violation of unauthorized practice of law. In early 1957, Virginia's legislative leaders appointed two committees to carry out those new laws and investigate the NAACP, which was pursuing the legal cases to desegregate Virginia schools. The President of the Virginia Senate appointed Fitzpatrick (who became Vice-Chairman of the new Committee on Offenses against the Administration of Justice) and E. Almer Ames Jr. of Onancock; the Speaker of the House of Delegates appointed John B. Boatwright to chair the committee, with William F. Stone and J. J. Williams Jr. as members. Shortly after the session began in January 1957, the Boatwright committee issued letters requesting information from the NAACP, as well as the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties and other segregationist organizations, and the next month began subpoenaing NAACP membership lists. These activities prompted litigation (NAACP motions to quash the subpoenas) in Richmond and several Virginia counties. In March 1957, the Boatwright Committee opined that various segregationist organizations did not commit the newly expanded legal offenses of champerty, maintenance, barratry, running and capping, nor the unauthorized practice of law.
The commission's first report, issued November 13, 1957, recommended enforcement of those new laws against specific NAACP lawyers, whom it named. The subpoenas and other activities soon reduced NAACP membership in Virginia by half. Two years later (after Fitzpatrick's defeat in the Democratic primary and with Stone remaining on the committee after his elevation to the Senate) the commission issued another report, that complained that the Virginia State Bar was not punishing those lawyers but instead spending $5000 on a Jamestown commemoration and $6350 on a new continuing legal education program.
Massive Resistance ends and 1959 primary defeat
Meanwhile, on January 19, 1959, both a three-judge federal panel and the Virginia Supreme Court declared the Stanley Plan unconstitutional. The NAACP's actions contesting the Boatwright Committee's investigation of its attorneys, as well as similar cases concerning the Thomson Committee (also established in the Stanley Plan and merged into the Boatwright Committee in 1959), also wound their way through the courts. In May 1959, the U.S. Supreme Court in Scull v. Virginia ex rel. Committee on Law Reform & Racial Activities unanimously overturned the contempt conviction of a Quaker printer hauled before the Thomsen Committee. The following month, the U.S. Supreme Court issued Harrison v. NAACP, sending back the first of the NAACP cases, so that the Virginia Supreme Court could first interpret the new laws.
In the July 14, 1959 Democratic primary, Roanoke City Democratic Committee Chairman, fellow lawyer and former Marine William B. Hopkins, defeated Fitzpatrick. By August, Roanoke's school board announced its withdrawal from the segregationist Virginia Education Association, and three African American students were assigned to white schools, although the pupil assignment board refused to assign several other African American children whose parents requested transfer to white schools. When Hopkins assumed the Senate seat in January 1960, he began fighting to repeal the poll tax. Hopkins won re-election numerous times, and later led a commission to reorganize and modernize Virginia's state government.
In 1960, as Fitzpatrick returned to private practice, the NAACP filed Cynthia Greene v. School Board of Roanoke City, and soon Marsh v. County School Board of Roanoke County and another case involving Pulaski County schools, all of which wound their way through the federal courts as Roanoke's and the other school boards continued passive resistance strategies. Several Roanoke schools integrated peacefully in September 1960, although others did not. Judge Simon Sobeloff of the Fourth Circuit ordered Roanoke's schools to integrate.
Meanwhile, because the Virginia Supreme Court only struck down one of the six new ethics laws, the NAACP case went back to the U.S. Supreme Court, and was argued twice. In the interim, the Virginia Bar attempted to prosecute NAACP attorney Samuel W. Tucker, but a circuit judge in Emporia, Virginia (in southeast Virginia) threw out that case in 1962. In January 1963, the U. S. Supreme Court in NAACP v. Button (1963), by a 6 to 3 majority struck down the remainder of the Stanley Plan's revised legal ethics laws. Roanoke's schools finally integrated in 1964.
Further public service
From 1965 until 1973, as the Byrd Organization disintegrated, Fitzpatrick represented the Salem District on the Virginia Highway Department Board, replacing S. Sutton Flythe of Martinsville.
Death and legacy
Fitzpatrick died and was buried in Roanoke in 1984. He was survived by his wife, sister and both brothers. His son (or nephew) Bev Fitzpatrick served multiple terms on the Roanoke City Council and three terms as vice mayor, as well as on the New Century Council and has led the Virginia Museum of Transportation since 2006.
See also
Brian J. Daugherity, Keep on Keeping On: the NAACP and the Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2016)
References
1904 births
1984 deaths
Washington and Lee University alumni
Democratic Party Virginia state senators
Democratic Party members of the Virginia House of Delegates
Politicians from Roanoke, Virginia
Virginia lawyers
20th-century American politicians
American segregationists |
62612631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%20Philippine%20general%20election | 2022 Philippine general election | The 2022 Philippine general election took place on May 9, 2022, for the executive and legislative branches of government at every levelnational, provincial, and localexcept for the barangay officials.
At the top of the ballot is the election for the successors to President Rodrigo Duterte and Vice President Leni Robredo. There were also elections for:
12 seats of the Senate
All 316 seats of the House of Representatives
All 81 governors and vice governors, and 782 seats of the provincial boards in all provinces
All 146 city mayors and vice mayors, and 1,650 seats of the city councils in all cities
All 1,488 municipal mayors and vice mayors, and 11,908 seats of the municipal councils in all municipalities
The first election of the Bangsamoro Parliament was scheduled to be held on the same date, but was rescheduled to 2025.
This is the first election in Davao de Oro under that name, as it was renamed from Compostela Valley in December 2019 after a successful plebiscite.
Preparation
Commission on Elections membership
In September 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte appointed lawyer Michael Peloton as commissioner, filling in for the seat vacated by Luie Tito Guia's retirement. As this was a regular appointment as opposed to an ad interim one made when Congress is in recess, Peloton had to be confirmed by the Commission on Appointments before he could take office. In November, Duterte appointed Davao del Norte election supervisor Aimee Ferolino Ampoloquio to the seat vacated by Al Parreño.
By October 2021, there were reports that Duterte would appoint Melvin Matibag, the secretary-general of the PDP–Laban faction preferred by the former, as chairman. Matibag denied he knew about talks of him being appointed as chairman. Several weeks later, Duterte appointed Rey Bulay, chief prosecutor of Manila, as commissioner, with a term ending in 2027, replacing Peloton, who was rejected by the Commission on Appointments. Bulay was accepted by the Commission on Appointments on December 1.
Chairman Sheriff Abas and commissioners Rowena Guanzon and Antonio Kho Jr. retired on February 2, 2022. Over a month later, acting presidential spokesperson Martin Andanar announced the appointments of Saidamen Balt Pangarungan as chairman, and George Erwin Garcia and Aimee Neri as commissioners. Garcia, who lists presidential candidate Bongbong Marcos as a previous client, promised to inhibit (i.e., recuse) himself from cases involving his former clients, including Marcos.
Voter registration
Voter registration began on January 20, 2020, and was scheduled to end on September 30, 2021. The commission expects 4.3 million eligible voters to register. Registration was suspended in some areas in Cavite, Laguna and Batangas due to the Taal Volcano eruption, and in Makilala, Cotabato due to an earthquake. However, even before registration for 2022 opened, many voters enrolled early between August 1 and September 30, 2019, ahead of the barangay and Sangguniang Kabataan elections. These were initially scheduled for May 11, 2020, but were eventually postponed after the general election to December 5, 2022.
On March 10, 2020, the commission suspended voter registration in the entire country due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. By June, the commission announced its initial resumption on July 1. However, the commission suspended voter registration anew up to August 31. The commission later stated on August 15 that voter registration would resume on September 1 in areas under general community quarantine (GCQ) or modified general community quarantine (MGCQ). Areas under enhanced community quarantine (ECQ) and modified enhanced community quarantine (MECQ) will have their registration suspended.
Registration in the province of Palawan was also suspended due to the plebiscite to divide it into three provinces on March 13, 2021. The plebiscite was originally set for May 11, 2020, but was rescheduled due to the pandemic.
In some areas, almost eight months of voter registration were lost due to lockdowns. There were calls to extend voter registration after September 30, 2021, but the commission rejected this, saying that this will delay other election-related activities. The commission instead allowed voter registration to continue in areas under MECQ starting on September 6, with longer hours and in malls.
With barely a week before the close of registration, the Senate passed a bill on second reading extending registration for another month. The House of Representatives passed a similar bill days later, also on second reading. Earlier, both chambers separately passed resolutions urging the commission to extend registration, while the Senate threatened to cut the commission's 2022 budget if registration was not extended. On the eve of the end of registration, Sheriff Abas announced that they approved extending registration from October 11 to 30 for voters in the Philippines, and from October 1 to 14 for overseas voters. On the same day, President Duterte signed into law extending registration for 30 days from when it was made effective.
After extended registration ended, the commission announced that 400,000 people registered in October. The commission tallied 65,745,529 voters in the Philippines, with Calabarzon being the region with the most voters, with 9.1 million. The total was almost 4 million more compared to 2019. By January 2022, the commission announced that they will print 67,442,714 ballots, with 1,697,202 of these for overseas absentee voting. The commission later released per-location total of registered voters, with Cebu (including independent cities associated with it) as the most vote-rich province, Quezon City as the most vote-rich city, and Calabarzon as the most vote-rich region.
In connection to the 2021 Southeast Asian Games which were held in Vietnam from May 12 to 23, 2022, the Philippine Sports Commission lobbied the commission to allow the participants to vote as local absentee voters. The commission denied the request, saying that unless a participant is a government official or employee, a member of either the Philippine National Police or Armed Forces of the Philippines who was assigned in places where one is not a voter, or media covering the games, the athlete cannot vote as a local absentee voter.
Election automation and logistics
Camarines Sur Representative Luis Raymund Villafuerte proposed to use a hybrid electoral system in 2022, or manual counting of votes, then electronic transmission of results. This is in contrast to the automated counting and transmission system used since 2010. He cited 40 lawsuits on the current system used by the Commission on Elections as evidence to shift away from automated counting of votes. President Rodrigo Duterte suggested junking Smartmatic as the automation partner for future elections because of problems from the previous election. However, Smartmatic expressed its interest to participate in future elections. In May 2021, the commission awarded the contract to conduct automated elections, specifically the software that will be used in the voting machines, to Smartmatic.
Administration of logistics related to the election was awarded to F2 Logistics in August 2021. A former commissioner questioned the deal because of the company's association with Dennis Uy, who donated to Duterte's 2016 presidential campaign. The commission stated that the deal with F2 Logistics is legal and valid.
Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic
In April 2020, COMELEC Commissioner Rowena Guanzon proposed voting by mail as an option in the elections, mainly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. By May 2021, Commissioner Antonio Kho Jr. said that voting hours would be extended, as the eight-hour timeframe given for previous elections could not be used any longer. As for multiple days of voting, Kho said that only a law passed by Congress would allow that to happen.
Senator Juan Miguel Zubiri, in a privileged speech, disclosed that he commissioned a Pulse Asia survey in July 2021 which said that 46% of voters will not vote if COVID-19 cases in their barangay are high on election day, with 35% willing to vote and 19% undecided. Zubiri questioned if the public would accept the results if less than a majority of voters turned out to vote.
Postponement of the elections due to COVID-19
The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines states that unless otherwise provided by law, the election of members of Congress is held on the second Monday of May. According to Republic Act No. 7166, the election for national, provincial, city and municipal positions are held on the second Monday of May, since 1992, and every three years thereafter, with the president and vice president being elected in six-year intervals. It has been three years since the 2019 general election and six years since the 2016 presidential election, and with no law postponing the election to date, this meant that the election was scheduled to be held on May 9, 2022.
However, some congressmen and government officials suggested postponing the election due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. Sherriff Abas, the chairman of the commission, said that it had not entered their minds, that the terms are fixed, adding that they are planning on having the vote over two days. Postponement is only possible if Congress passes a law permitting such, and if it is approved by the people in a plebiscite. The commission has no part in scheduling the election outside from what is mandated by the constitution.
A group called Coalition for Life and Democracy petitioned the commission to postpone the elections due to the ongoing pandemic. The group conceded that only Congress can postpone the election, and that their petition contained different dates to hold the election: the body of the petition called for it to be rescheduled to May 2023, but the prayer in it called for May 2025. Another petition that would affect the election's date was filed on December 31 by the Cusi wing of PDP–Laban. Their petition aimed to re-open the filing of candidacies, and to suspend the printing of ballots. The commission tackled both petitions, and announced that both were unanimously dismissed on January 12.
Postponement of the Bangsamoro Parliament election
In November 2020, the 80-person Bangsamoro Parliament passed a resolution urging Congress to extend the transition from June 2022 to 2025. If Congress agreed, no election would be held. By July 2021, Senator Juan Miguel Zubiri said that postponing the Bangsamoro election to 2025 is likely. In September, the Senate passed a bill postponing the election to 2025. A few days later, the House of Representatives passed their own version of the bill. As the two bills are different, they had to be reconciled before being sent to President Duterte for his signature. The conference committee approved the Senate version, giving the winner of the 2022 presidential election the power of appointing the next transitional parliament. Duterte then signed the bill into law, postponing the election to 2025.
Electoral system
In the Philippines, congressional and local elections, excluding the regional and barangay levels, have been synchronized to be held on the second Monday of May every three years, starting in 1992. Presidents and vice presidents have six-year terms, so they are only elected on even-numbered years (1992, 1998, and so on). Elections where the presidency is not on the ballot are called midterm elections, and occur on odd-numbered years (1995, 2001, and so on).
Every seat up for election is voted on separately. Since 2010, general elections have been automated, with voters shading an oval next to their chosen candidate. For executive positions, elections are decided via the first-past-the-post voting (FPTP) system, where the voter has one choice. Elections to the Senate and local legislatures are held via multiple non-transferable vote, where the voter has x number of choices depending on the number of seats up for election (12 in the case of the Senate), and the x candidates with the highest number of votes win. For House elections, each voter has two votes, one via FPTP, and the other via a modified party-list proportional representation system.
Elections are organized, run, and adjudicated by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), an independent governmental body. Appeals are allowed under certain conditions to the Regional Trial Courts, the Congress, or the Supreme Court, sitting as the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal, the Senate Electoral Tribunal, or the Presidential Electoral Tribunal depending on the election being appealed.
Calendar
The election calendar was published by COMELEC in February 2021:
Timetable
Ballot printing was initially scheduled to start on January 15, 2022. However, technical issues hounded the printing, and the commission postponed it to January 17, and then to January 19. The commission started printing ballots on January 20, 2022.
Parties and coalitions
As this was a presidential election year, presidential candidates could endorse a running mate for vice president, a senatorial slate, district and party-list representatives, and local officials, who may not necessarily be of the same party or coalition. According to Joy Aceron, an academic from the Ateneo De Manila University, political parties in the Philippines have been described as "temporary political alliances", or it is argued that there are no parties at all, merely "fan clubs of politicians". Party-switching is not uncommon, and the dependence of parties on personalities instead of issues is seen as a factor of why this is so.
Parties and seats held prior to the elections
The following table is sorted by which party holds the presidency, vice presidency, number of House seats, and number of Senate seats.
National conventions and assemblies
National political conventions and assemblies were held to nominate candidates for the upcoming election. The PDP–Laban's two factions held separate conventions. On September 8, 2021, the Cusi faction held their national convention in San Fernando, Pampanga, where they selected Senator Bong Go as their presidential nominee and incumbent President Rodrigo Duterte as his running mate. They also nominated eight people for senator. The opposing faction led by Pimentel held their convention in Quezon City on September 19. Senator Manny Pacquiao was nominated as their presidential candidate. On the same day, the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas (PFP) held their own convention, nominating former Senator Bongbong Marcos as their presidential candidate. He was also nominated by the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) at their convention on September 24. National democracy coalition Makabayan held its assembly on September 27 and nominated members for its party lists. The Aksyon Demokratiko party also held their convention on September 27 in Manila, selecting Manila Mayor Isko Moreno and Willie Ong as their standard bearers for the presidential and vice presidential elections respectively. Aksyon also nominated two people for Senate. PROMDI held their national convention in Cebu City on the same day, nominating Pacquiao for president and approving an electoral alliance with the Pimentel faction of PDP–Laban. On September 28, two labor parties, Labor Party Philippines (LPP) and Partido Lakas ng Manggagawang Pilipino (PLMP), held their political convention in Mabalacat. This convention nominated Marcos for president, approved an electoral alliance between LPP and PLMP, endorsed the Asenso Manileño party list, and approved partnerships between LPP and KBL and PFP. The Partido Lakas ng Masa (PLM) held their national convention on the same day and nominated labor leader Leody de Guzman for president. Former Akbayan representative Walden Bello was eventually chosen to be his running mate.
Some of the results of the national conventions were noticeably not followed. For the Cusi faction of the PDP–Laban, Go declined to run for president, and Duterte, who originally accepted the nomination, changed his mind and announced his retirement from politics. In the end, Go became the vice presidential nominee, while Ronald dela Rosa was named their presidential nominee. Pacquiao ran under the PROMDI party instead of PDPLaban, after the Pimentel faction forged an electoral alliance with them. Marcos, who was nominated by at least four parties, chose to run under the PFP. The Makabayan bloc would also later endorse incumbent VP Robredo and Senator Francis Pangilinan as their presidential and vice presidential candidates respectively.
In the flurry of substitutions prior to the deadline, Duterte and Go, erstwhile PDP–Laban politicians, were to run under the Pederalismo ng Dugong Dakilang Samahan as senator and president respectively, to avoid legal complications amidst the ongoing dispute in PDP–Laban. Go announced his withdrawal from the presidential election on November 30, 2021.
Coalitions
The Philippines is a multi-party democracy. This means parties enter into coalitions and alliances with each other prior to, during, and after elections in order to be part of the government. These coalitions are ordered by formalization date.
Issues
Relationship with China
Laura del Rosario, former Undersecretary for International Economic Affairs, alleged that to ensure a pro-Chinese leader is elected, multiple candidates would be clandestinely supported by China, and encouraged the public to reject these "Manchurian candidates". China was involved in territorial disputes with the Philippines throughout the election period. Rodrigo Duterte's office described former Secretary of Foreign Affairs Albert del Rosario's allegation that he received support from China in 2016 as nonsensical.
Candidate substitution
Substitution of candidates aside from death or illness is allowed in the Philippines, under the Omnibus Election Code. A substitute can replace a withdrawn candidate only on COMELEC's set schedule; for death or disqualification, the substitute can replace the original candidate until midday on election day. Notably, incumbent president Rodrigo Duterte was a substitute in 2016. Deputy speaker Rufus Rodriguez proposed to ban such substitutions, and to reimpose the old rule that requires candidates to resign from any political positions they hold when running for a different position. The commission promised to be firm on rules regarding substitution after Sara Duterte missed the deadline to file for presidential candidacy.
Smartmatic data breach
On January 10, 2022, the Manila Bulletin published an article alleging that COMELEC's servers were hacked by a group who downloaded more than 60 gigabytes of data containing usernames and passwords for the vote-counting machines (VCMs), and other sensitive information. The commission initially denied its servers were breached and asserted that their system has not yet been connected to any network and no PINs have been generated. Following the report, the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) launched its own investigation into the incident. Another investigation by the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT) asserted that it was not COMELEC that was hacked, but its software contractor, Smartmatic. A public hearing was held by the Senate. On March 17, 2022 after the Senate's executive session with COMELEC officials, senators Imee Marcos and Tito Sotto revealed that Smartmatic was breached after an employee allowed a group to copy data from a company-issued laptop. The commission later met with Smartmatic officials on March 31. On April 1, COMELEC confirmed the Smartmatic breach, but clarified that the leaked data was not related to the elections, and the SD cards for the VCMs were not compromised.
Election-related violence
Even before election day, multiple cases of gun violence and attacks were reported in different areas of the country. In Ilocos Sur, a shoot-out led to 2 injuries.
COMELEC placed the following areas under strict control. Once an area is placed under the commission's control, it has direct supervision over officials and employees, and full control over law enforcement agencies guarding the area. Prior to the release of the initial two places, the commission withheld releasing a list of such areas because it had not yet been validated. Most of the places under commission control are located in Mindanao.
Malabang, in Lanao del Sur, due to a "recent spate of killings"
Tubaran, Lanao del Sur, which has a history of election-related violence
The following places in Bangsamoro, upon recommendation of the police, military, and regional election director:
Marawi, Lanao del Sur
Maguing, Lanao del Sur
Buluan, in Maguindanao
Datu Odin Sinsuat, Maguindanao
Datu Piang, Maguindanao
Mangudadatu, Maguindanao
Pandag, Maguindanao
Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao
Misamis Occidental, for security and safety concerns
Pilar, in Abra, upon petition of its mayor
On the election day itself, several separate incidents of grenade explosions were reported in the Maguindanaon towns of Datu Unsay and Shariff Aguak, which resulted in nine minor injuries. In Buluan in the same province, a shooting led to the deaths of three guards. In Datu Piang, six were hurt when a grenade exploded in front of a polling center.
One day after the elections, escalating protests at the Butig town hall in Lanao del Sur resulted in multiple injuries and damage to the hall's windows. The AFP calmed down the situation after sending additional personnel to the area. Accusations of electoral cheating by bringing VCMs into the hall as well as allegations of ballot fraud were seen as the primary reasons for the conflict between the two camps in the mayoral race.
Issues with vote-counting machines
Out of the 106,174 VCMs used in the elections, about 1,800 malfunctioned in election day. Commissioner George Garcia listed the common issues that the VCMs encountered as follows:
940 VCMs had a paper jam
606 VCMs rejected ballots
158 VCMs had scanner issues
87 VCMs were not printing
76 VCMs were not printing properly
The affected VCMs were repaired by technicians and only ten faulty machines needed to be replaced.
Voters in several precincts complained about the ordeal and many of them exceeded the allotted voting time during election day due to delays and machine malfunctions. Many were told to leave their ballots for the precinct director to scan, with some required to sign a waiver. This resulted in dismay from voters with many rejecting the offer. Some ballots which were successfully entered into the VCMs were reportedly not counted after the machine broke down requiring a designated technician to repair or replace it. COMELEC then ordered a temporary time extension for the precincts encountering problems.
According to national security adviser Hermogenes Esperon Jr., there were more than 20,000 attempts to hack the VCM system and automated fraud attempts but all were prevented. Esperon also noted that the number of malfunctioning VCMs did not reach one percent of the total number of VCMs that were used during the elections, signifying that the system was effective.
Observations
The International Coalition for Human Rights in the Philippines (ICHRP), a global human rights group, released its final report in June 2022. The report said the elections failed to meet the standards of "free, honest, and fair" voting, citing reports of human rights violations and fraud. The ICHRP recommended the restructuring of COMELEC and replacing VCMs for future elections.
Campaign
Campaigning for nationally elected positions began on February 8, 2022. COMELEC, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, prohibited entering houses, kissing and hugging, and taking selfies with voters. Campaigns also required approval from the local elections office before being allowed to start. The commission also set up a Facebook page for its e-rallies, allowing candidates and parties a limited time to campaign. With most of the country being placed in Alert Level 1, the commission recalibrated its rules on March 16, increasing the capacity for venues and removing the need for permits for localities in levels 1 and 2.
The commission, as mandated by the Fair Elections Act, also banned campaign paraphernalia outside the common posting areas in every locality, in public spaces, and in private property without the owner's consent.
Oplan Baklas
The Philippine National Police started Oplan Baklas () on the first day of campaigning. The Leni Robredo presidential campaign, citing the arbitrary application of the law, was considering legal action in response to the actions of the authorities, as they removed campaign materials from private property. This followed the removal of campaign materials from their media center in Quezon City, and from their Santiago, Isabela campaign headquarters. Interior Secretary Eduardo Año defended the police actions, saying that private property owners were notified of the violations before the campaign materials were removed. 1Sambayan cited the Diocese of Bacolod v. COMELEC Supreme Court case, which states "COMELEC [has] no legal basis to regulate expressions made by private citizens." On March 8, the Supreme Court issued a restraining order against the operation.
One day after the elections, the MMDA and several LGUs conducted widespread enforcement, removing campaign posters and electoral paraphernalia. Posters near schools and government buildings were prioritized for clearance ahead of incoming classes.
Candidates
These are the candidates for national-level positions, except for party list candidates:
For president
For vice president
For senator
Results
COMELEC announced that there would be 18,180 posts up for election, including the 80 seats that would have been contested in the Bangsamoro Parliament. The commission then announced that there will be 18,100 posts up, with a total of 47,853 candidates running across all posts.
Overseas absentee voting began on April 10 and ended on May 9, election day in the Philippines. There were about 1.6 million registered voters outside the country.
The commission declared the winners for all positions except for president and vice president, who were declared by Congress.
For president
The presidential election determined the successor of Rodrigo Duterte, who was term-limited and thus could not run for re-election. COMELEC released the official list of candidates on January 18, 2022, with 10 candidates listed on the final ballot.
Bongbong Marcos was elected with over 31 million votes.
For vice president
The vice presidential election determined the successor of Leni Robredo, who was eligible for a second term but decided to run for president. COMELEC released the official list of candidates on January 18, 2022. There were nine candidates on the ballot.
Sara Duterte, daughter of outgoing president Rodrigo Duterte, was elected with over 32 million votes.
Congress
Members of the 19th Congress of the Philippines were elected in this election.
Senate
One half of the senators, or 12 of 24 seats in the Senate, last contested in 2016, were up for election. Those elected in 2019 were joined by the winners of this election to serve in the 19th Congress. There were 178 people who filed to run for Senate, and the final ballot included 64 names.
Among the senators-elect, four were reelected, five returned to the Senate, and three including top vote-winner Robin Padilla were new. Juan Miguel Zubiri was elected Senate President.
House of Representatives
All 316 seats in the House were up for election, an increase of 12 seats from the outgoing 18th Congress. There are now 253 congressional districts, each electing one representative, and 63 seats elected via the party-list system on a nationwide vote. There were 733 people who filed to run for Congress.
After the election, allies of President-elect Bongbong Marcos obtained a supermajority in the House. Martin Romauldez, a cousin of Marcos, was subsequently elected Speaker.
By congressional district
By party list
Local
Local elections above the barangay level were held along with the national elections:
All 81 governors and vice governors, and 782 seats to provincial boards in all provinces
All 146 city mayors and vice mayors, and 1,650 seats to city councils in all cities
All 1,488 municipal mayors and vice mayors, and 11,908 seats to municipal councils in all municipalities
In popular culture
A "two joints" hand gesture in support of Isko Moreno went viral during the campaign
A chant in support of Leni Robredo called "Ang Presidente, Bise Presidente" was turned into a song by Gabriel Valenciano
"Bagong Pagsilang", a march commissioned in 1973 during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, was re-released in 2022 with a new version for Bongbong Marcos's campaign
Yorme: The Isko Domagoso Story, a biographical film about Isko Moreno, was released in January 2022
References
External links
Vote SAFE Pilipinas, official website of the Commission on Elections for the 2022 Philippine general election
https://2022electionresults.comelec.gov.ph/, official website of the Commission on Elections for the results of the 2022 Philippine general election
General
2022
General election |
74884440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Gitterman | Samuel Gitterman | Samuel A. Gitterman (1911–1998) was a Canadian architect and urban planner, who served as the first Chief Architect and Planner of the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Over his career, Gitterman was responsible for designing low-income public housing, private single-family detached homes, and major suburban subdivisions across Canada. Gitterman also played a central role in early Canadian housing research and the development of urban planning as a stand-alone academic discipline.
Early life and education
Samuel Gitterman was born in Montreal, Quebec in 1911 to Pearl (née Zolotareva) and Abraham Gitterman, Jewish immigrants from Odesa, Ukraine. His father, Abraham, who had become a successful customer peddler, died in 1924 when Samuel was only 13 years old. His mother, Pearl, lost much of what she had earned from investing in local apartments during the Great Depression. As a teenager, Gitterman attended Baron Byng High School, an English-language school in Montreal’s Plateau-Mont-Royal neighbourhood, with a student population dominated by Jewish first- and second-generation immigrants.
After completing high school in 1928, Gitterman applied for a position at McGill’s School of Architecture. Despite his excellent high school grades, Gitterman initially did not qualify for enrollment at McGill due to the university’s strict Jewish quotas. Gitterman took another year of high school, completed additional examinations, and gained admission to the university in 1930. Gitterman’s studies at McGill were supported by an interest-free loan provided to low-income Jewish students by Samuel Bronfman. After four years at McGill, Gitterman graduated at the top of his class and won several scholarships and prizes, including the first Gold Medal awarded by the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. Gitterman also received a certificate in sandwich panel construction from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Career
Early career
In the summer of 1935, immediately after graduating from university, Gitterman was hired by a Montreal architecture firm led by Maxwell Kalman, which focused primarily on designing lower-cost small houses. The designs developed by Gitterman and other architects at Kalman’s firm tended to have more consistency in size and appearance than many of the homes that were being built in Montreal into the 1930s: The firm almost always constructed wooden-framed houses that were 1,000 to 1,500 sq. ft. in size, being either one-and-a-half stories or two stories. During his time at Kalman’s firm, Gitterman also designed some larger and more expensive homes costing at times as much as $10,000 per house (around three times the cost of an average home during the Depression).
In 1937, Gitterman moved to Ottawa and began developing designs for small semi-prefabricated houses for the Department of National Defence. Unlike traditional houses, these ‘pre-fabs’, used by the military, consisted of standardized components that could fit together like a puzzle, could be constructed in 36 hours, and easily be dismantled and reassembled elsewhere if need be.
After two years at the DND, Gitterman transferred to the position of Assistant Architect at the Land Planning Division of the National Housing Administration, an organization within the federal Department of Finance that provided loans for owner-occupied house construction across Canada. At the NHA, Gitterman began overseeing a program known as the “Home Conversation Plan”, through which homeowners would be given grants to upgrade the quality of their houses, as an attempt from the federal government to develop nationwide standardization and safety in construction.
In addition to his primary responsibilities at the NHA, Gitterman also became a judge for the organization’s annual small house design competition, which ran for four decades. Hundreds of Canadian architects and architectural students submitted designs to NHA’s competition and winners would have their designs included in a catalogue, receiving prize money and royalties for each copy of the design sold. Controversially, on a handful of occasions, from the 1930s into the 1960s, Gitterman also submitted his personal house designs to the competition and won, despite "having a definite say in what plans should be published in the CMHC catalogues”.
Wartime Housing
The economic boom of the Second World War, a need for new housing near military bases, and a desire amongst Canadians for single-family private homes brought a rapid growth in suburban subdivision development. Wartime Housing Ltd., a federal crown corporation, took over many of the responsibilities from the National Housing Administration and began to rapidly develop subdivisions for war workers and their families near military sites across Canada. Over a five-year period, WHL constructed almost 26,000 rental units to house war workers, along with primary and secondary schools, fire stations, and community centres to support them and their families.
In 1941, Frank Nicolls, the director of the NHA, approached Gitterman about the possibility of creating a community planning department within the NHA that could provide a “sound scientific, statistical base” for both wartime military, civilian and war worker housing and the expected need for low- and moderate-income post-war private developments. In the same year, the National Building Code was published, providing for the first time, formal rules for the standardization and safety of construction. In 1943, the NHA established a Town Planning Division and appointed Gitterman as the department head. In this role, Gitterman’s focus shifted from creating architectural plans for individual houses to planning entire subdivisions, most notably, La Cité-jardin du Tricentenaire in Montreal’s Rosemont La-Petite-Patrie borough and the Crawford Park Extension in Verdun.
Work at the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corperation
Immediately following the end of the Second World War, the Central Mortgage and Housing Corperation (today called the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corperation) was developed out of the National Housing Administration and other federal crown housing corporations, including Wartime Housing Ltd., to provide a single federal entity for providing loans and overseeing publicly-funded development. In 1946, Gitterman was transferred to the CMHC and appointed as the Corporation’s first Chief Architect and Planner.Despite working for the new organization, Gitterman’s role at the CMHC remained similar to his previous work, and he continued to oversee the development of military housing for the Army, Navy, and Air Force; public housing, such as Regent Park North; veterans housing; townsites, like Ajax, Ontario; and housing in the arctic and northern Canada.
In the mid-1950s, the CMHC was tasked by the Department of National Defense to design the New Town of Oromocto as a residential area for married soldiers stationed at the newly constructed CFB Gagetown in New Brunswick. Alongside Harold Spence-Sales, a British urban planner based at McGill, Gitterman oversaw the planning of four 500-unit neighbourhoods. In total, 2,000 units were constructed in Oromocto for military families, along with five elementary schools and two junior high schools, additional units for non-military families, and a town centre containing stores and recreational facilities.
In addition to his primary responsibility overseeing development, as Chief Architect and Planner, Gitterman wrote and lectured on planning principles for the CMHC, such as the importance of the Neighbourhood Unit and Garden City ideals in suburban subdivision planning. Gitterman recognized planning as essential to ensuring safe and organized communities, where residents could "live and make a living" in comfort. Gitterman's larger subdivision plans, including for the Town of Oromocto, NB, closley followed mid-20th century planning principals, first proposed by planners like Ebenezer Howard and Clarence Perry. This includes his use 'housing groups' within neighourhoods, developed through cul-de-sacs and walking paths between and at the rear of homes, as well as public recreational spaces, schools, and churches to spur the development of neighbourhood community, culture, and safety.
In 1954, following Stewart Bates's appointment to President of the CMHC, Gitterman was chosen as the Advisor on Housing Construction (technology advisor) for the newly created Advisory Research Group, headed by Humphery Carver. In this role, Gitterman's responsibilities shifted from overseeing planning to researching and developing for new housing technologies. Each year, beginning in the mid-1950s, a budget of around $10 million per year was set asid for housing research, allowing CMHC research team the luxury to develop a wide vareity of protoypes with the goal of improving housing quality and construction methods while reducing long-term costs. Some research projects overseen by Gitterman at the time include an in-house water-recycling machine to make wastewater potable; a prototype house built with a wooden foundation; a new type of toilet; and a pre-assembled plastic bathroom.
Late career and retirement
After 5 years on the CMHC research advisory group, in 1959, Gitterman left the CMHC to open a private architecture and planning firm in Ottawa. His practice oversaw the construction of a number of developments, including MacDonald Manor, a low-income seniors’ estate; the Montclair a mid-rise apartment building in downtown Ottawa; and the Glen Cairn subdivision near Kanata.
In 1965, Gitterman returned to his advisory role at the CMHC, where he remained until experiencing a heart attack in 1974 and entered retirement. In the 1970s, Gitterman continued to consult on contracts for the Ministry of State for Urban Affairs, Department of Health and Welfare and the Canadian Executive Service Organization, among other federal organizations. During this time, Gitterman also participated in international development projects in Italy, Guatemala, Bangladesh, Botswana, Fiji and Malawi following major emergencies and natural disasters on behalf of the Canadian International Development Agency.
Personal life
Following his move to Ottawa in the late 1930s, Gitterman met his wife, Belle, who was working as a secretary for the Department of Finance in the East Block on Parliament Hill. The couple married in the mid 1940s and had two sons, Allan and Lawrence. The family lived in the Manor Park neighbourhood northeast of Ottawa's downtown, in a house hand built by Gitterman. In the 1960s, Gitterman designed another house for his family, this time in the nearby Village of Rockcliffe Park, and the family moved there.
For two decades, beginning in 1976, Gitterman served as a volunteer planner and honorary municipal building inspector for Rickliffe Park, alongside his former CMHC colleague Humphrey Carver. During his retirement, Gitterman was inducted into the Canadian Home Builders' Association Hall of Fame and he received the CMHC Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Housing Industry. Gitterman passed away on January 3, 1998 at the age of 87. Following his passing, Rockliffe Park planted a tree in his memory in the town square.
References
1911 births
1998 deaths
20th-century Canadian Jews
Canadian urban planners
Canadian architects
Canadian civil servants
McGill School of Architecture alumni |
260821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy%20gun | Toy gun | Toy guns are toys which imitate real guns, but are designed for recreational sport or casual play by children. From hand-carved wooden replicas to factory-produced pop guns and cap guns, toy guns come in all sizes, prices and materials such as wood, metal, plastic or any combination thereof. Many newer toy guns are brightly colored and oddly shaped to prevent them from being mistaken for real firearms.
Types
Wooden guns are made to resemble real guns. Often handmade, these toys may or may not have metal parts and are made with various levels of detail.
Suction cup dart toy pistols are made to resemble real pistols, used to fire one suction cup dart.
Rubber band guns, are toy guns used to fire one or more rubber bands (or "elastic bands"). Rubber band guns are often used in live-action games such as Assassins, in which they are common and popular toy weapons. They are also common in offices and classrooms. Rubber band guns have been popular toys that date back to the invention of rubber bands, which were patented in England on March 17, 1845, by Stephen Perry.
Cap guns, cap pistol, or cap rifle are toy guns that creates a loud sound simulating a gunshot and a puff of smoke when a small percussion cap is exploded. Cap guns were originally made of cast iron, but after World War II were made of zinc alloy, and most newer models are made of plastic.
Model guns are Japanese full-size toy guns that highly replicate the appearance, design, and operation of the real ones but cannot shoot any projectile. It comes as either ignition models (a very sophisticated type of cap guns) or non-ignition dummy models. Both are subject to the strict Japanese Gun Control Law for identification and to prevent possible modification.
Prop guns are toy guns that have to look like real guns. They are commonly used in movies, TV shows, and other theatrical performances.
Spud guns are small toy guns used to fire a fragment of potato. To operate, one punctures the surface of a potato with the gun's hollow tip and pries out a small pellet which fits snugly in the muzzle. Squeezing the trigger causes a small build-up of air pressure inside the toy which propels the projectile. The devices are usually short-range and low-powered.
Water guns are a type of toy gun that uses a variety of methods to spray jets of water. Many early small water guns used the same trigger based pumping mechanism used for spray bottles. In this type of device, the trigger actuates a positive displacement pump shaft. With the aid of two check valves, often using small balls, fluid is drawn into the pump from a reservoir, then forced out the nozzle upon squeezing the trigger. The simplicity of the spraying mechanism allowed these toys to be manufactured cheaply and allowed the majority of the body to be used as the reservoir. The primary limitation of this design is the volume of water that can be effectively moved per pump. Increasing pump volume would require more user effort to push the fluid out, making larger designs impractical. However, this technology remains widely used today both in spray bottles as well as small water guns that can be found in a wide variety of shapes and colors.
Pop guns (also written as popgun or pop-gun) is a toy gun that was made by American inventor Edward Lewis and uses air pressure to fire a small tethered or untethered projectile (such as cork or foam) out of a barrel, most often via piston action though sometimes via spring pressure. Other variants do not launch the obstruction, but simply create a loud noise. This mechanism consists of a hollow cylindrical barrel which is sealed at one end with the projectile and at the other with a long-handled plunger. In this type, the plunger is rapidly forced down the barrel, building up internal air pressure until the projectile is forced out with the "pop" sound that lends the toy its name.
Ray guns are a science fiction particle-beam weapon that fires what is usually destructive energy. They have various alternate names: ray gun, death ray, beam gun, blaster, laser gun, laser pistol, phaser, zap gun, etc. In most stories, when activated, a raygun emits a ray, typically visible, usually lethal if it hits a human target, often destructive if it hits mechanical objects, with properties and other effects unspecified or varying. Toy ray guns often have a mechanical component that sparks, light-up and make a sound effect.
Tracer guns, sometimes known as a disc gun, is a kind of toy gun made of durable plastic. The toy shoots lightweight plastic discs roughly the size of a penny. The discs used as ammunition for these guns are often sold with the label "Jet Discs." The firing mechanism is a spring, The magazine holds 20 "discs." The range is about 10 feet, and even then, accuracy is far from dependable. The trigger requires some force. The firing sound is loud, low, and distinctive. Oftentimes the trigger will become loose and will take multiple attempts to shoot.
Foam dart blasters are toy guns that fire foam darts, discs, or foam balls. The term "Nerf blaster", referring to blasters made by Hasbro, is often used as a blanket term for any foam dart blaster, regardless of whether or not it has the Nerf brand name. Foam dart blasters are manufactured in multiple forms, including pistols, rifles, and light machine guns. The first Nerf blasters emerged in the late 1980s with the release of the Nerf Blast-a-Ball and the Arrowstorm.
Airsoft guns are replica toy guns used in airsoft sports. They are essentially a special type of very low-power smoothbore air guns designed to shoot non-metallic spherical projectiles often colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to as "BBs", which are typically made of (but not limited to) plastic or biodegradable resin materials. Airsoft gun powerplants are designed to have low muzzle energy ratings (generally less than ) and the polymer pellets have significantly less penetrative and stopping powers than conventional air guns, and are generally quite safe for competitive sporting and recreational purposes if proper protective gear is worn. MilSim is a major element of appeal for airsoft guns, and airsoft games rely heavily on an honor system, where a player has the ethical obligation to call himself out of play when hit.
Gel blasters are replica toy guns similar in design to airsoft guns but much less powerful, and shoot superabsorbent polymer (most commonly sodium polyacrylate) water beads (often sold commercially as garden moisture retainers) which are hydrated into -diameter projectiles colloquially called gel beads or gel balls. Gel blasters are invented as a replacement toy for regions with airsoft-unfriendly laws (e.g. China, Australia, Malaysia and Vietnam), and are often played in CQB-style shooting skirmishes similar to paintball, but follows an airsoft-like honor-based gameplay umpiring system.
Paintball gun, paint gun, or marker gun, is the main piece of paintball equipment in the sport of paintball. Markers use an expanding gas, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or compressed air, to propel paintballs through the barrel and quickly strike a target. The term "marker" is derived from its original use as a means for forestry personnel to mark trees and ranchers to mark wandering cattle.
Light guns are pointing devices for computers and a control device for arcade and video games, typically shaped to resemble a pistol. Modern screen-based light guns work by building an optical sensor into the gun, which receives its input from the light emitted by on-screen target(s). The first device of this type, the light pen, was used on the MIT Whirlwind computer. Modern starting pistols in athletics use similar devices that emit a sound and flash a light.
Laser tag gun is a tag game played with toy guns which fire infrared beams. Infrared-sensitive targets are commonly worn by each player and are sometimes integrated within the arena in which the game is played. Since its birth in 1979, with the release of the Star Trek Electronic Phasers toy manufactured by the South Bend Electronics brand of Milton Bradley, laser tag has evolved into both indoor and outdoor styles of play, and may include simulations of combat, role play-style games, or competitive sporting events including tactical configurations and precise game goals. Laser tag is popular with a wide range of ages. When compared to paintball, laser tag is painless because it uses no physical projectiles, and indoor versions may be considered less physically demanding because most indoor venues prohibit running or roughhousing.
Dummy guns have been historically used by police and military organizations for training purposes. During World War II, Parris Manufacturing Company provided over 2 million accurate copies of the M1903 Springfield rifles, the MK 1 USN Dummy Training Rifle to the U.S. armed forces. After the war they continued to manufacture and sell their replicas as toy guns. As well as smaller sized models for children that featured a working bolt with a dummy bullet, leather sling, the clicker action, and a smaller rubber bayonet similar to the M1 bayonet.
Today, the United States military, calls these dummy training guns "rubber ducks" or "blue guns", usually resembling an M16 type rifle. Trainees are issued rubber ducks before they have been properly trained to use actual rifles, in order to become familiar with the care, responsible handling, and added weight of an M16 during various activities, such as bayonet drills, water survival, and marches. They are also used to train soldiers in various ceremonial practices that differ when soldiers are armed. For example, standing at attention requires a different stance and set of movements when the soldier has a rifle in-hand.
Popularity and proliferation
Children have always had small imitations of things from the adult world and toy guns are no exception. From a hand-carved wooden replica to factory-produced pop guns and cap guns, toy guns came in all sizes, prices and materials from wood, to metal, to plastic or any combination thereof.
With the influence of Hollywood and comic strips, tie-ins could make an ordinary toy gun a major bestseller. In the 1930s Daisy Outdoor Products came out with a Buck Rogers Rocket Pistol (1933), Disintegrator Pistol (1934), and Liquid Helium Pistol (1935) that sold in record numbers.
Mattel had used television advertising to sell their "burp gun" on The Mickey Mouse Club in the mid-1950s to great effect. In 1959 Mattel sponsored their own television show Matty's Funday Funnies with their trademark little boy "Matty" showing cartoons and advertising their products. Mattel toys came out with Dick Tracy weapons in 1960 that were state of the art. Not only could the "Dick Tracy Crimestoppers" have a realistic snubnosed revolver in a shoulder holster, but Mattel also boosted junior law enforcement firepower with a Dick Tracy cap firing tommy gun that fired a burst of 6 caps automatically when the M-1 Thompson-style bolt was pulled back. One commercial featured Billy Mumy demonstrating the weapons to his father prior to watching Dick Tracy on TV. Mattel also came up with a "Dick Tracy Water Jet Gun" that was a miniature replica of a police pump action shotgun that fired caps when one pulled the trigger and squirted water when one pumped the slide. When the Dick Tracy craze faded the same two weapons were reissued in military camouflage as Green Beret "Guerrilla Fighter" weapons. (see United States Army Special Forces in popular culture). Mattel later issued the same tommy gun in its original colours as a Planet of the Apes tie-in complete with ape mask.
In the mid-1960s, Multiple Toymakers/Multiple Plastics Corporation (MPC) came out with James Bond's attaché case from From Russia with Love. Topper Toys replied with a copy called "Secret Sam" that featured a toy gun that fired plastic bullets through the attaché case and had a working camera that outsold 007's kit. MPC toys replied with a "B.A.R.K" - "Bond Assault and Raider Kit" an attaché case that opened up to display a firing mortar and a rocket shooting pistol. MPC also provided a "Bond-O-Matic" water pistol. Bond's television competition The Man From U.N.C.L.E. had their pistol with attachments that turned it into a rifle made by both the Ideal Toy Company in the US and the Lone Star Toys company in the United Kingdom. Mattel came out with a series of "Zero-M" secret-agent weapons such as a camera turning into a pistol and a radio turning into a rifle demonstrated by a juvenile Agent Zero M played by Kurt Russell.
Perhaps the ultimate toy weapon was the 1964 Topper Toys Johnny Seven OMA (One Man Army) where an exciting television commercial showed one little boy using each of the seven weapons of the gun to wipe out a neighborhood full of children armed only with ordinary toy guns. Though an amazing seller, the Captain Kangaroo television program refused to air the advertisement. The proliferation of toy weapons was satirized in the "Our Man in Toyland" episode of Get Smart.
In the 1970s, the Star Wars media franchise provided new laser blaster and lightsabers produced by Kenner Toys.
Toy gun control
Toy guns can cause harm like many objects not under proper supervision. Unlike most other toys though, much of the danger of these toys is related to mistaking a toy gun for a real gun or vice versa. For example:
a robber or other criminals might threaten people with a toy gun.
people might call the police, flee, panic, or attempt to overpower someone carrying a toy gun.
police officers and armed citizens might mistake someone carrying a toy gun for a killer carrying a real gun, and shoot them.
a child might play with and fire a real gun confusing it for a toy gun.
United States
Toy guns were temporarily removed from the Sears Roebuck 1968 Christmas catalog after the April assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the June assassination of Robert F. Kennedy. However, they returned to the Sears catalog the following year.
Beginning in the 1970s, American gun control advocates called for federal government to regulate and/or ban the manufacture and sale of toy guns. These calls were countered by toy industry groups, who preferred to set their own standards. In 1973, the newly formed U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission received petitions and letters from consumers, asking the commission to institute mandatory safety standards for the design of toy weapons. These calls for action were repeated in 1975. However, the trade association representing the toy weapon manufacturers also contacted the CPSC, asking them to delay until the industry developed their own set of voluntary standards. The voluntary guidelines that were published over the next few years emphasized the use of warning labels on packaging and instructions, rather than mandating safety standards for the design of projectile toys. The Consumer Product Safety Commission rejected further petitions to regulate toy weapon manufacture in 1981 and 1985. In 1992, the Department of Commerce prohibited the manufacture, sale, or shipping of toy guns unless they have an orange tip or are entirely brightly colored. The regulation does not prohibit end-users from modifying the toys.
In March 2018, Walmart (the largest single retailer in the United States) announced that they would stop selling certain types of toy guns. “We are also removing items from our website resembling assault-style rifles, including nonlethal airsoft guns and toys,” the company said in a statement.
Laws
In the United States, federal law and regulations indicate that all toy guns transported or imported into the country must have a 6mm-wide blaze orange tip or a blaze orange stripe 1-inch (2.54 centimeters) thick on both sides of the barrel. However, this is not required by federal law for airsoft and paintball. Part 272 of Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations on foreign commerce and trade (15 CFR 272) states that "no person shall manufacture, enter into commerce, ship, transport, or receive any toy, look-alike, or imitation firearm" without approved markings; these may include an orange tip, orange barrel plug, brightly colored (safety orange) exterior of the whole toy, or transparent construction.
New York City, Washington, D.C., Chicago, and parts of Michigan have completely banned airsoft guns.. In New York City, as of 2003, the sale of replica toy guns was punishable with one year's jail term plus $1,000. Chicago goes even further with their mandates. It is considered a crime to wield a look-alike or replica gun (e.g., toy gun, airsoft gun) in public. If a toy gun or replica gun is used to commit a crime in Chicago, then that person is treated as though they had actually used a real firearm. However, state laws relating to the regulation of toy, look-alike, or imitation firearms, or purporting to ban the sale or manufacture of bb guns, paintball guns, or airsoft guns are preempted by federal law.
United Kingdom
There is a controversy as to whether or not toy guns are appropriate for children to play with. Some people believe they can encourage violence. In 2007, the British Department for Children, Schools and Families (which existed between 2007 and 2010) has advised young boys be encouraged to play with toy guns, as it will encourage them to learn and foster their development. However, the National Union of Teachers in England has criticised this advice, arguing that toy guns "symbolise aggression" and that encouraging boys to play with them fosters gender stereotypes.
Pakistan
In 2016, Shafeeq Gigyani, who is a peace activist in Pakistan, started a campaign against toy guns.
See also
BB gun
Ceremonial weapon
Drill purpose rifle
Lego gun
Rubber duck (military)
Shooting of Tamir Rice
References
External links
CNN: "A toy gun, a real crime". (January 8, 2003) Matt Bean on the dangers of toy guns being mistaken for real ones in the U.S.
Gun politics
Gun
Inert firearms
Gun |
1122321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatocele | Spermatocele | Spermatocele is a fluid-filled cyst that develops in the epididymis. The fluid is usually a clear or milky white color and may contain sperm. Spermatoceles are typically filled with spermatozoa and they can vary in size from several millimeters to many centimeters. Small spermatoceles are relatively common, occurring in an estimated 30 percent of males. They are generally not painful. However, some people may experience discomfort such as a dull pain in the scrotum from larger spermatoceles. They are not cancerous, nor do they cause an increased risk of testicular cancer. Additionally, unlike varicoceles, they do not reduce fertility.
History
"Spermatocele" is originally derived from the Greek term spermatos (sperm) and kele (cavity or mass). Oftentimes, "epididymal cyst" has been used interchangeably with "spermatocele." However, it is important to note their differences. Epididymal cysts may appear anywhere along or within the epididymis and do not contain sperm, whereas spermatoceles may contain sperm. Epididymal cysts have been shown to occur more frequently in children before reaching puberty.
Epidemiology
Spermatoceles usually affect men who are middle-aged and can, although rarely, affect children during puberty. The incidence rate is around 5-20% for children. It is estimated that approximately 30 percent of men have been diagnosed with small spermatoceles while less have larger spermatoceles. The incidence of spermatoceles increases as men age. Before puberty, children from the male sex may develop a similar benign mass called epididymis cyst. Although both epididymis cyst and spermatocele may be referred as the same, the epididymis cyst does not contain sperm and it can occur anywhere within the epididymis. It can be differentiated through an ultrasound imagining. Epididymis cysts larger than 10mm in diameter are recommended for surgery but if there is no problem then surgery is discouraged as it can affect fertility in the future.
Chronic infectious epididymitis
Chronic infectious epididymitis is rare. Some signs and symptoms include localized tenderness and swelling in the epididymis, which are different from any tenderness/abnormality present in the testis, these are usually not found in lower urinary tract. Chronic infectious epididymitis may be diagnosed in healthy adolescents as well as men. Some factors that predispose individuals to chronic infectious epididymitis include sexual activity, heavy physical exertion, and bicycle or motorcycle riding. Those diagnosed with chronic or recurrent epididymitis should receive a CT scan with contrast and a prostate ultrasonography to rule out structural abnormality of the urinary tract. If suspected to have chronic infectious epididymitis, consider getting a urinalysis, urine culture, and urine nucleic acid amplification tests for presence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis. Management of chronic infectious epididymitis is similar to management of acute infectious epididymitis, rarely does treatment extend to surgical management.
Chronic noninfectious epididymitis
Chronic noninfectious epididymitis – Trauma, autoimmune disease, or vasculitis can cause chronic noninfectious epididymitis, but no clear cause or origin of the disease is found in most cases. Noninfectious epididymitis that happen spontaneously might be caused by the reflux of urine through the ejaculatory ducts and vas deferens into the epididymis, producing inflammation that leads to swelling and ductal obstruction. Men with history of vasectomy are also predisposed to chronic nonifectious epididymitis. Typical inciting factors include prolonged periods of sitting (long plane or car travel, sedentary desk jobs) or vigorous exercise (heavy lifting). Acute infectious epididymitis are often associated with more tenderness and swelling, whereas chronic noninfectious epididymitis tend to have less tenderness and swelling upon examination. Thorough past medical history and physical examination can help with determining the diagnosis. It is often that individuals with chronic noninfectious epididymitis will present with a history of a lack of symptom improvement while on antibiotic therapy. Management of chronic noninfectious epididymitis includes scrotal elevation, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen (unless unable to take for medical reasons), and it is recommended that individuals avoid physical activities that may cause said symptoms. Those with sedentary jobs or often experience prolonged periods of time sitting should practice physical mobility more frequently.
Risk Factors
It is not well known what may be causing the growth of a spermatocele. It has been observed that pregnant women who were prescribed diethylstilbestro (DES) to prevent pregnancy complications, such as miscarriage, and gave birth to a son most likely increased the risk of the son to develop a spermatocele in the future. However, doctors stopped prescribing this medication in 1971 since it increased the risk of women developing a rare vaginal cancer.
Causes
Spermatoceles can originate as diverticulum from the tubules found in the head of the epididymis. Sperm accumulation gradually causes the diverticulum to increase in size, causing a spermatocele. While there are many tubules connecting the epididymis to the testis, a blockage in one of the tubules may lead to formation of a cyst. In many instances they appear to occur spontaneously without any preceding instances of injury.
Scarring of any part of the epididymis due to trauma or inflammation can cause it to become obstructed and in turn form a spermatocele.
Diagnosis
Spermatoceles can be discovered as incidental scrotal masses found on physical examination by a physician or by self-inspection of the scrotum and testicles. The various types of diagnosis for spermatocele types include hydrocele, varicocele, hernia, simple epididymal cyst, and neoplasm.
The primary care physician may diagnose and manage benign causes of scrotal masses such as hydrocele, varicocele and spermatocele. However, if a "must not miss" diagnoses related to testicular masses such as testicular torsion, epididymitis, acute orchitis, strangulated hernia and testicular cancer is suspected, the family physician must refer to a urologist.
Finding a painless, cystic mass at the head of the epididymis that is clearly separate from the testicle can indicate a spermatocele. Shining a light through the mass through a process known as transillumination can also help differentiate between a fluid-filled cyst and a tumor, which would not allow as much light to pass. If uncertainty exists, ultrasonography of the scrotum can confirm the presence of a spermatocele. The location and history of any scrotal masses are crucial in determining whether or not the mass is benign or malignant. Lab tests such as a complete blood count (CBC test) or urine test can also be conducted to check for any possible infection or signs of inflammation.
Spermatoceles come in varying sizes and shapes. Some spermatoceles are very small and can only be detected through an ultrasound. More commonly seen are spermatoceles that are a pea-sized lump. They tend to form above or behind a testicle and have a shape and size that looks like a pea. Larger growths have been reported to look similar to a third testicle and can be very discomforting. For those who are affected with large spermatoceles, some have reported feeling pain, heaviness, and fullness in the affected testicle.
When to see a doctor
If a person is experiencing pain and/or swelling in the scrotum or if a person notices a physical difference such as a mass during a testicular self-exam then they must seek medical attention quickly to help rule out any other causes and begin treatment.
Special Populations
Spermatoceles in Children
Epididymal cysts may arise in children due to numerous different reasons. They may even originate from a disturbance in endocrine factors during the development of the embryo. The incidence of these cysts are possibly linked to boys who are exposed to diethylstilbestrol, an estrogen medication, while in the fetus.
Although the evidence and information for incidence of spermatoceles in children is lacking, there are general management guidelines for caregivers who may encounter spermatoceles in their children. Epididymal cysts are typically benign in nature. However, caregivers should take note of any discomfort and symptoms in children, including but not limited to, erythema, scrotal edema or swelling. Epididymal cysts appear in approximately 70% of boys who present as asymptomatic. The diagnosis of epididymal cysts in children can be discovered upon physical examination and eventually confirmed via ultrasound.
Treatment
Small cysts as well as asymptomatic larger cysts are better left alone and carefully observed. However, treatment can be considered if the cysts are causing discomfort/pain, enlarging in size, or per patient request. There are a few different treatment options, ranging in levels of invasiveness.
Medications
Certain drugs such as oral analgesics or anti-inflammatory medications can be taken by mouth to decrease spermatocele-related symptoms such as pain and/or swelling. At the moment, there is no medication that can inhibit the production of a spermatocele or cure it. Common medications recommended by doctors are acetaminophen (Tylenol) that can treat pain. To treat the inflammation and pain, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are recommended such as ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), naproxen (Aleve), and others. Antibiotics may also be prescribed in cases where risk of infection and discomfort is indicated.
Medical Procedures
Aspiration and sclerotherapy are treatments that remove fluid from the spermatocele and seal the spermatocele sac closed from further fluid build-up, respectively. Due to a higher risk of epididymis damage, fertility problems, and further recurrences, these procedures are not recommended and not commonly used.
Surgical Treatments
Surgical treatments must be thoroughly discussed with people prior to any final decisions. Different types of surgical procedures may be chosen based on the extent of risk.
A short procedure called a spermatocelectomy can be performed for spermatoceles that cause irritating symptoms. This standard procedure can be performed in an outpatient setting with the use of local or general anesthesia. This procedure typically consists of removing the spermatocele and a portion of the epididymis. The risk of epididymal injury is 17.12%. This incident may happen when the spermatocele is being dissected from the head of the epididymis. Spermatocelectomy can cause complications such as hematoma, wound infection, scrotal abscess as well as recurrence. After surgery, the doctor may recommend to apply ice packs for several days to help reduce swelling. Oral pain medications can also be taken for a few days to reduce discomfort. In addition, the patient returns 2–6 weeks after to inspect any progress/complications. If received a vasectomy, then two semen samples must be collected and analyzed after 6–12 weeks post-operation and several ejaculations. The centrifuged semen samples are used to look for the absence of viable sperm in the semen.
Risk of Complications
After surgical removal, it is possible that the pain will persist and recurrence can occur. Fertility may be compromised with these surgical procedures, so people may consider postponing surgery until after having children. If the pain is intolerable and the person would like to get the spermatocele removed immediately, the person should talk to his doctor about the possibility of freezing or donating sperm in case infertility occurs.
Male Reproductive System
Spermatoceles are important to not be ignored as it can affect the male reproductive system. The testes are organs inside the scrotum that create sperm as well as sex hormones and testosterone. The sperm in the testes move to the epididymis which is a long, coiled tube behind the testes. The primary function is to store and mature sperm so it can fertilize the egg. However, if the epididymis becomes injured, then there is a chance that the sperm will not mature and a man will not be able to reproduce with a woman. Therefore, serious thought must be considered when undergoing spermatocelectomy.
Prevention and Screening
There is no way to prevent a spermatocele from forming, but there are routines that can be established to help identify any changes in a person's scrotum such as masses, abnormalities, or discomfort. Performing a monthly testicular self-exam can improve the person's chances of identifying spermatoceles or any abnormalities quickly.
It is best to perform a testicular self-exam after a warm shower to help the scrotum relax. To properly exam the scrotum, look for any swelling on the skin and examine each testicle by rolling the testicle between the thumbs and the fingers. A normal testicle is oval-shaped and will usually feel smooth and firm. It is also not uncommon for the testicles to be different sizes.
Upon physical examination, if a 'lump' is found during the testicular exam, further screening may be performed via ultrasound to eliminate testicular cancer.
See also
hydrocele
orchitis
rete tubular ectasia
testicular torsion
tumor
varicocele
References
External links
Epididymis disorders |
43604611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Edge%20of%20Night%20characters | List of The Edge of Night characters | The following is a list of characters from the Procter & Gamble daytime soap opera The Edge of Night, which ran from 1956 to 1984.
A
Nadine Alexander Scott
Dorothy Stinnette (1976–1977, 1980)
Nadine is a wealthy socialite, the mother of Raven Alexander (Juanin Clay, Sharon Gabet) and later the wife of Ansel Scott (Patrick Horgan). In 1980, Molly Sherwood (Laurinda Barrett) attempts to murder April Cavanaugh Scott (Terry Davis), the wife of Ansel's son Draper Scott (Tony Craig), but accidentally poisons Nadine, who subsequently crashes her car and dies. Nadine leaves everything to Raven and Logan Swift's (Joe Lambie) son Jamey, so Raven schemes to regain custody of Jamey from Logan.
Raven Alexander
Juanin Clay (1976–1977); Sharon Gabet (1977–1984)
Monticello socialite Charlotte "Raven" Alexander is married to newspaper reporter Kevin Jamison (John Driver) until his death in a car accident in 1978. She later marries and divorces Logan Swift (Joe Lambie), with whom she has a son, Jamey. In 1980, Molly Sherwood (Laurinda Barrett) attempts to murder April Cavanaugh (Terry Davis), the wife of Raven's stepbrother Draper Scott (Tony Craig), but accidentally poisons Raven's mother, Nadine Alexander Scott (Dorothy Stinnette). Nadine subsequently crashes her car and dies. Nadine leaves everything to her grandson Jamey, so Raven schemes to regain custody of Jamey from Logan. Raven marries dashing millionaire Schuyler Whitney (Larkin Malloy), but in 1982 he is revealed to be impostor Jefferson Brown. Jefferson's attempts to kill her fail, and he is himself killed by Libby Webster (XXXX). Raven is a happily wealthy widow after Jefferson’s death, until the real Schuyler arrives to reclaim his fortune. Penniless, she plots to seduce, marry and divorce him for the money. However she soon finds herself having real feelings for him. She and Schuyler have a daughter, Charlotte.
Over the course of the series, Raven has relationships with Draper, his father Ansel Scott (Patrick Horgan), playboy Eliot Dorn (Lee Godart) and Police Chief Derek Mallory (Dennis Parker). She briefly works as a private investigator, is considered a suspect in the deaths of her mother Nadine and later Eliot, is arrested for the murder of Peter Nevis, and goes to trial for the murder of her ex-husband Logan. Initially, wealthy Geraldine Saxon (Lois Kibbee), the close friend of Raven's mother Nadine, refers to Raven as an "alley cat" and "uncouth slut", but the women eventually become close.
Gabet was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 1982 and 1984.
Beth Anderson
Nancy Pinkerton (1963–1967)
Beth Moon marries John Paul Anderson (Conard Fowkes) and later John Barnes (Barry Newman), and is engaged to Lee Pollock (Anthony Roberts). She works as a housekeeper for the Capice and Simms families, and is tried but acquitted for the assault of Vera Simms.
Trent Archer
Farley Granger (1979)
Trent Archer is the superstitious leading man of Mansion of the Damned, a horror film shooting in Monticello which co-stars Nola Madison (Kim Hunter). He quits the movie after accidents, strange occurrences and deaths begin to plague the production.
The role was portrayed from September to October 1979 by film star Granger, who was previously nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 1977 for playing Will Vernon on One Life to Live.
Gail Armstrong
Millette Alexander (1958–1959)
Gail Armstrong is an artist who works in advertising and portrait painting. Engaged to Dr. Hugh Campbell (Wesley Addy), she is accused but later exonerated of jewelry theft. Gail is the first of three characters played by Millette Alexander on The Edge of Night.
Winter Austen
Lori Cardille (1978–1979); Stephanie Braxton (1979)
Winter Austen works in a department store and begins dating Assistant District Attorney Logan Swift (Joe Lambie). Wade Meecham (Dan Hamilton) comes to town and blackmails her (and later Logan) with the secret that she had previously been in porn films. Winter goes to work for Nicole Cavanaugh (Jayne Bentzen) at the WMON TV station. She shoots and kills Wade but is found not guilty at trial, and pushes Wade's cohort Tank Jarvis (Michael Longfield) to his death off a building roof. Winter attempts to kill Nicole with a pair of scissors at WMON, but falls to her death from a catwalk.
Jinx Avery
Kate Capshaw (1981); Susan MacDonald (1981–1982)
Jinx is an actress who marries Monticello Police Chief Derek Mallory (Dennis Parker). She attempts suicide, and later dies from a terminal illness.
B
Didi Bannister
Mariann Aalda (1981–1984)
Lawyer. Married to Calvin Stoner. Sister of Troy Bannister. Dated Julius Newcombe. Hospitalized for nervous breakdown from plot of Louis Van Dine.
Troy Bannister
Keith Grant (1982; 1984)
Brother of Didi Bannister. Low level hood associated with Eddie Lorimer. Accused then cleared of murder of Ted Loomis.
John Barnes
Barry Newman (1964–1967)
John Barnes is a lawyer in Mike Karr's law practice who marries Beth Moon Anderson.
Betty Jean Battle
Mary Moor (1956–1960)
Married to Jack Lane. Mother of Bud Lane. Daughter of Ella and Wynn Battle.
Ursula Bauer
Rita Morley (1961–1962)
Chip Beemer
Kipp Whitman (1978)
Low level criminal in Anthony Saxon's organization. Dated Winter Austen in the past. Stabbed Logan Swift. Shot to death by Raney Cooper.
Edith Berman
Patricia Bright (1972–1973)
Married to Jake Berman. Mother of Joel Gantry and Lucy Wilson. Murdered by husband Jake.
Jake Berman
Ward Costello (1972–1973)
Married to Edith Berman. Murdered wife Edith so he would be free to pursue Nicole Travis. Shot in arm by Johnny Dallas to frame Adam Drake with attempted murder. Shot to death by step-son Joel Gantry.
Marilyn Bollon
Mary Alice Moore (1956–1957)
Secretary for Harry Lane at Lane Trucking. Dated Harry Lane and Douglas Manson. Bludgeoned to death by Harry Lane to stop her blackmail. Cora Lane framed for the murder.
Sid Brennan
Meg Myles (1981–1982)
Manager of Sid's Tavern. Involved with Eddie Lorimer and left town with him after he reformed.
Jefferson Brown
Larkin Malloy (1980–1982)
Wealthy playboy Schuyler Whitney comes to Monticello in 1980 and marries socialite Raven Alexander, but is later revealed to be impostor Jefferson Brown, a former government employee who assumed Schuyler's identity after undergoing plastic surgery at Dr. Kenneth Bryson's clinic. He hires Rome Slade to kill Raven, but changes his mind and shoots Slade to death. Jefferson murders his minion Gunther Wagner and frames Gavin Wylie for the crime. He kills Bobbie Gerard and attempts to kill Raven multiple times in St. Moritz, but is killed by Libby Webster before he can succeed.
Willie Bryan
Edward Holmes (1957–1960)
Private investigator working with Mike Karr.
Maximillian Bryer
Robert Pastene (1958–1959)
Motivational speaker and head of Bryer Foundation. Married to Mildred Bryer. Pushed Peggy Collins to her death from a rooftop. Used poison to murder wife Mildred and framed step brother-in-law Dr. Hugh Campbell. Arrested and jailed from crimes.
Mildred Bryer
Claudia Morgan (1958–1959)
Wife of Maximillian Bryer. Stepsister of Dr. Hugh Campbell. Poisoned to death by husband Max.
Beth Bryson
Doris Belack (1981–1982)
Wife of Dr. Kenneth Bryson. Stepmother of Valerie Bryson. Nurse at the Rexford Institute. Kidnapped Nancy Karr. Arrested and sent to prison.
Kenneth Bryson
James Hawthorne (1981–1982)
Dr. Kenneth Bryson is the owner of Rexford Institute, married to nurse Beth Bryson and the father of Valerie Bryson. He goes along with his wife's kidnapping of Nancy Karr, but falls in love with her. He is subsequently arrested and sent to prison, where he dies of a heart attack.
Valerie Bryson
Leah Ayres (1981–1983)
Photographer. Daughter of Kenneth Bryson. Stepdaughter of Beth Bryson. Helped expose her father's crimes. Involved with Kelly McGrath and Schuyler Whitney
C
Abby Cameron
Margaret DePriest (1965–1966)
Wife of Roy Cameron. Had affair with Phil Capice. Suspect in husband's murder but cleared.
David Cameron
Norman Parker (1982–1983)
Agent for intelligence agency working as double agent. Killed Pascal, Nora Fulton, Patricia Devereaux, and Richard Scanlon. Electrocuted to death by Ian Devereaux.
Hugh Campbell
Wesley Addy (1958–1959)
Dr. Hugh Campbell is a scientist at Winston Grimsley's lab who is framed for the murder of his sister Mildred Campbell. He is acquitted, and marries Gail Armstrong.
Phil Capice
Earl Hammond (1957); Robert Webber (1957); Ray MacDonnell (1961–1969)
Married to Louise Capice. Adoptive father of Sarah Louise Capice. Had affair with Abby Cameron which ended his marriage. Drugged by Calvin Brenner.
Sarah Louise Capice
Mary Breen (1961–1963); Christopher Norris (1968–1970)
Adopted daughter of Phil and Louise Capice. Dated Calvin Brenner who was really drugging her father.
Jennings Carlson
Jeff Harris (1960)
Brother of Victor Carlson. Ran gambling operation with brother. Shot to death by Monticello police.
Victor Carlson
Charles Baxter (1960); Byson Sanders (1960–1961)
Brother of Jennings Carlson. Ran gambling operation with brother. Had affair with Teresa Vetter and plotted to murder her husband George. Engaged to Judy Marceau. Stabbed to death by Teresa Vetter.
April Cavanaugh Scott
Terry Davis (1977–1981)
Married to Draper Scott. Mother of Julia Scott and unnamed daughter. Daughter of Margo Huntington. Sister of Miles Cavanaugh. Worked at WMON TV. Falsely convicted of murder of sister-in-law Denise Cavanaugh.
Denise Cavanaugh
Holland Taylor (1977–1978, 1980)
Nurse Denise Norwood Cavanaugh is the jealous wife of Dr. Miles Cavanaugh. Their marriage is in shambles and he is attracted to reporter Nicole Drake, so Denise plots to kill herself and frame Miles. His sister April is arrested instead. Denise's father, Dr. Gus Norwood, confesses on his deathbed that he injected Denise to save Miles.
Miles Cavanaugh
Joel Crothers (1977–1984)
Dr. Miles Cavanaugh is married to nurse Denise Norwood Cavanaugh until she dies in a mercy killing by her father Dr. Gus Norwood. Miles next marries Nicole Travis until she is murdered in 1983. He and Beth Correll marry in the last episode of the series. Miles's sister is April Cavanaugh.
Crothers was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 1979 and 1984.
Luke Chandler
Herb Davis (1973–1978)
Police lieutenant. Married to Ada Chandler.
Ron Christopher
Burt Douglas (1968–1972)
Worked in advertising. Married then divorced then remarried Cookie Pollock. Had affair with Tiffany Whitney.
Harry Constable
Dolph Sweet (1967–1968)
Owner of Riverboat Casino. Had affair with Ruth Tuttle. Stabbed to death by Ernie Tuttle.
Raney Cooper
Kiel Martin (1977–1978)
Criminal. Worked with Tony Saxon. Blinded Mike Karr and framed Chip Beemer. Kidnapped Mike Karr. Kidnapped Deborah Saxon. Shot Tony Saxon to death. Killed in shoutout with police.
Beth Correll
Sandy Faison (1983–1984)
Psychiatrist and radio host. Married to Dr. Miles Cavanaugh. Sister of Liz Corell.
Liz Correll
Marcia Cross (1984)
Paleontologist. Sister of Beth Correll. Involved with Preacher Emerson.
D
Johnny Dallas
John LaGoia (1972–1977)
Owner of restaurant The New Moon Cafe. Married to Laurie Ann Karr. Father of John Victor Dallas. Left town with son after Laurie Ann had mental breakdown.
Tracy Dallas
Patricia Conwell (1974–1977)
Peter Dalton
Stephen Elliott (1957–1958)
Virginia Dalton
Cathleen Cordell (1957–1958)
Neil Davenport
Earle Hyman (1970–1971)
Campaign manager for Colin Whitney's Senate campaign. Assisted Adam Drake in investigating the presumed dead Keith Whitney. Killed after being knocked unconscious by Keith Whitney, placed in car, and pushed over a cliff.
Camilla Devereaux
Mary Layne (1982–1983)
Sister of Ian Devereaux. Involved with Gavin Wylie and Spencer Varney. Worked with Spencer Varney to steal Sky Whitney's fortune and left town.
Ian Devereaux
Alan Coates (1982–1983)
Spy. Married and divorced Patricia Devereaux. Illegal marriage to Raven Alexander. Caused David Cameron's death by electrocution and then fled the country.
Patricia Devereaux
Caroline Lagerfelt (1983)
Married and divorced Ian Deveraux. Stole secret documents from Ian. Strangled to death by David Cameron.
Joey Dials
Joey Jerome (1979)
Teenaged criminal. Brother of Mickey Dials. Shot to death by police officer Steve Guthrie.
Mickey Dials
Vasili Bogazianos (1979)
Bartender at The Unicorn. Leader of crime ring. Attempted to kill Paige Madison. Kidnapped Miles Cavanaugh. Fell to death through window while being chased by Steve Guthrie.
Jim Diedrikson
David Allen Brooks (1981–1982)
Eliot Dorn
Lee Godart (1978–1980)
Eliot is a deceitful younger man who marries haughty newscaster Margo Huntington. The marriage ends contentiously, and he implicates Margo in the murder of Wade Meecham and blackmails his ex-lover, Raven Alexander. Eliot becomes romantically involved with possessive Hollywood actress Nola Madison. Margo is bludgeoned to death, and her son-in-law Draper Scott is convicted of her murder. The killer is later revealed to be Nola, who murdered Margo in a jealous rage because she refused to divorce Eliot. As the owner of the Unicorn Bar, Eliot sexually harasses young waitress Jody Travis, and is subsequently stabbed in the back and killed by a mysterious assailant wielding a clown puppet. Suspects in the murder include Raven and puppeteer Kelly McGrath, but the killer also stabs Cliff Nelson and stalks Raven. The Clown Puppet Killer is revealed to be Molly Sherwood, who wanted to silence Eliot to cover up her murder of Nadine Alexander.
Noel Douglas
Thom Christopher (1974–1975); Dick Latessa (1975–1976)
Con man. Married and divorced from Tiffany Whitney. Involved with Brandy Henderson and Tracy Dallas. Bludgeoned Geraldine Whitney and later disconnected her respirator in the hospital. Suspect in the death of Tiffany Whitney but he had already left Monticello.
Adam Drake
Donald May (1967–1977)
Lawyer Adam Drake is Mike Karr's law partner who defends Nicole Travis against charges of murder. He falls in love with her and they marry. Over time he is also involved with Brandy Henderson, Cookie Pollock Thomas, and Roxanne Carey. Adam is framed for the murder of Jake Berman. He survives multiple attempts on his life by Walter Lepage while Adam is running for the Senate, and is shot by Van Rydell. Adam is shot to death by criminal underworld figure Raymond Harper, aka Colonel Blood, in 1977.
Frank Dubeck
Michael Conrad (1959–1960)
Criminal. Strangled Ruth Hakim to death and framed Jack Lane for the murder. Fell to death from airplane while struggling with Mike Karr.
Martine Duval
Sonia Petrovna (1980–1981)
Professional dancer. Involved with Schuyler Whitney/Jefferson Brown and Gavin Wylie. Attempted suicide by jumping off bridge. Married Carlo Crown and left Monticello.
E
Chris Egan
Jennifer Joan Taylor (1983–1984)
Police detective. Mother of Matthew Gantz. Divorced from Walter Gantz. Daughter of Mark and Caroline Egan. Involved with Miles Cavanaugh and Derek Mallory. Shot and blinded.
Del Emerson
Robert Gerringer (1983–1984)
Del is the father of John "Preacher" Emerson who is engaged to be married to Geraldine Whitney.
Preacher Emerson
Charles Flohe (1982–1984)
John "Preacher" Emerson manages the Video Disco and works at WEON radio. He is the son of Del Emerson, and is a suspect in the beating of Barbara Montgomery and the murder of Nora Fulton. Preacher falls in love with Jodie Travis, but ultimately leaves town with Liz Corell.
Dwight Endicott
Alfred Drake (1982)
Owner of Endicott Art Gallery and importer of illegal art. Father of Grace Endicott. Responsible for death of Leonie Travis. Kidnapped Jody Travis.
Grace Endicott
Ellen Tobie (1982)
Worked at Endicott Art Gallery. Daughter of Dwight Endicott.
F
Paul Fairchild
Sam Schnacht (1974–1975)
Attorney. Assisted Morlock Sevigny in plot to extort money from Bill and Martha Marceau over adoption of Jennifer Sims. Assisted Morlock Sevigny in framing Martha Marceau for the murder of Taffy Sims.
Mark Faraday
Bernie McInerney (1975)
Mark Faraday is a publisher who comes to Monticello in 1975 with his wife, Serena, and their son, Timmy. Serena suffers from multiple personality disorder, and Mark sues her for custody of Timmy when they separate. Serena's alternate personality, Josie, shoots Mark to death on the steps of the Monticello courthouse.
Serena Faraday
Louise Shaffer (1975–1976)
Serena Faraday, the cousin of Nicole Travis, comes to town in 1975 with her publisher husband Mark Faraday their son, Timmy. Serena suffers from multiple personality disorder, with an alter named "Josie", for which she is treated by Dr. Quentin Henderson. She and Mark fight for custody of Timmy, which results in Josie shooting Mark to death. Serena is committed to a sanitarium, where she later dies.
Timmy Faraday
Doug McKeon (1975–1978)
Timmy Faraday is the son of publisher Mark Faraday and his wife Serena. After his mother shoots his father to death, Timmy is taken in by Mike and Nancy Karr. Serena's sister Josephine Harper claims custody, but Timmy is later returned to the Karrs. He is sent away to summer camp in 1978, and never returns to Monticello.
Jim Fields
Alan Feinstein (1969–1975)
Psychiatrist. Married to Liz Hillyer. Father of Jason Fields. Involved with Rosella Gray. Arrested and later exonerated in the stabbing death of Rosella Gray. Left Monticello for job in Canada and to rekindle strained marriage with Liz.
Shelley Franklyn
Pamela Shoemaker (1983–1984)
Nora Fulton
Catherine Bruno (1981–1983)
Murdered by David Cameron.
G
Joel Gantry
Paul Henry Itkin (1973); Nicholas Pryor (1973–1974)
Private detective. Son of Edith Berman. Step-son of Jake Berman. Brother of Lucy Wilson. Murdered Jake Berman and framed Adam Drake for the crime. Arrested and admitted to the crime.
Walter Gantz
John Bedford Lloyd (1983)
Ex-husband of Chris Egan and father of Matthew Gantz.
Emily Gault
Margo McKenna (1980–1981)
Daughter of Leo Gault. Widow of Kirk Michaels. Attempted suicide and sent to sanitarium. Involved with Matt Sharkey. Became pregnant and tried to convince Draper Scott that he was the father. Left town when true paternity was discovered.
Leo Gault
George D. Wallace (1980)
Doctor. Father of Emily Gault. Kept Draper Scott's true identity a secret when he had amnesia to help Emily. Died from a heart attack.
Johnny Gentry
Craig Augustine (1981–1982)
Bobbie Gerard
Mady Kaplan (1981)
Waitress at Sid's Tavern. Briefly worked as housekeeper in Whitney mansion. Helped clear Gavin Wylie in murder of Gunther Wagner. Murdered by Jefferson Brown while he was pretending to be Schuyler Whitney.
Ed Gibson
Larry Hagman (1961–1963)
Police officer and later lawyer. Married to Judith Marceau. Brother of Marjory Gibson. Shot. Vanished from Monticello.
David Gideon
John Cullum (1966–1967); Byron Sanders (1967)
Sybil Gordon
Priscilla Gillette (1957–1958)
Secretary for Mike Karr. Secretly working for criminal J.H. Phillips. Claimed affair with Mike Karr to discredit him. Strangled to death by Ollie, a cohort of J.H. Phillips.
Rosella Gray
Carol Richards (1970–1971)
Involved with Dr. Jim Fields. Stabbed to death by Keith Whitney while waiting in Jim Fields' bed in attempt to seduce him.
Lloyd Griffin
James Mitchell (1964)
Police captain. Married to Katie Griffin. Provided information to criminal Otto Zimmerman. Killed in shootout with police chief Bill Marceau.
Louise Grimsley
Lisa Howard (1956–1961); Mary K. Wells (1961–1970)
Married and divorced from Phil Capice. Adoptive mother of Sarah Louise Capice. Daughter of Winston Grimsley. Step-daughter of Mattie Lane Grimsley.
Winston Grimsley
Walter Greaza (1956–1973)
Financier. Widower from first wife. Married to Mattie Lane. Father of Louise Grimsley Capice. Adoptive grandfather of Sarah Louise Capice. Step-father of Sarah Lane and Jack Lane. Arrested and tried for the murder of Lyn Wilkens Warren who was blackmailing him.
Steve Guthrie
Denny Albee (1976–1980)
Police detective. Involved with Deborah Saxon. Bodyguard for Nicole Travis and Paige Madison. Suspended from police after he shot Joey Dials to death. Moved to Arizona.
H
Ruth Hakim
Ann Jones (1960)
Secretary to Jack Lane who tried to seduce him and steal him away from his wife. Strangled to death by Frank Dubeck.
Mark Hamilton
Christopher Holder (1984)
Shot by Schuyler Whitney and arrested.
Robbie Hamlin
Willie Aames (1983)
Davey Hansen
Ben Hayes (1964)
Josephine Harper
Judith McGilligan (1976–1977)
Wife of Raymond Harper. Sister of Serena Faraday. Aunt of Timmy Faraday.
Raymond Harper
Dick Callinan (1976)
Crimelord. Alias is Colonel Blood. Husband of Josephine Harper. Murdered Beau Richardson and Adam Drake. Blackmailed Nancy Karr. Threatened life of nephew Timmy Faraday. Arrested for crimes.
Doug Hastings
Hal Studer (1968–1969)
Benny Hayes
Bennett Cooperman (1979–1980)
Drug dealer and criminal. Sold drugs to Nola Madison. Hired someone to kidnap and murder Deborah Saxon. Attempted to rape Nancy Karr in his father's flower shop and arrested for this assault.
Brandy Henderson
Dixie Carter (1974–1976)
Assistant district attorney Olivia Brandeis "Brandy" Henderson is the sister of Dr. Quentin Henderson. She is romantically involved with Adam Drake and Draper Scott.
Quentin Henderson
Michael Stroka (1975–1976)
Psychiatrist who treated Serena Faraday. Brother of Brandy Henderson. Bludgeoned to death by Clay Jordan.
Donald Hext
Ralph Byers (1983, 1984)
Security manager of the Isis Building and criminal associate of Louis Van Dine. Attempted to kill Schuyler Whitney. Firebombed the Video Disco. Kidnapped Cliff Nelson and Mitzi Martin. Stabbed to death in duel with Schuyler Whitney but appeared alive in last episode of series.
Laura Hillyer
Millette Alexander (1965–1967)
Socialite. Married to Orin Hillyer. Step-mother of Liz Hillyer. Had affair with Rick Oliver who she shot to death and allowed Martha Marceau to stand trial for the murder. Drive car off cliff while fleeing police. This is the second of Alexander's roles on the show.
Liz Hillyer
Alberta Grant (1965–1974)
Married to Steve Prentiss and Dr. Jim Fields. Mother of Jason Fields. Daughter of Orin Hillyer. Step-daughter of Laura Hillyer, Julie Jamison, and Angela Morgan. Injured in a car crash while pregnant. Hypnotized by Elly Jo Jamison as part of a murder plot.
Orin Hillyer
Lester Rawlins (1965–1968; 1972–1973)
Businessman. Husband of Laura Hillyer, Julie Jamison, Angela Morgan, and an unnamed first wife. Father of Liz Hillyer. Grandfather of Jason Fields. Injured in plane crash that killed wife Julie. Survived a heart attack after witnessing Elly Jo Jamison in a romantic situation with his chauffeur Leonard James. .
Tango Humphries
Dorrie Kavanaugh (1970); Lynn Ann Leveridge (1970–1971)
Margo Huntington
Ann Williams (1978–1980)
In September 1978, newscaster Margo Huntington comes to Monticello with her manager Wade Meecham (Dan Hamilton) and buys the WMON television station. She takes an immediate liking to Dr. Miles Cavanaugh (Joel Crothers), who is married to Nicole Cavanaugh (Jayne Bentzen), a reporter at the station. Revealing herself as Miles' sister April Cavanaugh Scott's (Terry Davis) biological mother, Margo attempts to broker a baby when April is unable to have one of her own, and interferes with a job offer made to April's husband Draper Scott (Tony Craig) that would move the couple out of town. Margo marries Eliot Dorn (Lee Godart), a deceitful younger man, but the marriage ends contentiously. A vengeful Margo refuses to give Eliot his freedom by divorcing him. Draper finds Margo bludgeoned in her apartment, and she dies in the hospital before she can exonerate him. Draper is convicted of murder. The actual killer turns out to be possessive movie star Nola Madison (Kim Hunter), who had started a relationship with Eliot and was furious that Margo would not divorce him.
J
Elly Jo Jamison
Dorothy Lyman (1972–1973)
Sister of Kevin Jamison. Niece of Julie Jamson Hillyer. Moved to Monticello to help Orin Hillyer after the death of his wife Julie. Began affair Hillyer family chauffeur Leonard James. Plotted with Simon Jessup to kill Liz Hillyer by engineering a fall down the stairs and later having Jessup hypnotize Liz to instigate a car crash. Died from wounds sustained after she jumped from a speeding car.
Julie Jamison
Millette Alexander (1967–1968)
Aunt of Kevin and Ely Jo Jamison who marries Orin Hillyer. She is later killed in a car crash.
Kevin Jamison
Dick Shoberg (1972–1975); John Driver (1975–1978)
Newspaper reporter and potential Congressman. Married to Phoebe Smith. Married to Raven Alexander until his death in a car accident in 1978. Brother of Elly Jo Jamison. Nephew of Julie Jamison Hillyer.
Phoebe Smith Jamison
Heidi Vaughn (1965–1967); Renne Jarrett (1967–1968); Laurie Kennedy (1972); Johanna Leister (1972–1976)
Dr. Phoebe Smith Jamison is the first wife of Keith Jamison.
Tank Jarvis
Michael Longfield (1978–1979)
Ex-con. Video editor at WMON. Suspect in the murder of Wade Meacham. Fell to his death from the roof of an apartment building after Winter Austen pried his fingers from the ledge.
Simon Jessup
Hugh Reilly (1971–1973)
Austin Johnson
Lawrence Weber (1961–1963)
Constance Johnson
Elizabeth Lawrence (1961–1963)
Inez Johnson
Gwynn Press (1977–1978)
Prostitute. Witness to the murder of Beau Richardson who thought the shooter was Mike Karr.
Poppy Johnson
Karen Needle (1982–1983)
Secretary and associate of Eddie Lorimer. Dated Damian Tyler.
Walt Johnson
Mark Rydell (1956)
Clay Jordan
Niles McMaster (1976–1977)
Criminal posing as a doctor. Killed Dr. Quentin Henderson and Van Rydell. Attempted to poison Phoebe Smith. Associate of Claude Revenant. Kidnapped and attempted to poison Nicole Drake.
K
Laurie Ann Karr
Kathleen Cody (1966–1968); Emily Prager (1968–1972); Jeanne Ruskin (1973–1975); Linda Cook (1975–77, 1984)
Laurie Ann Karr is the daughter of lawyer Mike Karr and his wife Sara. As an adult, she marries Vic Lamont and Johnny Dallas.
Mike Karr
John Larkin (1956–1962); Laurence Hugo (1962–1971); Forrest Compton (1971–1984)
Original lead character Mike Karr is a police officer turned lawyer who rises to eventually become the District Attorney of Monticello. Based on the earlier Perry Mason on radio (who was voiced by Larkin), Mike is initially married to Sara Lane, but is widowed in 1961 and marries Nancy Pollack in 1963.
Nancy Karr
Ann Flood (1962–1984)
Nancy Pollock is a newspaper reporter for The Monticello News who marries widowed lawyer Mike Karr in 1963. She later becomes a television newscaster and novelist.
Sara Lane Karr
Teal Ames (1956–1961)
Sara Lane Karr is the first wife of lawyer Mike Karr and mother to their daughter Laurie. She is killed in 1961, pushing Laurie out of the way of an oncoming bus.
When Ames chose to leave the show, writer Carol Bixby decided to kill off the character rather than recast such an identifiable role. Fans were shocked, tying up the CBS switchboard and sending 8,000 letters and telegrams. The next day, the network put Ames on air to explain that she chose to leave The Edge of Night to pursue other projects.
L
Jack Lane
Don Hastings (1956–1960)
Jack Lane is the brother of Sara Lane Karr whose mob ties create problems for his brother-in-law, Assistant District Attorney Mike Karr.
M
Brian Madison
Stephen McNaughton (1979)
Brian, the son of movie producer Owen Madison and actress Nola Madison, is in love with his half sister Paige. Eventually it is revealed that Brian's father is movie producer Eddie Vaughn, and not Owen, freeing him and Paige to be together.
Nola Madison
Kim Hunter (1979–1980)
Fading movie star Nola Patterson Madison comes to Monticello with her producer husband Owen and adult children Paige and Brian to film the horror movie Mansion of the Damned. Troubled by alcoholism, Nola obsesses about Owen's infatuation with police detective Deborah Saxon. The movie set is plagued by accidents, strange occurrences and the deaths of the director and publicist. Disguised as a strange old woman named Martha Cory, Nola stalks Deborah and sends her poisoned candy, and drugs and gaslights Dr. Miles Cavanaugh. Nola's son Brian and stepdaughter Paige are tortured by their secret love for each other, and the revelation that Brian is not Owen's son clears the way for him to be with Paige. Nola becomes romantically involved with manipulative playboy Eliot Dorn, who is going through a messy divorce from newscaster Margo Huntington. Margo is bludgeoned to death, and her son-in-law Draper Scott is convicted. Deborah later finds Margo's wig among Nola's belongings, and confronts her. Nola unravels, and confesses that she killed Margo in an unplanned, jealous rage because Margo would not divorce Eliot. Nola then seized the opportunity to frame Draper. Owen and Detective Steve Guthrie escort Nola to the police station.
Hunter was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 1980 for her portrayal of Nola. Judith Light won that year for portraying housewife-turned-hooker Karen Wolek on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live.
Owen Madison
Bruce Gray (1979–1980)
Owen is a movie producer married to actress Nola Madison, a fading star troubled by alcoholism. He brings his family to Monticello to film Mansion of the Damned and quickly falls in love with police detective Deborah Saxon.
Paige Madison
Margaret Colin (1979)
Paige, the daughter of movie producer Owen Madison and stepdaughter to his wife, actress Nola Madison, is in love with her half brother Brian. Eventually it is revealed that Brian's father is movie producer Eddie Vaughn, and not Owen, freeing him and Paige to be together.
Derek Mallory
Dennis Parker (1979–1984)
Monticello Chief of Police Derek Mallory has a fling with Raven Alexander.
Martha Marceau
Teri Keane (1964–1975)
Martha Spears Marceau is the wife of Police Chief Bill Marceau. Morlock Sevigny and Mark Fairchild plot to extort money from Bill and Martha Marceau over the adoption of Jennifer Sims, and frame Martha for the murder of Taffy Sims.
Bill Marceau
Mandel Kramer (1959–1979)
Monticello Police Chief Bill Marceau and his wife Martha are extorted over the adoption of Jennifer Sims.
Kramer was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 1979.
Wade Meecham
Dan Hamilton (1978–1979)
N
Cliff Nelson
Ernie Townsend (1979–1984)
P
Cookie Pollock
June Carter (1962); Fran Sharon (1962–1972)
Elaine "Cookie" Pollock Thomas Christopher is the daughter of Joe and Rose Pollock, and sister of Lee Pollock and Nancy Pollock Karr.
Joe Pollock
John Gibson (1962–1971); Allen Nourse (1973–1979)
Joe and Rose Pollock are the parents of Lee, Nancy and Cookie Pollock.
Lee Pollock
Ronnie Welch (1962–1964); Sam Groom (1964); Anthony Roberts (1965–1967)
Lee Pollock is the son of Joe and Rose Pollock, and brother of Nancy Pollock Karr and Cookie POllock.
Rose Pollock
Ruth Matteson (1962–1963); Frances Reid (1964); Kay Campbell (1965–1968); Virginia Kaye (1973–1979)
Joe and Rose Pollock are the parents of Lee, Nancy and Cookie Pollock.
S
Deborah Saxon
Frances Fisher (1976–1981)
Detective Deborah "Red" Saxon is the daughter of mobster Tony Saxon. She is convinced that Raven Alexander murdered Eliot Dorn, but when the killer is revealed to be Molly Sherwood, Deborah turns in her badge and leaves town.
Ansel Scott
Patrick Horgan (1976–1977)
Ansel, the father of Draper Scott, marries Nadine Alexander.
Draper Scott
Tony Craig (1975–1981)
Assistant District Attorney Draper Scott has a relationship with colleague Brandy Henderson, then his step-sister Raven Alexander, and ultimately marries April Cavanaugh. He is wrongly convicted of the murder of his mother-in-law, Margo Huntington, and is subsequently presumed dead when the train transporting him to prison crashes. At the same time, Deborah Saxon elicits a confession from movie star Nola Madison that she killed Margo. Draper survives the crash but suffers from amnesia, and is cared for by Dr. Leo Gault and his fragile daughter, Emily. Dr. Gault keeps Draper's identity a secret because Emily has grown attached to him. The Gaults' housekeeper, Molly Sherwood, schemes to keep Draper and April apart for Emily's sake.
Molly Sherwood
Jane Hoffman (1980); Laurinda Barrett (1980–1981)
Molly Sherwood is the housekeeper for Dr. Leo Gault and his daughter Emily, and later works for April Scott. Molly wants Draper to be with Emily and attempts to kill April, but Nadine Alexander Scott, Raven Alexander's mother, is accidentally killed instead. The Clown Puppet Killer murders Eliot Dorn and stabs Cliff Nelson, and puppeteer Kelly McGrath is framed for the killings. The real culprit is revealed to be Molly, who killed Eliot to cover up Nadine's death. She kidnaps April and believes she has shot Raven to death, but the gun is loaded with blanks. Molly holds April hostage in a basement and prepares to kill her, but Raven appears at the door, and the shock causes Molly to fall down the stairs to her death.
Calvin Stoner
Irving Allen Lee (1977–1984)
Detective Calvin Stoner works closely with Monticello Police Chief Derek Mallory, and marries lawyer Didi Bannister.
Logan Swift
Joe Lambie (1977–1981); Tom Tammi (1984)
Assistant District Attorney Logan Swift marries Raven Alexander, and they later have a son, Jamey. Raven is later put on trial for his murder, but it turns out that Geraldine shot him, thinking he was an intruder.
T
Jody Travis
Lori Loughlin (1980–1983); Karrie Emerson (1984)
Jody is the younger sister of Nicole Travis who becomes romantically involved with Gavin Wylie and Preacher Emerson.
Nicole Travis
Maeve McGuire (1968–1977); Jayne Bentzen (1978–1981); Lisa Sloan (1981–1983)
Nicole Travis Stewart Drake Cavanaugh is the shopkeeper daughter of gangster Ben Travis, who finds herself implicated in the murder of Stefanie Martin. She falls in love with her defense attorney Adam Drake and marries him, later marrying Dr. Miles Cavanaugh. In 1983, Nicole is murdered with poisoned makeup by criminal mastermind Louis Van Dine.
V
Eddie Vaughn
Stratton Walling (1979)
Eddie Vaughn is Nola Madison's ex-lover, who helps her stage accidents and strange occurrences on the set of her film as a publicity stunt. He is trapped in a fire set by Nola, and later dies of his injuries. His will reveals that he is the father of Nola's son Brian, not her husband Owen.
W
Gunther Wagner
David Froman (1980–1984)
Gunther is the loyal manservant and bodyguard to millionaire Schuyler Whitney. In 1982, it is revealed that Gunther is actually his twin brother Bruno, and that Schuyler is an impostor named Jefferson Brown. The real Gunther and Schuyler come to Monticello and remain until the series finale in 1984.
Colin Whitney
Anthony Call (1970–1971)
Senator Colin Whitney is the elder son of Gordon and Geraldine Whitney, and is married to Tiffany Whitney.
Geraldine Whitney Saxon
Lois Kibbee (1970–1971, 1973–1984)
Geraldine is the widow of Democratic senator and presidential hopeful Gordon Whitney and later of mobster Tony Saxon. She is mother to Colin Whitney and his younger brother Keith, who is eventually revealed to be a serial killer. Geraldine's plea for Keith to stop his killing spree results in his fatal fall down the stairs of a lighthouse. At first Geraldine considers Raven Alexander, the daughter of her close friend Nadine, an "alley cat" and "uncouth slut", but eventually the women become close.
Kibbee was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 1979, 1980, 1981 and 1984.
Gordon Whitney
Alan Gifford (1970–1971)
Senator Gordon Whitney is married to Geraldine Whitney, and is the father of Colin and Keith Whitney.
Keith Whitney
Bruce Martin (1970–1971)
Keith Whitney (aka Jonah Lockwood) is the younger son of Gordon and Geraldine Whitney who is eventually revealed to be a serial killer. Geraldine's plea for Keith to stop his killing spree results in his fatal fall down the stairs of a lighthouse.
Schuyler Whitney
Larkin Malloy (1980–1984)
Dashing millionaire Schuyler Whitney arrives in 1980 and sweeps Raven Alexander off her feet. In 1982, it is revealed that Schuyler is actually impostor Jefferson Brown, accompanied by the nefarious Bruno Wagner, posing as his twin brother Gunther Wagner, Schuyler's loyal manservant and bodyguard. The real Gunther and Schuyler come to Monticello in 1982 and remain until the series finale in 1984, with Schuyler marrying Raven during that time.
Malloy was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 1984.
Tiffany Whitney
Lucy Martin (1970–1971, 1973–1976)
Tiffany Whitney Douglas is the wife of Colin Whitney.
Gavin Wylie
Mark Arnold (1980–1983)
Other characters
References
External links
The Edge of Night Character Profiles
The Edge of Night Character Biographies
The Edge of Night Storylines: 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
Lists of soap opera characters by series |
990481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland%20national%20rugby%20league%20team | Scotland national rugby league team | The Scotland national rugby league team represent Scotland in international rugby league football tournaments. Following the break-up of the Great Britain team in 2008, Scottish players play solely for Scotland, apart from occasional Southern Hemisphere tours, for which the Great Britain team is expected to be revived. The team is nicknamed the Bravehearts.
Though its foundations may date back to as early as 1904, the team formally began in 1995, making them the newest international rugby league team in Great Britain. In their first match they played Ireland, losing narrowly. Since then, Ireland has become the team's main rival, the two teams having played each other many times in their short histories. In 2000 they qualified for their first ever World Cup, but failed to make an impact, losing all three of their group matches; however, their biggest losing margin was just 12 points. In 2008 they beat Wales over two matches to qualify for the 2008 World Cup.
Scotland play in a dark blue strip, similar to the nation's football and rugby union teams, with blue shirt, shorts and socks. A blue and white shield with a thistle, the Scottish emblem, is the team's badge. The shirt has rarely been significantly changed, although in the early days of the team, white was also used on the shirts.
The team is currently ranked 15th in the RLIF World Rankings, having jumped from fourth after going winless in the 2017 World Cup. Englishman Steve McCormack is the team's coach, having coached since 2004, with Danny Brough captaining the side.
History
Foundations
It could be argued that the foundations for the Scottish team began in 1904. On 5 April 1904 England played an international match against the "Other Nationalities", a team of Welshmen and Scotsmen, in Wigan. It was a 12-a-side game. Of the twelve players who played for the Other Nationalities team two of them were Scotsmen coming from Northern Union clubs, including captain George Frater. After 80 minutes the Other Nationalities had beaten England 9–3. The team carried on for another two years, playing England in 1905, losing 26–11, and in 1906, drawing 3–3. The team was regularly revived, most notably in the early 1930s, and in 1949.
1990s
The Wolfhounds
Both Scotland and Ireland had been developing rugby league in their respective nations for several years. This was especially true at student level, with a Scotland student team having played regularly since 1987 and having competed in the 1992 Students World Cup. But it was decided that the time was right for an open-age national team to attempt to be entered into an Emerging Nations Tournament that would coincide with the 1995 World Cup, that the Rugby League International Federation had recently announced.
Both Scotland Rugby League and Rugby League Ireland arranged a match on 13 August 1995 at the Royal Dublin Showground in Dublin, Ireland. However the Rugby Football League provided no financial support to either team. Luckily the Scotland team managed to get sponsored, and the money was used for the ferry crossing, but each individual player had to pay for basic accommodation. The Scotland squad was largely made up of players who had played in the student squads, but a few professionals were also included.
Just before the start of the match, after the Scottish team had spent a night at a youth hostel, the Irish Rugby Football Union prevented the teams from getting changed at the arranged Blackrook College. A new location was quickly found but it was half a mile away from the ground, and so the players had to walk that distance in their playing kit.
The match was looking like it would be scoreless at half-time until just before the break, centre Lee Child scored to put Ireland ahead. After the break Scotland hit back, Sean Cusack scoring Scotland's first ever try. Gavin Manclark then scored to propel Scotland into the lead. This did not last long though, as Leo Casey scored for Ireland in the 55th minute. Ireland then scored again, with Seamus McCallion going over. Four minutes later in the 69th minute, Scotland quickly scored two tries with Manclark and Shelford sealing the eight points. However, this was not enough as Ketteridge had only kicked three conversions compared to Ireland's Ian Devery who had kicked five. The match finished with Ireland winning 26–22, but Thompson for Scotland did win Man of the Match.
1995 Emerging Nations tournament
After this international Scotland were allowed to take part in the Emerging Nations Tournament, which was to be held in England. On 16 October 1995 at Featherstone they faced Russia, who had been playing international rugby league since 1991, in their opening game in Group A. Coached by former Great Britain and England (despite the fact he was Scottish) player, George Fairbairn, who put together a team of former Scotland students, rugby union players, and a few league professionals including Alan Tait, who played for Leeds, and who would captain the side. The whole of the Scotland team had hired kilts to be worn pre-match.
The game started off well for Scotland, student James How scoring after just four minutes. And then minutes later Tait doubled the Bravehearts lead. But the Russia Bears dragged themselves back into the match, stand-off Victor Netchaev scoring first, and in the 30th minute Alexander Otradnov scored. Scotland were ahead though at half-time by four points because Russia had failed to convert their tries. In the second half it was all Scotland with only Andrey Scheglov's drop goal adding to the Bears points. On the other hand, former Great Britain international Hugh Waddell, Ali Blee and Tait again all scored to seal a Scottish victory.
Scotland's second match was against the United States in Northampton, traditionally a rugby union city. The Tomahawks were made up of AMNRL players but Scotland took a while to get going. In the twelfth minute winger Rory Lewis unexpected put America ahead, which caused The Bravehearts to start playing well for the remainder of the first half, Scotland eventually going into the second half leading three tries to one. Graeme Thompson had kicked a penalty very early on in the game, and then after the America try added another four points. McAlister, who had missed the conversion, set up Ketteridge and Smith for Scotland's second and third tries respectively. The Bravehearts extended their lead in the second half, Shelford going over and then David Niu, who could have played for Scotland because of his Dunfermline born mother, got one back for the States. But Scotland put a victory beyond doubt with Alan Tait setting up Shelford twice for his hat-trick. Late in the game Niu and Steve Tait scored for the United States and Scotland respectively to end the match 38–16 in Scotland's favour.
Scotland's two victories, coupled with the Cook Islands ability to beat the United States and Russia too, set up a deciding match in
Castleford where the winner would reach the final. 3,000 people turned up to first see Thompson score a penalty after 15 minutes, but then Nigere Tariu slid over to put the Islanders ahead. Just before the break however, Tait charged through three players to put Scotland back in the game. In the second half the Cook Islands, with several NRL players in their ranks, showed their strength as Sonny Shepherd scored a controversial try as Scottish players complained about the grounding. From a play the ball Shepherd went over again and in the 73rd minute Tariu scored a converted try. The Bravehearts did get a late consolation, skipper Tait going over for Scotland's last try before Islander Ali Davys sealed Scotland's fate with a drop-goal. The match finished Scotland 10–21 Cook Islands. In the final the Cook Islands beat Ireland 22–6 in Bury to win the tournament and secure a place in the next World Cup. Despite losing this final match the Scotland team and supporters thought that they had done very well considering how young the team was and how good their performances had been against Russia and the USA.
Glasgow matches
In 1996 the Rugby League International Federation rewarded Scotland with full international status which meant that they could start organising more fixtures and there was no longer a limit to the number of professionals they could use. Before this status Scotland had been restricted to playing just three professionals in a match.
Scotland faced Ireland again in August of that year, and it was to be their first home game, with the match being played at the Firhill Stadium in Glasgow. After 5 minutes Alan Tait touched down with Matt Crowther converting. And then hooker Danny Russell and professional Darren Shaw gave the Bravehearts a 14–0 lead at half-time. In the second half after 52 minutes Lee Hanlon scored Ireland's only try of the match, but Martin Ketteridge soon kicked a penalty for Scotland to extend the lead. In the closing stages of the match, after three Irish players had been sin-binned, Darrall Shaleford and Nick Mardon got themselves on the scoreboard with a try each. The match finished Scotland 26–6 Ireland. This is the only time in eight attempts that Scotland have beaten Ireland.
A second match in Glasgow was held in July 1997 against France. The match was to end in controversy surrounding a late try and French referee Thierry Alibert. France had got off to a good start, with Freddie Banquet scoring before Danny Russell and Gary Christie scored a try each to send the Scots in front. However, with a few minutes to go before half-time, Jerome Guisset scored under the posts to give the French side a 12–10 lead after 40 minutes. After half-time France extended their lead through Fabien Devecchi but once again Scotland rallied together and Stuart McCarthy scored a crucial try, which was not converted. In the 70th minute Matt Crowther scored a try, and converted it, to put Scotland into a 20–18 lead. With just seconds remaining, a storm brewed when referee Alibert awarded a try to France's Arnauld Dulac. The Bravehearts and coaching staff said that the ball was knocked on, and therefore a scrum should have occurred. English touch judge Peter Walton signalled the knock-on but play continued. The match finished Scotland 20–22 France.
Clash of the Nations
The Clash of the Nations was a new tournament designed to make November 1998 a month of international league as Great Britain was touring the Southern Hemisphere. Scotland, France and Ireland would play two matches each and the winner of the two matches would be crowned champion.
Scotland first faced France in Perpignan, the first match since they were controversially denied a victory in 1996. New coach Billy McGinty promised "the strongest ever Scotland squad" and just three players survived from Scotland's last international match. Débutant Jason Flowers put Scotland ahead, before France levelled the scores. But Danny Arnold once again put the Bravehearts ahead. Scotland excelled and Jason Roach further strengthened Scotland's lead before France narrowed the lead to four points at half-time. In the 55th minute France scored to take the lead for the first time in the match. Roach got his second try, but France retaliated by scoring one of their own. Ten minutes from full-time France scored another try to confirm the two points. The match finished France 26–22 Scotland, with Lee Penny earning Man of the Match award.
France went onto beat Ireland in their second match, therefore clinching the trophy, however Scotland still played Ireland in Glasgow, the first meeting between these nations since 1995. The first half was to prove uneventful, with Ireland scoring a single try to make the score 6–0 after 40 minutes. On the 46th minute Ireland drifted into a 10-point lead, but John Duffy kept the Bravehearts in the match with 20 minutes of the match remaining. Logan Campbell got a try for Scotland but then Ireland scored another, a drop-goal to win the match 17–10. Colin Wilson was awarded the Man of the Match award, and significantly became the first player from the Scottish Conference domestic league to represent Scotland.
With two defeats from the tournament Scotland finished bottom of the table.
Triangular Challenge
England have competed in 26 European Nations Cups, the first in 1935. In the past the tournament has been axed and revived many times, and it was stopped for six years because of the Second World War. From 1935 to 1949 (minus the war years) England played France and Wales annually, and won the tournament in 1935, 1946, 1947 and 1948. From 1950 to 1956 an Other Nationalities team were added as the fourth team in the competition (except in 1956 when Wales did not field a team). During those years England won in 1950 and 1954. Since then the tournament has run for some seasons, but never for more than five years at a time. But from 1970 to 1996 England won it six out of a possible nine times. In 2003 the tournament was revived and England comfortably won, beating her old rivals plus Scotland, Ireland and Russia. England beat the same opponents to win the cup again in 2004. This was the last time England competed, they were replaced by Georgia. The cup ran for just one more year before it was axed again. It has not since returned. In total England have won the cup fourteen times.
With The Clash of the Nations tournament over, the Celtic nations were to play each other once over October and November in a new competition. The matches were to coincide with the Great Britain versus Australia matches, in which Great Britain ended up being badly beaten. Dale Laughton was the only Scotman in the Great Britain team and so the Bravehearts didn't suffer from withdrawals as much as Ireland and Wales did. It is generally regarded that the Rugby Football League made the same mistakes as the 1998 tournament with matches being held on Friday nights and competing against both the football and rugby union seasons and consequently attendances were very low for the matches. The first of Scotland's matches was against Wales in which many of the best Welsh players were with Great Britain. Scotland took the lead through Danny Arnold but The Dragons quickly made the game level. Captain Danny Russell went over for Scotland's second try, but once again Wales hit back within minutes. Andrew Lambert scored just before half-time for The Bravehearts but the lead did not last long after the break with Wales scoring. However, the Welsh were unable to reply to the next four tries, with Mike Wainwright and Matt Crowther each getting themselves onto the scoreboard and both Lambert and Arnold getting their second tries. A win or a draw would seal Scotland's place at the top of the table but Ireland mixture of Super League and local players were too good for Scotland. They raced into a ten-point lead before Russell and Arnold, with Crowther converting one, allowed Scotland to claw their way back into the match. In the final quarter the Bravehearts fell apart, leaking in 21 points to lose the match.
2000s
2000 World Cup
Scotland were placed in Group 4 in the 16-team Rugby League World Cup for 2000, which was held in the United Kingdom and France. This meant that they would face Ireland, Samoa and New Zealand Maori, with one match being played at Glasgow, and one match being played in Edinburgh. Out of the four teams, two would then qualify for the Quarter Finals, playing the top teams from other groups. The Scots World Cup campaign was criticised though, before the tournament was even started when the 24-man squad was named, as not one of the players were born in Scotland.
In their first match after the World Cup campaign, Scotland faced France in the southern French town of Lézignan-Corbières. Shaun McRae, citing his domestic coaching at Hull FC, departed as Scotland coach and Glasgow-born Billy McGinty took over the role with the then Swinton Lions coach and former Great Britain player Mike Gregory taking the role of assistant coach. The squad for this match included 13 survivors from the World Cup matches and three new players who were each earning their first international cap. The Scots got off to a great start, scoring three tries in the first 13 minutes and never looked back as they won the match 42–20. The heat in the French summer was thought to be a problem going into the match, but Scotland scored seven tries in total to record their first win against the French and arguably their best win yet in international competition. Two tries each were scored by Danny Arnold and Jason Flowers, and Matt Crowther converted all seven tries. Seven years later this victory is Scotland's biggest win and is still recognised as one of their best amongst supporters.
European Cup
Scotland joined the prestigious European Nations Cup tournament in 2003, now being regarded as the seventh best national nation. This newly expanded competition, which also featured Russia and Ireland for the first time, as well as England A, France and Wales, was split into two groups with the winner of each group playing each other to become the competition's champions. Scotland were placed in a group with rivals Ireland and France. In May 2003, several months before the start of the tournament, Scotland Rugby League announced that Mike Gregory would become the new coach of the Scottish team, with David Lyon being appointed as his assistant. However it was later announced that due to Mike Gregorys commitments to Wigan Warriors, McGinty will continue to coach the side. Scotland's first match was against Ireland at Old Anniesland. The Scots lost by just two points, with Lee Penny, Danny Arnold and Jason Roach all scoring tries for Scotland, but John Duffy had missed one of his crucial four goals. Scotland were 12–2 up after 21 minutes and were level at half-time, but Irish substitute Karl Fitzpatrick gave the Wolfhounds the win in the last few minutes of the match. With France then beating Ireland in Dublin, Scotland now knew that they could clinch first place. The match held in Narbonne, between France and Scotland turned out to be closely fought. However, the Scots came out on top with an Andrew Henderson try and two Oliver Wilkes goals sealing the victory by two points. This scoreline meant that all three teams had finished on two points, but it was France, with the better points difference, that went on to face England in the final.
The 2004 competition followed the same plan but this time the Bravehearts were with Ireland and Wales. These two teams had already played each other a week earlier with the result and Irish victory. Both sides scored four tries, but it was the kicking of Danny Brough that helped Scotland to beat the Dragons by 30 points to 22 in Glasgow. The match drew over a thousand spectators and was the first time Scotland had won at home for five years. Just five days later though, the team had to play their second game against the Irish Wolfhounds in Ireland. Despite a try from Spencer Miller and three successful kicks by Danny Brough, the Irish ran out easy winners with the match ending 43–10 and thus ending Scotlands campaign in the cup.
2008 World Cup Qualifying
On 17 May 2006 Scotland received word that they would play two matches against Wales for a place in the 2008 World Cup. The two matches of Group 1 (there were two European groups) would be contested in late 2006 and 2007, with the first being in Bridgend and the second being in Glasgow.
Before the first match, coach Steve McCormack had time with the players in training camps in Huddersfield and Swansea, and admitted that he was not threatened by the likes of Super League giants Iestyn Harris and Lee Briers in the Welsh team. This is despite many fans and journalists favouring the Dragons to easily win. McCormack later named his squad for the match, which included a mixture of Super League, National League and Rugby League Conference players. Five of them would be making their début, but long-serving player Ian Henderson, who had played in every Scottish match since 2001, was unable to play for in this match.
Scotland started well in Bridgend with Wade Liddell giving the Bravehearts the lead after just 8 minutes. This try was converted by Gareth Morton. But things got bad as Wales pulled a try back through Richard Johnson, and then Danny Brough was sinbinned for dissent on 26 minutes. In the next ten minutes a Wales team minus Iestyn Harris, who failed a fitness test prior to the match, capitalised on Scotland's shortfall and scored two tries to create a 14–6 lead going into half-time. However, after the break the Scots immediately got back into the match, Danny Brough singlehandedly scoring a try after 70 seconds of the interval, and Jamie Benn a little later leeching on to a grubber kick. Mick Nanyn missed both conversions and so the scores were tied. On the 67th minute Scotland went in front, Nanyn converting his own try. And to seal a 21–14 victory Danny Brough scored a drop-goal. He would later get Man of the Match award.
To prepare for the second qualification match, Scotland travelled to Perpignan to play test nation France. Scotland rested several key players, like Danny Brough and Ian Henderson, and gave caps to six début players. It turned out to be a bad decision as Scotland suffered their heaviest defeat in their history. After 15 minutes Scotland were trailing 18–0, and despite tries from Benn, Nanyn and Paterson, plus two successful conversions from Nanyn, France were always well ahead. The match finished France 46–16 Scotland.
Before the second qualification match in Glasgow, Wales were still confident of victory with the Dragons assistant coach Kevin Ellis saying that his Welsh team had some fantastic players, and that it was the best since Wales golden era of 1991–1995. But Scotland had the advantage going into the match, for a win or draw or even a small loss would guarantee them a place in the cup. Before the match Danny Brough was announced as captain before the match, thus earning his sixth cap too.
In the first half of the match Wales were on top, with Scotland only managing to score four points overall, two penalties by Danny Brough. Richard Fletcher had been carried off after an aerial collision, which caused the game to be stopped for six minutes. At half time the score was 14–4 in favour of the Dragons, meaning Scotland would not qualify. In the 52nd minute Ben Fisher darted over the line to score Scotland's first try. Importantly this was converted by Danny Brough. And with seven minutes remaining Jamie Benn latched onto Mick Nanyn's speculative pass to score Scotland's second try, which Brough converted. Wales scored late on but it was not enough. The match finished Scotland 16–18 Wales, with an aggregate score of Scotland 37–32, and Mick Nanyn received Man of the Match award.
2008 World Cup
On 9 July 2008, Scotland Rugby League announced that Steve McCormack had signed a 12-month deal to continue his job as head coach of the Scotland team. Danny Brough will continue to skipper the team into the World Cup, providing he stays fit. Except for Edinburgh Eagles stand-off Paddy Couper, all of the Scottish team's players were selected under the grandparent rule.
In the group stage they made history as they finally won a game and it was against Fiji who were demolishing opponents courtesy of superstars such as Jarryd Hayne. But that is as far as they finished in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup because their points differential was worse than Fiji's and France who were also in their group and were demolished by them in their first game of the 2008 campaign. Several NRL and Super League stars were in McCormack's team for the tournament including Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles winger/fullback Michael Robertson who had scored 3 tries in Manly's 40–0 triumph over the Melbourne Storm in the 2008 NRL Grand Final just prior to the tournament as well as crossing for 18 tries in the 2008 NRL season.
2010s
2013 World Cup
No Qualification was required for the Bravehearts for the 2013 Rugby League World Cup due to participating in the 2008 tournament. They were drawn in pool C alongside World Cup debutantes Italy and the powerful forwards and fast backs of Tonga. Every team needed to play 3 group games each so Scotland would also play an inter-group game against the other World Cup debutantes the United States. The Scots were underdogs against the Pacific Island nation who were full of NRL talent. But Scotland, in front of a record crowd at Derwent Park made another upset (like Fiji five years ago) winning a tough match by only a two-point margin at the end of the match. Scotland's second match was against the Italians at the same venue in front of more than 7,000 fans again who this time witnessed a high scoring draw. Scotland then finished their group stage by beating the United States convincingly. Scotland had almost qualified for the World Cup knockout stage for the first ever time but Italy were still within a chance to finish above Scotland and therefore eliminate Scotland's chances from progressing any further in the 2013 tournament. Italy only needed to win after they were also on 16+ points differential and they were facing Tonga who had absolutely nothing at stake but pride to play for. But, a shock to all, Tonga outclassed the Italians and eliminated them from participating any further in the competition. In the quarter-final they had a rare clash with a rugby league heavyweight. They took on New Zealand in Leeds in front of their biggest attendance away from Scotland. Despite their early defensive pressure that the crowd loved to cheer out loud for, Scotland's lack of experience against the heavyweight nations showed on the scoreboard and were therefore eliminated in a pleasing World Cup performance.
2010s European Cup
In 2010 the European Cup reverted to the 'League Leaders' being the winners rather than having final games like the 2000s decade. In the 2010 European Cup and 2012 European Cup competitions Scotland only managed to finish third in each tournament recording with only one total victory.
In October and November 2014, 2013 Super League Man of Steel Award winner and RLIF International Player of the Year shortlist award finalist Danny Brough led Scotland in the 2014 European Cup. He shared his belief saying that Scotland have the quality and deserve playing at a higher International level after the 2013 Rugby League World Cup performance. The Winner of the tournament would qualify to play in the 2016 Four Nations alongside International heavyweights Australia, England and New Zealand. Brough played at his best throughout the tournament, earning him the 'Player of the Tournament' award. His performances and leadership inspired and influenced the team to qualify for 2016's major international rugby league competition.
2016 Four Nations
Scotland qualified for the 2016 Four Nations series and would be co hosts with England.
2017 World Cup
After making the finals of the 2013 tournament, Scotland automatically qualified for the 2017 Rugby League World Cup.
2021 World Cup
After losing to Italy in the opening group stage match at the tournament 28-4, Scotland suffered their worst ever defeat as a rugby league nation losing 84-0 to Australia in the second group stage game at Coventry.
In the final group stage match, Scotland were defeated by Fiji 30-14 which meant they exited the competition winless.
Identity
Since their first match Scotland have always played in royal blue, with a royal blue shirt, shorts and socks. In their two World Cup qualifying matches in 2007, the Scottish flag, featuring the white cross on a blue background, was on each shoulder and also on the shirt was a white collar. On the left of the shirt is the Scotland badge, and on the right is the Great Britain badge which is split into four and then has the England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland rugby league badges in a shield. This is to signify Scotland's part in the Great Britain setup.
In early 2008 Scotland Rugby League announced that they had secured a five-figure sponsorship deal with The Co-operative which would see the world's largest consumer-owned businesses logo on the front of the shirts for the 2008 World Cup and for all 2009 matches too.
A new shirt has recently been designed for the World Cup and it is expected that fans will be able to buy it
sometime in the Summer 2008. Instead of the Great Britain badge on the right, there will be the World Cup logo, similar to each of the ten teams shirts. The shirt is made by German sportswear company Puma.
Scotland's current kit suppliers are BLK. On the shirt, Bartercard is on the front (replacing Highland Spring as of 2017) while Match Point is on the right sleeve while on the back, Caledonian Brewery is on the top while Lucozade Sport is on the bottom.
Emblem
The emblem of the Scotland team is the thistle, which is on the team's badge in a crest. The thistle is an ancient Celtic symbol of nobility of character as well as of birth and is the symbol of the Order of the Thistle a high chivalric order of Scotland. There is also a well-known Scottish legend that in Medieval times a Viking, wanting to invade Scotland, stood on a thistle and suddenly yelped in pain, alerting the defenders of a Scottish castle. The thistle is used on the badges of many national and domestic sports teams.
Current squad
Squad selected for the 2021 Rugby League World Cup.
Records
Bold – denotes player still active at club level
Most capped players
Top try scorers
Player of the Year
Since 2004, the Scottish management team have given the Dave Valentine Award to their player of the year. The award uses a voting system and is given to the player in early January.
Competitive Record
In 22 years of international rugby league Scotland have played 51 matches, winning 37% of them. Their most regular opponent has been Ireland, who similarly starting playing Rugby League in the mid-1990s. In 1995, the Great Britain team split into the separate home nations. This means that Scotland only started playing rugby league as an individual nation at this time and played their first ever game against Ireland at RDS Arena, Dublin. The Irish won by a close score of 26–22 in front of 5,716 fans. Scotland have gone on to play Ireland the most times with 13 games, winning only four of these games.
Scotland have played France and Wales 11 and 9 times respectively. Along with Ireland, these are the only teams that Scotland play on a regular basis. Despite playing these home nations a number of times, they have only played England on one occasion, although they have also played England's 2nd team, 'the Knights', twice. Excluding the aforementioned teams, Scotland have played 16 other teams in their history, but have not played more than three games against any of them. Scotland have a 100% win record against six of these 16 teams. In their history, they have drawn four games, including a 30–30 result against Italy during the 2013 Rugby League World Cup, having previously beaten them in by a resounding score of 104–0. Scotland's 18-18 result against New Zealand during the 2016 Four Nations was considered one of the greatest results in international rugby league history and ensured that Scotland became the only 'fourth' nation in Four Nations history to not be defeated by another team.
Scotland's highest home attendance is just 2,233. This game was only their second and saw them defeated 22–20 by France at Firhill Park, Glasgow. Rugby league is not a major sport in Scotland and home attendances average at around just 1,000. Scotland's highest away attendance was much more when a crowd of 21,009 saw them defeated by 38–12 against England during the 2016 Four Nations, this game being held at Ricoh Arena, Coventry.
Head to head record for the Scotland national side as of 30 October 2022.
World Cup
Scotland made their World Cup debut at the 2000 World Cup having previously competed as part of Great Britain. Their best result was in 2013 when they reached the Quarter Finals.
European Championship
Four Nations
Scotland have only qualified for one Four Nations tournament where they made history by becoming the first fourth nation to earn a point after an 18–18 draw against New Zealand.
Coaches
Support
Rugby League is a minor sport in Scotland, with the country never having had a professional club. Participation in rugby league has increased though, with a Scottish division in the Rugby League Conference with seven teams, including four in the Glasgow/West Scotland area having formed in 2006. But, unlike in England, rugby league is not one of the ten most played sports in Scotland amongst adults. Junior development has been much more rapid, with several Conference teams having junior squads as well as other clubs who don't run an open-age squad having various junior squads. An estimated 2,500 children play rugby league in Scotland, with that figure growing to 12,500 when you add the number of children who play the sport in various school programmes. In terms of media coverage, apart from Challenge Cup matches rugby league is not shown on Scottish terrestrial television and no matches are usually broadcast on radio. However, Scotland international matches usually get reported in national newspapers like The Scotsman and sometimes in Scottish editions of London-based newspapers.
In 2009, the Magic Weekend was held at Murrayfield with a two-day attendance of 60,000 spectators, including ticket sales of just under 7,000 in Scotland alone, making the event a success.
Statistics
Rankings
World Ranking: 15th (2022)
European Ranking: 8th (2022)
Team
Highest winning score: 104–0 v Italy at Padova, 17 October 2009
Widest winning margin: 104–0 v Italy at Padova, 17 October 2009
Highest losing score: 84–0 v Australia at Coventry, 22 October 2022
Widest losing margin: 84–0 v Australia at Coventry, 22 October 2022
Other
Biggest home attendance: 2,233 vs France at Glasgow, 9 July 1997
Biggest away attendance: 21,009 vs England at Coventry, 5 November 2016
Other Scottish Teams
The Scotland A national rugby league team nicknamed the Bravehearts is made up of amateur players, who either play in the Rugby League Conference the BUCS university league or the Scottish domestic competition. Napier University has also played a huge part in the team, with many Napier students having played in the side over the years. The team regularly compete against England, Wales and Ireland, playing them annually in the Skanska Amateur Four Nations. Since the creation of this tournament, in 2002, Scotland have won it just once in 2010. In 2003 Scotland embarked on a mini tour of Europe playing in Netherlands, Italy and Serbia, helping expand rugby league in those country by playing domestic and national sides. Former player and winner in 2010 Mike Wallace currently coaches the side.
They also support a whole host of development teams:
Scotland Women's
Scotland Mens 9's
Scotland Wheelchair
Scotland PDRL (Physical Disability)
Scotland LDRL (Learning Disability)
Scotland Students
Scotland Under 19's
See also
Rugby league in Scotland
Sport in Scotland
Rugby League World Cup
Great Britain national rugby league team
List of Scotland national rugby league team players
Scotland national rugby union team
References
Bibliography
Notes
External links
National rugby league teams
Rugby league in Scotland
Rugby League Four Nations |
2219506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda%20Ogden | Hilda Ogden | Hilda Ogden (also Crabtree) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera Coronation Street, one of the best-known of all the regular characters in the serial, whose name became synonymous with a classic hard-working Northern working-class woman. She was played by Jean Alexander from 1964 to 1987.
For much of her period as a character in the Street, Hilda worked as cleaner of The Rovers Return Inn. A gossip and busybody, many of her storylines were used for comedic purposes, though the character was equally used for dramatic effect; a scene in which she wept over the spectacles of her recently deceased husband Stan (Bernard Youens) has been hailed as one of the most moving images in television history.
Alexander quit the role of Hilda in 1987 after 23 years but was persuaded to reprise the part in 1990 for a one-off appearance as part of an ITV Telethon. She has also been seen in a spin-off video in 1998, in which another long-running character, Betty Williams (Betty Driver), visited her at her new home. Both of these appearances are considered canon to the show.
Arguably the serial's most popular character of all time, Hilda was voted the greatest TV character in a Radio Times poll of over 5,000 people. The typical appearance of Hilda, wearing hair curlers and a head scarf, has inspired art and catwalk themes. Despite various producers expressing their desire to see the character return, Jean Alexander was openly critical about the direction Coronation Street had taken, vowing never to reprise the role of Hilda again.
Alexander had previously appeared in 1962 as Mrs. Webb, the landlady of Joan Akers (Anna Cropper), who abducted baby Christopher Hewitt (Victoria Baker).
Development
Characterisation
Hilda Ogden, with her trademark hair curlers and pinny, has been described as "the classic hard-working class Northern woman. With a voice like breaking glass and a temper to match". Actress Jean Alexander explained her interpretation of Hilda's head scarf and curler look: "Like Hilda, my roots were in Liverpool and that's where I first noticed the curlers and headscarf look. The curlers were put under the headscarf by the factory girls. They had their hair tied up and scarves like that to stop their fashionable long hair getting caught up in the machinery at work. They had the curlers in place in case they got asked out on a date, so they'd be ready for a night out after the shift." Alexander stated in 2010 that she based Hilda on bits of differing, eccentric people she had seen in her youth in Liverpool.
A term that has been described as synonymous with Hilda Ogden is "busybody". Critic for The Guardian, Grace Dent, has suggested that Hilda "spent the 70s providing an unofficial town-crier service for Coronation Street scandal. Hilda was known to sleep propped up in bed with one eye open so she could see what time Ken Barlow (William Roache)'s female friends left, (or what time they were carried out in bodybags. Ken's never had much luck with women.)". She added that Hilda was the mould that other popular soap gossips were made from, including Dot Cotton (June Brown) from EastEnders, Lynda Snell from The Archers and Martha Huber from Desperate Housewives.
The Ogdens
The Ogdens, Hilda and her husband Stan (Bernard Youens), have been hailed as one of Coronation Street's favourite couples. The bickering pair stayed together through mishap and financial difficulty. A working-class couple, they remained a screen double act for 20 years until actor Bernard Youens died on 27 August 1984, forcing the writers of the soap to kill off Stan on-screen. A scene following Stan's screen funeral, showing Hilda weeping at the sight of Stan's signature spectacles, has been described as "one of the most moving moments in TV history" and "instrumental in winning [Jean Alexander] the Royal Television Society's Best Performance Award for 1984–1985". Neil Marland, who worked as Granada Television's stills photographer for 30 years, has described the scene as terribly poignant, adding, "Everyone was crying and the camera tracked in – she had to undo his handkerchief, and in it were his glasses. She broke down sobbing. And, of course, I had to do a picture of this. So I left her for a minute or so sobbing. Then, as I got nearer, I just went, 'Jean, Jean...' And she sat bolt upright and said, 'What picture do you want Neil? I'm only acting'. It was just amazing because everyone on the floor was in floods of tears."
Commenting on the screen partnership, actress Jean Alexander has said, "It was a real pleasure working with Bernard Youens, who played my screen husband, Stan. Any success I have had is really down to Bernard because we worked well as a team and each knew how the other would want to play a scene. It was a happy screen partnership but it was strictly professional. We didn't socialise after work." Alexander has stated that the Ogdens were a brilliant set-up: "They were the only couple in the street who were married – permanently. They were the only ones who owned their own house where everyone else rented, they stayed together and didn't stray or have affairs and, yes, they bickered among themselves but let anyone else criticise either of them and they would be up in arms."
Hilda and Stan Ogden were voted Britain's top romantic TV couple in 2002, in a poll of more than 5,000 people carried out by NTL:Home. They beat off competition from Friends''' couple Monica Geller and Chandler Bing (Courteney Cox and Matthew Perry) and Dot and Jim Branning from EastEnders (June Brown and John Bardon). In 2005 the couple topped another poll. The Ogdens were voted ITV's favourite TV characters in a survey by Broadcast magazine, which took place to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the network. They beat Minder's Arthur Daley and Prime Suspect's DCI Jane Tennison, who took second and third place respectively.
Departure
After 23 years playing Hilda, Jean Alexander decided to leave Coronation Street in 1987. According to Alexander in 2010, it was the right time to leave as the writers had run out of ideas for Hilda and as a character, Hilda had run out of steam. She added, "Her other half had gone and she would have just scraped along. I didn't want that." Alexander went to see the show's producer Bill Podmore to inform him she did not want to renew her contract.
Her decision to leave prompted an outcry from fans and a "Save Hilda" campaign was launched, as many did not realise that the actress had made her own decision to depart. Hilda's final scenes in the programme were aired on Christmas Day 1987, when the locals in the Rovers Return joined Hilda in what has been described as a "stirring rendition" of "Wish Me Luck as You Wave Me Goodbye".
On-screen, Hilda departed for Hartington, Derbyshire, to make a new life for herself as the housekeeper for Doctor Lowther. 27 million viewers watched. It remains the highest-rated episode in Coronation Street's history. It has been described as the most moving scene in Coronation Street that did not involve a death. The writer behind the "memorable" episode depicting Hilda Ogden's departure, which attracted a record soap opera audience, was Leslie Duxbury.
Since her departure in 1987, various producers have expressed their desire to see Hilda Ogden back on Coronation Street. In 1990, Jean Alexander reprised the role after two-and-a-half years as part of ITV's 27-hour charity telethon. The episode showed her visiting Stan's grave. In 1998, the character was resurrected again, as part of a special direct to video film.
However, in 2005 actress Jean Alexander ruled out ever returning to the role of Hilda Ogden, due to Coronation Street's overemphasis on sex and "who's sleeping with whom". She also criticised the soap for not being fun enough and she disapproved of the modern storylines, saying some are allowed to "drag on forever". She added:
A spokesperson for the soap responded to Alexander's criticism, saying, "We don't subscribe to Jean's opinions. Every week 12 million people across the country tune in to be entertained by the drama in Coronation Street." Alexander reportedly declined to return as Hilda as part of Coronation Street's 50th anniversary celebrations in December 2010. They allegedly offered her a large sum of money but her agent Joan Reddin stated: "She's not interested in getting involved again." When interviewed in 2010, Alexander further discussed her reasons for not wanting to return to the role of Hilda. She said, "It would be impossible for me to recreate Hilda. She would be totally different from the scrubber who left the Street [...] I'm sorry, after 23 years I couldn't recreate that character as she would be now – and I didn't want to play her as she was. Hilda would be about 91 now. She left to be housekeeper for the lovely doctor and be part of a village community. She has status now which is something she always wanted. I have changed so I'm sure she has. And I think the fans would be disappointed. It would have spoiled the memories people had of her."
Storylines
Hilda and her husband Stan (Bernard Youens) were first featured in Coronation Street in June 1964. A working class couple, beset with financial woes and few friends, many of the more established characters looked down on the Ogdens. Hilda worked as a charwoman, cleaning the Rovers Return, Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs)'s factory and private homes, while Stan cleaned windows.
Hilda and Stan had four children. Two children, Sylvia and Tony, were not seen on the series with the explanation that they were taken into care when Stan beat them while drunk. The two unseen children were rarely mentioned and by the 1970s, Hilda and Stan often stated that they had two children, naming Trevor as their "only son". Their other children were seen on the programme and were named Irma (Sandra Gough) (although she was born Freda Ogden and had chosen the name Irma when she left home) and Trevor (Jonathan Collins/Don Hawkins). Trevor stole money and ran away within the first six months of arriving on the Street, writing back home to ask Hilda to disown him. Hilda's daughter Irma worked at the Corner Shop and eventually married David Barlow (Alan Rothwell). Irma was crushed when David and her child were killed in Australia in 1970. Irma returned home for a few years, but then vanished, with the explanation being she had moved to Wales, and later Canada. Irma was not mentioned at all when Stan died and in later years, Hilda only ever stated she had two children when asked. She had little contact with her family. Trevor eventually married and gave Hilda and Stan a grandson and granddaughter, but was ashamed of the life his parents led and only made the occasional visit.
Lodging with the Ogdens from 1980 to 1983 was Eddie Yeats (Geoffrey Hughes), their surrogate son, and, after Stan died in November 1984 – just a year after celebrating their ruby wedding – Hilda got extra money by allowing Kevin (Michael Le Vell) and Sally Webster (Sally Whittaker) to live in one of her vacant rooms. Shortly afterwards Hilda's employers, the affluent Doctor Lowther (David Scase) and his wife (June Broughton), made the decision to sell their home and move to Hartington. However, on the night that Hilda helped Mrs Lowther pack away her treasured possessions, burglars broke into the house and violently assaulted them both. Doctor Lowther, who had gone out to get a takeaway meal, was horrified to discover his wife suffering what would be a fatal heart attack and Hilda seriously injured.
Although she made a full recovery physically, mentally she became afraid to be in her own home. When Doctor Lowther asked her to move to his cottage in Hartington and be his housekeeper, she jumped at the chance. When Hilda left the programme on Christmas Day 1987, she sang "Wish Me Luck As You Wave Me Goodbye", in her trademark trilling voice; it was watched by an aggregated audience of 26.65 million people, one of the highest audiences in British television history.
Hilda's most remembered attributes were her hair curlers which she almost always wore, her pinny, and her "muriel" in her living room, which first showed a scene of Alpine mountains but was later changed to a coastal scene with three duck ornaments flying over them (the middle duck, in a nose-dive position, was Jean Alexander's idea). She considered herself clairvoyant and offered teacup readings.
Reception
The character of Hilda Ogden was very popular with the British public — in 1982 she came fourth behind the Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth II, and Diana, Princess of Wales in a poll of the most recognisable women in Britain. Hilda Ogden has been branded as the "greatest-ever soap character" and "loved by millions the world over". In 2004 she was voted the greatest soap character in a Radio Times survey of 5,000 viewers, despite the character not physically appearing on screen for 17 years at the time. Actress Jean Alexander commented on the accolade: "I'm very flattered. It came totally out of the blue. I knew nothing about it. Friends rang to tell me and I was completely taken aback. I am surprised that so many people remembered Hilda, considering it was so long ago that I played her." She added in 2005 that she was amazed by the nation's enduring affection for Hilda. She said: "I've no idea why. I'm totally flummoxed. If they remember Hilda with such affection, then I'm happy and very flattered.. ..It means that I did a good job and that's what I set out to do. I had 23 wonderful years playing Hilda. I worked with some of the Street's legends – Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner), Violet Carson (Ena Sharples), one of TV's greatest characters, Jack Howarth (Albert Tatlock), Arthur Leslie and Doris Speed (Jack and Annie Walker), all now sadly gone."
Various celebrities are known to be among her fans, including Michael Parkinson, Laurence Olivier, writer Willis Hall, the former Poet Laureate John Betjeman and Russell Harty, who formed themselves into the British League for Hilda Ogden.
In 1984, a storyline involving Hilda and her husband Stan resulted in monetary claims to the council of an increase of 200%. Off-screen, actor Bernard Youens had become ill, so the writers at Coronation Street excused his screen absence by making Stan have an injury – he hurt his toe on a pavement and was bed-ridden. In the storyline, Hilda discovered that if a paving stone is sticking up over a certain measurement, a claim can be made against the council. Hilda sued Weatherfield council and won a payout. Councils all across the UK were reportedly "up in arms against Coronation Street", because subsequently, claims against them for people tripping up over paving stones that were three-quarters of an inch high, increased by 200 per cent.
In other media
In 1998 a straight-to-video Coronation Street spin-off film was released. It was entitled The Women Of Coronation Street and featured clips of the show's most famous females. The video saw the brief return of Hilda Ogden, who had not been seen in the soap since 1987; Betty Williams travelled to meet her at her new home. A spokesperson for Granada Television commented, "It shows what happens when Betty goes up to visit Hilda Ogden at her home in Derbyshire. She used to do cleaning work for a doctor and when he died he left her the house in gratitude. It'll be a souvenir fans want to keep." The original character design of Fireman Sam character Dilys Price was based on Hilda Ogden.
In popular culture
An image of Hilda Ogden in her signature hair rollers and head scarf has been used in artist David Knopov's series of silk prints. The artist said Lenny Henry, Bill Nighy and Elvis Costello are among the famous names who have bought 'a Hilda'.
Hilda Ogden was cited as one of the characters to influence New York's elite fashion scene in 2004. The straight-laced tweed and hair rollers "granny chic" style of Sixties Britain, much of the look was derived from early episodes of Coronation Street. Fashion stylist Katie Grand said: "There's something very interesting about working class Britain in the early Sixties. Coronation Street was black-and-white and so grimy. They just looked so cool. Hilda Ogden has her hair in curlers but is also in a fabulous tweed jacket and a really nice blouse."
The video for one of the rock band Queen's music videos, "I Want to Break Free", was based on characters from Coronation Street. Lead singer Freddie Mercury was said not to be a fan of any soap opera; however, when he was at home he would watch Coronation Street. So, in the song's video, the members of the band dressed in drag as some of the soap's most famous female characters. Mercury's style was based loosely on the character Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear), while Brian May's style was modeled loosely on Hilda Ogden. The song peaked at number 3 in the UK singles chart, and remained in the chart for fifteen consecutive weeks from its release in April 1984.
In the 1980s, Boy George criticised the most controversial video of "Relax" by Frankie Goes to Hollywood by saying it represented a "Hilda Ogden view of homosexuality."
In 2017, a longstanding character in BBC Radio 4's The Archers'', Peggy Woolley inherits a cat named 'Hilda Ogden', after her hairdresser Fabrice breaks up with his partner and moves to a no-pets apartment. Since her arrival in Ambridge though she proved fierce, and drew blood more than once.
References
Coronation Street characters
Television characters introduced in 1964
British female characters in television |
32564255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability%20and%20systemic%20change%20resistance | Sustainability and systemic change resistance | The environmental sustainability problem has proven difficult to solve. The modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. But little progress has been made, as shown by severe ecological footprint overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the climate change problem. Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior. That system trait is systemic change resistance. Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance, barriers to change, or policy resistance.
Overview of resistance to solving the sustainability problem
While environmentalism had long been a minor force in political change, the movement strengthened significantly in the 1970s with the first Earth Day in 1970, in which over 20 million people participated, with publication of The Limits to Growth in 1972, and with the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. Early expectations the problem could be solved ran high. 114 out of 132 members of the United Nations attended the Stockholm conference. The conference was widely seen at the time as a harbinger of success:
"Many believe the most important result of the conference was the precedent it set for international cooperation in addressing environmental degradation. The nations attending agreed they shared responsibility for the quality of the environment, particularly the oceans and the atmosphere, and they signed a declaration of principles, after extensive negotiations, concerning their obligations. The conference also approved an environmental fund and an 'action program,' which involved 200 specific recommendations for addressing such problems as global climate change, marine pollution, population growth, the dumping of toxic wastes, and the preservation of biodiversity. A permanent environment unit was established for coordinating these and other international efforts. [This later became] the United Nations Environmental Program [which was] was formally approved by the General Assembly later that same year and its base established in Nairobi, Kenya. This organization not only coordinated action but monitored research, collecting and disseminating information, and it has played an ongoing role in international negotiations about environmental issues.
"The conference in Stockholm accomplished almost everything the preparatory committed had planned. It was widely considered successful, and many observers were almost euphoric about the extent of agreement."
However, despite the work of a worldwide environmental movement, many national environmental protection agencies, creation of the United Nations Environment Programme, and many international environmental treaties, the sustainability problem continues to grow worse. The latest ecological footprint data shows the world's footprint increased from about 50% undershoot in 1961 to 50% overshoot in 2007, the last year data is available.
In 1972 the first edition of The Limits to Growth analyzed the environmental sustainability problem using a system dynamics model. The widely influential book predicted that:
"If the present trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity some time in the 21st century."
Yet thirty-two years later in 2004 the third edition reported that:
"[The second edition of Limits to Growth] was published in 1992, the year of the global summit on environment and development in Rio de Janeiro. The advent of the summit seemed to prove that global society had decided to deal seriously with the important environmental problems. But we now know that humanity failed to achieve the goals of Rio. The Rio plus 10 conference in Johannesburg in 2002 produced even less; it was almost paralyzed by a variety of ideological and economic disputes, [due to] the efforts of those pursuing their narrow national, corporate, or individual self-interests.
"...humanity has largely squandered the past 30 years."
Change resistance runs so high that the world's top two greenhouse gas emitters, China and the United States, have never adopted the Kyoto Protocol treaty. In the US resistance was so strong that in 1999 the US Senate voted 95 to zero against the treaty by passing the Byrd–Hagel Resolution, despite the fact Al Gore was vice-president at the time. Not a single senator could be persuaded to support the treaty, which has not been brought back to the floor since.
Due to prolonged change resistance, the climate change problem has escalated to the climate change crisis. Greenhouse gas emissions are rising much faster than IPCC models expected: "The growth rate of [fossil fuel] emissions was 3.5% per year for 2000-2007, an almost four fold increase from 0.9% per year in 1990-1999. … This makes current trends in emissions higher than the worst case IPCC-SRES scenario."
The Copenhagen Climate Summit of December 2009 ended in failure. No agreement on binding targets was reached. The Cancun Climate Summit in December 2010 did not break the deadlock. The best it could do was another non-binding agreement:
"Recognizing that climate change represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to human societies and the planet, and thus requires to be urgently addressed by all Parties."
This indicates no progress at all since 1992, when the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was created at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The 2010 Cancun agreement was the functional equivalent of what the 1992 agreement said:
"The Parties to this Convention... [acknowledge] that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response.... [thus the parties recognize] that States should enact effective environmental legislation... [to] protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind...."
Negotiations have bogged down so pervasively that: "Climate policy is gridlocked, and there's virtually no chance of a breakthrough." "Climate policy, as it has been understood and practised by many governments of the world under the Kyoto Protocol approach, has failed to produce any discernible real world reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases in fifteen years."
These events suggest that change resistance to solving the sustainability problem is so high the problem is currently unsolvable.
The change resistance and proper coupling subproblems
Understanding change resistance requires seeing it as a distinct and separate part of the sustainability problem. Tanya Markvart's 2009 thesis on Understanding Institutional Change and Resistance to Change Towards Sustainability stated that:
"It has also been demonstrated that ecologically destructive and inequitable institutional systems can be highly resilient and resistant to change, even in the face of social-ecological degradation and/or collapse (e.g., Berkes & Folke, 2002; Allison & Hobbs, 2004; Brown, 2005; Runnalls, 2008; Finley, 2009; Walker et al., 2009)."
The thesis focuses specifically on developing "an interdisciplinary theoretical framework for understanding institutional change and resistance to change towards sustainability."
Jack Harich's 2010 paper on Change Resistance as the Crux of the Environmental Sustainability Problem argues there are two separate problems to solve. A root cause analysis and a system dynamics model were used to explain how:
"...difficult social problems [like sustainability must be decomposed] into two sequential subproblems: (1) How to overcome change resistance and then (2) How to achieve proper coupling. This is the timeless strategy of divide and conquer. By cleaving one big problem into two, the problem becomes an order of magnitude easier to solve, because we can approach the two subproblems differently and much more appropriately. We are no longer unknowingly attempting to solve two very different problems simultaneously."
The paper discussed the two subproblems:
"Change resistance is the tendency for a system to continue its current behavior, despite the application of force to change that behavior.
"Proper coupling occurs when the behavior of one system affects the behavior of other systems in a desirable manner, using the appropriate feedback loops, so the systems work together in harmony in accordance with design objectives. … In the environmental sustainability problem the human system has become improperly coupled to the greater system it lives within: the environment.
"Change resistance versus proper coupling allows a crucial distinction. Society is aware of the proper practices required to live sustainably and the need to do so. But society has a strong aversion to adopting these practices. As a result, problem solvers have created thousands of effective (and often ingenious) proper practices. But they are stymied in their attempts to have them taken up by enough of the system to solve the problem because an 'implicit system goal' is causing insurmountable change resistance. Therefore systemic change resistance is the crux of the problem and must be solved first."
The proper coupling subproblem is what most people consider as "the" problem to solve. It is called decoupling in economic and environmental fields, where the term refers to economic growth without additional environmental degradation. Solving the proper coupling problem is the goal of environmentalism and in particular ecological economics: "Ecological economics is the study of the interactions and co-evolution in time and space of human economies and the ecosystems in which human economies are embedded."
Change resistance is also called barriers to change. Hoffman and Bazerman, in a chapter on "Understanding and overcoming the organizational and psychological barriers to action", concluded that:
"In this chapter, we argue that the change in thinking required of the sustainability agenda will never come to fruition within practical domains unless proper attention is given to the sources of individual and social resistance to such change. The implementation of wise management practices cannot be accomplished without a concurrent set of strategies for surmounting these barriers."
John Sterman, current leader of the system dynamics school of thought, came to the same conclusion:
"The civil rights movement provides a better analogy for the climate challenge. Then, as now, entrenched special interests vigorously opposed change. … Of course, we need more research and technical innovation—money and genius are always in short supply. But there is no purely technical solution for climate change. For public policy to be grounded in the hard-won results of climate science, we must now turn our attention to the dynamics of social and political change."
These findings indicate there are at least two subproblems to be solved: change resistance and proper coupling. Given the human system's long history of unsuccessful attempts to self-correct to a sustainable mode, it appears that high change resistance is preventing proper coupling. This may be expressed as an emerging principle: systemic change resistance is the crux of the sustainability problem and must be solved first, before the human system can be properly coupled to the greater system it lives within, the environment.
Systemic versus individual change resistance
Systemic change resistance differs significantly from individual change resistance. "Systemic means originating from the system in such a manner as to affect the behavior of most or all social agents of certain types, as opposed to originating from individual agents." Individual change resistance originates from individual people and organizations. How the two differ may be seen in this passage:
"The notion of resistance to change is credited to Kurt Lewin. His conceptualization of the phrase, however, is very different from today's usage. [which treats resistance to change as a psychological concept, where resistance or support of change comes from values, habits, mental models, and so on residing within the individual] For Lewin, resistance to change could occur, but that resistance could be anywhere in the system. As Kotter (1995) found, it is possible for the resistance to be sited within the individual, but it is much more likely to be found elsewhere in the system.
"Systems of social roles, with their associated patterns of attitudes, expectations, and behavior norms, share with biological systems the characteristic of homeostasis—i.e., tendencies to resist change, to restore the previous state after a disturbance.
"Lewin had been working on this idea, that the status quo represented an equilibrium between the barriers to change and the forces favoring change, since 1928 as part of his field theory. He believed that some difference in these forces—weakening of the barriers or strengthening of the driving forces—was required to produce the unfreezing that began a change."
If sources of systemic change resistance are present, they are the principal cause of individual change resistance. According to the fundamental attribution error it is crucial to address systemic change resistance when present and avoid assuming that change resistance can be overcome by bargaining, reasoning, inspirational appeals, and so on. This is because:
"A fundamental principle of system dynamics states that the structure of the system gives rise to its behavior. However, people have a strong tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional rather than situational factors, that is, to character and especially character flaws rather than the system in which these people are acting. The tendency to blame the person rather than the system is so strong psychologists call it the 'fundamental attribution error.' "
Peter Senge, a thought leader of systems thinking for the business world, describes the structural source of systemic change resistance as being due to an "implicit system goal:"
"In general, balancing loops are more difficult to see than reinforcing loops because it often looks like nothing is happening. There's no dramatic growth of sales and marketing expenditures, or nuclear arms, or lily pads. Instead, the balancing process maintains the status quo, even when all participants want change. The feeling, as Lewis Carroll's Queen of Hearts put it, of needing 'all the running you can do to keep in the same place' is a clue that a balancing loop may exist nearby.
"Leaders who attempt organizational change often find themselves unwittingly caught in balancing processes. To the leaders, it looks as though their efforts are clashing with sudden resistance that seems to come from nowhere. In fact, as my friend found when he tried to reduce burnout, the resistance is a response by the system, trying to maintain an implicit system goal. Until this goal is recognized, the change effort is doomed to failure."
Senge's insight applies to the sustainability problem. Until the "implicit system goal" causing systemic change resistance is found and resolved, change efforts to solve the proper coupling part of the sustainability problem may be, as Senge argues, "doomed to failure".
Focus is on proper coupling
Presently environmentalism is focused on solving the proper coupling subproblem. For example, the following are all proper coupling solutions. They attempt to solve the direct cause of the sustainability problem's symptoms:
The Kyoto Protocol
The Three Rs of reduce, reuse, recycle
More use of renewable energy
Better pollution control of many kinds
Collective management of common-pool resources
Certification programs to reduce deforestation such as PEFC and FSC
Contour farming to reduce soil erosion
The green revolution
Zero population growth
The direct cause of environmental impact is the three factors on the right side of the I=PAT equation where Impact equals Population times Affluence (consumption per person) times Technology (environmental impact per unit of consumption). It is these three factors that solutions like those listed above seek to reduce.
The top environmental organization in the world, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), focuses exclusively on proper coupling solutions:
"2010 marked the beginning of a period of new, strategic and transformational direction for UNEP as it began implementing its Medium Term Strategy (MTS) for 2010-2013 across six areas: Climate change; Disasters and conflicts; Ecosystem management; Environmental governance; Harmful substances and hazardous waste; Resource efficiency, Sustainable consumption and production."
The six areas are all direct practices to reduce the three factors of the I=PAT equation.
Al Gore's 2006 documentary film An Inconvenient Truth described the climate change problem and the urgency of solving it. The film concluded with Gore saying:
"Each one of us is a cause of global warming, but each one of us can make choices to change that with the things we buy, the electricity we use, the cars we drive; we can make choices to bring our individual carbon emissions to zero. The solutions are in our hands, we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will. But in America, the will to act is a renewable resource."
The four solutions Gore mentions are proper coupling practices. There is, however, a hint of acknowledgement that overcoming systemic change resistance is the real challenge, when Gore says "...we just have to have the determination to make it happen. We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions, everything but political will."
The twenty-seven solutions that appear during the film's closing credits are mostly proper coupling solutions. The first nine are:
Go to www.climatecrisis.net
You can reduce your carbon emissions. In fact, you can even reduce your carbon emissions to zero.
Buy energy efficient appliances & light bulbs.
Change your thermostat (and use clock thermostats) to reduce energy for heating & cooling.
Weatherize your house, increase insulation, get an energy audit.
Recycle.
If you can, buy a hybrid car.
When you can, walk or ride a bicycle.
Where you can, use light rail & mass transit.
Some solutions are attempts to overcome individual change resistance, such as:
Tell your parents not to ruin the world that you will live in.
If you are a parent, join with your children to save the world they will live in.
Vote for leaders who pledge to solve this crisis.
Write to congress. If they don't listen, run for congress.
Speak up in your community.
However none of the 27 solutions deal with overcoming systemic change resistance.
Overcoming systemic change resistance
Efforts here are sparse because environmentalism is currently not oriented toward treating systemic change resistance as a distinct and separate problem to solve.
On how to specifically overcome the change resistance subproblem, Markvart examined two leading theories that seemed to offer insight into change resistance, Panarchy theory and New Institutionalism, and concluded that:
"...neither theory devotes significant attention to understanding the dynamics of resilient and resistant but inefficient and/or unproductive institutional and ecological systems. Overall, more research is required...."
Taking a root cause analysis and system dynamics modeling approach, Harich carefully defined the three characteristics of a root cause and then found a main systemic root cause for both the change resistance and proper coupling subproblems. Several sample solution elements for resolving the root causes were suggested. The point was made that the exact solution policies chosen do not matter nearly as much as finding the correct systemic root causes. Once these are found, how to resolve them is relatively obvious because once a root cause is found by structural modeling, the high leverage point for resolving it follows easily. Solutions may then push on specific structural points in the social system, which due to careful modeling will have fairly predictable effects.
This reaffirms the work of Donella Meadows, as expressed in her classic essay on Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System. The final page stated that:
"The higher the leverage point, the more the system will resist changing it."
Here Meadows refers to the leverage point for resolving the proper coupling subproblem rather than the leverage point for overcoming change resistance. This is because the current focus of environmentalism is on proper coupling.
However, if the leverage points associated with the root causes of change resistance exist and can be found, the system will not resist changing them. This is an important principle of social system behavior.
For example, Harich found the main root cause of successful systemic change resistance to be high "deception effectiveness." The source was special interests, particularly large for-profit corporations. The high leverage point was raising "general ability to detect manipulative deception." This can be done with a variety of solution elements, such as "The Truth Test." This effectively increases truth literacy, just as conventional education raises reading and writing literacy. Few citizens resist literacy education because its benefits have become so obvious.
Promotion of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been used to try to overcome change resistance to solving social problems, including environmental sustainability. This solution strategy has not worked well because it is voluntary and does not resolve root causes. Milton Friedman explained why CSR fails: "The social responsibility of business is to increase profits." Business cannot be responsible to society. It can only be responsible to its shareholders.
References
See also
The Corporation
WorldChange Model. This adds a change resistance subsystem to the World3 model of Limits to Growth in order to more correctly analyze and simulate why sustainability science has so far been unable to solve the sustainability problem.
Change management
Sustainable development |
38203318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20Battalion%20Maintenance%20Unit%20302 | Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit 302 | Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit THREE ZERO TWO (CBMU-302) of the U.S. Navy was commissioned on 31 March 1967. Along with a sister unit, CBMU-301, was also commissioned. They were the first CBMUs commissioned since the two that came and went with the Korean War. The official commissioning ceremony of CBMU-301 and CBMU-302 was held at the U.S. Naval Construction Battalion Center, Port Hueneme, CA on 7 April 1967. LT Mel Harper was the first Commanding Officer.
History
On 16 August 1967, CBMU-302's Advance Party of fifty men were deployed to Cam Ranh Bay, Republic of Vietnam (RVN).
On 15 September 1967, the Main Body of the Battalion flew to the U.S. Naval Support Facility, Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam. Two Details were soon deployed to Nha Trang and Qui Nhơn to support Navy units there. During this time, the Battalion was waiting for the arrival of a ship that contained the unit's building supplies, vehicles, and construction equipment. The ship arrived 7 October 1967 with offloading proceeding immediately.
The main mission of CBMU-302 was to perform base maintenance and public works functions at the various U.S. Navy and Vietnamese Navy sites in the lower two-thirds of the country. CBMU-302 also sent out short-term special mission Teams to perform specific tasks. These small groups were called Special Teams.
In September 1969, the battalion's mission was expanded to include the Dependent Shelter Construction Program. This effort involved the construction of permanent structures to house Vietnamese Navy Sailors and their families at naval facilities in II, III, and IV Corps. In Sept. 1970, CBMU-301 began leaving Vietnam for decommissioning (they too were engaged in the Dependent Shelter Program in I Corps). At that time, CBMU-302 moved up into I Corps to take over CBMU-301's job sites (notably at Da Nang with a further site at Tan My Island near Hue and eventually one at Chu Lai). By now, the Dependent Shelter Program became the principal mission for CBMU-302. The remote units of the Dependent Shelter Program to which those Seabees and non-construction U.S. Navy personnel were assigned were soon referred to as Naval Construction Action Teams (NAVCATs). CBMU 302 had 23 NAVCATS total with 15 active at its peak. Teams were numbered 1-23. They were VADM Zumwalt's wholesale expansion of the Seabee Team theory submitted in November 1968 to Gen Abrams.
Given the huge expanded role of both battalions due to the Shelter program, general labor personnel were needed since there were not enough trained Seabees available. U.S. Navy Sailors from the other three Navy communities (Airmen, Seamen, Firemen) were assigned to both units. Having limited, or no construction skills, these men quickly learned their jobs of mixing mortar, laying block, placing concrete, stringing electrical lines, carpentry, etc. Their efforts was needed and appreciated, especially considering they were serving in a combat zone. In the end the good intentions of the Shelter Program were lost on RVN sailors who did not want to move their family's into government housing that they saw as a potential target for the Viet Cong.
During the battalion's time in Vietnam, it:
Was the first CB to operate in the three lower divisions of the Republic of Vietnam (Corps Tactical Zones II, III, IV)
Became the largest Seabee battalion since WWII
In Oct 1970, the only CB to operate in all four Corps Tactical Zones at the same time
Was the only CB to have Seabees authorized to wear a shoulder patch for being members of a Naval Construction Action Team.
Was the longest serving CB in Vietnam with over 4.5 years service.
In April 1971, the battalion's headquarters relocated from Cam Ranh Bay to the large Army base at Bien Hoa.
CBMU-302 was the last Seabee battalion to leave the Vietnam war zone, folding its colors at its base-camp in Bien Hoa, RVN on 22 January 1972 then redeploying back to Port Hueneme, CA. During the unit's short stay in Port Hueneme, it was downsized and fitted out with new personnel for its new role of maintenance for a single navy base.
April 1972 CBMU-302 deployed with one officer and twenty-five enlisted men to Subic Bay Naval Base in the Republic of the Philippines. CBMU-302 performed construction and maintenance on base and served the local communities with civic action projects and educational programs.
CBMU-302 constructed Camp Jefferies to support Construction Battalion Detachments deployed to the Subic Bay and Cubi Point Naval Air Station. CBMU-302 personal maintained Camp Jeffries to allow Battalion Detachment personnel to focus on construction activities. This provided on the job training for CBMU-302 personnel who would be deploying to Detail Paradise on Diego Garcia. CBMU-302 provided facilities support to the USN Base at Yokohama and Yosuka, Japan when local workers went on strike in 1975. Local national workers went on strike for several days in Subic Bay, Pi. during 1979. CBMU-302 personnel operated critical facilities to include power plants, telephone exchanges, water and sewage treatment plants in support of US Navy fleet operations. Seabees from CBMU-302 provided support to Operation New Life following the fall of South Vietnam by building facilities on Grande Island to house, feed, and provide necessary services to the refugees. Facilities were also constructed at the lower MAU Camp and All Hands Beach. Repairs to the upper MAU facilities were also made in the mid 80's. Camp Jeffries was closed March 1992.
The unit was transferred to Guam from Subic Bay to perform the same overall mission of facilities support. CBMU-302 was decommissioned in Guam in 1994.
Vietnam deployments
The first teams deployed were called Mobile Construction Details or 'Dets' This is a list of locations and the Corp Tactical zone it is located in.
Starting in 1970, President Richard M. Nixon started the Vietnamization program. This resulted in CBMU-302s participation in the Dependent Shelter Construction Program. To accomplish this large task the Navy reassigned sailors from the Fleet. These men came from ships, shore installations, air stations, etc. They were assigned to detachments called Navy Construction Action Teams or NAVCATs. With the decommissioning of CBMU-301, some of their men wanted to remain in Vietnam to finish out their assignment. Their unfinished projects were turned over to CBMU-302. The following is a list of locations and which Corp Tactical zone it was located in.
Commanding officers
LT Melvin H. Harper, CEC; Apr 1967 – Sept 1968, Cam Ranh Bay, RVN
LCDR Herman. W. Filbry, CEC; Sept 1968 – Aug 1969, Cam Ranh Bay, RVN
LCDR Heywood H. Harrell, CEC; Aug 1969 – Aug 1970, Cam Ranh Bay, RVN
CDR Henry Keppel, CEC; Aug 1970 – Aug 1971, Cam Ranh Bay, RVN
CDR. D. Gordan Wilson, CEC; Aug 1971 – Feb 1972, Bien Hoa, RVN
Lt. Walter Tomiak, CEC; Feb 1972 – Oct 1973 Bien Hoa, RVN.
LT James W. MacLaughlin; CEC; Oct 1973 – 1975, Subic Bay, PI.
LT William Davis, CEC; 1975 – 1978, Subic Bay, PI.
LT Douglas K. Ault, CEC; 1979 – 1981, Subic Bay, PI.
LT/LCDR Samual S. Williams, CEC; 1981 – 1983, Subic Bay, PI.
LCDR Jon C. Wyman, CEC; 1983 – 1985; Subic Bay, PI.
LT R. J. Clark, CEC; 1985 – 1987; Subic Bay, PI.
LT J. Smythe. CEC; 1987–1990, Subic Bay, R.P
LT M. R. Libonate, CEC; 1990 – 1992; Camp Covington, Guam
LT Keith S. Hamilton, CEC; 1994 – 22 July 1994, Camp Covington, Guam
Unit awards
Vietnam Service 11 awards
Navy Unit Commendation: with two bronze stars, (3 awards) Vietnam
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation with bronze star (2 awards)
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm Unit Award
Vietnam Civil Actions Medal (individual award)
Vietnam Service Medal: – 11 awards
Vietnam Campaign Medal service ribbon with 60– Device : (11 campaign award periods)
Joint Meritorious Unit Award :
Navy Expeditionary Medal
National Defense Service Medal Vietnam
National Defense Service Medal
Humanitarian Service Medal :
Humanitarian Service Medal :
Navy and Marine Corps Sea Service Deployment Ribbon (7 awards)
Navy and Marine Corps Overseas Service Ribbon (15 awards)
Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation
See also
Admiral Ben Moreell
Amphibious Construction Battalion One (ACB-1)
Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO (ACB-2)
Civil Engineer Corps United States Navy
Naval Construction Battalion aka Seabee
Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek
Naval Amphibious Base Coronado
Naval Construction Battalion Center (Gulfport, Mississippi)
Naval Construction Battalion Center Port Hueneme
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 1
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 3
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 4
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 5
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 11
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 25
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 133
Operation Provide Comfort
Seabees
Seabees in World War II
References
Seabee short History
Further reading
Southeast Asia: Building the Bases the History of Construction in Southeast Asia by Richard Tregaskis, , 2010 copyright by Binhhamus Press, 2010 Edition. CBMU-302 material can be found on pages 172, 358, 436.
External links
Military.com unit page
VetFriends.com unit page
Seabee museum store
allseabees.com reunion page
Deployed team pictures
Team pictures
Seabee units and formations
United States Navy |
6494435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curing%20%28food%20preservation%29 | Curing (food preservation) | Curing is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such as meat, fish and vegetables, by the addition of salt, with the aim of drawing moisture out of the food by the process of osmosis. Because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the primary method of preserving meat and fish until the late 19th century. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing. Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, cooking, or the addition of combinations of sugar, nitrate, and nitrite.
Meat preservation in general (of meat from livestock, game, and poultry) comprises the set of all treatment processes for preserving the properties, taste, texture, and color of raw, partially cooked, or cooked meats while keeping them edible and safe to consume. Curing has been the dominant method of meat preservation for thousands of years, although modern developments like refrigeration and synthetic preservatives have begun to complement and supplant it.
While meat-preservation processes like curing were mainly developed in order to prevent disease and to increase food security, the advent of modern preservation methods mean that in most developed countries , curing is instead mainly practised for its cultural value and desirable impact on the texture and taste of food. For less-developed countries, curing remains a key process in the production, transport and availability of meat.
Some traditional cured meat (such as authentic Parma ham and some authentic Spanish chorizo and Italian salami) is cured with salt alone. Today, potassium nitrate (KNO3) and sodium nitrite (NaNO2) (in conjunction with salt) are the most common agents in curing meat, because they bond to the myoglobin and act as a substitute for oxygen, thus turning myoglobin red. More recent evidence shows that these chemicals also inhibit the growth of the bacteria that cause the disease botulism. Yet, a 2018 study by the British Meat Producers Association determined that legally permitted levels of nitrite have no effect on the growth of the Clostridium botulinum bacteria which causes botulism, which in line with the UK’s Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food opinion that nitrites are not required to prevent C. botulinum growth and extend shelf life.
The combination of table salt with nitrates or nitrites, called curing salt, is often dyed pink to distinguish it from table salt. Neither table salt, nor any of the nitrites or nitrates commonly used in curing (e.g., sodium nitrate [NaNO3], sodium nitrite, and potassium nitrate) is naturally pink.
Necessity of curing
Meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved. The speed of decomposition depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most types of untreated meat cannot be kept at room temperature for lengthy periods before spoiling.
Spoiled meat changes color and exudes a foul odor. Ingestion can cause serious food poisoning. Salt-curing processes were developed in antiquity in order to ensure food safety without relying on then unknown anti-bacterial agents.
The short shelf life of fresh meat does not pose significant problems when access to it is easy and supply is abundant. But in times of scarcity and famine, or when the meat must be transported over long distances, food preservation is powerful.
Curing significantly increases the length of time meat remains edible, by making it inhospitable to the growth of microbes.
History
A survival technique since prehistory, the preservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, and social importance worldwide.
Traditional methods
Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat.
Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world. Diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat. The ancient Greeks prepared tarichos (), which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish – which term later included salted fat, the sauces and spices used for its preparation. Also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a sausage-making technique involving (a mixture of the fermented fish sauce with oil or wine). Preserved meats were furthermore a part of religious traditions: resulting meat for offerings to the gods was salted before being given to priests, after which it could be picked up again by the offerer, or even sold in the butcher's.
A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe. In Polybius's time ( 200 – 118 BCE), the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts: rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometimes smoked. These goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgae were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs. Their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large export income from their hams, which were so succulent, they were in no way inferior to those of Cantabria. These of pig became especially sought, to the point that the ancients considered this meat the most nourishing of all and the easiest to digest.
In Ethiopia, according to Pliny, and in Libya according to Saint Jerome, the Acridophages (literally, the locust-eaters) salted and smoked the crickets which arrived at their settlements in the spring in great swarms and which constituted, it was said, their sole food.
The smoking of meat was a traditional practice in North America, where Plains Indians hung their meat at the top of their tipis to increase the amount of smoke coming into contact with the food.
Middle Ages
In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, salt beef was consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called carbouclée in Romance tongues and bacon if it was pork.
The Middle Ages made pâté a masterpiece: that which is, in the 21st century, merely spiced minced meat (or fish), baked in a terrine and eaten cold, was at that time composed of a dough envelope stuffed with varied meats and superbly decorated for ceremonial feasts. The first French recipe, written in verse by Gace de La Bigne, mentions in the same pâté three great partridges, six fat quail, and a dozen larks. Le Ménagier de Paris mentions pâtés of fish, game, young rabbit, fresh venison, beef, pigeon, mutton, veal, and pork, and even pâtés of lark, turtledove, baby bird, goose, and hen. Bartolomeo Sacchi, called Platine, prefect of the Vatican Library, gives the recipe for a pâté of wild beasts: the flesh, after being boiled with salt and vinegar, was larded and placed inside an envelope of spiced fat, with a mélange of pepper, cinnamon and pounded lard; one studded the fat with cloves until it was entirely covered, then placed it inside a pâte.
In the 16th century, the most fashionable pâtés were of woodcock, au bec doré, chapon, beef tongue, cow feet, sheep feet, chicken, veal, and venison. In the same era, Pierre Belon notes that the inhabitants of Crete and Chios lightly salted then oven-dried entire hares, sheep, and roe deer cut into pieces, and that in Turkey, cattle and sheep, cut and minced rouelles, salted then dried, were eaten on voyages with onions and no other preparation.
Early modern era
During the Age of Discovery, salt meat was one of the main foods for sailors on long voyages, for instance in the merchant marine or the navy. In the 18th century, salted Irish beef, transported in barrels, were considered finest.
Scientific research on meat by chemists and pharmacists led to the creation of a new, extremely practical product: meat extract, which could appear in different forms. The need to properly feed soldiers during long campaigns outside the country, such as in the Napoleonic Wars, and to nourish a constantly growing population often living in appalling conditions drove scientific research, but a confectioner, Nicolas Appert, in 1795 developed through experimentation a method which became universal and in one language bears his name: airtight storage, called in French.
With the spread of appertisation, the 19th-century world entered the era of the "food industry", which developed new products such as canned salt meat (for example corned beef). The desire for safer food led to the creation of the US's Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, followed by the national agencies for health security and the establishment of food traceability over the course of the 20th century. It also led to continuing technological innovation.
In France, the summer of 1857 was so hot that most butchers refused to slaughter animals and charcutiers lost considerable amounts of meat, due to inadequate conservation methods. A member of the Academy of Medicine and his son issued a 34-page summary of works completed by 1857, which proposed some solutions: not less than 91 texts exist, of which 64 edited for only the years between 1851 and 1857.
Chemical actions
Salt
Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%.
In sausage production, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages. These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage together.
Sugar
The sugar added to meat for the purpose of curing it comes in many forms, including honey, corn syrup solids, and maple syrup. However, with the exception of bacon, it does not contribute much to the flavor, but it does alleviate the harsh flavor of the salt. Sugar also contributes to the growth of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus by feeding them.
Nitrates and nitrites
Nitrates and nitrites extend shelf life, help kill bacteria, produce a characteristic flavor and give meat a pink or red color. Nitrite () is generally supplied by sodium nitrite or (indirectly) by potassium nitrate. Nitrite salts are most often used to accelerate curing and impart a pink colour. Nitrate is specifically used only in a few curing conditions and products where nitrite (which may be generated from nitrate) must be generated in the product over long periods of time.
Nitrite further breaks down in the meat into nitric oxide (NO), which then binds to the iron atom in the center of myoglobin's heme group, reducing oxidation and causing a reddish-brown color () when raw and the characteristic cooked-ham pink color ( or nitrosyl-heme) when cooked. The addition of ascorbate to cured meat reduces formation of nitrosamines (see below), but increases the nitrosylation of iron.
The use of nitrite and nitrate salts for meat in the US has been formally used since 1925. Because of the relatively high toxicity of nitrite (the lethal dose in humans is about 22 mg/kg of body weight), the maximum allowed nitrite concentration in US meat products is 200 ppm. Plasma nitrite is reduced in persons with endothelial dysfunction.
Nitrite-containing processed meat is associated with increased risk of developing colorectal cancer. Adding nitrites to meat has been shown to generate known carcinogens such as nitrosamines, N-Nitrosamides and nitrosyl-heme, resulting from nitrosylation reactions; the World Health Organization (WHO) advises that each of "processed meats" eaten a day would raise the risk of getting bowel cancer by 18% over a lifetime; "processed meat" refers to meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation. The World Health Organization's review of more than 400 studies concluded, in 2015, that there was sufficient evidence that "processed meats" caused cancer, particularly colon cancer; the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer classified "processed meats" as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).
The use of nitrites in food preservation is highly controversial due to the potential for the formation of nitroso-compounds such as nitrosamines, N-Nitrosamides and nitrosyl-heme. When the meat is cooked at high temperatures, nitrite-cured meat products can also lead to the formation of nitrosamines. The effect is seen for red processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. Nitrates and nitrites may cause cancer and the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing. Under simulated gastric conditions, nitrosothiols rather than nitrosamines are the main nitroso species being formed. The use of either compound is therefore regulated; for example, in the United States, the concentration of nitrates and nitrites is generally limited to 200 ppm or lower.
While the meat industry considers nitrites irreplaceable because they speed up curing and improve color, they have no effect on the growth of the bacteria which causes botulism: an extremely rare disease (less than 1000 cases reported worldwide per year), and almost always associated with home preparations of food storing. All Parma ham has been made without nitrites since 1993, and was reported in 2018 to have caused no cases of botulism.
Furthermore, while the FDA has set a limit of 200 ppm of nitrates for cured meat, they are not allowed and not recognized as safe in most other foods, even foods that are not cooked at high temperatures, such as cheese.
Nitrites from celery
Processed meats without "added nitrites" may be misleading as they may be using naturally occurring nitrites from celery instead.
A 2019 report from Consumer Reports found that using celery (or other natural sources) as a curing agent introduced naturally occurring nitrates and nitrites. The USDA allows the term "uncured" or "no nitrates or nitrites added" on products using these natural sources of nitrites, which provides the consumer a false sense of making a healthier choice.
The Consumer Reports investigation also provides the average level of sodium, nitrates and nitrites found per gram of meat in their report.
Consumer Reports and the Center for Science in the Public Interest filed a formal request to the USDA to change the labeling requirements in 2019.
Smoke
Meat can also be preserved by "smoking". If the smoke is hot enough to slow-cook the meat, this will also keep it tender. One method of smoking calls for a smokehouse with damp wood chips or sawdust. In North America, hardwoods such as hickory, mesquite, and maple are commonly used for smoking, as are the wood from fruit trees such as apple, cherry, and plum, and even corncobs.
Smoking helps seal the outer layer of the food being cured, making it more difficult for bacteria to enter. It can be done in combination with other curing methods such as salting. Common smoking styles include hot smoking, smoke roasting (pit barbecuing) and cold smoking. Smoke roasting and hot smoking cook the meat while cold smoking does not. If the meat is cold smoked, it should be dried quickly to limit bacterial growth during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry. This can be achieved, as with jerky, by slicing the meat thinly.
The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Effect of meat preservation
On health
Since the 20th century, with respect to the relationship between diet and human disease (e.g. cardiovascular, etc.), scientists have conducted studies on the effects of lipolysis on vacuum-packed or frozen meat. In particular, by analyzing entrecôtes of frozen beef during 270 days at , scientists found an important phospholipase that accompanies the loss of some unsaturated fat n-3 and n-6, which are already low in the flesh of ruminants.
In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, that is, meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, or smoking, as "carcinogenic to humans".
On trade
The improvement of methods of meat preservation, and of the means of transport of preserved products, has notably permitted the separation of areas of production and areas of consumption, which can now be distant without it posing a problem, permitting the exportation of meats.
For example, the appearance in the 1980s of preservation techniques under controlled atmosphere sparked a small revolution in the world's market for sheep meat: the lamb of New Zealand, one of the world's largest exporters of lamb, could henceforth be sold as fresh meat, since it could be preserved from 12 to 16 weeks, which was a sufficient duration for it to reach Europe by boat. Before, meat from New Zealand was frozen, thus had a much lower value on European shelves. With the arrival of the new "chilled" meats, New Zealand could compete even more strongly with local producers of fresh meat. The use of controlled atmosphere to avoid the depreciation which affects frozen meat is equally useful in other meat markets, such as that for pork, which now also enjoys an international trade.
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking (revised). New York, NY: Scribner, 2004.
Coudray, Guillaume. Who poisoned your bacon. London: Icon Books, 2021.
Bertolli, Paul. Cooking by Hand. New York, NY: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 2003.
National Research Council Academy of Life Sciences. "The Health Effects of Nitrate, Nitrite and N-Nitroso Compounds". Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1981.
Article in The Scientist, Volume 13, No. 6:1, Mar. 15, 1999 (registration required).
Post on April 29, 2012 "Making Cured Meats"
External links
National Center for Home Food Preservation – Curing Foods
National Center for Home Food Preservation – How Do I? Curing and Smoking
Meat
Food preservation
Cooking techniques
Culinary terminology
Garde manger |
41451602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20shipwrecks%20of%20the%20Seven%20Stones%20Reef | List of shipwrecks of the Seven Stones Reef | The List of shipwrecks of the Seven Stones Reef lists the ships which sank on or near the reef, including ships that sustained a damaged hull, which were later refloated and repaired. The Seven Stones Reef is a rocky reef nearly to the west-north-west (WNW) of Land's End, Cornwall and east-north-east (ENE) of the Isles of Scilly. The reef consists of two groups of rocks and is nearly long and in breadth. They rise out of deep water and are a navigational hazard for shipping with seventy-one named wrecks and an estimated two hundred shipwrecks overall. The most infamous is the Torrey Canyon in 1967, which was at that time the world's costliest shipping disaster, and to date, still the worst oil spill on the coast of the United Kingdom.
A lightvessel has been moored near the reef and exhibiting light since 1 September 1841. It is permanently anchored in 40 fathoms (73 m) and is 2.5 miles (4.0 km) north-east (NE) of the reef. It has been in situ almost continuously, except when it has dragged its anchor, removed for safety during the Second World War or for a few days while the Torrey Canyon was bombed by the military.
Shipwrecks
17th century
March 1656 – the sixth-rate, 22 gun English man-o'-war, Primrose lost her main topmast off the Longships and drifted onto the Seven Stones. She was searching the area between Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, along with the Mayflower, for two Spanish frigates which had captured a vessel bound for Bristol. She managed to free herself from the reef and sank in taking sixteen men, two women and a child with her. Primrose was the first named loss on the reef.
30 November 1674 — Revenge wrecked with the loss of fifteen of her seventeen crew.
18th century
27 February 1747 — fourteen gun sloop was wrecked, with the loss of over one hundred crew.
19th century
1800s
12 February 1802 — the Fortune struck the reef while carrying a general cargo from Dublin to London. Her crew were rescued by a Yarmouth brig while the Fortune sank with the loss of two Tresco pilots who were attempting to save the ship.
14 November 1805 — bound from Dublin to London, the brig Perseverance () struck the reef during fog. Her crew rowed to St Mary's.
1810s
25 May 1810 — Renovation () was stranded and a total loss while en route from Cardiff to London with coal.
6 November 1810 — Exeter brig Reward was lost while bound from Limerick with oats and butter.
11 December 1811 — while bound for Cork from Lisbon with a cargo of cork the Aurora became a total loss when she stranded on the reef.
5 May 1814 — Hope was wrecked.
1820s
16 January 1826 — two unidentified schooners were wrecked; one disappeared from view immediately and the second was lost with all hands.
2 November 1827 — Susanna (or Susan) () of Boston sank after hitting the reef, while en route from Matanzas to Hamburg with logwood and cotton. All the crew bar one were saved by the Tresco pilot boat Hope.
1830s
18 November 1833 — Sunderland brig Joseph () carrying pig iron from Cardiff to London was wrecked.
16 May 1837 — barque Golden Spring () hit the reef in fog and refloated at high water.
18 November 1838 — while taking on a pilot, the Indiaman Larkins struck three times, floated free and with a leak. Captain Ingram, passengers and the mail were transferred to the pilot cutter leaving the crew on board. Larkins reached Falmouth with 8 foot of water in her hold but still manage to discharge her cargo of indigo, silk and saltpetre.
1840s
4 October 1840 — Scilly registered schooner Flying Fish () was nearly a total loss when she hit the reef and her crew was picked up by St Martin's fishermen.
29 September 1848 — Barnstaple schooner Caroline () struck the reef and foundered in thick fog while carrying coal from Newport to Tarragona. The only survivor, the mate, was rescued by one of the lightship's longboat. The same longboat capsized on 15 October 1851 killing two of the crew while returning from Scilly with stores.
1850s
23 April 1851 — Exeter brig Amethyst () hit the reef in poor visibility and sank within six hours, while en route from Teignmouth to Quebec with china clay. Her crew was saved by the barque Mary Laing.
12 June 1853 — brig Ambassador () carrying coal to Malta from Cardiff hit the reef in fine weather and sank within fifteen minutes. Her crew reached the lightship in the ship's boats.
2 February 1854 — Full-rigged Cape Horner America of Saint John, New Brunswick hit the reef and sank within an hour. She was sailing from Callao to Queenstown and London with guano. Her crew was picked up by Isles of Scilly boat New Prosperous and landed near St Ives.
27 April 1859 — Newlyn fishing vessel Fame () capsized in a severe east-south-east (ESE) gale while running for Scilly for shelter. There were no survivors.
1860s
14 September 1860 — barque Punjab () of Sunderland carrying 300 tons of wool and hides to Amsterdam from Algoa Bay hit the reef. The crew and passengers, bar one, were rescued by the Joshua and Mary and landed at Falmouth.
25 April 1866 — Sunderland barque Cubana struck the reef when both her master and mate were asleep below. She was bound for St Jago, Cuba with sixteen crew, one passenger and a cargo of coal, iron and mining gear. Ten of the crew and the passenger took to one of the boats and rowed to the lightship and transferred to St Mary's by pilot cutter.
18 September 1866 — schooner Emilie () sank in five minutes after hitting the reef in fog, while bound from Poole for Runcorn. The crew of five survived.
8 May 1868 — 135 ton brig Gleaner () of Newport was thought to have hit the reef and sank 30 miles NW by w of Land's End.
31 August 1869 — SS Oxus () of Dundee on voyage from Akyab and Queenstown to London with rice, mistook the Seven Stones lightship for the Longships Lighthouse and, setting a course to avoid the Wolf struck a ledge known as the ″Town″ near the Seven Stones reef. The crew of fourteen managed to launch the gig as Oxus sank within five minutes; with only four oars in an overloaded boat it took them fifteen hours to row to the lightship.
1870s
4 April 1870 — St Peterborg en route from Glasgow to Rotterdam struck a submerged wreck and foundered.
6 October 1870 — Fleetwood registered barque Nelson () carrying pig iron and esparto grass from Aquias for the Tyne hit either the South Stone or the Flemish Ledges. Three men drowned and the remaining made it to the lightvessel.
24 June 1871 — 600 ton barque Primos or (Il Primo) () from Bilbao carrying sugar from Havana to Falmouth for orders. Ten of her eleven crew drowned except for Vincenzo Defelice who swam for two hours before finding a hen-coop on which he climbed. He later spotted and climbed onto the ship's figurehead, which is now in the Valhalla collection at Tresco Abbey Gardens and later managed to get aboard one of the ship's boats when it drifted close by. He rowed to English Island Neck at St Martin's where he was picked up by a pilot-gig.
3 February 1873 — unidentified brigantine foundered in heavy seas. The captain of a nearby French schooner decided it was too dangerous to approach the wreck, leaving those on board to drown.
December — an unidentified fully rigged ship wrecked.
20 April 1874 — 1,780 ton Rydall Hall still sank despite being taken in tow by the Queen of the Bay. She lost most of her head gear while on her maiden voyage from San Francisco with a general cargo. The packet ship received £150.
14 February 1875 — the 299 ton barque Floresta grounded on the reef in fog and quickly sank; her crew of ten were landed at Falmouth by the St Malo lugger Josephine.
13 November 1876 — schooner Paul et Marie () carrying wheat was dismasted after hitting the reef. She was later brought into Scilly as a derelict.
6 July 1877 — the Glasgow sailing ship Barremann () hit the Pollard Rock with the loss of all of the twenty-seven crew. The 1400 ton ship was on voyage from South Shields to San Francisco with coal, pig-iron and cement.
16 October 1877 — William Van Name () struck the reef while bound for Queenstown for orders. Captain Cogniss and his crew of eleven was picked up by the schooner Caroline of Looe and landed at Penzance.
1877 — schooner () struck the reef but sustained little damage and headed for Plymouth. Her captain and mate had their certificates withdrawn.
26 February 1879 — brig Rosaire () of Nantes carrying coal from Newport to Brest struck the reef and went down. Three men drowned and four of her crew were picked up by the pilot cutter Queen, off Crow Sound, Isles of Scilly.
1880s
13 September 1884 — an unidentified brig sank. Two days later several pieces of recently broken wood-work and a carpet broom with Edward Lane, Texas cut into the handle, was found at Old Town Bay, Isles of Scilly; which may be from this vessel. Alternatively a large brig ″no doubt from″ Queenstown disappeared east-south-east of the Seven Stones.
29 September 1885 — barque Elizabeth Graham () of London grounded and refloated.
20 August 1886 — the crew of the Plymouth schooner Jane Sophia () was saved after she collided with the steamer Zenobia and sank.
9 July 1887 — the Glasgow sailing ship, Barremann () hit the Pollard Rock with the loss of all of the twenty-seven crew. She was on voyage from South Shields, County Durham to San Francisco, California.
12 December 1887 — iron steamship Brighouse () hit the reef in fog. Her crew took to the lifeboats and had to stay for two weeks on the Sevenstones Lightship. Brighouse was on passage from Bordeaux to Cardiff with pitwood.
1890s
28 October 1890 — 77 ton schooner Benton survived hitting the Pollard Rock, made it to Falmouth full of water and with her cargo of china clay intact.
5 February 1891 — 1,261 ton steamship Chiswick () ran aground, in calm weather, on the North-east ledges, while bound for St Nazaire with coal from Cardiff. The captain is supposed to have said "every man for himself" before going down, along with ten crew, and his ship. Eight survivors were picked up by the lightship's longboat.
5 December 1891 — Merannio () en route for Newport from Bilbao with 1,300 of iron ore hit the Seven Stones, but managed to reach St Ives where a 10-foot hole was found in her bow.
1 October 1892 — despite warning signals from the Seven Stones lightship, the Newcastle steamer SS Camiola () struck the reef at full speed and quickly sank; all of her crew managed to get into the ship's two boats. She was carrying 3,400 tons of coal from Cardiff to Naples, or Barry Docks to Malta.
5 July 1897 — the steamer Heathmore () of Liverpool ran into the reef at full speed while en route from Santander to Glasgow with 2,400 tons of iron-ore. She floated clear and anchored two miles away with the crew pumping water out of the ship. The crew pumped all day and by evening they took to the boats and was picked up by the Lady of the Isles.
20th century
15 June 1905 — Milford Haven steam trawler Hydrangea () was heading for the fishing grounds off Scilly but was off course and hit the reef. Her crew reached the lightship.
20 June 1908 — Douarnenez crabber St Lewis () struck the reef and foundered.
3 August 1911 — 180 ton schooner Frau Mini Peterson () wrecked after a collision.
6 December 1911 – 1,132 ton Antwerp steamer () collided with the reef while carrying oranges from Valencia to Liverpool. Eighteen of the crew escaped in a lifeboat which capsized killing the captain and thirteen men. The steamer refloated herself, drifted in the channel with four men still on board, and the collier Ashtree made a failed attempt to take the vessel in tow. The four crew launched a raft and reached the Ashtree. The derelict was taken in tow by the Lyonesse and Greencastle, and was beached at Penzance on 8 December. She was later returned to service.
12 March 1912 — the Glasgow sailing vessel Wendur () struck the southernmost rock of the reef while carrying grain from Plymouth. Three of the twenty-one crew lost their lives. She held the record for the fastest voyage between Newcastle and Valparaiso.
11 June 1913 — Toanui () of Glasgow lost on the reef. Wreckage was washed up around Land's End and Tol Pedn.
24 July 1918 — a 975-ton Beagle-class destroyer was wrecked on the reef while escorting the Standard tanker, War Hostage.
28 November 1924 — steamer Cornish Coast stranded. She survived and was involved in an incident with the sinking of the steamer Fagerness off Trevose Head in March 1926.
23 December 1927 — schooner Gougou () dismasted 300m from the lightvessel. The crew of seven men were taken off by the St Mary's lifeboat and the Gougou was picked up the next day by Trinity vessel SS Mermaid and towed to Penzance.
22 December 1939 — the SS Longships () broke her back after striking the reef while sailing from Belfast to Plymouth. Her crew was saved by the St Mary's lifeboat, Cunard.
19 April 1948 — Duke of Sparta bound for London from Liverpool stranded on the reef and refloated on same day – the only ship to get off the reef in modern times.
6 October 1949 — 6,300 ton cargo ship of the Elder Dempster Line Fantree struck the Flemish Ledges. Her cargo of hardwood was still being salvaged in 1992. Her crew of fifty-eight were rescued by launches Kittern and Goldern Spray from Scilly.
22 July 1955 — Panamanian registered steamer () drove onto the reef and was abandoned by her crew. She filled and sank soon afterwards.
18 March 1967 — ran aground on Pollard's Rock, loaded with 120,000 tonnes of crude oil. The vessel released 31,000 gallons of oil much of which washed up on the Cornish, Brittany and Guernsey coasts.
29 September 1976 — 2,186 ton Polish factory trawler Rarau with a Romanian crew of eighty-four drove into the northern part of the reef known as the North-east Rocks. All the crew were rescued and the trawler slipped into deep water.
See also
List of shipwrecks of Cornwall
List of shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly
Notes
Until 1752, the year began on Lady Day (25 March). Thus 24 March 1747 was followed by 25 March 1748. 31 December 1748 was followed by 1 January 1748.
References
External links
Map - Torrey Canyon
Protected Wreck Sites
Map of Designated Sites in UK
Seven Stones
Shipwrecks
Shipwrecks in the English Channel |
50183096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairns%20Control%20Room | Cairns Control Room | Cairns Control Room is a heritage-listed military building at Grafton Street, Cairns City, Cairns, Cairns Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built in 1942 by the Queensland Department of Public Works. It is also known as World War II Volunteer Defence Corps, Cairns Scout Hut, and Cairns Scout Shop. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 16 April 2010.
History
After declaration of World War II a national Volunteer Defence Corps, founded under the banner of the Returned Soldiers League, was taken over by the Australia Army in 1941. In north Queensland VDC units were established in Townsville, Cairns and other larger towns in the region. At Cairns the local VDC used the council chambers as headquarters, but with Japan's entry in the war a more substantial building was required for a civil defence control centre in the event of air raids. In February 1942 it was decided that the Public Works Department would build a reinforced concrete control room in Norman Park for use by the VDC, police and ambulance service to coordinate emergency services in the event of air raids. Construction of the building commenced in March 1942. The building survived post-war demolitions and during the mid 1950s was handed over to the Scouting Association of Queensland for use as the organisation's local headquarters.
On 7 December 1941 Japanese aircraft made a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands. At the same time Japanese forces launched assaults on Thailand, the Philippines and the British colony of Malaya. Three days after Pearl Harbor, two capital ships of the Royal Navy were sunk off the coast of Malaya. This gave the Japanese almost total control of the seas to Australia's north. The sudden fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942 with the rapid, unchecked Japanese advance through the islands of the Netherlands East Indies raised fears of the invasion of Australia. The devastation and high loss of life caused by Japanese air raids on Darwin and Broome early in 1942 underlined the inability of Britain to defend Australia.
A 1941 Queensland Parliamentary report by the Secretary for Health and Home Affair's the Honourable Ned Hanlon, M.L.A. identified the three potential forms of enemy attacks, air raids, bombardment from the sea or invasion. The Australian Government was the responsible authority in combating and preventing enemy attacks and the Queensland government was responsible to "maintain the activities of the community during the emergency and to provide for the safety and care of the civilian population and the protection of property". Air Raid Protection Committees were formed along the Queensland coast. These committees included the local mayor, inspector of police and the government medical officer. The police, local authorities, hospitals, fire and ambulance services were responsible for the safety of the civilian population. Other Queensland government bodies such as railways, main roads, harbours, electricity and gas providers would also be required to maintain those services during the war.
To safeguard the community, six areas were identified where measures would need to be implemented:
the training of key personnel in air raid precautions
air raid warnings
the provision of shelters for those people in the streets
safety of people in their own homes
possible removal of non-essential population from vulnerable areas
closure of schools and removal of school children from vulnerable areas
Air Raid Precautions were introduced in January 1942 and the Air Raid Wardens had the responsibility to ensure compliance with the regulations within the community. Black-out curtains and slit trenches became part of every home in the Cairns area. Air raid practice drills were held on a regular basis both in the daytime and evenings, and during drills people on the streets were required to move to the nearest air raid shelter. The Cairns City Council constructed seven public air raid shelter around the city for the population. The shelters were of reinforced concrete, thick and could hold fifty people seated.
Norman Park, now known as Munro Martin Park, was Cairns' first recreational reserve being gazetted in 1882. Tenders were let to clear the reserve at the end of 1887 and sporting groups lobbied the council to fence the reserve so they could hold sporting events. In 1888 the Cairns Cricket Club obtained permission to build a cricket pitch and in 1889 Council received applications for the construction of a running track and tennis courts. The reserve was named Norman Park at a Council meeting on 8 May 1890, after the then Governor of Queensland, Sir Henry Wylie Norman who had just visited Cairns. Over the years the park has played an important part in the daily life of the Cairns community. After conflict between sporting groups regarding access to the park, in 1909 the park committee recommended that sporting bodies move their activities to other venues and that the park be laid out as a garden. In the past Norman Park has served as an important community venue for activities other than sporting events. A circus was held in the grounds in 1891, a memorial service on the death of King Edward VII in 1910, and school children assembled there in 1935 to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of King George V. Brass band contests were held there regularly.
During World War II Norman Park became a focal point for military activity with various military units using it. The council at a meeting on 10 July 1941 gave permission for "C" Company 15th Garrison Battalion to erect a hutted camp on the park. Over the course of the war over fifty building were constructed on the park. Records indicate that there was a hall on Norman Park prior to its use as a hutted camp and a US Navy store at the southern end of the reserve. The Army erected a timber radio tower on land leased from the Council at the southern end of the reserve in 1944. Elements of the 17th Battalion Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC) were one of the units to occupy the park. The VDC was a "Dads Army" raised under the banner of the Returned Services League and taken over by the military in 1941. VDC members consisted of men between the ages of 17 and 65 who for various reasons were not suitable for regular military service. Their service consisted of assisting in the defence by guarding important military and civilian places, evacuating civilians if required and in an emergency assisting with the demolition of strategic facilities. The Cairns VDC battalion consisted of about 600 men. Another volunteer unit was the Women's Emergency Corps (WEC) which was raised for the emergency transport of the civilian population if required. Recruited under the umbrella of the 51st Infantry Battalion, local women that wanted to contribute to the war effort could assist in a number of areas from motor transport, horse transport, first aid, cooking or signals.
In early 1942 the local civil defence organisation was housed in the Cairns Council Chambers and the Controller, Percy Alexander Anthony, stated in a letter to the council that the chambers building provided insufficient protection in the event of an air raid and requested that a control room be built in park land. He also suggested that a band rotunda could be built on top of it and the control room could later be used for storage. The estimated cost was plus another for furnishings. The public service commissioner in a minute dated 23 February 1942 announced that a decision had been made for the erection of a control room as a matter of urgency. It would be constructed in Norman Park by the Queensland Department of Public Works. In addition to its civil defence role, it would also be used by police, fire brigade and ambulance services and functioned as an air raid post, first aid post, and an emergency and essential services post. In discussions with the mayor it was agreed that the fitting and furnishing of the control room would be borne by the Cairns Town Council. A work order for the construction of the control room was issued to the district Supervisor of Works on 3 March 1942 for an immediate start. The building was designed as a reinforced concrete structure, octagonal in plan with two entrances, each protected by internal concrete blast walls. There were no windows. On completion the building was fitted out with telephones and was used to coordinate air raid warden duties for the Cairns area.
Around 1950 Florence Street was realigned so that it ran in its original position through Norman Park in a straight line from the Esplanade to Mulgrave Road, thereby separating the park with a roadway. After the US Navy store (which had housed the Cairns and Regional Electricity Board since 1946) was removed in 1964 the southern section of Norman Park on the opposite side of Florence Street was used as a children's playground until 1974 when the Civic Theatre was constructed on the site. In 1954 the Cairns City Council proposed redevelopment of the northern end of Norman Park using funds from the estate of half-sisters Janet Taylor Munro and Margaret Hart Martin who died in 1945 and 1948 respectively, and donated by their niece, Margie Hart Martin for the purpose of beautification of Norman Park. In 1956 the park with its new garden beds and pathways was renamed the Munro Martin Memorial Park.
The former civil defence communications centre and control room survived the post war demolition and removal of public air raid shelters but it was not until the mid 1950s that it was given a new role when it was handed over to the Scouting Association of Queensland for their use. The Scouting Association initially used the building as their headquarters for the district which included the Atherton Tableland, Mossman and Cairns scout troops. Later the building became an area headquarters for scouts from Cardwell northward. Some of the early renovations to the building involved the removal of an internal blast wall from the front entrance on the south side of the building and cutting windows into five of the eight walls and fitting steel louvers and security grills. Two other walls had windows partly cut out but were never completed and can only be noticed from the interior of the building.
In September 1980 the Scouting Association started a major renovation program of the Control Room, which involved tiling the floor in the front (southern) section of the building and installing a ceiling. Windows were reconstructed and the exterior of the building was sand blasted and repainted. District and area scout badges were painted on the exterior of the building. On 6 October 1980 the renovated building was the venue for an evening campfire in the park, attended by the Chief Scout of Australia Sir Zelman Cowan and Lady Cowan. By 1982 arrangements had been made with local firm, Rogers Fibreglass, to construct a giant scout hat that would fit over the roof of the building. It was lowered into place at a ceremony on 22 February 1982 with the Mayor of Cairns, Alderman Ron Davis officiating and has given the building a distinctive landmark quality. The building became the Scouting Association's Area Headquarters and Scout Shop. The Scouting Association of Australia, Queensland Branch, hold a special State Lease over the building. The current lease expires on 13 February 2023.
Description
The former World War II communication centre and civil defence control room is located on a State Lease (A/SP 152633) near the corner of Florence and Grafton Streets, at the south-eastern corner of Munro Martin Park. The park is a reserve, rectangular in shape with its boundaries defined by Sheridan, Florence, Grafton and Minnie Streets.
The octagonal concrete building is now painted in scout colours of green and yellow and has eight scout badges painted on the exterior walls representing the various scouting levels. Sitting on top of the concrete roof is a fibreglass structure in the shape of a traditional scout hat, painted brown. The "brim" of the hat, which overhangs the roof of the former control room, has wide metal edging.
The front entrance to the former control room faces south-east towards Florence Street and has a timber door. Each of the eight walls measure approximately long by high and are off-form concrete thick. The five southernmost walls have had window opening created and fitted with steel louvres. Each window opening measures approximately and is fitted with steel mesh covered with a steel grill that is bolted to the walls. There are sets of three air vents on six of the eight walls each vent . The front and rear walls do not have air vents and the rear door entrance is boarded closed.
The interior contains one main room and two smaller rooms to the rear with a central corridor leading around the rear interior blast wall to the rear entrance. The interior walls are thick concrete. The rear section is exposed concrete and in an unpainted state. The main room has painted walls and a tiled floor and has had a ceiling lined with gyprock over the front section of the main room. There is a square concrete post inside the front entrance and there is evidence of the removal of a wall between the post and the eastern wall.
Heritage listing
The Cairns Control Room of the World War II Volunteer Defence Corps was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 16 April 2010 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
The Control Room is important in demonstrating the urgent measures taken for air raid protection and the conditions in which the air raid wardens worked, and is reminder of how close World War II came to Queensland and in particular the State's northern region.
The place is significant evidence of the important role played by volunteers in the pattern of Queensland's history, particularly the Volunteer Defence Corps operating during WWII.
The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.
The WWII Volunteer Defence Corps Control Room in Cairns demonstrates an unusual design for a civil defence control room, being purpose built to protect air raid wardens during World War II and to later serve as the base for a band rotunda.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
The WWII Volunteer Defence Corps Control Room in Cairns is important in demonstrating some of the principal characteristics of a World War II civil defence control room, including external reinforced concrete walls and roof and an internal concrete wall that offered protection from the effects of bomb blast.
References
Attribution
External links
World War II Volunteer Defence Corps, Cairns Control Room Discover Queensland Buildings website
Queensland Heritage Register
Buildings and structures in Cairns
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
Former military installations of Queensland
Scouting and Guiding in Australia
Cairns City, Queensland |
31400032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Chass%C3%A9riau | Charles Frédéric Chassériau | Baron Charles Frédéric Chassériau du Chiron (29 January 1802 – 11 January 1896) was a Saint Dominican architect and painter, who served as chief architect of the cities of Marseille, Algiers, in Algeria; and Cairo, in Egypt. He is particularly known for having designed the seafront of the city of Algiers.
Biography
His parents, owners of the Le Beau estate in Saint-Domingue, then a French colony, had to leave Port-au-Prince in 1802, only a few months after he was born. After his studies at the Lycée Henri-IV and in memory of his father, the General of the Empire, Victor Frédéric Chassériau, he was first destined for a career in arms and was received at the Schools of Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan in 1819. However, he was unable to attend the School because his family was ruined by the Haitian Revolution and the revolt in Saint-Domingue, and did not have enough resources to pay his board. After the death of his father and having already lost his mother, he was taken in by his uncle Benoît Chassériau, father of the painter Théodore Chassériau. The generals Jean-Baptiste Milhaud and Augustin-Daniel Belliard, as a token of their affection for General Chassériau, offered Charles-Frédéric, who had just been admitted to the Saint-Cyr, to pay him the pension that the State refused him. Out of pride and although grateful, he did not believe he had to accept and did not become a soldier.
He first entered a notary's office in 1821 but decided to become an architect, he stayed 10 months in the workshop of Jean-François-Julien Mesnager in 1823. On 3 April 1824, he was received as a pupil-titular of the Ecole des beaux-arts de Paris<ref name="beaux-arts">Louis Thérèse David de Pénanrun, Edmond Augustin Delaire, Louis François Roux, Les Architectes élèves de l'École des beaux-arts 1793–1907, Librairie de la construction moderne, 1907.</ref> He began the same year with Jacques Lacornée and François Édouard Picot and then in the office of his relative François Mazois, inspector of civil buildings, who had him collaborate in his work on the construction of the Cour des comptes that was to be decorated twenty years later by his cousin Théodore Chassériau, as well as in his work on the ruins of Pompeii. A watercolor by Frédéric Chassériau painted on the ruins of Pompeii is kept at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and is included in the book "Les Ruines de Pompéi" (The Ruins of Pompeii) by Mazois ("Triclinium discovered from the House of Actaeon").
In 1830, taken up by his military ambitions, he campaigned in the Spanish republican army as aide-de-camp to General Antonio Quiroga, thanks to Felix Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau, who had been the intermediary between him and Quiroga.
Architect in Cairo from 1830 to 1833
In Egypt from 1830 to 1833, he was architect of the Lazaret of Alexandria and drew up the plans for the consulate in Alexandria at the request of the vice-consul Ferdinand de Lesseps, then returned to France. The Consulate of France, located on the famous Place des Consuls, was completely destroyed during the bombing of Alexandria by the British in July 1882.
Chief Architect of the City of Marseille from 1833 to 1839
In 1833, he became assistant architect for the city of Marseille and then quickly chief architect until 1839. He built the Timone Hospital, the Capuchin Hall, the Friuli Archipelago, the Friuliangars of Friuli, and the small white triumphal arch of the Place Jules-Guesde at the Porte d'Aix.
In 1840, Charles-Frédéric Chassériau, as well as his cousin the painter Théodore Chassériau, proposed his project for the tomb of the Emperor Napoleon at the Hôtel des Invalides, a project inspired by the work of Horace. At the same time, Charles-Frédéric Chassériau was close to King Joseph Bonaparte, who lived on Rue Provence in Paris and with whom he visited the studios of neighboring artists, including that of Eugène Delacroix and François-Édouard Picot, according to notes left by his son Baron Arthur Chassériau.
Chief architect of the City of Algiers from 1849
Appointed chief architect of Algiers in 1849, Chassériau gave up his functions to build, on his plans, in this city, with the assistance of Mr. Sarlin and Mr. Ponsard, the theater which rises on the Bresson square. In 1869. he resumed his job as chief architect, and kept it until 1870, when he was dismissed, with part of his service, as a result of a new organization. He was appointed in August 1870, Adjutant Major Captain of the Legion of Algiers (Militia of the Commune of Algiers).
In Algiers, he was appointed three times chief architect of the city of Algiers (1849, 1859 and 1874) and retired in 1882. Chassériau died at the age of 94 years. He was then the dean of the Saint Cyrians.
Chassériau is known mainly as the author of the Boulevard de l'Impératrice and the seafront of Algiers which were inaugurated in 1865 by the emperor Napoleon III and the impératrice Eugénie.
Family
Son of the Napoleonic general and baron Victor Frédéric Chassériau, he was the father of three children, including the art collector Arthur Chassériau. His other relatives included the painter Théodore Chassériau, whose 1846 portrait of Charles Frédéric's wife Joséphine is now in the Art Institute of Chicago.
Drawings in museums
Triclinium découvert de la maison dite d'Actéon á Pompéi - Pen and black ink; watercolor, New York City, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Projet d'établissement d'un marché aux fleurs et aux fruits, quai aux Fleurs, près le palais de Justice, adressé à monsieur le comte de Chabrol de Volvic, préfet du département de la Seine – Pen and black ink; watercolor (1828), Paris, Musée Carnavalet
Plans du Palais de justice d'Alger présentée à l'Empereur Napoléon III – Pen and black ink (1865), Algiers, National Museum of Fine Arts of Algiers
Fragments des haut reliefs de l'arc de Triomphe de Marseille – 3 drawings, Musée du Vieux Marseille
Gallery
Awards
The Rampe Frédéric Chassériau in Algiers in homage to the architect: street in Algiers parallel to the port and close to the Agha train station.
Member of the Academie de Marseille, chair n°33 – 1839
Dean of the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr at his death in 1896.
Corresponding member of the Institut historique de Paris- 1834 (5 class – History of Fine Arts under the presidency of Louis-Pierre Baltard).
Perpetual member in 1854 of the Taylor Foundation.
Member of the Society for the Exploration of Carthage, founded in 1837 by Adolphe Dureau de la Malle.
Member of the National Society for the Protection of Nature (1859)
Donor of the National Museum of Fine Arts of Algiers: in May 1860, donation of a large bronze statue of the Emperor Commodus
Bibliography
"Le Glaive et le Compas - Charles-Frédéric Chassériau (1802-1896), de Pompéi à Alger, le parcours d’un architecte français" par Jean-Baptiste Nouvion, Préface de Dominique de Font-Réaulx, LAC Editions, 2022
"La Cour des comptes au Palais d'Orsay. Chronique d'un drame de pierre" par Jean-Michel Leniaud, directeur d’études à l’École pratique des hautes études et professeur à l’École nationale des chartes, La Documentation Française, 2021 ()
"Architecture urbaine et urbanisme en Algérie sous le Second empire : le cas de l’architecte Charles-Frédéric Chassériau (1802-1896)" par Gérard Monnier, (Culture et création dans l’Architecture provinciale de Louis XIV à Napoléon III) – Travaux et colloques de l’Institut d’Art, Aix-en-Provence, Publications de l'université de Provence, 1983
"A Drawing by Chassériau" par Joan R. Mertens, Metropolitan Museum Journal, Vol. 15, éd. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980 ()
"Une façade pour Alger : le boulevard de l’Impératrice", Catalogue de l'exposition'' par Federico Cresti, Paris, Palais de la Porte Dorée 25 juin-14 septembre 2003, Les éditions de l’Imprimeur, 2003
"Alger : Ville & architecture 1830-1940" par Claudine Piaton, Juliette Hueber, Boussad Aiche et Thierry Lochard ; avec les contributions de Malik Chebahi et Nabila Cherif ; photographies d'Arnaud du Boistesselin. Arles : Éditions Honoré Clair ; Alger : Éditions Barzakh, 2016 ()
"Destin d’Alger" par Jean Alazard, Revue des Deux Mondes (15 février 1951) ()
"Die Bildenden Künstler aller Zeiten und Völker" Register zu den Bänden 11–20, K.G. Saur Verlag, München, 1998 ( Haiti Architekt 1802 Chassériau, Charles)
References
1802 births
1896 deaths
Charles
École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr alumni
Lycée Henri-IV alumni
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Artists from Port-au-Prince
Haitian people of French descent
People from Saint-Domingue
19th-century French architects
French urban planners
19th-century French painters |
2047567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20in%20country%20music | 1984 in country music | This is a list of notable events in country music that took place in the year 1984.
Events
June 22 — The movie Rhinestone, starring Dolly Parton and Sylvester Stallone, is released to universally negative reviews. The much-hyped movie – about a singer's effort to transform a New York City taxicab driver into a country star within two weeks – flops, but still produces several hit singles, most notably the No. 1 hit "Tennessee Homesick Blues".
July 28 — With his No. 1 hit "Angel in Disguise", Earl Thomas Conley becomes the first artist in any genre to have four Billboard chart-topping songs from the same album. The album in question is Don't Make it Easy For Me, and in addition to "Angel in Disguise" and the title track, Conley also hit with 1983's "Your Love's on the Line" and "Holding Her and Loving You". The feat is part of Conley's impressive 1980s streak, where he enjoyed 16 No. 1 hits through 1989.
September 11 — Barbara Mandrell is seriously injured in a car accident. She suffers multiple injuries and takes an 18-month sabbatical from performing to recover.
Top hits of the year
Singles released by American artists
Singles released by Canadian artists
Top new album releases
Other top albums
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! US
! Album
! Artist
! Record Label
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 47
| Building Bridges
| Larry Willoughby
| Atlantic America
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 33
| By Request
| George Jones
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 55
| Can't Slow Down
| Lionel Richie
| Motown
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 42
| Can't Wait All Night
| Juice Newton
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 29
| Charly
| Charly McClain
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 31
| Christmas at Our House
| Barbara Mandrell
| MCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 56
| Day by Day
| McGuffey Lane
| Atlantic America
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 55
| Do I Ever Cross Your Mind
| Ray Charles
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 43
| Duets
| Kenny Rogers, Sheena EastonDottie West & Kim Carnes
| Liberty
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 55
| Easy Street
| The Wright Brothers
| Mercury/PolyGram
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 63
| Fallen Angel
| Gus Hardin
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 45
| First Time Live
| George Jones
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 35
| Foolin' with Fire
| Johnny Rodriguez
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 46
| For the Record: The First 10 Years
| David Allan Coe
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 55
| A Golden Celebration
| Elvis Presley
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 45
| Golden Duets–The Best of Frizzell & West
| David Frizzell & Shelly West
| Viva
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 28
| Greatest Hits
| John Anderson
| Warner Bros.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 64
| Greatest Hits
| Juice Newton
| Capitol
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 40
| Hearts on Fire
| Karen Brooks
| Warner Bros.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 57
| ''Highrollin| The Maines Brothers Band
| Mercury/PolyGram
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 41
| His Epic Hits: The First 11 (To Be Continued...)
| Merle Haggard
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 41
| Homecoming
| Ed Bruce
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 41
| I Could Use Another You
| Eddy Raven
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 58
| I Still Do
| Bill Medley
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 54
| I'm Not Through Loving You Yet
| Louise Mandrell
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 33
| In Session
| David Frizzell & Shelly West
| Viva
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 41
| Julio
| Julio Iglesias
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 63
| Karen
| Karen Taylor-Good
| Mesa
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 42
| Kathy Mattea
| Kathy Mattea
| Mercury/PolyGram
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 52
| Let Me Be the First
| Deborah Allen
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 30
| Letter to Home
| Glen Campbell
| Atlantic America
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 34
| Little by Little
| Gene Watson
| MCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 40
| Love Is on the Radio
| Tom Jones
| Mercury/PolyGram
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 26
| Magic
| Mark Gray
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 64
| Mel McDaniel with Oklahoma Wind
| Mel McDaniel
| Capitol
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 36
| The Midnight Hour
| Razzy Bailey
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 45
| Motel Matches
| Moe Bandy
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 42
| Natural Dreams
| Tom T. Hall
| Mercury/PolyGram
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 62
| New Beginnings
| David Wills
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 34
| New Patches
| Mel Tillis
| MCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 26
| One Owner Heart
| T. G. Sheppard
| Warner Bros.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 57
| One Way Rider
| The Osmond Brothers
| Warner Bros./Curb
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 49
| Power of Love
| Charley Pride
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 32
| Rhinestone (Soundtrack)
| Dolly Parton and various artists
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 40
| Shining
| B. J. Thomas
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 65
| Soft Talk
| Mac Davis
| Casablanca
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 40
| Surprise
| Sylvia
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 56
| Ten Years of Hits
| Mickey Gilley
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 33
| This Ol' Piano
| Mark Gray
| Columbia
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 34
| Too Good to Stop Now
| Mickey Gilley
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 64
| Turn Me Loose
| Vince Gill
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 27
| Waylon's Greatest Hits, Vol. 2
| Waylon Jennings
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 57
| Where Is a Woman to Go
| Gail Davies
| RCA
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 33
| Willing
| Ronnie McDowell
| Epic
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 47
| Writers in Disguise
| Pinkard & Bowden
| Warner Bros.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 61
| You and I – Classic Country Duets
| Various Artists
| Warner Bros.
|}
On television
Regular series
Hee Haw (1969–1993, syndicated)
That Nashville Music (1970–1985, syndicated)
Specials
Births
February 5 – Tyler Farr, singer-songwriter since the mid-2010s, with hits including "Whiskey in My Water" and "Redneck Crazy".
March 10 – Ruthie Collins, singer-songwriter and recording artist based in Nashville, Tennessee.
March 30 – Justin Moore, singer-songwriter from the late 2000s onward, who had hits including "Small Town USA" and "If Heaven Wasn't So Far Away".
April 19 – Matt Stell, singer-songwriter better known for his 2019 single "Prayed for You".
August 3 – Whitney Duncan, country music singer and reality TV contestant.
November 26 – Mike Gossin, member of Gloriana.
December 8 – Sam Hunt, singer-songwriter of the 2010s ("Leave the Night On").
Deaths
January 28 — Al Dexter, 81, early honky tonk stylist best known for "Pistol Packin' Mama."
May 11 — Nudie Cohen, 81, famous costume designer for country stars.
July 30 - Jack Benny Lynn, 34, Son of Loretta Lynn and Oliver Lynn passes away after trying to ford the duck river at his parents Ranch in Hurricane Mills, TN. Lynn was 34 years of age and left behind a wife and 2 children. His mother, Loretta Lynn would not perform for another year after his death.
September 6 — Ernest Tubb, 70, the "Texas Trubador" and a superstar since the 1940s (emphysema).
December 26 — Sheila Andrews, 31, late 70s singer with several minor hits.
Hall of Fame inductees
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Ralph S. Peer (1892–1960)
Floyd Tillman (1914–2003)
Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Wilf Carter
Tommy Hunter
Orval Prophet
William Harold Moon
Major awards
Grammy AwardsBest Female Country Vocal Performance — "In My Dreams", Emmylou HarrisBest Male Country Vocal Performance — "That's the Way Love Goes", Merle HaggardBest Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal — "Mama He's Crazy", The JuddsBest Country Instrumental Performance — "Wheel Hoss", Ricky SkaggsBest Country Song — "City of New Orleans", Steve Goodman (Performer: Willie Nelson)
Juno AwardsCountry Male Vocalist of the Year — Murray McLauchlanCountry Female Vocalist of the Year — Anne MurrayCountry Group or Duo of the Year — The Good Brothers
Academy of Country MusicEntertainer of the Year — AlabamaSong of the Year — "Why Not Me", Harlan Howard, Brent Maher and Sonny Throckmorton (Performer: The Judds)Single of the Year — "To All the Girls I've Loved Before", Willie Nelson and Julio IglesiasAlbum of the Year — Roll On, AlabamaTop Male Vocalist — George StraitTop Female Vocalist — Reba McEntireTop Vocal Duo — The JuddsTop Vocal Group — AlabamaTop New Male Vocalist — Vince GillTop New Female Vocalist — Nicolette LarsonVideo of the Year — "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight", Hank Williams, Jr. (Directors: John Goodhue)
Canadian Country Music AssociationEntertainer of the Year — Ronnie ProphetMale Artist of the Year — Terry CarisseFemale Artist of the Year — Marie BottrellGroup of the Year — Family BrownSOCAN Song of the Year — "Jesus It's Me Again", Dick Damron (Performer: Dick Damron)Single of the Year — "A Little Good News", Anne MurrayAlbum of the Year — Repeat After Me, Family BrownTop Selling Album — Eyes That See in the Dark, Kenny RogersVista Rising Star Award — Roni SummersDuo of the Year — Glory Anne Carriere and Ronnie Prophet
Country Music AssociationEntertainer of the Year — AlabamaSong of the Year — "Wind Beneath My Wings", Larry Henley and Jeff Silbar (Performer: Gary Morris)Single of the Year — "A Little Good News", Anne MurrayAlbum of the Year — A Little Good News, Anne MurrayMale Vocalist of the Year — Lee GreenwoodFemale Vocalist of the Year — Reba McEntireVocal Duo of the Year — Julio Iglesias and Willie NelsonVocal Group of the Year — The Statler BrothersHorizon Award — The JuddsInstrumentalist of the Year — Chet AtkinsInstrumental Group of the Year''' — Ricky Skaggs Band
Further reading
Kingsbury, Paul, "The Grand Ole Opry: History of Country Music. 70 Years of the Songs, the Stars and the Stories," Villard Books, Random House; Opryland USA, 1995
Kingsbury, Paul, "Vinyl Hayride: Country Music Album Covers 1947–1989," Country Music Foundation, 2003 ()
Millard, Bob, "Country Music: 70 Years of America's Favorite Music," HarperCollins, New York, 1993 ()
Whitburn, Joel, "Top Country Songs 1944–2005 – 6th Edition." 2005.
Other links
Country Music Association
Inductees of the Country Music Hall of Fame
External links
Country Music Hall of Fame
Country
Country music by year |
36772726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi%20salute | Nazi salute | The Nazi salute, also known as the Hitler salute (, ; also called by the Nazi Party , 'German greeting', ), or the Sieg Heil salute, is a gesture that was used as a greeting in Nazi Germany. The salute is performed by extending the right arm from the shoulder into the air with a straightened hand. Usually, the person offering the salute would say "Heil Hitler!" (lit. 'Hail Hitler!', ), "Heil, mein Führer!" ('Hail, my leader!'), or "Sieg Heil!" ('Hail victory!'). It was officially adopted by the Nazi Party in 1926, although it had been used within the party as early as 1921, to signal obedience to the party's leader, Adolf Hitler, and to glorify the German nation (and later the German war effort). The salute was mandatory for civilians but mostly optional for military personnel, who retained a traditional military salute until the failed assassination attempt on Hitler on 20 July 1944.
Use of this salute is illegal in modern-day Germany (Strafgesetzbuch section 86a), Austria and Slovakia. The use of any Nazi phrases associated with the salute is also forbidden. In Italy, it is a criminal offence only if used with the intent to "reinstate the defunct National Fascist Party", or to exalt or promote its ideology or members. In Canada and most of Europe (including the Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Ukraine, and Russia), displaying the salute is not in itself a criminal offence, but constitutes hate speech if used for propagating the Nazi ideology. Publicly performing the salute is also illegal in the Australian states of Tasmania and Victoria.
Description
The salute was executed by extending the right arm stiff to an upward 45° angle and then straightening the hand so that it is parallel to the arm. Usually, an utterance of "Sieg Heil", "Heil Hitler!", or "Heil!" accompanied the gesture.
If one saw an acquaintance at a distance, it was enough to simply raise the right hand. If one encountered a superior, one would also say "Heil Hitler". If physical disability prevented raising the right arm, it was acceptable to raise the left.
Hitler gave the salute in two ways. When reviewing his troops or crowds, he generally used the traditional stiff-armed salute. When greeting individuals who saluted, he used a modified version of the salute, bending his right arm at a 90° angle with the elbow facing forward while holding an open hand with the bottom of the palm facing towards those greeted at shoulder height and the face of the palm parallel with the sky. It was also adopted by those with rank who would themselves be saluted.
Origins and adoption
The spoken greeting "Heil" became popular in the pan-German movement around 1900. It was used by the followers of Georg Ritter von Schönerer, head of the Austrian Alldeutsche Partei ("Pan-German Party") who considered himself leader of the Austrian Germans, and who was described by Carl E. Schorske as "The strongest and most thoroughly consistent anti-Semite that Austria produced" before the coming of Hitler. Hitler took both the "Heil" greeting – which was popularly used in his "hometown" of Linz when he was a boy – and the title of "Führer" for the head of the Nazi Party from Schönerer,Kershaw (1999), pp. 34–35 whom he admired.
The extended arm saluting gesture is believed to be based on an ancient Roman custom, but no known Roman work of art depicts it, nor does any extant Roman text describe it. Jacques-Louis David's 1784 painting Oath of the Horatii displayed a raised arm salutatory gesture in an ancient Roman setting.Winkler (2009) pp. 42–44 The gesture and its identification with ancient Rome was advanced in other French neoclassic art.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy introduced the American Pledge of Allegiance, which was to be accompanied by a visually similar saluting gesture, referred to as the Bellamy salute.Because of the resemblance between the American Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, it was replaced in 1942 by a hand-over-the-heart gesture to be used by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem. See: A raised arm gesture was then used in the 1899 American stage production of Ben-Hur, and its 1907 film adaptation. The gesture was further elaborated upon in several early Italian films. Of special note was the 1914 silent film Cabiria, whose screenplay had contributions from the Italian ultra-nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio, arguably a forerunner of Italian Fascism. In 1919, when he led the occupation of Fiume, d'Annunzio used the style of salute depicted in the film as a neo-Imperialist ritual and the Italian Fascist Party quickly adopted it.
By autumn 1923, or perhaps as early as 1921, some members of the Nazi Party were using the rigid, outstretched right arm salute to greet Hitler, who responded by raising his own right hand crooked back at the elbow, palm opened upwards, in a gesture of acceptance. In 1926, the Nazi salute was made compulsory for all party members. It functioned as a display of commitment to the Party and a declaration of principle to the outside world. Gregor Strasser wrote in 1927 that the greeting in and of itself was a pledge of loyalty to Hitler, as well as a symbol of personal dependence on the Führer. Even so, the drive to gain acceptance did not go unchallenged.
Some party members questioned the legitimacy of the so-called Roman salute, employed by Fascist Italy, as un-Germanic. In response, efforts were made to establish its pedigree by inventing a tradition after the fact. In June 1928, Rudolf Hess published an article titled "The Fascist Greeting", which claimed that the gesture was used in Germany as early as 1921, before the Nazis had heard about the Italian Fascists. He admits in the article: "The NSDAP's introduction of the raised-arm greeting approximately two years ago still gets some people's blood boiling. Its opponents suspect the greeting of being un-Germanic. They accuse it of merely aping the [Italian] Fascists", but goes on to ask, "and even if the decree from two years ago [Hess' order that all party members use it] is seen as an adaption of the Fascist gesture, is that really so terrible"? Ian Kershaw points out that Hess did not deny the likely influence from Fascist Italy, even if indeed the salute had been used sporadically in 1921 as Hess claimed.
On the night of 3 January 1942, Hitler said of the origins of the salute:
Nazi chants
Nazi chants like "Heil Hitler!" and "Sieg Heil!" were prevalent across Nazi Germany, sprouting in mass rallies and even regular greetings alike.
In Nazi Germany, the Nazi chants "Heil Hitler!" and "Sieg Heil!" were the formulas used by the regime: when meeting someone it was customary to greet with the words "Heil Hitler!", while "Sieg Heil!" was a verbal salute used at mass rallies. Specifically to the cry of an officer of the word Sieg ('victory'), the crowd responded with Heil ('hail'). For example, at the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, Rudolf Hess ended his climactic speech with the words "The Party is Hitler. But Hitler is Germany, just as Germany is Hitler. Hitler! Sieg Heil!" At his total war speech delivered in 1943, audiences shouted "Sieg Heil!", as Joseph Goebbels solicited from them "a kind of plebiscitary 'Ja to total war (ja meaning 'yes' in German).
On 11 March 1945, less than two months before the capitulation of Nazi Germany, a memorial for the dead of the war was held in Marktschellenberg, a small town near Hitler's Berghof residence. The British historian Ian Kershaw remarks that the power of the Führer cult and the "Hitler Myth" had vanished, which is evident from this report:
The Swing Youth () were a group of middle-class teenagers who consciously separated themselves from Nazism and its culture, greeting each other with "Swing-Heil!" and addressing one another as "old-hot-boy". This playful behaviour was dangerous for participants in the subculture; on 2 January 1942, Heinrich Himmler ordered that the leaders be put in concentration camps to be drilled and beaten.
The form "Heil, mein Führer!" ('Hail, my Leader!') was for direct address to Hitler, while "Sieg Heil" was repeated as a chant on public occasions. Written communications would be concluded with either "mit deutschem Gruß" ("with German regards"), or with "Heil Hitler". In correspondence with high-ranking Nazi officials, letters were usually signed with "Heil Hitler".
From 1933 to 1945
Under a decree issued by Reich Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick on 13 July 1933 (one day before the ban on all non-Nazi parties), all German public employees were required to use the salute. The decree also required the salute during the singing of the national anthem and the "Horst-Wessel-Lied". It stipulated that "anyone not wishing to come under suspicion of behaving in a consciously negative fashion will therefore render the Hitler Greeting," and its use quickly spread as people attempted to avoid being labelled as a dissident. A rider to the decree, added two weeks later, stipulated that if physical disability prevented raising of the right arm, "then it is correct to carry out the Greeting with the left arm." On 27 September, prison inmates were forbidden to use the salute, as were Jews by 1937.
By the end of 1934, special courts were established to punish those who refused to salute. Offenders, such as Protestant preacher Paul Schneider, faced the possibility of being sent to a concentration camp. Foreigners were not exempt from intimidation if they refused to salute. For example, the Portuguese Consul General was beaten by members of the Sturmabteilung for remaining seated in a car and not saluting a procession in Hamburg. Reactions to inappropriate use were not merely violent but sometimes bizarre. For example, a memo dated 23 July 1934 sent to local police stations stated: "There have been reports of traveling vaudeville performers training their monkeys to give the German Greeting. ... see to it that said animals are destroyed."
The salute soon became part of everyday life, a historically unique phenomenon that politicised all communication in Germany for twelve years, superseding all prior forms of greeting, such as "Grüß Gott" ("Hello"), "Guten Tag" ("Good day"), and "Auf Wiederseh(e)n" ("Goodbye"). Postmen used the greeting when they knocked on people's doors to deliver packages or letters. Small metal signs that reminded people to use the Hitler salute were displayed in public squares and on telephone poles and street lights throughout Germany. Department store clerks greeted customers with "Heil Hitler, how may I help you?" Dinner guests brought glasses etched with the words "Heil Hitler" as house gifts. The salute was required of all persons passing the Feldherrnhalle in Munich, site of the climax of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, which the government had made into a shrine to the Nazi dead; so many pedestrians avoided this mandate by detouring through the small Viscardigasse behind that the passage acquired the nickname "Dodgers' Alley" (Drückebergergasse). The daughter of the American Ambassador to Germany, Martha Dodd, describes the first time she saw the salute:
Children were indoctrinated at an early age. Kindergarten children were taught to raise their hand to the proper height by hanging their lunch bags across the raised arm of their teacher. At the beginning of first grade primers was a lesson on how to use the greeting. The greeting found its way into fairy tales, including classics like Sleeping Beauty. Students and teachers would salute each other at the beginning and end of the school day, between classes, or whenever an adult entered the classroom.
In 1935, at the end of Hans Spemann’s acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize, he gave a Nazi salute.
Some athletes used the Nazi salute in the opening ceremony of the 1936 Berlin Olympics as they passed by Hitler in the reviewing stand. This was done by delegates from Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bulgaria, Bolivia, France, Greece, Iceland, Italy and Turkey. The Bulgarian athletes performed the Nazi salute and broke into a goose-step; Turkish athletes maintained the salute all around the track. There is some confusion over the use of the salute, since the stiff-arm Nazi salute could have been mistaken for an Olympic salute, with the right arm held out at a slight angle to the right from the shoulder. According to the American sports writer Jeremy Schaap, only half of the athletes from Austria performed a Nazi salute, while the other half gave an Olympic salute. According to the historian Richard Mandell, there are conflicting reports on whether athletes from France performed a Nazi salute or an Olympic Salute. In football, the England football team bowed to pressure from the British Foreign Office and performed the salute during a friendly match on 14 May 1938.
Jehovah's Witnesses came into conflict with the Nazi regime because they refused to salute Adolf Hitler with the Nazi salute, believing that it conflicted with their worship of God. Because refusing to salute Hitler was considered a crime, Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested, and their children attending school were expelled, detained and separated from their families.
Military use
The Wehrmacht refused to adopt the Hitler salute officially and was able for a time to maintain its customs. A compromise edict from the Reich Defense Ministry, issued on 19 September 1933, required the Hitler salute of soldiers and uniformed civil servants while singing the "Horst-Wessel-Lied" and national anthem, and in non-military encounters both within and outside the Wehrmacht (for example, when greeting members of the civilian government). At all other times they were permitted to use their traditional salutes. However, according to (pre-Nazi) Reichswehr and Wehrmacht protocol, the traditional military salute was prohibited when the saluting soldier was not wearing a uniform headgear (helmet or cap). Because of this, all bareheaded salutes used the Nazi salute, making it de facto mandatory in most situations.
Full adoption of the Hitler salute by the military was discussed in January 1944 at a conference regarding traditions in the military at Hitler's headquarters. Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, head of the Armed Forces, had expressed a desire to standardize the salute across all organizations in Germany. On 23 July 1944, several days after the failed assassination attempt, Goebbels suggested to Hitler that the military be ordered to fully adopt the Hitler salute as a show of loyalty, since Army officers had been responsible for the assassination attempt. Hitler approved the suggestion without emotion, and the order went into effect on 24 July 1944.
On the night of 3 January 1942, Hitler stated the following about the compromise edict of 1933:
Satiric responses
Despite indoctrination and punishment, the salute was ridiculed by some people. Since heil is also the imperative of the German verb heilen ('to heal'), a common joke in Nazi Germany was to reply with, "Is he sick?" "Am I a doctor?" or "You heal him!" Jokes were also made by distorting the phrase. For example, "Heil Hitler" might become "Ein Liter" ('One liter') or "Drei Liter" ('Three Liter').
Cabaret performer Karl Valentin would quip, "It's lucky that Hitler's name wasn't 'Kräuter'. Otherwise, we'd have to go around yelling Heilkräuter ('medicinal herbs')". Similar puns were made involving "-bronn" (rendering "Heilbronn", the name of a German city), and "-butt" (rendering "Heilbutt", the German word for 'halibut').
Satirical use of the salute dates back to anti-Nazi propaganda in Germany before 1933. In 1932, photomontage artist John Heartfield used Hitler's modified version, with the hand bent over the shoulder, in a poster that linked Hitler to Big Business. A giant figure representing right-wing capitalists stands behind Hitler, placing money in his hand, suggesting "backhand" donations. The caption is, "the meaning of the Hitler salute" and "Millions stand behind me". Heartfield was forced to flee in 1933 after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany.
Another example is a cartoon by New Zealand political cartoonist David Low, mocking the Night of the Long Knives. Run in the Evening Standard on 3 July 1934, it shows Hitler with a smoking gun grimacing at terrified SA men with their hands up. The caption reads: "They salute with both hands now". When Achille Starace proposed that Italians should write in letters, Mussolini wrote an editorial in Il Popolo d'Italia mocking the idea.
Post-1945
Today in Germany, Nazi salutes in written form, vocally, and even straight-extending the right arm as a saluting gesture (with or without the phrase), are illegal. The offence is punishable by up to three years in prison (Strafgesetzbuch section 86a). Usage for art, teaching and science is allowed unless "the existence of an insult results from the form of the utterance or the circumstances under which it occurred." Use of the salute, or any phrases associated with the salute, has also been illegal in Austria since the end of World War II.
In Germany, usage that is "ironic and clearly critical of the Hitler Greeting" is exempt, which has led to legal debates as to what constitutes ironic use. One case involved Prince Ernst August of Hanover who was brought to court after using the gesture as a commentary on the behavior of an unduly zealous airport baggage inspector. On 23 November 2007, the Amtsgericht Cottbus sentenced Horst Mahler to six months of imprisonment without parole for having, according to his own claims, ironically performed the Hitler salute when reporting to prison for a nine-month term a year earlier. The following month, a pensioner named Roland T was given a prison term of five months for, amongst other things, training his dog Adolf to raise his right paw in a Nazi salute every time the command "Heil Hitler!" was uttered.
The Supreme Court of Switzerland ruled in 2014 that Nazi salutes do not breach hate crime laws if expressed as one's personal opinion, but only if they are used in attempt to propagate Nazi ideology.
Modified versions of the salute are sometimes used by neo-Nazis. One such version is the so-called "Kühnen salute" with extended thumb, index and middle finger, which is also a criminal offence in Germany. In written correspondence, the number 88 is sometimes used by some neo-Nazis as a substitute for "Heil Hitler" ("H" as the eighth letter of the alphabet). Swiss neo-Nazis were reported to use a variant of the Kühnengruss, though extending one's right arm over their head and extending said three fingers has a different historical source for Switzerland, as the first three Eidgenossen or confederates are often depicted with this motion. Hezbollah supporters in Lebanon often raise their arms in a Nazi-style salute.
The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, a South African neo-Nazi organization known for its militant advocacy of white separatism, has espoused brown uniforms as well as Nazi German-esque flags, insignia, and salutes at meetings and public rallies. Hundreds of supporters in 2010 delivered straight-arm salutes outside the funeral for AWB leader Eugène Terre'Blanche, who was murdered by two black farm workers over an alleged wage dispute.
On 28 May 2012, BBC current affairs programme Panorama examined the issues of racism, antisemitism and football hooliganism, which it claimed were prevalent among Polish and Ukrainian football supporters. The two countries hosted the international football competition UEFA Euro 2012.
On 16 March 2013, Greek footballer Giorgos Katidis of AEK Athens F.C. was handed a life ban from the Greek national team for performing the salute after scoring a goal against Veria F.C. in Athens' Olympic Stadium.
On 18 July 2015, The Sun published an image of the British Royal Family from private film shot in 1933 or 1934, showing Princess Elizabeth (the future Queen, then a young girl) and the Queen Mother both performing a Nazi salute, accompanied by Edward VIII, taken from 17 seconds of home footage (also released by The Sun). The footage ignited controversy in the UK, and there have been questions as to whether the release of this footage was appropriate. Buckingham Palace described the release of this footage as "disappointing", and considered pursuing legal action against The Sun, whereas Stig Abell (managing director of The Sun) said that the footage was "a matter of national historical significance to explore what was going on in the [1930s] ahead of the Second World War". Abell responded to criticism by assuring that The Sun was not suggesting "anything improper on the part of the Queen or indeed the Queen Mum".
American white supremacist Richard B. Spencer drew considerable media attention in the weeks following the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where, at a National Policy Institute conference, he quoted from Nazi propaganda and denounced Jews. In response to his cry "Hail Trump, hail our people, hail victory!", a number of his supporters gave the Nazi salute and chanted in a similar fashion to the Sieg Heil chant.
CNN fired political commentator Jeffrey Lord on 10 August 2017, after he tweeted "Sieg Heil!" to Angelo Carusone, president of Media Matters for America, suggesting Carusone was a fascist.
In August 2021, a Michigan man named Paul Marcum gave the Nazi salute during a dispute over mask mandates and was fired from his job as a tennis instructor after Birmingham Public Schools announced that it would not tolerate any acts of racism, disrespect, violence, or inequitable treatment of any person.
Incidents involving North American students
On January 31, 2017, multiple students at Cypress Ranch High School in Cypress, Texas, performed both the raised fist salute and the Nazi salute in its "Class Of 2017" photo. The photo was then sent from one of the students to six other students by message and claiming that "some females held the fist while some white males raised the Nazi salute." The incident was reported to the Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District saying that "they are extremely disappointed with the actions," and later made a statement on the district "understanding the serious nature of the incident and appropriate action has been taken at one of its campuses."
In May 2018, students at Baraboo High School, in Baraboo, Wisconsin, appeared to perform a Nazi salute in a photograph taken before their junior prom. The image went viral on social media six months later, sparking outrage. The school decided the students could not be punished because of their First Amendment rights.
In November 2018, a group of students of Pacifica High School of Garden Grove Unified School District in California was shown in a video giving the Nazi salute and singing Erika. The incident took place at an after-hours off-campus student athletics banquet. The school administration did not learn about the incident until March 2019, at which time the students were disciplined. The school did not release details of what the discipline entailed, but released a statement saying that they would continue to deal with the incident "in collaboration with agencies dedicated to anti-bias education." On 20 August 2019, the school district announced that it was reopening the investigation into the incident because new photographs and another video has surfaced of the event, along with "new allegations" and "new claims". Parents and teachers criticized the school's administration for their initial secrecy about the incident, for which the school's principal apologized.
In March 2019, students from Newport Beach, California, attending a private party made a swastika from red-and-white plastic party cups and gave Nazi salutes over it. Some of the students may have been from Newport Harbor High School of Newport-Mesa Unified School District, a very large district that encompasses 58 square miles and includes the cities of Newport Beach and Costa Mesa. Officials from the district condemned the students' behavior and said they were working with law enforcement to collect information on the incident.
On February 1, 2022, one of the pupils from Charles H. Best Middle School in North York, a district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, performed a Nazi salute to a Jewish student while another who allegedly built a swastika, which led the Toronto District School Board to launch an investigation, and condemnation by the Simon Wiesenthal Center.
Ku Klux Klan
Among other gestures used by the Ku Klux Klan, the "Klan salute" is similar to the Nazi salute, the difference being that it is performed using the left arm and not the right, and that often the fingers of the hand are splayed and not held tightly together. The four fingers represent the four Ks in "Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". According to the Anti-Defamation League, the Klan salute dates to 1915.
In popular culture
In a running gag in Hogan's Heroes, Colonel Klink often forgets to give the Hitler salute at the end of a phone call; instead, he usually asks, "What's that?" and then says, "Yes, of course, Heil Hitler". In the German-language version of the show, called Ein Käfig voller Helden (A Cage Full of Heroes), Col. Klink and Sgt. Schultz have rural Gomer Pyle-type accents, and stiff-armed salutes are accompanied by such witticisms as: "this is how high the cornflowers grow". The "Heil Hitler" greeting was the variant most often used and associated with the series; "Sieg Heil" was rarely heard.
A related gesture was used by the fictional Nazi-affiliated organization Hydra from Marvel Comics, with both arms outstretched, clenched fists and the phrase "Hail Hydra" uttered by members of the organization.
On the American animated TV sitcom Family Guy, a "Cheesie Charlie's" worker dressed up as a devil welcomed both Peter and Chris to the "dungeon", who performs the Nazi salute shortly after welcoming the two characters (Season 1, Episode 3, "Chitty Chitty Death Bang", first broadcast: April 18, 1999). In another episode, a previously-appearing unnamed character, Quahog's town librarian, is drafted by a committee of townspeople to run for mayor. None of them knows her name, and she introduces herself as "Elle Hitler" ("no relation," she says), and they all stand, extend their arms to salute her with their drinks, and say "Hi, Elle Hitler!" (Season 19, Episode 7, "Wild Wild West", first broadcast: November 22, 2020).
See also
Ave
Bellamy salute
Bras d'honneur
Heil og sæl
Quenelle (gesture)
Raised fist
Roman salute
Zogist salute
Wolf salute
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
1923 introductions
Adolf Hitler
Fascism
Fascist symbols
Hand gestures
Nazi symbolism
Salutes
Symbols of Nazi Germany |
50616227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81nip%C4%81ta%20J%C4%81taka | Mahānipāta Jātaka | The Mahānipāta Jātaka, sometimes translated as the Ten Great Birth Stories of the Buddha, are a set of stories from the Jātaka tales (in the Khuddaka Nikāya) describing the ten final lives of the Bodisattva who would finally be born as Siddhartha Gautama and eventually become Gautama Buddha. These jātaka tales revolve around Benares, the current Varanasi in India. The final ten are the best known of the total 547 jātaka tales. In Cambodia and Thailand, they are known as and , respectively ( or the tales of the 10 rebirths). These render the 10 virtues of mankind, that the enlightenment would reveal. These respective virtues are: renunciation, vigour, benevolence, absolute determination, insight, morality, patience, equanimity, reality and generosity.
Differences in the order of the stories
Synopses
1. Prince Temiya (the crippled mute prince) - Act of renunciation (nekkhamma)
( )
The infant bodhisattva Temiya did not want to be the next king of Benares, so he pretended to be a crippled mute. When Temiya was 16 years of age, King Kasiraya was advised not to name an apparent idiot heir to the throne. The soothsayers spoke: "It will be best to have some unlucky horses yoked to an unlucky chariot and placing him therein, to convey him to the charnel ground and bury him there." On that final day Sunanda, the charioteer, began to dig a hole. The Bodhisattva thought, "This is my time for an effort to escape". He lifted the chariot up high while speaking: "Behold these arms and legs of mine, and hear my voice and what I say; if in this wood you bury me, you will incur great guilt today." The charioteer set him free. So he went straight to the forest to live as an ascetic.
2. Prince Mahajanaka (the lost prince) - Act of vigour (viriya)
( )
Prince Mahajanaka embarked on board a ship bound for Suvarnabhumi, the golden land in the East, with the purpose of regaining his deceased father's Kingdom of Videha. The ship, having been violently tossed on the seas as it sailed its course, could not survive the damage. Planks gave way, the water rose higher and higher, and the ship began to sink in the middle of the ocean. Although knowing the vessel was doomed, Mahajanaka did not panic. He prepared himself for the ordeal by eating until his belly was full. For seven days Mahajanaka floated in the ocean before the goddess Manimekhala observed him in the water. She recognized Mahajanaka and carried him away. Thrilled by heavenly contact, Mahajanaka fell into a sleep.
3. Prince Suvanna Sāma (the devoted prince) - Act of benevolence (mettā)
( )
Sama's parents lost their sight when he was 16 years old. From then on he was their only help. He took care of his parents. Every day he went to the Migasammata River to gather fruit and took water in a pot. At that time King Piliyakkha of Benares, in his great desire for venison, also came to the river and at last reached the spot where Sama stood. Seeing Sama taming the wild animals, the King was wondering whether the creature was a god or a Nāga. To find out, he decided to wound and disable him, and then ask. The King shot a poisoned arrow and wounded Sama, who fell to the ground. Sama spoke: "I have no enmity against anyone. Who has wounded me?" The King went to Sama and asked him his name. Sama then told the King the story of fostering his blind parents. The King thought to himself, "I have done evil to such a holy being; how can I comfort him?" He decided to bring the blind parents to their son. In the meantime the goddess Bahusodari decided to help Sama and his parents. In the end Sama recovered from his wound and both of his parents' sight was restored.
4. Prince Nemi (the noble king) - Act of absolute determination (adhiṭṭhāna)
( )
Nemi, as king of Videha, yearned to know the answer to his question: "Which is more fruitful, the holy life or almsgiving?" God Śakra (Buddhism) said: "Although holy living is more fruitful by far than almsgiving, yet both these are important." The deities of heaven longed to see King Nimi. God Sakka sent Matali, the charioteer, to bring Nimi to Sakka's Heaven. On his way, King Nimi chose first to see Hell and later Heaven. When Nimi saw all the suffering in Hell, he was terrified. Later they arrived at Sudhamma Hall— the assembly hall of the 33 gods in Heaven. Nimi discoursed with the gods for seven days but refused to live in this Heaven forever. Thereafter he returned to the world of men. He told his people about the happiness of the gods, and exhorted them to give alms and do good so they would be reborn in that divine place.
5. Prince Mahosadha (the clever sage) - Act of insight (paññā)
( )
Mahosadha was a sage and minister to King Vedeha of Mithila. King Culani of Kampilla, a rival kingdom, had a sage called Kevatta. After a failed attempt to conquer the whole of India, Kevatta had a plan to kill King Vedeha. Culani's beautiful daughter, Pancala-candi should seduce King Vedeha. Despite Mahosadha's warning, King Vedeha began to plan his journey to Culani's kingdom. Four months in advance of the arrival of King Vedeha, Mahosadha started to build a palace one mile outside the capital Uttara-pancala. This palace had a secret tunnel, which led to the Ganges River and to Culani's palace. When King Vedeha arrived at his new palace, King Culani's troops surrounded it. Reacting to this threat, Mahosadha sent King Vedeha through the tunnel to the Ganges River, and troops to Culani's palace. These troops tricked Culani's family to go through the tunnel to the Ganges River. King Vedeha and Culani's family went by boat to the Kingdom of Mithila. Soon after Culani learned of the disappearance of King Vedeha and his family. When King Culani met Mahosadha, he realized that he could not hurt him, because his family had been taken hostage. But when both men walked through the tunnel, Mahosadha immediately took the sword, which he had hidden the day before. He swung his sword up high and shouted: "Sire, whose are all the kingdoms of India?" King Culani replied: "Yours, wise sir! Spare me!" Mahosadha said: "Be not troubled, sire: queen, son and mother all come back, my return is the only condition." Then Mahosadha handed over his sword to the king. At last the two men swore a sincere friendship.
6. Prince Bhūridatta (the Naga prince) - Act of morality (sīla)
( )
Nāga Prince Bhūridatta had found an ant hill near the Yamuna river. Every night he folded his body on top of this ant hill. Alambayana, a snake charmer captured the Naga prince with ease, because Bhuridatta had said of himself: "Let who will take my skin or muscles or bones or blood." Alambayana forced him into a basket and went to a certain village. He set the basket down in the middle of the marketplace and ordered the Naga prince to come out. The great snake danced causing great wonder among the villagers. When they went from village to village, they earned a lot of money. Then they reached Benares. Bhuridatta's wife and mother had missed him so very much. They sent his brother Sudassana to search for him. When he arrived in Benares, the people were gathering to watch the snake show. When Bhuridatta lifted his head out of the basket, he saw his brother in the crowd. He went to him, placed his head on his brother's foot and wept. At last Alambayana exclaimed three times: "I will set the snake prince free."
7. Prince Canda Kumara (the honorable prince) - Act of patience (khanti)
( )
Prince Canda Kumara served his father, King Ekaraja of Pupphavati as a viceroy. Khandahala, a Brahmin, was the family priest. The King had a high opinion of his wisdom and made him a judge. But he took bribes and dispossessed the real owners and put the wrong owners in possession. The Prince was the Brahmin's natural foe. One day, the King saw the beautiful heaven in his dream. He asked Khandahala the way to this heaven. Khandahala answered: "It will cost you a lot. You must sacrifice: your sons, queens, merchant princes, bulls, steeds, four pieces of these species, with the proper ritual, this will give you entrance into this heaven." The King, not being of sound mind, gave the order to prepare for a massive sacrifice outside the city. Canda Kumara asked his father not to go through with this sacrifice, though not to save himself, because he was willing to die but for the sake of the innocent victims. The troops rounded up the doomed. When all the preparations were completed they brought Canda Kumara to the sacrificial pit. At that moment Queen Canda Suriya called upon the gods. God Sakka let lightning destroy the royal parasols. Without these parasols there was no longer a sacred ceremony. Whereupon the angry crowd attacked Khandahala and killed him. King Ekajara was sent into exile and Canda Kumara became the new king.
8. Lord Brahma Nārada (the Great Brahma) - Act of equanimity (upekkhā)
( )
Angati was king of the Kingdom of Videha. On the eve of the full moon festival, King Angati went to the deer park to meet Guna Kassapa, a naked ascetic. He asked the rules of good behaviour with respect to parents, teachers, wives, children, the elderly, the Brahmins, the army and his people. Guna replied: "There is no fruit, good or evil, in following the rules of right conduct; there is no other world. All beings are predestined, what then is the use of giving alms." King Angati, convinced of the truth of Guna's words, decided to make no further effort to do good. Narada, who was the Great Brahma of that time, looked down on the earth. He descended to the earth and spoke: "I'm Brahma and I'll tell you that you condemn yourself to hell." Angati replied: "If there is another world for the dead, then give me here five hundred pieces of gold, and I'll give you a thousand pieces of gold in the next world." Narada answered: "Here when a man is a lover of sin, wise men don't entrust a loan to him: there is no return from such a debtor." Narada described Hell with its endless torments. Angati was trembling with fear. He looked for the Bodhisatta for help and asked him how he could regain his senses. Narada then told him that while he was King and in good health, he was not providing for the poor, the hungry, the aged and the Brahmins. King Angati begged for forgiveness. Narada sped back to the brahma world.
9. Vidhura Panditta (the eloquent sage) - Act of reality (sacca)
( )
King Dhananjaya lived in the city of Indapatta in the Kingdom of Kuru. Vidhura Panditta (the Bodhisatta) who was his sage, had a great eloquence in discoursing on the law. Naga Queen Vimala longed to hear him speaking. She pretended to be ill and only one thing could cure her. She said she desired Vidhura's heart or she will die. Irandati, the beautiful daughter of King Varuna, was sent out to seek a husband, who could bring Vidhura's heart to her. Punnaka, a yak (or demon) heard her love call and decided to marry her. King Varuna said: "If you bring that sage here then Irandati will be your lawful wife." Punnaka went to Indapatta to meet King Dhananjaya to play a game of dice. Having manipulated three rounds dicing, Punnaka asked for payment—the sage Vidhura. The King agreed to give him away. Punnaka seized Vidhura with a roar and whirled him round his head. Vidhura undismayed asked: "What is your reason for killing me." When Punnaka told him why, the Bodhisatta perceived that a misconception had brought about all this calamity. He said: "Vimala has no need of Vidhura's heart, but she must have felt a great longing to hear my words." The Bodhisatta asked to be brought to the Naga kingdom to clear up this misunderstanding.
10. Prince Vessantara (the charitable prince) - Act of generosity (dāna)
( )
Prince Vessantara lived in the capital city of Jetuttara of the Kingdom of Sivi and was devoted to almsgiving, but was never satisfied with giving. He gave Paccaya, the royal white elephant, to the neighboring Kingdom of Kalinga, affected by drought. The people were so angry about it, that King Sanjaya had to send away his son. Before Prince Vessantara and his wife and two children went into exile, he gave away all his possessions. On the road travelling by horse and buggy, he gave them to a Brahmin. So the four went through the jungle on foot to Mount Vamka. Jujaka (Thai: Chuchok) a poor old Brahmin lived in the village of Dunnivittha with Ammittada, a beautiful young woman. Jujaka, prompted by his wife, wanted to look for the whereabouts of Vessantara. After Jujaka had asked for Kanha and Jali, Vessantara's children, they hid in a pond. Vessantara asked the children to come out of the pond and go with Jujaka. God Sakka changed shape and stopped Vessantara who also gave away his wife. While Jujaka was asleep, a god and a goddess, who were changed to the father and mother, took care of the two children. After King Sanjaya had bought back his two grandchildren, they went with Queen Phusati to Mount Vamka. Prince Vessantara returned with his whole family from Mount Vamka. Back in the city of Jetutthara they were warmly welcomed.
References
(en) - Jataka - volume VI, 305 pages, translated by E.B. Cowell and W.H.D. Rouse, The Cambridge University Press, 1907. (This text is in the public domain in the US, because it was published prior to 1923)
(th) The last 10 jataka before the Buddha,
Photos of the murals with accompanying texts are of the sala (pavilion) of temple "bridge three" (Thai: วัดสะพานสาม wat saphan saam), Phitsanulok, Thailand, 2015. License CC-BY-SA-4.0 confers on May 17, 2016.
Further reading
"Wagner, Thai-style" Bangkok Post (25 August 2016): Somtow Sucharitkul's The Silent Prince as the first of the 10 operas of his dasjati cycle telling the "Ten Lives Of The Buddha".
Appleton, Naomi; Shaw, Sarah. The Ten Great Birth Stories of the Buddha: The Mahanipata of the Jatakatthavanonoana; Silkworm Books, (2016)
Thai literature
Indian folklore
Indian literature
Indian fairy tales
Indian legends |
28899252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenoptera%20in%20the%2010th%20edition%20of%20Systema%20Naturae | Hymenoptera in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae | In the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus classified the arthropods, including insects, arachnids and crustaceans, among his class "Insecta". Insects with membranous wings, including bees, wasps and ants were brought together under the name Hymenoptera.
Cynips (gall wasps)
Cynips rosae – Diplolepis rosae
Cynips hieracii – Aulacidea hieracii
Cynips glechomae – Liposthenes glechomae
Cynips quercus baccarum – Neuroterus quercusbaccarum
Cynips quercus folii – Cynips quercusfolii
Cynips quercus petioli
Cynips quercus pedunculi
Cynips quercus gemmae
Cynips fagi
Cynips viminalis
Cynips salicis strobili
Cynips amerinae – Euura amerinae
Cynips psenes – Blastophaga psenes
Cynips sycomori – Sycophaga sycomori
Tenthredo (sawflies)
Tenthredo femorata – Cimbex femoratus
Tenthredo lutea – Cimbex luteus
Tenthredo amerinae – Pseudoclavellaria amerinae
Tenthredo lucorum – Trichiosoma lucorum
Tenthredo fasciata – Abia fasciata
Tenthredo americana – Incalia americana
Tenthredo nitens – Abia nitens
Tenthredo pini – Diprion pini
Tenthredo juniperi – Monoctenus juniperi
Tenthredo ustulata – Arge ustulata
Tenthredo rustica – Arge rustica
Tenthredo scrophulariae
Tenthredo pratensis – Dolerus pratensis
Tenthredo cerasi – Caliroa cerasi
Tenthredo salicis – Nematus salicis
Tenthredo mesomela
Tenthredo rufipes – Macrophya rufipes
Tenthredo campestris
Tenthredo atra – Tenthredella atra
Tenthredo viridis – Rhogogaster viridis
Tenthredo rosae – Athalia rosae
Tenthredo cincta – Allantus cinctus
Tenthredo livida
Tenthredo septentrionalis – Craesus septentrionalis
Tenthredo 12-punctata – Macrophya duodecimpunctata
Tenthredo erythrocephala – Acantholyda erythrocephala
Tenthredo abietis – Cephalcia abietis
Tenthredo sylvatica – Pamphilus sylvaticus
Tenthredo nemoralis – Neurotoma nemoralis
Tenthredo cynosbati – ?
Tenthredo reticulata – Caenolyda reticulata
Tenthredo betulae – Pamphilus betulae
Tenthredo saltuum – Neurotoma saltuum
Tenthredo intercus – ?
Tenthredo rumicis – Polynematus annulatus
Tenthredo ulmi – Cladius ulmi
Tenthredo alni – Craesus septentrionalis
Tenthredo pruni – Pareophora pruni
Tenthredo lonicerae – Abia lonicerae
Tenthredo capreae – Nematus salicis
Ichneumon (ichneumon wasps)
Ichneumon gigas
Ichneumon spectrum – Xeris spectrum
Ichneumon juvencus – Sirex juvencus
Ichneumon camelus
Ichneumon ugillatorius
Ichneumon raptorius – Diphyus raptorius
Ichneumon sarcitorius – Ichneumon sarcitorius
Ichneumon extensorius
Ichneumon culpatorius – Probolus culpatorius
Ichneumon constrictorius
Ichneumon saturatorius – Vulgichneumon saturatorius
Ichneumon crispatorius – Eutanyacra crispatorius
Ichneumon pisorius
Ichneumon luctatorius – Diphyus luctatorius
Ichneumon volutatorius – Banchus volutatorius
Ichneumon vaginatorius
Ichneumon persvasorius – Rhyssa persuasoria
Ichneumon designatorius
Ichneumon edictorius – Ctenichneumon edictorius
Ichneumon deliratorius – Coelichneumon deliratorius
Ichneumon fossorius
Ichneumon ariolator
Ichneumon comitator – Coelichneumon comitator
Ichneumon peregrinator – Barichneumon peregrinator
Ichneumon incubitor – Gambrus incubitor
Ichneumon reluctator – Echthrus reluctator
Ichneumon denigrator
Ichneumon desertor
Ichneumon coruscator – Cratichneumon coruscator
Ichneumon manifestator – Ephialtes manifestator
Ichneumon compunctor – Apechthis compunctor
Ichneumon delusor – Syntactus delusor
Ichneumon venator
Ichneumon extensor
Ichneumon exarator
Ichneumon turionellae – Pimpla turionellae
Ichneumon strobilellae
Ichneumon moderator
Ichneumon resinellae
Ichneumon praerogator
Ichneumon mandator – Agrothereutes mandator
Ichneumon titillator – Meringopus titillator
Ichneumon enervator
Ichneumon gravidator
Ichneumon inculcator – Itamoplex inculcator
Ichneumon pugillator – Dusona pugillator
Ichneumon ruspator
Ichneumon jaculator
Ichneumon assectator
Ichneumon appendigaster
Ichneumon luteus – Ophion luteus
Ichneumon ramidulus – Enicospilus ramidulus
Ichneumon glaucopterus – Opheltes glaucopterus
Ichneumon circumflexus – Therion circumfiexum
Ichneumon cinctus – Gelis cinctus
Ichneumon muscarum
Ichneumon bedeguaris
Ichneumon juniperi
Ichneumon puparum
Ichneumon larvarum
Ichneumon cyniphidis
Ichneumon coccorum
Ichneumon secalis
Ichneumon subcutaneus
Ichneumon aphidum
Ichneumon ovulorum
Ichneumon globatus
Ichneumon glomeratus
Ichneumon pectinicornis
Sphex (digger wasps)
Sphex argillacea – Zeta argillaceum
Sphex sabulosa – Ammophila sabulosa
Sphex asiatica – Sceliphron asiaticum
Sphex fervens
Sphex inda
Sphex clavipes
Sphex spirifex & Sphex aegyptia – Sceliphron spirifex
Sphex figulus
Sphex viatica
Sphex pectinipes
Sphex variegata
Sphex indica
Sphex tropica
Sphex colon
Sphex gibba
Sphex rufipes
Sphex arenaria
Sphex fossoria
Sphex leucostoma
Sphex vaga
Sphex caerulea
Sphex ignita
Sphex aurata
Sphex cyanea
Vespa (hornets & wasps)
Vespa crabro – European hornet
Vespa vulgaris – Vespula vulgaris, common wasp
Vespa rufa – Vespula rufa
Vespa parietum
Vespa muraria
Vespa cribraria
Vespa spinipes
Vespa rupestris
Vespa coarctata
Vespa arvensis
Vespa biglumis
Vespa uniglumis
Vespa cornuta
Vespa signata
Vespa canadensis
Vespa emarginata
Vespa calida
Apis (bees)
Apis longicornis
Apis tumulorum
Apis clavicornis
Apis centuncularis
Apis cineraria
Apis surinamensis – Eufriesea surinamensis
Apis retusa
Apis rufa
Apis bicornis
Apis truncorum
Apis dentata – Exaerete dentata
Apis cordata – Euglossa cordata
Apis helvola
Apis succincta
Apis zonata
Apis caerulescens
Apis mellifera – Western honey bee
Apis subterranea
Apis variegata
Apis rostrata
Apis manicata
Apis quadridentata
Apis florisomuis
Apis conica
Apis annulata
Apis ruficornis
Apis ichneumonea
Apis cariosa
Apis violacea – Xylocopa violacea, violet carpenter bee
Apis terrestris – Bombus terrestris, buff-tailed bumblebee
Apis lapidaria – Bombus lapidarius, red-tailed bumblebee
Apis muscorum – Bombus muscorum, moss carder bee
Apis hypnorum – Bombus hypnorum, new garden bumblebee
Apis acervorum
Apis subterranea – Bombus subterraneus, short-haired bumblebee
Apis surinamensis
Apis aestuans
Apis tropica
Apis alpina – Bombus alpinus
Formica (ants)
Formica herculeana – Camponotus herculeana
Formica rufa
Formica fusca
Formica nigra – Lasius nigra
Formica obsoleta
Formica rubra – Myrmica rubra
Formica pharaonis – Monomorium pharaonis
Formica salomonis – Monomorium salomonis
Formica saccharivora
Formica caespitum – Tetramorium caespitum
Formica omnivora
Formica bidens – Dolichoderus bidens
Formica sexdens – Atta sexdens
Formica cephalotes – Atta cephalotes
Formica atrata – Cephalotes atratus
Formica haematoda – Odontomachus haematodus
Formica foetida – Pachycondyla foetida
Mutilla (velvet ants)
Mutilla occidentalis – Dasymutilla occidentalis
Mutilla americana – Traumatomutilla americana
Mutilla indica
Mutilla europaea
Mutilla barbara – Ronisia barbara
Mutilla maura – Dasylabris maura
Mutilla acarorum – Gelis acarorum
Mutilla formicaria – Gelis formicarius
Notes
References
10th edition of Systema Naturae
Systema Naturae, Hymenoptera |
47515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud | Cloud | In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of miniature liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or other particles suspended in the atmosphere of a planetary body or similar space. Water or various other chemicals may compose the droplets and crystals. On Earth, clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point, or when it gains sufficient moisture (usually in the form of water vapor) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature.
Clouds are seen in the Earth's homosphere, which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Nephology is the science of clouds, which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology. There are two methods of naming clouds in their respective layers of the homosphere, Latin and common name.
Genus types in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have Latin names because of the universal adoption of Luke Howard's nomenclature that was formally proposed in 1802. It became the basis of a modern international system that divides clouds into five physical forms which can be further divided or classified into altitude levels to derive ten basic genera. The main representative cloud types for each of these forms are stratiform, cumuliform, stratocumuliform, cumulonimbiform, and cirriform. Low-level clouds do not have any altitude-related prefixes. However mid-level stratiform and stratocumuliform types are given the prefix alto- while high-level variants of these same two forms carry the prefix cirro-. In both cases, strato- is dropped from the latter form to avoid double-prefixing. Genus types with sufficient vertical extent to occupy more than one level do not carry any altitude-related prefixes. They are classified formally as low- or mid-level depending on the altitude at which each initially forms, and are also more informally characterized as multi-level or vertical. Most of the ten genera derived by this method of classification can be subdivided into species and further subdivided into varieties. Very low stratiform clouds that extend down to the Earth's surface are given the common names fog and mist, but have no Latin names.
In the stratosphere and mesosphere, clouds have common names for their main types. They may have the appearance of stratiform veils or sheets, cirriform wisps, or stratocumuliform bands or ripples. They are seen infrequently, mostly in the polar regions of Earth. Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond. However, due to their different temperature characteristics, they are often composed of other substances such as methane, ammonia, and sulfuric acid, as well as water.
Tropospheric clouds can have a direct effect on climate change on Earth. They may reflect incoming rays from the sun which can contribute to a cooling effect where and when these clouds occur, or trap longer wave radiation that reflects back up from the Earth's surface which can cause a warming effect. The altitude, form, and thickness of the clouds are the main factors that affect the local heating or cooling of the Earth and the atmosphere. Clouds that form above the troposphere are too scarce and too thin to have any influence on climate change. Clouds are the main uncertainty in climate sensitivity.
Etymology
The origin of the term "cloud" can be found in the Old English words or , meaning a hill or a mass of stone. Around the beginning of the 13th century, the word came to be used as a metaphor for rain clouds, because of the similarity in appearance between a mass of rock and cumulus heap cloud. Over time, the metaphoric usage of the word supplanted the Old English , which had been the literal term for clouds in general.
Homospheric nomenclatures and cross-classification
The table that follows is very broad in scope like the cloud genera template upon which it is partly based. There are some variations in styles of nomenclature between the classification scheme used for the troposphere (strict Latin except for surface-based aerosols) and the higher levels of the homosphere (common terms, some informally derived from Latin). However, the schemes presented here share a cross-classification of physical forms and altitude levels to derive the 10 tropospheric genera, the fog and mist that forms at surface level, and several additional major types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes four species that indicate vertical size which can affect the altitude levels.
History of cloud science
Ancient cloud studies were not made in isolation, but were observed in combination with other weather elements and even other natural sciences. Around 340 BC, Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote Meteorologica, a work which represented the sum of knowledge of the time about natural science, including weather and climate. For the first time, precipitation and the clouds from which precipitation fell were called meteors, which originate from the Greek word meteoros, meaning 'high in the sky'. From that word came the modern term meteorology, the study of clouds and weather. Meteorologica was based on intuition and simple observation, but not on what is now considered the scientific method. Nevertheless, it was the first known work that attempted to treat a broad range of meteorological topics in a systematic way, especially the hydrological cycle.
After centuries of speculative theories about the formation and behavior of clouds, the first truly scientific studies were undertaken by Luke Howard in England and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in France. Howard was a methodical observer with a strong grounding in the Latin language, and used his background to formally classify the various tropospheric cloud types during 1802. He believed that scientific observations of the changing cloud forms in the sky could unlock the key to weather forecasting.
Lamarck had worked independently on cloud classification the same year and had come up with a different naming scheme that failed to make an impression even in his home country of France because it used unusually descriptive and informal French names and phrases for cloud types. His system of nomenclature included 12 categories of clouds, with such names as (translated from French) hazy clouds, dappled clouds, and broom-like clouds. By contrast, Howard used universally accepted Latin, which caught on quickly after it was published in 1803. As a sign of the popularity of the naming scheme, German dramatist and poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe composed four poems about clouds, dedicating them to Howard.
An elaboration of Howard's system was eventually formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference in 1891. This system covered only the tropospheric cloud types. However, the discovery of clouds above the troposphere during the late 19th century eventually led to the creation of separate classification schemes that reverted to the use of descriptive common names and phrases that somewhat recalled Lamarck's methods of classification. These very high clouds, although classified by these different methods, are nevertheless broadly similar to some cloud forms identified in the troposphere with Latin names.
Formation
Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of the homosphere, which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Within these layers of the atmosphere, air can become saturated as a result of being cooled to its dew point or by having moisture added from an adjacent source. In the latter case, saturation occurs when the dew point is raised to the ambient air temperature.
Adiabatic cooling
Adiabatic cooling occurs when one or more of three possible lifting agents – convective, cyclonic/frontal, or orographic – cause a parcel of air containing invisible water vapor to rise and cool to its dew point, the temperature at which the air becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process is adiabatic cooling. As the air is cooled to its dew point and becomes saturated, water vapor normally condenses to form cloud drops. This condensation normally occurs on cloud condensation nuclei such as salt or dust particles that are small enough to be held aloft by normal circulation of the air.
One agent is the convective upward motion of air caused by daytime solar heating at surface level. Low level airmass instability allows for the formation of cumuliform clouds in the troposphere that can produce showers if the air is sufficiently moist. On moderately rare occasions, convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate the tropopause and push the cloud top into the stratosphere.
Frontal and cyclonic lift occur in the troposphere when stable air is forced aloft at weather fronts and around centers of low pressure by a process called convergence. Warm fronts associated with extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus clouds are usually embedded in the main precipitating cloud layer. Cold fronts are usually faster moving and generate a narrower line of clouds, which are mostly stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending on the stability of the warm airmass just ahead of the front.
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). If the air is generally stable, nothing more than lenticular cap clouds form. However, if the air becomes sufficiently moist and unstable, orographic showers or thunderstorms may appear.
Clouds formed by any of these lifting agents are initially seen in the troposphere where these agents are most active. However, water vapor that has been lifted to the top of troposphere can be carried even higher by gravity waves where further condensation can result in the formation of clouds in the stratosphere and mesosphere.
Non-adiabatic cooling
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, three major nonadiabatic mechanisms exist for lowering the temperature of the air to its dew point. Conductive, radiational, and evaporative cooling require no lifting mechanism and can cause condensation at surface level resulting in the formation of fog.
Adding moisture to the air
Several main sources of water vapor can be added to the air as a way of achieving saturation without any cooling process: evaporation from surface water or moist ground, precipitation or virga, and transpiration from plants.
Tropospheric classification
Classification in the troposphere is based on a hierarchy of categories with physical forms and altitude levels at the top. These are cross-classified into a total of ten genus types, most of which can be divided into species and further subdivided into varieties which are at the bottom of the hierarchy.
Clouds in the troposphere assume five physical forms based on structure and process of formation. These forms are commonly used for the purpose of satellite analysis. They are given below in approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity.
Nonconvective stratiform clouds appear in stable airmass conditions and, in general, have flat, sheet-like structures that can form at any altitude in the troposphere. The stratiform group is divided by altitude range into the genera cirrostratus (high-level), altostratus (mid-level), stratus (low-level), and nimbostratus (multi-level). Fog is commonly considered a surface-based cloud layer. The fog may form at surface level in clear air or it may be the result of a very low stratus cloud subsiding to ground or sea level. Conversely, low stratiform clouds result when advection fog is lifted above surface level during breezy conditions.
Cirriform clouds in the troposphere are of the genus cirrus and have the appearance of detached or semi-merged filaments. They form at high tropospheric altitudes in air that is mostly stable with little or no convective activity, although denser patches may occasionally show buildups caused by limited high-level convection where the air is partly unstable. Clouds resembling cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus can be found above the troposphere but are classified separately using common names.
Stratocumuliform clouds both cumuliform and stratiform characteristics in the form of rolls, ripples, or elements. They generally form as a result of limited convection in an otherwise mostly stable airmass topped by an inversion layer. If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the troposphere, increased airmass instability may cause the cloud layers to develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform buildups. The stratocumuliform group is divided into cirrocumulus (high-level, strato- prefix dropped), altocumulus (mid-level, strato- prefix dropped), and stratocumulus (low-level).
Cumuliform clouds generally appear in isolated heaps or tufts. They are the product of localized but generally free-convective lift where no inversion layers are in the troposphere to limit vertical growth. In general, small cumuliform clouds tend to indicate comparatively weak instability. Larger cumuliform types are a sign of greater atmospheric instability and convective activity. Depending on their vertical size, clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with moderate to towering vertical extent.
Cumulonimbus clouds are largest free-convective clouds, which has a towering vertical extent. They occur in highly unstable air and often have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes include anvil tops. These clouds are the product of very strong convection that can penetrate the lower stratosphere.
Levels and genera
Tropospheric clouds form in any of three levels (formerly called étages) based on altitude range above the Earth's surface. The grouping of clouds into levels is commonly done for the purposes of cloud atlases, surface weather observations, and weather maps. The base-height range for each level varies depending on the latitudinal geographical zone. Each altitude level comprises two or three genus-types differentiated mainly by physical form.
The standard levels and genus-types are summarised below in approximate descending order of the altitude at which each is normally based. Multi-level clouds with significant vertical extent are separately listed and summarized in approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity.
High-level
High clouds form at altitudes of in the polar regions, in the temperate regions, and in the tropics. All cirriform clouds are classified as high, thus constitute a single genus cirrus (Ci). Stratocumuliform and stratiform clouds in the high altitude range carry the prefix cirro-, yielding the respective genus names cirrocumulus (Cc) and cirrostratus (Cs). If limited-resolution satellite images of high clouds are analyzed without supporting data from direct human observations, distinguishing between individual forms or genus types becomes impossible, and they are collectively identified as high-type (or informally as cirrus-type, though not all high clouds are of the cirrus form or genus).
Genus cirrus (Ci) – these are mostly fibrous wisps of delicate, white, cirriform, ice crystal clouds that show up clearly against the blue sky. Cirrus are generally non-convective except castellanus and floccus subtypes which show limited convection. They often form along a high altitude jetstream and at the very leading edge of a frontal or low-pressure disturbance where they may merge into cirrostratus. This high-level cloud genus does not produce precipitation.
Genus cirrocumulus (Cc) – this is a pure white high stratocumuliform layer of limited convection. It is composed of ice crystals or supercooled water droplets appearing as small unshaded round masses or flakes in groups or lines with ripples like sand on a beach. Cirrocumulus occasionally forms alongside cirrus and may be accompanied or replaced by cirrostratus clouds near the leading edge of an active weather system. This genus-type occasionally produces virga, precipitation that evaporates below the base of the cloud.
Genus cirrostratus (Cs) – cirrostratus is a thin nonconvective stratiform ice crystal veil that typically gives rise to halos caused by refraction of the sun's rays. The sun and moon are visible in clear outline. Cirrostratus does not produce precipitation, but often thickens into altostratus ahead of a warm front or low-pressure area, which sometimes does.
Mid-level
Nonvertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by alto-, yielding the genus names altocumulus (Ac) for stratocumuliform types and altostratus (As) for stratiform types. These clouds can form as low as above surface at any latitude, but may be based as high as near the poles, at midlatitudes, and in the tropics. As with high clouds, the main genus types are easily identified by the human eye, but distinguishing between them using satellite photography alone is not possible. When the supporting data of human observations are not available, these clouds are usually collectively identified as middle-type on satellite images.
Genus altocumulus (Ac) – This is a midlevel cloud layer of limited convection that is usually appears in the form of irregular patches or more extensive sheets arranged in groups, lines, or waves. Altocumulus may occasionally resemble cirrocumulus, but is usually thicker and composed of a mix of water droplets and ice crystals, so the bases show at least some light-gray shading. Altocumulus can produce virga, very light precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground.
Genus altostratus (As) – Altostratus is a midlevel opaque or translucent nonconvective veil of gray/blue-gray cloud that often forms along warm fronts and around low-pressure areas. Altostratus is usually composed of water droplets, but may be mixed with ice crystals at higher altitudes. Widespread opaque altostratus can produce light continuous or intermittent precipitation.
Low-level
Low clouds are found from near the surface up to . Genus types in this level either have no prefix or carry one that refers to a characteristic other than altitude. Clouds that form in the low level of the troposphere are generally of larger structure than those that form in the middle and high levels, so they can usually be identified by their forms and genus types using satellite photography alone.
Genus stratocumulus (Sc) – This genus type is a stratocumuliform cloud layer of limited convection, usually in the form of irregular patches or more extensive sheets similar to altocumulus but having larger elements with deeper-gray shading. Stratocumulus is often present during wet weather originating from other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own.
Species cumulus humilis – These are small detached fair-weather cumuliform clouds that have nearly horizontal bases and flattened tops, and do not produce rain showers.
Genus stratus (St) – This is a flat or sometimes ragged nonconvective stratiform type that sometimes resembles elevated fog. Only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud, usually drizzle or snow grains. When a very low stratus cloud subsides to surface level, it loses its Latin terminology and is given the common name fog if the prevailing surface visibility is less than . If the visibility is 1 km or higher, the visible condensation is termed mist.
Multi-level or moderate vertical
These clouds have low- to mid-level bases that form anywhere from near the surface to about and tops that can extend into the mid-altitude range and sometimes higher in the case of nimbostratus.
Genus nimbostratus (Ns) – This is a diffuse, dark gray, multi-level stratiform layer with great horizontal extent and usually moderate to deep vertical development that looks feebly illuminated from the inside. Nimbostratus normally forms from mid-level altostratus, and develops at least moderate vertical extent when the base subsides into the low level during precipitation that can reach moderate to heavy intensity. It achieves even greater vertical development when it simultaneously grows upward into the high level due to large-scale frontal or cyclonic lift. The nimbo- prefix refers to its ability to produce continuous rain or snow over a wide area, especially ahead of a warm front. This thick cloud layer lacks any towering structure of its own, but may be accompanied by embedded towering cumuliform or cumulonimbiform types. Meteorologists affiliated with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) officially classify nimbostratus as mid-level for synoptic purposes while informally characterizing it as multi-level. Independent meteorologists and educators appear split between those who largely follow the WMO model and those who classify nimbostratus as low-level, despite its considerable vertical extent and its usual initial formation in the middle altitude range.
Species cumulus mediocris – These cumuliform clouds of free convection have clear-cut, medium-gray, flat bases and white, domed tops in the form of small sproutings and generally do not produce precipitation. They usually form in the low level of the troposphere except during conditions of very low relative humidity, when the clouds bases can rise into the middle-altitude range. Cumulus mediocris is officially classified as low-level and more informally characterized as having moderate vertical extent that can involve more than one altitude level.
Towering vertical
These very large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform types have cloud bases in the same low- to mid-level range as the multi-level and moderate vertical types, but the tops nearly always extend into the high levels. Unlike less vertically developed clouds, they are required to be identified by their standard names or abbreviations in all aviation observations (METARS) and forecasts (TAFS) to warn pilots of possible severe weather and turbulence.
Species cumulus congestus – Increasing airmass instability can cause free-convective cumulus to grow very tall to the extent that the vertical height from base to top is greater than the base-width of the cloud. The cloud base takes on a darker gray coloration and the top commonly resembles a cauliflower. This cloud type can produce moderate to heavy showers and is designated Towering cumulus (Tcu) by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Genus cumulonimbus (Cb) – This genus type is a heavy, towering, cumulonimbiform mass of free-convective cloud with a dark-gray to nearly black base and a very high top in the form of a mountain or huge tower. Cumulonimbus can produce thunderstorms, local very heavy downpours of rain that may cause flash floods, and a variety of types of lightning including cloud-to-ground that can cause wildfires. Other convective severe weather may or may not be associated with thunderstorms and include heavy snow showers, hail, strong wind shear, downbursts, and tornadoes. Of all these possible cumulonimbus-related events, lightning is the only one of these that requires a thunderstorm to be taking place since it is the lightning that creates the thunder. Cumulonimbus clouds can form in unstable airmass conditions, but tend to be more concentrated and intense when they are associated with unstable cold fronts.
Species
Genus types are commonly divided into subtypes called species that indicate specific structural details which can vary according to the stability and windshear characteristics of the atmosphere at any given time and location. Despite this hierarchy, a particular species may be a subtype of more than one genus, especially if the genera are of the same physical form and are differentiated from each other mainly by altitude or level. There are a few species, each of which can be associated with genera of more than one physical form. The species types are grouped below according to the physical forms and genera with which each is normally associated. The forms, genera, and species are listed from left to right in approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity.
Stable or mostly stable
Of the non-convective stratiform group, high-level cirrostratus comprises two species. Cirrostratus nebulosus has a rather diffuse appearance lacking in structural detail. Cirrostratus fibratus is a species made of semi-merged filaments that are transitional to or from cirrus. Mid-level altostratus and multi-level nimbostratus always have a flat or diffuse appearance and are therefore not subdivided into species. Low stratus is of the species nebulosus except when broken up into ragged sheets of stratus fractus (see below).
Cirriform clouds have three non-convective species that can form in stable airmass conditions. Cirrus fibratus comprise filaments that may be straight, wavy, or occasionally twisted by wind shear. The species uncinus is similar but has upturned hooks at the ends. Cirrus spissatus appear as opaque patches that can show light gray shading.
Stratocumuliform genus-types (cirrocumulus, altocumulus, and stratocumulus) that appear in mostly stable air with limited convection have two species each. The stratiformis species normally occur in extensive sheets or in smaller patches where there is only minimal convective activity. Clouds of the lenticularis species tend to have lens-like shapes tapered at the ends. They are most commonly seen as orographic mountain-wave clouds, but can occur anywhere in the troposphere where there is strong wind shear combined with sufficient airmass stability to maintain a generally flat cloud structure. These two species can be found in the high, middle, or low levels of the troposphere depending on the stratocumuliform genus or genera present at any given time.
Ragged
The species fractus shows variable instability because it can be a subdivision of genus-types of different physical forms that have different stability characteristics. This subtype can be in the form of ragged but mostly stable stratiform sheets (stratus fractus) or small ragged cumuliform heaps with somewhat greater instability (cumulus fractus). When clouds of this species are associated with precipitating cloud systems of considerable vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, they are also classified as accessory clouds under the name pannus (see section on supplementary features).
Partly unstable
These species are subdivisions of genus types that can occur in partly unstable air with limited convection. The species castellanus appears when a mostly stable stratocumuliform or cirriform layer becomes disturbed by localized areas of airmass instability, usually in the morning or afternoon. This results in the formation of embedded cumuliform buildups arising from a common stratiform base. Castellanus resembles the turrets of a castle when viewed from the side, and can be found with stratocumuliform genera at any tropospheric altitude level and with limited-convective patches of high-level cirrus. Tufted clouds of the more detached floccus species are subdivisions of genus-types which may be cirriform or stratocumuliform in overall structure. They are sometimes seen with cirrus, cirrocumulus, altocumulus, and stratocumulus.
A newly recognized species of stratocumulus or altocumulus has been given the name volutus, a roll cloud that can occur ahead of a cumulonimbus formation. There are some volutus clouds that form as a consequence of interactions with specific geographical features rather than with a parent cloud. Perhaps the strangest geographically specific cloud of this type is the Morning Glory, a rolling cylindrical cloud that appears unpredictably over the Gulf of Carpentaria in Northern Australia. Associated with a powerful "ripple" in the atmosphere, the cloud may be "surfed" in glider aircraft.
Unstable or mostly unstable
More general airmass instability in the troposphere tends to produce clouds of the more freely convective cumulus genus type, whose species are mainly indicators of degrees of atmospheric instability and resultant vertical development of the clouds. A cumulus cloud initially forms in the low level of the troposphere as a cloudlet of the species humilis that shows only slight vertical development. If the air becomes more unstable, the cloud tends to grow vertically into the species mediocris, then strongly convective congestus, the tallest cumulus species which is the same type that the International Civil Aviation Organization refers to as 'towering cumulus'.
With highly unstable atmospheric conditions, large cumulus may continue to grow into even more strongly convective cumulonimbus calvus (essentially a very tall congestus cloud that produces thunder), then ultimately into the species capillatus when supercooled water droplets at the top of the cloud turn into ice crystals giving it a cirriform appearance.
Varieties
Genus and species types are further subdivided into varieties whose names can appear after the species name to provide a fuller description of a cloud. Some cloud varieties are not restricted to a specific altitude level or form, and can therefore be common to more than one genus or species.
Opacity-based
All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the varieties translucidus (thin translucent), perlucidus (thick opaque with translucent or very small clear breaks), and opacus (thick opaque). These varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus spissatus, always opaque.
Pattern-based
A second group describes the occasional arrangements of cloud structures into particular patterns that are discernible by a surface-based observer (cloud fields usually being visible only from a significant altitude above the formations). These varieties are not always present with the genera and species with which they are otherwise associated, but only appear when atmospheric conditions favor their formation. Intortus and vertebratus varieties occur on occasion with cirrus fibratus. They are respectively filaments twisted into irregular shapes, and those that are arranged in fishbone patterns, usually by uneven wind currents that favor the formation of these varieties. The variety radiatus is associated with cloud rows of a particular type that appear to converge at the horizon. It is sometimes seen with the fibratus and uncinus species of cirrus, the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus, the mediocris and sometimes humilis species of cumulus, and with the genus altostratus.
Another variety, duplicatus (closely spaced layers of the same type, one above the other), is sometimes found with cirrus of both the fibratus and uncinus species, and with altocumulus and stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and lenticularis. The variety undulatus (having a wavy undulating base) can occur with any clouds of the species stratiformis or lenticularis, and with altostratus. It is only rarely observed with stratus nebulosus. The variety lacunosus is caused by localized downdrafts that create circular holes in the form of a honeycomb or net. It is occasionally seen with cirrocumulus and altocumulus of the species stratiformis, castellanus, and floccus, and with stratocumulus of the species stratiformis and castellanus.
Combinations
It is possible for some species to show combined varieties at one time, especially if one variety is opacity-based and the other is pattern-based. An example of this would be a layer of altocumulus stratiformis arranged in seemingly converging rows separated by small breaks. The full technical name of a cloud in this configuration would be altocumulus stratiformis radiatus perlucidus, which would identify respectively its genus, species, and two combined varieties.
Other types
Supplementary features and accessory clouds are not further subdivisions of cloud types below the species and variety level. Rather, they are either hydrometeors or special cloud types with their own Latin names that form in association with certain cloud genera, species, and varieties. Supplementary features, whether in the form of clouds or precipitation, are directly attached to the main genus-cloud. Accessory clouds, by contrast, are generally detached from the main cloud.
Precipitation-based supplementary features
One group of supplementary features are not actual cloud formations, but precipitation that falls when water droplets or ice crystals that make up visible clouds have grown too heavy to remain aloft. Virga is a feature seen with clouds producing precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground, these being of the genera cirrocumulus, altocumulus, altostratus, nimbostratus, stratocumulus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus.
When the precipitation reaches the ground without completely evaporating, it is designated as the feature praecipitatio. This normally occurs with altostratus opacus, which can produce widespread but usually light precipitation, and with thicker clouds that show significant vertical development. Of the latter, upward-growing cumulus mediocris produces only isolated light showers, while downward growing nimbostratus is capable of heavier, more extensive precipitation. Towering vertical clouds have the greatest ability to produce intense precipitation events, but these tend to be localized unless organized along fast-moving cold fronts. Showers of moderate to heavy intensity can fall from cumulus congestus clouds. Cumulonimbus, the largest of all cloud genera, has the capacity to produce very heavy showers. Low stratus clouds usually produce only light precipitation, but this always occurs as the feature praecipitatio due to the fact this cloud genus lies too close to the ground to allow for the formation of virga.
Cloud-based supplementary features
Incus is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.
The mamma feature forms on the bases of clouds as downward-facing bubble-like protuberances caused by localized downdrafts within the cloud. It is also sometimes called mammatus, an earlier version of the term used before a standardization of Latin nomenclature brought about by the World Meteorological Organization during the 20th century. The best-known is cumulonimbus with mammatus, but the mamma feature is also seen occasionally with cirrus, cirrocumulus, altocumulus, altostratus, and stratocumulus.
A tuba feature is a cloud column that may hang from the bottom of a cumulus or cumulonimbus. A newly formed or poorly organized column might be comparatively benign, but can quickly intensify into a funnel cloud or tornado.
An arcus feature is a roll cloud with ragged edges attached to the lower front part of cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus that forms along the leading edge of a squall line or thunderstorm outflow. A large arcus formation can have the appearance of a dark menacing arch.
Several new supplementary features have been formally recognized by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The feature fluctus can form under conditions of strong atmospheric wind shear when a stratocumulus, altocumulus, or cirrus cloud breaks into regularly spaced crests. This variant is sometimes known informally as a Kelvin–Helmholtz (wave) cloud. This phenomenon has also been observed in cloud formations over other planets and even in the sun's atmosphere. Another highly disturbed but more chaotic wave-like cloud feature associated with stratocumulus or altocumulus cloud has been given the Latin name asperitas. The supplementary feature cavum is a circular fall-streak hole that occasionally forms in a thin layer of supercooled altocumulus or cirrocumulus. Fall streaks consisting of virga or wisps of cirrus are usually seen beneath the hole as ice crystals fall out to a lower altitude. This type of hole is usually larger than typical lacunosus holes. A murus feature is a cumulonimbus wall cloud with a lowering, rotating cloud base than can lead to the development of tornadoes. A cauda feature is a tail cloud that extends horizontally away from the murus cloud and is the result of air feeding into the storm.
Accessory clouds
Supplementary cloud formations detached from the main cloud are known as accessory clouds. The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus, towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see the formation in precipitation of the pannus feature, low ragged clouds of the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.
A group of accessory clouds comprise formations that are associated mainly with upward-growing cumuliform and cumulonimbiform clouds of free convection. Pileus is a cap cloud that can form over a cumulonimbus or large cumulus cloud, whereas a velum feature is a thin horizontal sheet that sometimes forms like an apron around the middle or in front of the parent cloud. An accessory cloud recently officially recognized by the World meteorological Organization is the flumen, also known more informally as the beaver's tail. It is formed by the warm, humid inflow of a super-cell thunderstorm, and can be mistaken for a tornado. Although the flumen can indicate a tornado risk, it is similar in appearance to pannus or scud clouds and does not rotate.
Mother clouds
Clouds initially form in clear air or become clouds when fog rises above surface level. The genus of a newly formed cloud is determined mainly by air mass characteristics such as stability and moisture content. If these characteristics change over time, the genus tends to change accordingly. When this happens, the original genus is called a mother cloud. If the mother cloud retains much of its original form after the appearance of the new genus, it is termed a genitus cloud. One example of this is stratocumulus cumulogenitus, a stratocumulus cloud formed by the partial spreading of a cumulus type when there is a loss of convective lift. If the mother cloud undergoes a complete change in genus, it is considered to be a mutatus cloud.
Other genitus and mutatus clouds
The genitus and mutatus categories have been expanded to include certain types that do not originate from pre-existing clouds. The term flammagenitus (Latin for 'fire-made') applies to cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus that are formed by large scale fires or volcanic eruptions. Smaller low-level "pyrocumulus" or "fumulus" clouds formed by contained industrial activity are now classified as cumulus homogenitus (Latin for 'man-made'). Contrails formed from the exhaust of aircraft flying in the upper level of the troposphere can persist and spread into formations resembling cirrus which are designated cirrus homogenitus. If a cirrus homogenitus cloud changes fully to any of the high-level genera, they are termed cirrus, cirrostratus, or cirrocumulus homomutatus. Stratus cataractagenitus (Latin for 'cataract-made') are generated by the spray from waterfalls. Silvagenitus (Latin for 'forest-made') is a stratus cloud that forms as water vapor is added to the air above a forest canopy.
Large scale patterns
Sometimes certain atmospheric processes cause clouds to become organized into patterns that can cover large areas. These patterns are usually difficult to identify from surface level and are best seen from an aircraft or spacecraft.
Stratocumulus fields
Stratocumulus clouds can be organized into "fields" that take on certain specially classified shapes and characteristics. In general, these fields are more discernible from high altitudes than from ground level. They can often be found in the following forms:
Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel.
Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar to a filled honeycomb.
Open cell, which resembles an empty honeycomb, with clouds around the edges and clear, open space in the middle.
Vortex streets
These patterns are formed from a phenomenon known as a Kármán vortex which is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán,. Wind driven clouds, usually mid level altocumulus or high level cirrus, can form into parallel rows that follow the wind direction. When the wind and clouds encounter high elevation land features such as a vertically prominent islands, they can form eddies around the high land masses that give the clouds a twisted appearance.
Distribution
Convergence along low-pressure zones
Although the local distribution of clouds can be significantly influenced by topography, the global prevalence of cloud cover in the troposphere tends to vary more by latitude. It is most prevalent in and along low pressure zones of surface tropospheric convergence which encircle the Earth close to the equator and near the 50th parallels of latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres. The adiabatic cooling processes that lead to the creation of clouds by way of lifting agents are all associated with convergence; a process that involves the horizontal inflow and accumulation of air at a given location, as well as the rate at which this happens. Near the equator, increased cloudiness is due to the presence of the low-pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where very warm and unstable air promotes mostly cumuliform and cumulonimbiform clouds. Clouds of virtually any type can form along the mid-latitude convergence zones depending on the stability and moisture content of the air. These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin. This leads to the formation of weather-making extratropical cyclones composed of cloud systems that may be stable or unstable to varying degrees according to the stability characteristics of the various airmasses that are in conflict.
Divergence along high pressure zones
Divergence is the opposite of convergence. In the Earth's troposphere, it involves the horizontal outflow of air from the upper part of a rising column of air, or from the lower part of a subsiding column often associated with an area or ridge of high pressure. Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent near the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north and south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse latitudes. The presence of a large-scale high-pressure subtropical ridge on each side of the equator reduces cloudiness at these low latitudes. Similar patterns also occur at higher latitudes in both hemispheres.
Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration
The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70–95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-gray depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced gray shading because of its greater reflectivity.
As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets. If the droplets become too large and heavy to be kept aloft by the air circulation, they will fall from the cloud as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, a percentage of the light that enters the cloud is not reflected back out but is absorbed giving the cloud a darker look. A simple example of this is one's being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.
Striking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a cloud usually being the same as the incident light. During daytime when the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear bright white on top with varying shades of gray underneath. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. Red, orange, and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. When the sun is just below the horizon, low-level clouds are gray, middle clouds appear rose-colored, and high clouds are white or off-white. Clouds at night are black or dark gray in a moonless sky, or whitish when illuminated by the moon. They may also reflect the colors of large fires, city lights, or auroras that might be present.
A cumulonimbus cloud that appears to have a greenish or bluish tint is a sign that it contains extremely high amounts of water; hail or rain which scatter light in a way that gives the cloud a blue color. A green colorization occurs mostly late in the day when the sun is comparatively low in the sky and the incident sunlight has a reddish tinge that appears green when illuminating a very tall bluish cloud. Supercell type storms are more likely to be characterized by this but any storm can appear this way. Coloration such as this does not directly indicate that it is a severe thunderstorm, it only confirms its potential. Since a green/blue tint signifies copious amounts of water, a strong updraft to support it, high winds from the storm raining out, and wet hail; all elements that improve the chance for it to become severe, can all be inferred from this. In addition, the stronger the updraft is, the more likely the storm is to undergo tornadogenesis and to produce large hail and high winds.
Yellowish clouds may be seen in the troposphere in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. Yellowish clouds are caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide and are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels.
Effects
Tropospheric clouds exert numerous influences on Earth's troposphere and climate. First and foremost, they are the source of precipitation, thereby greatly influencing the distribution and amount of precipitation. Because of their differential buoyancy relative to surrounding cloud-free air, clouds can be associated with vertical motions of the air that may be convective, frontal, or cyclonic. The motion is upward if the clouds are less dense because condensation of water vapor releases heat, warming the air and thereby decreasing its density. This can lead to downward motion because lifting of the air results in cooling that increases its density. All of these effects are subtly dependent on the vertical temperature and moisture structure of the atmosphere and result in major redistribution of heat that affect the Earth's climate.
The complexity and diversity of clouds in the troposphere is a major reason for difficulty in quantifying the effects of clouds on climate and climate change. On the one hand, white cloud tops promote cooling of Earth's surface by reflecting shortwave radiation (visible and near infrared) from the sun, diminishing the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed at the surface, enhancing the Earth's albedo. Most of the sunlight that reaches the ground is absorbed, warming the surface, which emits radiation upward at longer, infrared, wavelengths. At these wavelengths, however, water in the clouds acts as an efficient absorber. The water reacts by radiating, also in the infrared, both upward and downward, and the downward longwave radiation results in increased warming at the surface. This is analogous to the greenhouse effect of greenhouse gases and water vapor.
High-level genus-types particularly show this duality with both short-wave albedo cooling and long-wave greenhouse warming effects. On the whole, ice-crystal clouds in the upper troposphere (cirrus) tend to favor net warming. However, the cooling effect is dominant with mid-level and low clouds, especially when they form in extensive sheets. Measurements by NASA indicate that on the whole, the effects of low and mid-level clouds that tend to promote cooling outweigh the warming effects of high layers and the variable outcomes associated with vertically developed clouds.
As difficult as it is to evaluate the influences of current clouds on current climate, it is even more problematic to predict changes in cloud patterns and properties in a future, warmer climate, and the resultant cloud influences on future climate. In a warmer climate more water would enter the atmosphere by evaporation at the surface; as clouds are formed from water vapor, cloudiness would be expected to increase. But in a warmer climate, higher temperatures would tend to evaporate clouds. Both of these statements are considered accurate, and both phenomena, known as cloud feedbacks, are found in climate model calculations. Broadly speaking, if clouds, especially low clouds, increase in a warmer climate, the resultant cooling effect leads to a negative feedback in climate response to increased greenhouse gases. But if low clouds decrease, or if high clouds increase, the feedback is positive. Differing amounts of these feedbacks are the principal reason for differences in climate sensitivities of current global climate models. As a consequence, much research has focused on the response of low and vertical clouds to a changing climate. Leading global models produce quite different results, however, with some showing increasing low clouds and others showing decreases. For these reasons the role of tropospheric clouds in regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty in global warming projections.
Stratospheric classification and distribution
Polar stratospheric clouds (PSC's) are found in the lowest part of the stratosphere. Moisture is scarce above the troposphere, so nacreous and non-nacreous clouds at this altitude range are restricted to polar regions in the winter where and when the air is coldest.
PSC's show some variation in structure according to their chemical makeup and atmospheric conditions, but are limited to a single very high range of altitude of about Accordingly, they are classified as a singular type with no differentiated altitude levels, genus types, species, or varieties. There is no Latin nomenclature in the manner of tropospheric clouds, but rather descriptive names of several general forms using common English.
Supercooled nitric acid and water PSC's, sometimes known as type 1, typically have a stratiform appearance resembling cirrostratus or haze, but because they are not frozen into crystals, do not show the pastel colors of the nacreous types. This type of PSC has been identified as a cause of ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The frozen nacreous types are typically very thin with mother-of-pearl colorations and an undulating cirriform or lenticular (stratocumuliform) appearance. These are sometimes known as type 2.
Mesospheric classification and distribution
Noctilucent clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are found near the top of the mesosphere at about or roughly ten times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds. They are given this Latin derived name because of their illumination well after sunset and before sunrise. They typically have a bluish or silvery white coloration that can resemble brightly illuminated cirrus. Noctilucent clouds may occasionally take on more of a red or orange hue. They are not common or widespread enough to have a significant effect on climate. However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change.
Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong enough during the polar summer to cause adiabatic cooling of small amount of water vapor to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the mesopause. There is evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation of noctilucent cloud.
Noctilucent clouds have four major types based on physical structure and appearance. Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure, somewhat like cirrostratus fibratus or poorly defined cirrus. Type II bands are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds. Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus. Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centers.
Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted to polar regions of Earth. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of the north pole or north of the south pole.
Extraterrestrial
Cloud cover has been seen on most other planets in the Solar System. Venus's thick clouds are composed of sulfur dioxide (due to volcanic activity) and appear to be almost entirely stratiform. They are arranged in three main layers at altitudes of 45 to 65 km that obscure the planet's surface and can produce virga. No embedded cumuliform types have been identified, but broken stratocumuliform wave formations are sometimes seen in the top layer that reveal more continuous layer clouds underneath. On Mars, noctilucent, cirrus, cirrocumulus and stratocumulus composed of water-ice have been detected mostly near the poles. Water-ice fogs have also been detected on Mars.
Both Jupiter and Saturn have an outer cirriform cloud deck composed of ammonia, an intermediate stratiform haze-cloud layer made of ammonium hydrosulfide, and an inner deck of cumulus water clouds. Embedded cumulonimbus are known to exist near the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. The same category-types can be found covering Uranus, and Neptune, but are all composed of methane. Saturn's moon Titan has cirrus clouds believed to be composed largely of methane. The Cassini–Huygens Saturn mission uncovered evidence of polar stratospheric clouds and a methane cycle on Titan, including lakes near the poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the moon.
Some planets outside the Solar System are known to have atmospheric clouds. In October 2013, the detection of high altitude optically thick clouds in the atmosphere of exoplanet Kepler-7b was announced, and, in December 2013, in the atmospheres of GJ 436 b and GJ 1214 b.
In culture and religion
Clouds play an important mythical or non-scientific role in various cultures and religious traditions. The ancient Akkadians believed that the clouds (in meteorology, probably the supplementary feature mamma) were the breasts of the sky goddess Antu and that rain was milk from her breasts. In , Yahweh is described as guiding the Israelites through the desert in the form of a "pillar of cloud" by day and a "pillar of fire" by night. In Mandaeism, uthras (celestial beings) are also occasionally mentioned as being in anana ("clouds"; e.g., in Right Ginza Book 17, Chapter 1), which can also be interpreted as female consorts.
In the ancient Greek comedy The Clouds, written by Aristophanes and first performed at the City Dionysia in 423 BC, the philosopher Socrates declares that the Clouds are the only true deities and tells the main character Strepsiades not to worship any deities other than the Clouds, but to pay homage to them alone. In the play, the Clouds change shape to reveal the true nature of whoever is looking at them, turning into centaurs at the sight of a long-haired politician, wolves at the sight of the embezzler Simon, deer at the sight of the coward Cleonymus, and mortal women at the sight of the effeminate informer Cleisthenes. They are hailed the source of inspiration to comic poets and philosophers; they are masters of rhetoric, regarding eloquence and sophistry alike as their "friends".
In China, clouds are symbols of luck and happiness. Overlapping clouds (in meteorology, probably duplicatus clouds) are thought to imply eternal happiness and clouds of different colors are said to indicate "multiplied blessings".
Informal cloud watching or cloud gazing is a popular children's activity involving watching the clouds and looking for shapes in them, a form of pareidolia.
See also
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) (US)
Bioprecipitation
Ceiling
Cloud albedo
Cloud Appreciation Society
Cloud cover
Cloud forcing
Cloud seeding
Clouds (sculpture)
Cloudscape (art)
Cloudscape photography
Coalescence
Extraterrestrial sky
Fog
Mist
Mushroom cloud
Pileus (meteorology)
Precipitation
Sunshine duration
Undulatus asperatus
Weather lore
References
Bibliography
External links
Current global map of total cloud water
Monthly maps of global cloud cover, from NASA's Earth Observatory
World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) International Cloud Atlas International Cloud Atlas
Articles containing video clips
Clouds, fog and precipitation |
1426906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta%20History%20Center | Atlanta History Center | Atlanta History Center is a history museum and research center located in the Buckhead district of Atlanta, Georgia. The Museum was founded in 1926 and currently consists of nine permanent, and several temporary, exhibitions. Atlanta History Center's campus is 33-acres and features historic gardens and houses located on the grounds, including Swan House, Smith Farm, and Wood Family Cabin. Atlanta History Center's Midtown Campus includes the Margaret Mitchell House & Museum. The History Center's research arm, Kenan Research Center, is open by appointment, and provides access to the archival collections. Atlanta History Center holds one of the largest collections of Civil War artifacts in the United States.
Exhibitions
Atlanta History Center operates three types of exhibitions: permanent, temporary, and traveling.
Permanent exhibitions
Atlanta '96: Shaping an Olympic and Paralympic City is Atlanta History Center's latest permanent exhibit, expected to premiere in September 2020. This exhibit will focus on the impact of the Olympic Games on Atlanta and its citizens. It will examine what the games meant to different groups of people, from those involved in preparing for the event to those whose lives are still impacted by the games over 20 years later.
Cyclorama: The Big Picture was opened in February 2019, and features the fully restored cyclorama painting, The Battle of Atlanta. At the centerpiece of this new multimedia experience is a 132-year-old hand-painted work of art that stands 49 feet tall. Two levels of exhibitions look at truths and myths of the Civil War; explore the untold stories of the painting; examine the role movies and visual entertainment have on shaping perspectives of the Civil War; and provides a look at the fleeting entertainment sensation of cycloramas.
Locomotion: Railroads and the Making of Atlanta exhibition centers around the restored locomotive Texas, which was built in 1856 for the Western & Atlantic Railroad, which had established its terminus in 1837 at the site that became Atlanta. The other centerpiece in the Locomotion exhibition is the Zero Mile Post, one of the city's most significant artifacts. Recently relocated to Atlanta History Center, the Zero Mile Post is the 1850s Western & Atlantic Railroad marker around which Atlanta grew. The detailed exhibition accompanying the Texas and Zero Mile Post interprets the major role railroads played in transforming Atlanta into the transportation hub and commercial center it is today.
Turning Point: The American Civil War exhibition contains 1,400 of Atlanta History Center's enormous collection of Civil War artifacts. Through original artifacts, including cannons, uniforms, swords, and other materials, visitors can better understand life during the Civil War.
Gatheround: Stories of Atlanta is an interactive exhibition that explores the various influential people and places that makeup Atlanta, as well as themes such as “Politics and Policy; Cultural Life; Family and Community; and Urban Growth.” This exhibition shares the stories of individuals of many different backgrounds and perspectives who helped create the Atlanta we know today through artifacts, ephemera, interactive media, recording booths, immersive experiences, and dedicated spaces while setting the stage for Meet the Past museum theatre performances.
Shaping Traditions: Folk Arts in a Changing South exhibit shows the development and attributes of Southern folk art. It includes forms ranging from clothing and food to singing and storytelling and presents both the traditional and the modern.
Native Lands: Indians and Georgia shares the history and stories of the state's original inhabitants beginning with the Mississippian peoples and continuing with their descendants, the Creeks and the Cherokees. Long before the first European settlers came to what is now called Georgia, the Mississippian Indians developed complex societies on these lands – complete with art, music, ceremony, agriculture, architecture, and trade industries. Native Lands explores Indians’ recent history and their continuing connections to Georgia through the voices of contemporary Creeks and Cherokees.
Fair Play: The Bobby Jones Story explores the life of Georgia's most famous golfer, Bobby Jones, and chronicles the early development of golf in the United States. For a career that launched six decades before the birth of Tiger Woods, Bobby Jones is credited with popularizing golf on an international stage. His 14-year playing career culminated in 1930 when he became the only golfer to achieve the Grand Slam by winning golf's four major tournaments in the same year.
Mandarin Shutze: A Chinese Export Life exhibit tells the story of Philip Trammell Shutze, one of Atlanta's foremost architects, who was also known for his art collections. A Phillip Trammell Shutze designed house, the Swan House, is also on the grounds of Atlanta History Center.
Temporary exhibitions
Any Great Change: The Centennial of the 19th Amendment which was open until Jan 31, 2021, commemorates the centennial of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (August 1920) and documents how women gained the vote and the ways they have used political power over the last century. The exhibition explores the decades-long struggle for women's suffrage as well as the key groups, their strategies, and their leaders, including Emily C. MacDougald and her daughter, Emily Inman, owner of Swan House.
Explore Black Atlanta highlights African Americans as represented in the Archival holdings of the Atlanta History Center. The exhibition has an online component.
Seeking Eden: A Collection of Georgia's Historic Gardens is located in McElreath Hall gallery, it covers twelve properties that are highlighted in the book of the same name, and includes holdings from the Cherokee Garden Library, which is part of Kenan Research Center.
Historic buildings
Main campus
Smith Farm is an antebellum farmhouse built by the Robert Smith family and listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). It was originally a small farm in DeKalb County with 11 enslaved peoples, comprising 200 acres (0.81 km2). The house was moved to Atlanta History Center's main campus in 1969, and it currently comprises the farmhouse, enslaved people's cabin, kitchen, blacksmith shop, smokehouse, double corncrib, barn, and several gardens. The farmhouses several heritage breeds including angora goats and Gulf Coast sheep.
The Victorian and Lee playhouses are miniature houses. The Lee playhouse is located between McElreath Hall and Smith Farm. It was donated to Atlanta History Center in 1998. The Victorian Playhouse is located beside the Boxwood Garden. It was donated to Atlanta History Center in 1980 and has gone through six owners.
Swan House, also on the NRNP, was designed by Philip Trammell Shutze in the 1920s, and is named for the swan motif located above the home's rear entrance. It is surrounded by the Boxwood Garden, based on Italian gardens as created in the 18th century England by Lord Burlington and William Kent. The front landscape, two cloverleaf fountains and a terraced lawn, comprise one of the most photographed places in Atlanta.
Wood Family Cabin is a log structure located within Swan Woods. It is used to interpret North Georgia settler and Native American life in the 1820s and 1830s, in the context of the Georgia land lotteries. Some of its logs were originally used for the home of Elias and Jane Wood, early settlers in the Piedmont region of Georgia (where today's Buckhead district in Atlanta is located). The original home was situated approximately two miles from the site of the Creek Indian settlement of Standing Peachtree and one mile south of the Chattahoochee River. The cabin was donated to Atlanta History Center by Dr. and Mrs. Carl Hartrampf Jr., descendants of the Wood family, in 2014.
Goizueta Gardens
Olguita's Garden is named after Goizueta Gardens namesake Olga “Olguita” C. de Goizueta. This ornamental garden is designed for the enjoyment of flowering and fragrant plants and is inspired by the great gardens of Europe, honoring Mrs. Goizueta's love of English and French gardens. The small formal garden provides seating with a view to a water feature surrounded by limestone columns designed by Atlanta architect Neel Reid. The garden's design and planting scheme reflect European influences on the Southeastern landscape and includes the entire garden façade of the Museum Building.
Mary Howard Gilbert Memorial Quarry Garden was once a granite quarry, and has been transformed into a garden behind the main building. This native garden contains herbal medicinal plants, waterfalls, and what is Georgia's largest native plant collection in one place. Long-forgotten, the quarry was rediscovered in 1972 when the Atlanta History Center completed a survey of the property. It totals 25 feet deep and 3 acres in size. In the fifty years the quarry was abandoned, native trees sprang from the ground, and quick-growing shrubs and vines created a thick growth. Today, it is a sanctuary for native plants and the wildlife that depends on them. The Mary Howard Gilbert Memorial Quarry Garden shelters one of the state's most comprehensive collections of plants native to pre-settlement Georgia, many of which are rare and/or endangered.
Smith Family Farm Gardens boasts a variety of heirloom plants, flowers, and heritage breeds at Smith Farm. The landscape represents Smith Farm in its early era, with historic varieties of crops in the fields, the enslaved people's garden, the kitchen garden, and a swept yard by the house planted with heirloom flowers such as love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus sp.) and rose campion (Lychnis coronaria). Surrounding the farm's outbuildings are naturalistic, native plantings. Heritage-breed sheep, goats, chickens, and turkeys are representative of the types of livestock found on this type of farm.
Swan House Gardens are part of the Inman estate which was designed by Shutze from 1926 to 1928. At Swan House, as with many of his grand homes, Shutze designed the formal gardens that surround and showcase the Inman residence.
Frank A. Smith Memorial Rhododendron Garden's contemporary design is rich with shade-loving plants that flourish in Atlanta, from giant elephant ears (Colocasia esculenta) to dainty peacock moss (Selaginella uncinata). An intimate pond and a dry streambed are bordered by an abundance of rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp. & cvs.), small flowering trees, and eclectic ground covers.
Sims Asian Garden provides a home to the Goizueta Gardens Asian Plant Collection. Benjamin H. Sims and his wife, Rebecca Wight Cherry Sims, were collectors of unusual and extraordinary Asian plants. Three major collection groups are on display in this garden: Satsuki azaleas, numerous varieties of hydrangea, and Japanese maples. Many of the Japanese maples in this garden are transplanted here directly from the Sims family's personal Japanese Garden.
Swan Woods and Wood Family Cabin encompasses acres of robust forest surrounding the cabin. Vestiges of terraced cotton fields abandoned a century ago are still visible and sightings of wildlife reward the watchful. Lying among the pine, beech and tulip trees is a Fern Circle which produces a collection of species of ferns and wildflowers native to the Georgia Piedmont. Also situated on the Swan Woods Trail is the Garden for Peace, part of an international gardens network dedicated to promoting peace.
Veterans Park
Midtown campus
Located at the corner of 10th and Peachtree Streets, Atlanta History Center's Midtown campus comprises the Margaret Mitchell House and Commercial Row, both of which are listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Margaret Mitchell House was the home of Margaret Mitchell from 1925 to 1932 while she was writing the novel Gone With The Wind.
History
Atlanta History Center was founded in 1926 as the Atlanta Historical Society (AHS). Initially, the society operated as an institution for historical discussion and appreciation but, by the next year, began publishing the Atlanta Historical Bulletin. The periodical was later named Atlanta History: A Journal of Georgia and the South and was published until 2006. The publication has since been digitized and is searchable on Atlanta History Center's online database, Album.
Walter McElreath an Atlanta lawyer, legislator, and author for whom the center's McElreath Hall is named was the first leader of the Atlanta History Center. Other founders and early officers included Ruth Blair and Franklin Garrett. In the early days the organization rented a ground floor space in the Atlanta Biltmore Hotel, and later a space in the Erlanger Theater building on Peachtree.
In 1946 the group bought the Neel Reid designed Willis B. Jones home at the corner of Peachtree Street and Huntington Road as its headquarters. The Georgian mansion at 1753 Peachtree allowed the group to store and display its large collection of artifacts and photos.
Lack of parking and maintenance issues on the Jones home sparked another search for a new headquarters. In 1966 the group used money from Walter McElreath's estate to purchase the 23-acre Swan House property on Andrews Drive. This property became the current main campus of the History Center. (After it was sold by the Society, the Jones home was rescued from demolition by others and coincidentally moved to 520 West Paces Ferry Road about one mile west of the current location of the center)
In 1986 the still relatively small group received the DuBose Collection of Civil War artifacts, donated by Mrs. Beverly M. DuBose Jr. In 1989, the Atlanta Historical Society built the current museum to house the DuBose collection.
In 1990, the Atlanta Historical Society was renamed Atlanta History Center. The $15 million museum opened in 1993 with five exhibitions, including its first signature Atlanta history exhibition, Metropolitan Frontiers. An $11 million expansion, finished in 1996, added two new permanent exhibitions. The Kenan Research Center library was later expanded and the gardens reorganized, with a fourth permanent exhibition added, Down the Fairway with Bobby Jones.
In 2014, the city of Atlanta announced its intentions to relocate the Battle of Atlanta Cyclorama and its artifacts to Atlanta History Center, including the antebellum Western & Atlantic locomotive, the Texas. The museum constructed an expansion to house the 360-degree panoramic painting, as well as the Texas locomotive, and other pieces in the Cyclorama collection.
After a careful restoration, the Battle of Atlanta Cyclorama opened to the public February 22, 2019.
References
External links
Atlanta History Center website
Atlanta History Center on Google Cultural Institute
Atlanta, Georgia, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
American Civil War museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
Biographical museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
Historic house museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
History centers
History museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
Historical society museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
Houses in Atlanta
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
Museums in Atlanta
Museums established in 1926
1926 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) |
14490994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacomet%20Ridge | Metacomet Ridge | The Metacomet Ridge, Metacomet Ridge Mountains, or Metacomet Range of southern New England is a narrow and steep fault-block mountain ridge known for its extensive cliff faces, scenic vistas, microclimate ecosystems, and rare or endangered plants. The ridge is an important recreation resource located within of more than 1.5 million people, offering four long-distance hiking trails and over a dozen parks and recreation areas, including several historic sites. It has been the focus of ongoing conservation efforts because of its natural, historic, and recreational value, involving municipal, state, and national agencies and nearly two dozen non-profit organizations.
The Metacomet Ridge extends from Branford, Connecticut, on Long Island Sound, through the Connecticut River Valley region of Massachusetts, to northern Franklin County, Massachusetts, short of the Vermont and New Hampshire borders for a distance of . It is geologically distinct from the nearby Appalachian Mountains and surrounding uplands, and is composed of volcanic basalt (also known as trap rock) and sedimentary rock in faulted and tilted layers many hundreds of feet thick. In most cases, the basalt layers are dominant, prevalent, and exposed. The ridge rises dramatically from much lower valley elevations, although only above sea level at its highest, with an average summit elevation of .
Geographic definitions
Visually, the Metacomet Ridge exists as one continuous landscape feature from Long Island Sound at Branford, Connecticut, to the end of the Mount Holyoke Range in Belchertown, Massachusetts, a distance of , broken only by the river gorges of the Farmington River in northern Connecticut and the Westfield and Connecticut Rivers in Massachusetts. It was first identified in 1985 as a single geologic feature consisting of trap rock by the State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut. A 2004 report conducted for the National Park Service extends that definition to include the entire traprock ridge from Long Island Sound to the Pocumtuck Range in Greenfield, Massachusetts. Further complicating the matter is the fact that traprock only accounts for the highest surface layers of rock strata on the southern three–fourths of the range; an underlying geology of related sedimentary rock is also a part of the structure of the ridge; in north central Massachusetts it becomes the dominant strata and extends the range geologically from the Holyoke Range another through Greenfield to nearly the Vermont border. This article describes the entire Metacomet Ridge and all geologic extensions of it.
Nomenclature
Until January 2008, the United States Board on Geographic Names (USBGN) did not recognize Metacomet Ridge, Traprock Ridge or any other name, although several sub-ranges were identified. Geologists usually refer to the overall range generically as "the traprock ridge" or "the traprock mountains" or refer to it with regard to its prehistoric geologic significance in technical terms. The Sierra Club has referred to the entire range in Connecticut as "The Traprock Ridge". The name Metacomet Ridge was first applied in 1985 in a book published by the Connecticut State Geological Survey, adopting the name from the existing Metacomet Trail along a large portion of the range in central Connecticut.
The name "Metacomet" or "Metacom" is borrowed from the 17th century sachem of the Wampanoag Tribe of southern New England who led his people during King Philip's War in the mid–17th century. Metacomet was also known as King Philip by early New England colonists. A number of features associated with the Metacomet Ridge are named after the sachem, including the Metacomet Trail, the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail, King Philip's Cave, King Philip Mountain, and Sachem Head. According to legend, Metacomet orchestrated the burning of Simsbury, Connecticut, and watched the conflagration from Talcott Mountain near the cave now named after him. The names Metacomet and King Philip have been applied to at least sixteen landscape features and over seventy-five businesses, schools, and civic organizations throughout southern New England.
Geography
Beginning at Long Island Sound, the Metacomet Ridge commences as two parallel ridges with related sub-ridges and outcrops in between; the latter include the high butte–like cliffs of East Rock and the isolated peak of Peter's Rock. The western ridgeline of the Metacomet Ridge begins in New Haven, Connecticut, as West Rock Ridge and continues as Sleeping Giant, Mount Sanford, Peck Mountain, and Prospect Ridge, for a distance of before diminishing into a series of low profile outcrops just short of Southington, Connecticut, west of the Hanging Hills in Meriden.
To the east, beginning on the rocky prominence of Beacon Hill, , in Branford, Connecticut, overlooking the East Haven River estuary, the Metacomet Ridge continues as a traprock ridge north to Mount Tom in Holyoke, Massachusetts; it then breaks east across the Connecticut River to form the Holyoke Range, which continues for before terminating in Belchertown, Massachusetts. Several scattered parallel ridges flank it; the most prominent of these are the hills of Rocky Hill, Connecticut, and the Barn Door Hills of Granby, Connecticut.
North of Mount Tom and the Holyoke Range, the apparent crest of the Metacomet Ridge is broken by a discontinuity in the once dominant traprock strata. Underlying sedimentary layers remain but lack the same profile. Between the Holyoke Range and the Pocumtuck Ridge, a stretch of , the Metacomet Ridge exists only as a series of mostly nondescript rises set among flat plains of sedimentary bedrock. Mount Warner, , in Hadley, Massachusetts, the only significant peak in the area, is a geologically unrelated metamorphic rock landform that extends west into the sedimentary strata.
The Metacomet Ridge picks up elevation again with the Pocumtuck Ridge, beginning on Sugarloaf Mountain and the parallel massif of Mount Toby, , the high point of the Metacomet Ridge geography. Both Sugarloaf Mountain and Mount Toby are composed of erosion-resistant sedimentary rock. North of Mount Sugarloaf, the Pocumtuck Ridge continues as alternating sedimentary and traprock dominated strata to Greenfield, Massachusetts. From Greenfield north to Northfield, Massachusetts short of the Vermont–New Hampshire–Massachusetts tri-border, the profile of the Metacomet Ridge diminishes into a series of nondescript hills and low, wooded mountain peaks composed of sedimentary rock with dwindling traprock outcrops.
In Connecticut, the high point of the Metacomet Ridge is West Peak of the Hanging Hills at ; in Massachusetts, the highest traprock peak is Mount Tom, , although Mount Toby, made of sedimentary rock, is higher. Visually, the Metacomet Ridge is narrowest at Provin Mountain and East Mountain in Massachusetts where it is less than wide; it is widest at Totoket Mountain, over . However, low parallel hills and related strata along much of the range often make the actual geologic breadth of the Metacomet Ridge wider than the more noticeable ridgeline crests, up to across in some areas. Significant river drainages of the Metacomet Ridge include the Connecticut River and tributaries (Falls River, Deerfield River, Westfield River, Farmington River, Coginchaug River); and, in southern Connecticut, the Quinnipiac River.
The Metacomet Ridge is surrounded by rural wooded, agricultural, and suburban landscapes, and is no more than from a number of urban hubs such as New Haven, Meriden, New Britain, Hartford, and Springfield. Small city centers abutting the ridge include Greenfield, Northampton, Amherst, Holyoke, West Hartford, Farmington, Wallingford, and Hamden.
Geology
The Metacomet Ridge is the result of continental rifting processes that took place 200 million years ago during the Triassic and Jurassic periods. The basalt (also called traprock) crest of the Metacomet Ridge is the product of a series of massive lava flows hundreds of feet thick that welled up in faults created by the rifting apart of the North American continent from Eurasia and Africa. Essentially, the area now occupied by the Metacomet Ridge is a prehistoric rift valley which was once a branch of (or a parallel of) the major rift to the east that became the Atlantic Ocean.
Basalt is a dark colored extrusive volcanic rock. The weathering of iron-bearing minerals within it results in a rusty brown color when exposed to air and water, lending it a distinct reddish or purple–red hue. Basalt frequently breaks into octagonal and pentagonal columns, creating a unique "postpile" appearance. Extensive slopes made of fractured basalt talus are visible at the base of many of the cliffs along the Metacomet Ridge.
The basalt floods of lava that now form much of the Metacomet Ridge took place over a span of 20 million years. Erosion and deposition occurring between the eruptions deposited layers of sediment between the lava flows which eventually lithified into sedimentary rock layers within the basalt. The resulting "layer cake" of basalt and sedimentary rock eventually faulted and tilted upward (see fault-block). Subsequent erosion wore away many of the weaker sedimentary layers at a faster rate than the basalt layers, leaving the abruptly tilted edges of the basalt sheets exposed, creating the distinct linear ridge and dramatic cliff faces visible today on the western and northern sides of the ridge. Evidence of this layer-cake structure is visible on Mount Norwottuck of the Holyoke Range in Massachusetts. The summit of Norwottuck is made of basalt; directly beneath the summit are the Horse Caves, a deep overhang where the weaker sedimentary layer has worn away at a more rapid rate than the basalt layer above it. Mount Sugarloaf, Pocumtuck Ridge, and Mount Toby, also in Massachusetts, together present a larger "layer cake" example. The bottom layer is composed of arkose sandstone, visible on Mount Sugarloaf. The middle layer is composed of volcanic traprock, most visible on the Pocumtuck Ridge. The top layer is composed of a sedimentary conglomerate known as Mount Toby Conglomerate. Faulting and earthquakes during the period of continental rifting tilted the layers diagonally; subsequent erosion and glacial activity exposed the tilted layers of sandstone, basalt, and conglomerate visible today as three distinct mountain masses. Although Mount Toby and Mount Sugarloaf are not composed of traprock, they are part of the Metacomet Ridge by virtue of their origin via the same rifting and uplift processes.
Of all the summits that make up the Metacomet Ridge, West Rock, in New Haven, Connecticut, bears special mention because it was not formed by the volcanic flooding that created most of the traprock ridges. Rather, it is the remains of an enormous volcanic dike through which the basalt lava floods found access to the surface.
While the traprock cliffs remain the most obvious evidence of the prehistoric geologic processes of the Metacomet Ridge, the sedimentary rock of the ridge and surrounding terrain has produced equally significant evidence of prehistoric life in the form of Triassic and Jurassic fossils; in particular, dinosaur tracks. At a state park in Rocky Hill, Connecticut, more than 2,000 well preserved early Jurassic prints have been excavated. Other sites in Holyoke and Greenfield have likewise produced significant finds.
Ecosystem
The Metacomet Ridge hosts a combination of microclimates unusual to the region. Dry, hot upper ridges support oak savannas, often dominated by chestnut oak and a variety of understory grasses and ferns. Eastern red-cedar, a dry-loving species, clings to the barren edges of cliffs. Backslope plant communities tend to be similar to the adjacent upland plateaus and nearby Appalachians, containing species common to the northern hardwood and oak-hickory forest ecosystem types. Eastern hemlock crowds narrow ravines, blocking sunlight and creating damp, cooler growing conditions with associated cooler climate plant species. Talus slopes are especially rich in nutrients and support a number of calcium-loving plants uncommon in the region. Miles of high cliffs make ideal raptor habitat, and the Metacomet Ridge is a seasonal raptor migration corridor. Because the topography of the ridge offers such varied terrain, many species reach the northern or southern limit of their range on the Metacomet Ridge; others are considered rare nationally or globally. Examples of rare species that live on the ridge include the prickly pear cactus, peregrine falcon, northern copperhead, showy lady's slipper, yellow corydalis, ram's–head lady's slipper, basil mountain mint, and devil's bit lily.
The Metacomet Ridge is also an important aquifer. It provides municipalities and towns with public drinking water; reservoirs are located on Talcott Mountain, Totoket Mountain, Saltonstall Mountain, Bradley Mountain, Ragged Mountain, and the Hanging Hills in Connecticut. Reservoirs that supply metropolitan Springfield, Massachusetts, are located on Provin Mountain and East Mountain.
History
Pre-colonial era
Native Americans occupied the river valleys surrounding the Metacomet Ridge for at least 10,000 years. Major tribal groups active in the area included the Quinnipiac, Niantic, Pequot, Pocomtuc, and Mohegan. Traprock was used to make tools and arrowheads. Natives hunted game, gathered plants and fruits, and fished in local bodies of water around the Metacomet Ridge. Tracts of woodland in the river bottoms surrounding the ridges were sometimes burned to facilitate the cultivation of crops such as corn, squash, tobacco, and beans.
Natives incorporated the natural features of the ridgeline and surrounding geography into their spiritual belief systems. Many Native American stories were in turn incorporated into regional colonial folklore. The giant stone spirit Hobbomock (or Hobomock), a prominent figure in many stories, was credited with diverting the course of the Connecticut River where it suddenly swings east in Middletown, Connecticut, after several hundred miles of running due south. Hobbomuck is also credited with slaying a giant human-eating beaver who lived in a great lake that existed in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts. According to native beliefs as retold by European settlers, the corpse of the beaver remains visible as the Pocumtuck Ridge portion of the Metacomet Ridge. Later, after Hobbomuck diverted the course of the Connecticut River, he was punished to sleep forever as the prominent man-like form of the Sleeping Giant, part of the Metacomet Ridge in southern Connecticut. There seems to be an element of scientific truth in some of these tales. For instance, the great lake that the giant beaver was said to have inhabited may very well have been the post-glacial Lake Hitchcock, extant 10,000 years ago; the giant beaver may have been an actual prehistoric species of bear–sized beaver, Castoroides ohioensis, that lived at that time. Many features of the Metacomet Ridge region still bear names with Native American origins: Besek, Pistapaug, Coginchaug, Mattabesett, Metacomet, Totoket, Norwottuck, Hockanum, Nonotuck, Pocumtuck, and others.
Colonization, agricultural transformation, and industrialization
Europeans began settling the river valleys around the Metacomet Ridge in the mid–17th century. Forests were cut down or burned to make room for agriculture, resulting in the near complete denuding of the once contiguous forests of southern New England by the 19th century. Steep terrain like the Metacomet Ridge, while not suitable for planting crops, was widely harvested of timber as a result of the expanding charcoal industry that boomed before the mining of coal from the mid–Appalachian regions replaced it as a source of fuel. In other cases, ridgetop forests burned when lower elevation land was set afire, and some uplands were used for pasturing. Traprock was harvested from talus slopes of the Metacomet Ridge to build house foundations; copper ore was discovered at the base of Peak Mountain in northern Connecticut and was mined by prisoners incarcerated at Old Newgate Prison located there.
With the advent of industrialization in the 19th century, riverways beneath the Metacomet Ridge were dammed to provide power as the labor force expanded in nearby cities and towns. Logging to provide additional fuel for mills further denuded the ridges. Traprock and sandstone were quarried from the ridge for paving stones and architectural brownstone, either used locally or shipped via rail, barge, and boat.
Transcendentalism
Increased urbanization and industrialization in Europe and North America resulted in an opposing aesthetic transcendentalist movement characterized in New England by the art of Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, and other Hudson River School painters, the work of landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted, and the writings of philosophers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. As was true of other scenic areas of New England, the philosophical, artistic, and environmental movement of transcendentalism transformed the Metacomet Ridge from a commercial resource to a recreational resource. Hotels, parks, and summer estates were built on the mountains from the mid-1880s to the early 20th century. Notable structures included summit hotels and inns on Mount Holyoke, Mount Tom, Sugarloaf Mountain, and Mount Nonotuck. Parks and park structures such as Poet's Seat in Greenfield, Massachusetts, and Hubbard Park (designed with the help of Frederick Law Olmsted) of the Hanging Hills of Meriden, Connecticut, were intended as respites from the urban areas they closely abutted. Estates such as Hill-Stead and Heublein Tower were built as mountain home retreats by local industrialists and commercial investors. Although public attention gradually shifted to more remote and less developed destinations with the advent of modern transportation and the westward expansion of the United States, the physical, cultural, and historic legacy of that early recreational interest in the Metacomet Ridge still supports modern conservation efforts. Estates became museums; old hotels and the lands they occupied, frequently subject to damaging fires, became state and municipal parkland through philanthropic donation, purchase, or confiscation for unpaid taxes. Nostalgia among former guests of hotels and estates contributed to the aesthetic of conservation.
Trailbuilding
Interest in mountains as places to build recreational footpaths took root in New England with organizations such as the Appalachian Mountain Club, the Green Mountain Club, the Appalachian Trail Conference, and the Connecticut Forest and Park Association. Following the pioneering effort of the Green Mountain Club in the inauguration of Vermont's Long Trail in 1918, the Connecticut Forest and Park Association, spearheaded by Edgar Laing Heermance, created the Quinnipiac Trail on the Metacomet Ridge in southern Connecticut in 1928 and soon followed it up with the Metacomet Trail along the Metacomet Ridge in central and northern Connecticut. More than of "blue blaze trails" in Connecticut were completed by the association by the end of the 20th century. While the focus of the Appalachian Mountain Club was geared primarily toward the White Mountains of New Hampshire in its early years, as club membership broadened, so did interest in the areas closer to club members' homes. In the late 1950s, the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail was laid out by the Berkshire Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club under leadership of Professor Walter M. Banfield of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The trail follows the Metacomet Ridge for the first one–third of its length. Overall, trailbuilding had a pro-active effect on conservation awareness by thrusting portions of the Metacomet Ridge into the public consciousness.
Suburbanization and land conservation
Although the Metacomet Ridge has abutted significant urban areas for nearly two hundred years, because of its rugged, steep, and rocky terrain, the ridge was long considered an undesirable place to build a home except for those wealthy enough to afford such a luxury. However, suburbanization through urban exodus and automobile culture, and modern construction techniques and equipment have created a demand for homes on and around the once undeveloped Metacomet Ridge and its surrounding exurban communities. As of 2007, the metropolitan areas bordering the range—New Haven, Meriden, New Britain, Hartford, Springfield and Greenfield—had a combined population of more than 2.5 million people. Populations in exurban towns around the range in Connecticut have increased 7.6 percent between the mid-1990s to 2000, and building permits increased 26 percent in the same period. Considered an attractive place to build homes because of its views and proximity to urban centers and highways, the Metacomet Ridge has become a target for both developers and advocates of land conservation. Quarrying, supported by the increased need for stone in local and regional construction projects, has been especially damaging to the ecosystem, public access, and visual landscape of the ridge. At the same time, the boom in interest in outdoor recreation in the latter 20th century has made the Metacomet Ridge an attractive "active leisure" resource. In response to public interest in the ridge and its surrounding landscapes, more than twenty local non-profit organizations have become involved in conservation efforts on and around the ridge and surrounding region. Most of these organizations came into being between 1970 and 2000, and nearly all of them have evidenced a marked increase in conservation activity since 1990. Several international and national organizations have also become interested in the Metacomet Ridge, including The Nature Conservancy, the Sierra Club, and the Trust for Public Land.
Recreation
Steepness, long cliff–top views, and proximity to urban areas make the Metacomet Ridge a significant regional outdoor recreation resource. The ridge is traversed by more than of long-distance and shorter hiking trails. Noteworthy trails in Connecticut include the Metacomet Trail, the Mattabesett Trail, the Quinnipiac Trail, and the Regicides Trail. Massachusetts trails include the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail, the Robert Frost Trail, and the Pocumtuck Ridge Trail. Site–specific activities enjoyed on the ridge include rock climbing, bouldering, fishing, boating, hunting, swimming, backcountry skiing, cross-country skiing, trail running, bicycling, and mountain biking. Trails on the ridge are open to snowshoeing, birdwatching and picnicking as well. The Metacomet Ridge hosts more than a dozen state parks, reservations, and municipal parks, and more than three dozen nature preserves and conservation properties. Seasonal automobile roads with scenic vistas are located at Poet's Seat Park, Mount Sugarloaf State Reservation, J.A. Skinner State Park, the Mount Tom State Reservation, Hubbard Park, and West Rock Ridge State Park; these roads are also used for bicycling and cross–country skiing. Camping and campfires are discouraged on most of the Metacomet Ridge, especially in Connecticut. Museums, historic sites, interpretive centers, and other attractions can be found on or near the Metacomet Ridge; some offer outdoor concerts, celebrations, and festivals.
Conservation
Because of its narrowness, proximity to urban areas, and fragile ecosystems, the Metacomet Ridge is most endangered by encroaching suburban sprawl. Quarry operations, also a threat, have obliterated several square miles of traprock ridgeline in both Massachusetts and Connecticut. Ridges and mountains affected include Trimountain, Bradley Mountain, Totoket Mountain, Chauncey Peak, Rattlesnake Mountain, East Mountain, Pocumtuck Ridge, and the former Round Mountain of the Holyoke Range. The gigantic man-like profile of the Sleeping Giant, a traprock massif visible for more than in south central Connecticut, bears quarrying scars on its "head". Mining there was halted by the efforts of local citizens and the Sleeping Giant Park Association.
Development and quarrying threats to the Metacomet Ridge have resulted in public open space acquisition efforts through collective purchasing and fundraising, active solicitation of land donations, securing of conservation easements, protective and restrictive legislation agreements limiting development, and, in a few cases, land taking by eminent domain. Recent conservation milestones include the acquisition of a defunct ski area on Mount Tom, the purchase of the ledges and summits of Ragged Mountain through the efforts of a local rock climbing club and the Nature Conservancy, and the inclusion of the ridgeline from North Branford, Connecticut, to Belchertown, Massachusetts, in a study by the National Park Service for a new National Scenic Trail now tentatively called the New England National Scenic Trail. Metacomet Ridge Conservation Compact, a Connecticut focus on ridgeline protection was initiated with the creation of the Metacomet Ridge Conservation Compact. The compact was ratified on Earth Day, April 22, 1998. The Compact serves as a guide for local land use decision-makers when discussing land use issues in Metacomet or Trap Rock ridge-line areas within the state. Ultimately signed by eighteen towns out of the nineteen ridge-line communities, this agreement committed local conservation commissions to strive to protect these ridges. The 18 towns whose Conservation Commissions signed the pact are; Avon, Berlin, Bloomfield, Branford, Durham, East Granby, East Haven, Farmington, Guilford, Meriden, Middlefield, North Branford, Plainville, Simsbury, Suffield, Wallingford, West Hartford and West Haven.
See also
List of Metacomet Ridge summits
Traprock mountains in other parts of the world
References
External links
United States Congress New England National Scenic Trail Designation Act.
National Park Service brochure for National Scenic Trail proposal.
Natural resource assessment of the Metacomet Ridge
Geology of the northern Metacomet Ridge region
Traprock Wilderness Recovery Strategy
Guide to the Robert Frost Trail
Connecticut Forest and Park Association
Appalachian Mountain Club Berkshire Chapter
Government agencies
Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection
National Park Service New England National Scenic Trail website
Maps and additional relevant external links provided under articles relating to specific summits of the Metacomet Ridge.
Geography of New Haven, Connecticut
Geology of Connecticut
Geology of Massachusetts
Landforms of New Haven County, Connecticut
Raptor migration sites
Ridges of Connecticut
Ridges of Massachusetts
Volcanism of Massachusetts
Climbing areas of the United States |
996468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Brevity | Operation Brevity | Operation Brevity was a limited offensive conducted in mid-May 1941, during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Conceived by the commander-in-chief of the British Middle East Command, General Archibald Wavell, Brevity was intended to be a rapid blow against weak Axis front-line forces in the Sollum–Capuzzo–Bardia area of the border between Egypt and Libya. Although the operation got off to a promising start, throwing the Axis high command into confusion, most of its early gains were lost to local counter-attacks, and with German reinforcements being rushed to the front the operation was called off after one day.
Egypt had been invaded by Libyan-based Italian forces in September 1940, but by February of the following year a British counter-offensive had advanced well into Libya, destroying the Italian Tenth Army in the process. British attention then shifted to Greece, which was under the threat of Axis invasion. While Allied divisions were being diverted from North Africa, the Italians reinforced their positions and were supported by the arrival of the German Afrika Korps under Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel. Rapidly taking the offensive against his distracted and over-stretched opponent, by April 1941 Rommel had driven the British and Commonwealth forces in Cyrenaica back across the Egyptian border. Although the battlefront now lay in the border area, the port city of Tobruk— inside Libya—had resisted the Axis advance, and its substantial Australian and British garrison constituted a significant threat to Rommel's lengthy supply chain. He therefore committed his main strength to besieging the city, leaving the front line only thinly held.
Wavell defined Operation Brevity's main objectives as the acquisition of territory from which to launch a further planned offensive toward Tobruk, and the depletion of German and Italian forces in the region. With limited battle-ready units to draw on in the wake of Rommel's recent successes, on 15 May Brigadier William Gott attacked in three columns with a mixed infantry and armoured force. The strategically important Halfaya Pass was taken against stiff Italian opposition, and deeper inside Libya Fort Capuzzo was captured, but German counter-attacks under Colonel Maximilian von Herff regained the fort during the afternoon causing heavy casualties amongst its defenders. Gott—concerned that his forces were in danger of being caught by German armour in open ground—conducted a staged withdrawal to the Halfaya Pass on 16 May, and Brevity was closed down. The importance of the Halfaya Pass as a safe supply route was highlighted to Rommel, and 11 days later it was recaptured during Operation Skorpion, a German counter-attack.
Background
In early September 1940, the Italian 10th Army based in Libya conducted the Italian invasion of Egypt and three months later, the British and Commonwealth troops of the Western Desert Force began a counter-offensive, codenamed Operation Compass. In two months, the British advanced , occupying the Italian province of Cyrenaica and destroying the 10th Army. The advance was halted in February 1941 because of supply shortages and to give priority to the Battle of Greece. Renamed XIII Corps and reorganised under HQ Cyrenaica Command (CYRCOM), the troops of the former Western Desert Force adopted a defensive posture. Over the next few months, HQ Cyrenaica lost its commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, followed by the 2nd New Zealand Division and the 6th Australian Division when they were sent to Greece in Operation Lustre. The 7th Armoured Division, with virtually no serviceable tanks left, was also withdrawn and sent to the Nile Delta for rest and refitting. Wilson was replaced by Lieutenant-General Philip Neame; parts of the 2nd Armoured Division and 9th Australian Division were deployed to Cyrenaica but both formations were inexperienced, ill-equipped and in the case of the 2nd Armoured Division, well under strength, after detachments to Greece.
The Italians responded by despatching the 132nd Armored Division "Ariete" and 102nd Motorized Division "Trento" to North Africa. From February 1941 until early May, Operation Sonnenblume saw the arrival of the German Afrika Korps in Tripoli to reinforce their Italian allies. Commanded by Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel and consisting of the 5th Light and 15th Panzer Division, the Afrika Korps was to block Allied attempts to drive the Italians out of the region. Rommel seized on the weakness of his opponents and without waiting for his forces fully to assemble, rapidly went on the offensive. During March and April, the remaining units of the 2nd Armoured Division were destroyed as the Axis forces advanced, which also forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat.
Neame and the General Officer Commanding British Troops in Egypt—Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor—were captured and the British command structure had to be reorganised. HQ Cyrenaica was dissolved on 14 April and its command functions taken over by a new HQ Western Desert Force (Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse). The 9th Australian Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British forces withdrew a further east to Sollum on the Egypt–Libya border. With the main Axis force conducting the siege of Tobruk a small battlegroup (Kampfgruppe) commanded by Colonel Maximilian von Herff continued to press eastward. Capturing Fort Capuzzo and Bardia in passing, it then advanced into Egypt; by the end of April had taken Sollum and the tactically important Halfaya Pass. Rommel garrisoned these positions, reinforced the Kampfgruppe and ordered it onto the defensive.
The Tobruk garrison received supplies from the Royal Navy and Rommel was unable to take the port. This failure was significant; his front line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and was threatened by the Tobruk garrison. The substantial commitment required to invest Tobruk prevented him from building up his forces at Sollum, making further advances into Egypt impractical. By maintaining possession of Tobruk, the Allies had regained the initiative.
Prelude
General Archibald Wavell—the commander-in-chief of the British Middle East Command—conceived Operation Brevity as a rapid blow in the Sollum area. Wavell intended to create advantageous conditions from which to launch Operation Battleaxe, the main offensive that he was planning for June. Operation Brevity's primary objectives were to recapture the Halfaya Pass, to drive the enemy from the Sollum and Capuzzo areas, and to deplete Rommel's forces. A secondary objective was to advance toward Tobruk, although only as far as supplies would allow, and without risking the force committed to the operation.
Allied force
Operation Brevity would be carried out by the 22nd Guards Brigade and elements of the 7th Armoured Division. Its armoured component consisted of 29 cruiser tanks of the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment (2RTR) and 24 infantry tanks of the 4th Royal Tank Regiment (4RTR). The Royal Air Force (RAF) allocated all available fighters and a small force of bombers to the operation. Brigadier William Gott—in command of all Allied front-line forces since the retreat—was to lead the operation in the field, and his plan was to advance in three parallel columns.
On the desert flank to the south, the 7th Armoured Brigade group was to move from Bir el Khireigat to Sidi Azeiz destroying any opposition encountered en route. This group included three small mobile forces ("Jock columns") of the 7th Support Group, the cruiser tanks of 2RTR, and the armoured cars of the 11th Hussars, whose task was to patrol the open desert on the left flank and monitor the Sidi Azeiz–Bardia road. In the centre, the 22nd Guards Brigade group was to clear the top of the Halfaya Pass, secure Bir Wair, Musaid, and Fort Capuzzo, and conduct a company-sized probe toward Bardia. The group included two infantry formations (1st Battalion Durham Light Infantry and 2nd Battalion Scots Guards), and the infantry tanks of 4RTR. In the north, the "coast group" was to advance along the coast road, capturing the lower Halfaya Pass, Sollum barracks, and the town of Sollum. The group included elements of the 2nd Battalion The Rifle Brigade, and the 8th Field Regiment Royal Artillery.
Axis force
The main Axis opposition was , positioned on the desert plateau. It included 30–50 tanks of the 2nd Battalion, Panzer Regiment 5, an Italian motorised infantry battalion of the Trento Division, and supporting arms. The front line area around Halfaya Pass was defended by two companies of —well trained Italian motorised infantry—with artillery support. On 9 May, the Germans intercepted a British weather report over the radio. The war diary noted that "In the past, such reports had always been issued prior to the important enemy offensives to capture Sidi Barrani, Bardi, Tobruk, and the Gebel". Rommel strengthened the eastern side of his cordon around Tobruk as a precaution against sorties from the garrison and to order to adopt a more aggressive posture. On 13 May, Axis aircraft bombed British tank concentrations and Herff expected an imminent British attack. On the following day aircraft were unable to locate the British, and it was reported that the "enemy intentions to attack were not known".
Battle
Centre column
On 13 May, Wavell's infantry battalions began to concentrate at their start lines, followed by the tank regiments during the early hours of 15 May. At 06:00, the three columns began their advance, supported overhead by a standing patrol of Hawker Hurricane fighters. Reaching the top of the Halfaya Pass, the 22nd Guards Brigade group ran into heavy opposition from a company of company, supported by anti-tank guns, under the command of Colonel Ugo Montemurro. This unit fought tenaciously, doing much to repair the poor impression Rommel had of his Italian allies. Opening fire upon the attacking British tanks, the found their 47 mm anti-tank guns could not penetrate the armour of the Matilda infantry tanks. At , the gunners shifted targets, aiming at the tracks and undercarriages, when the tanks raised up crossing low stone walls and rocks, seven tanks were disabled. For his conduct during this action, Rommel recommended that Montemurro be awarded the Iron Cross First Class. At the cost of the seven tanks, the position was taken by C Squadron 4RTR and G Company 2nd Scots Guards and the brigade group pushed on towards the Bir Wair-Musaid road. At around 08:00, it received the surrender of a large German-Italian camp, and by 10:15 Bir Wair and Musaid had been taken in the face of sporadic opposition.
A Squadron 4RTR and the 1st Durham Light Infantry (1DLI) continued the advance toward Fort Capuzzo. Concealed in hull down positions behind a ridge near the fort were 20–30 German tanks, supported by anti tank guns. These engaged A Squadron, disabling five tanks, but were forced to withdraw as the squadron pressed its attack. On the final approach to Fort Capuzzo, contact was lost between 4RTR's tanks and 1DLI's leading C Company, and the attack on the fort began without armoured support. The fort was vigorously defended, and it was not until just before midday that C Company, reunited with A Squadron 4RTR and reinforced by A and B Companies 1DLI, eventually took the position. D Company 1DLI—which had been in reserve during the attack—then made a wide left hook to capture a small landing ground to the north of the fort.
In the afternoon, one company of the 2nd Scots Guards probed toward Bardia, the infantry coming under heavy machine gun fire from three positions as they neared Sollum barracks. A group of Universal Carriers—commanded by Sergeant F. Riley—charged the gun positions and quickly neutralised them, but one carrier was disabled when the group was subsequently engaged by anti-tank guns. Riley executed a second charge, silencing these too and taking their crews prisoner. His carrier was hit three times; for his actions Riley was awarded the Military Medal, the battalion's first decoration of the war.
Desert column
On the desert flank, 2RTR advanced with the 7th Armoured Brigade group. During the morning, reports were received of up to 30 German armoured vehicles operating nearby, and A Squadron 2RTR moved to investigate. Most of the German force had pulled back, but three tanks were located and brought under fire. One Panzer IV was disabled and the other two driven off, for the loss of one British tank due to mechanical failure. A second force of 15 German tanks was engaged by two tanks of No 2 Troop, destroying a Panzer III and forcing the remainder to withdraw. By midday, the brigade group had reached a position west of Fort Capuzzo, and in the afternoon the nine remaining cruisers of A Squadron 2RTR began a reconnaissance patrol towards Sidi Azeiz.
Coastal column
The advance along the coastal road—which lacked tank support—was held up all morning by determined Italian resistance at the bottom of Halfaya Pass. This objective was finally achieved toward evening when S Company 2nd Rifle Brigade—supported by Australian anti-tank gunners fighting as infantry—overran the Italian positions taking around 130 prisoners.
Axis reactions
Although the German and Italian commands in North Africa knew that a British offensive was imminent, Operation Brevity nevertheless caught them unprepared, and Rommel recorded in his diary that the initial attacks had caused him considerable losses. By midday on 15 May, Axis command was showing signs of confusion. It was erroneously believed that the offensive involved more than 100 tanks, and repeated requests were made to both the and the for a concerted effort to defeat it. Forces around Tobruk were redeployed east of the besieged city, to block any attempt at relief and to prevent the garrison from breaking out to meet the British advance. Lieutenant-Colonel Hans Cramer was sent to reinforce with a tank battalion from Panzer Regiment 8 and a battery of anti-aircraft guns, and additional reinforcements under General Hans-Karl Freiherr von Esebeck were despatched the following day.
The Germans concentrated their riposte against the central column. Herff—who had been prepared to fall back—instead launched a local counter-attack toward Fort Capuzzo during the afternoon of 15 May with the 2nd Battalion Panzer Regiment 5. At around 13:30, D Company 1DLI at the landing ground was overrun, and with no anti-tank support more capable than the Boys anti-tank rifle, the remaining troops of 1DLI were forced to fall back toward Musaid. A fortuitous dust cloud aided their withdrawal but by 14:45 Panzer Regiment 5 was reporting that it had recaptured Capuzzo, inflicting heavy casualties on the British and taking 70 prisoners.
On the desert flank, A Squadron 2RTR's patrol toward Sidi Azeiz was being monitored by Panzer Regiment 5, but the Germans misidentified the light cruiser tanks as heavily armoured Matilda infantry tanks, and reported that an attack was not possible. Herff—believing the British had two divisions operating in the area—had grown uneasy. A Squadron's patrol was interpreted as an attempt to concentrate south of Sidi Azeiz, in preparation for a thrust north the next day; such a move threatened to sweep aside Herff's force and unhinge the German front in the Sollum–Bardia area. Herff broke contact with the British; his plan was to join up with Cramer's Panzer Regiment 8 to mount a concentrated counter-attack the following morning.
British withdrawal
Realising that the 22nd Guards Brigade group would be vulnerable to German armoured counterattacks in the open ground around Bir Wair and Mussaid, Brigadier Gott withdrew it during the early hours of the morning of 16 May. By 10:00, the infantry had taken up new positions back at Halfaya Pass, although the 7th Armoured Brigade group was ordered to remain west of Fort Capuzzo for the time being.
Cramer's reinforcements arrived in the Sidi Azeiz area at 03:00 and reached Fort Capuzzo at 06:30. At around 08:00, he made contact with but by mid-morning both groups had run out of fuel. The German advance resumed at 16:00 before being stopped by around 17 tanks of 2RTR. The British reported one German tank set alight and another disabled and that an advance of up to fifty tanks had been halted, while the Germans believed that they had repulsed a strong British tank attack. As nightfall approached, Herff broke off the action and went on to the defensive. He intended to repair his damaged machines, reorganise, and resume offensive operations on 18 May. 2RTR pulled back to Bir el Khireigat, initially followed by two German tanks, one of which withdrew after the other was destroyed. The regiment arrived at Bir el Khireigat, from where it had set out two days previously, at around 02:30 on 17 May.
Aftermath
Operation Brevity failed to achieve most of its objectives, succeeding only in retaking the Halfaya Pass. The British lost five tanks destroyed and a further 13 were damaged but the tank regiments suffered no losses in personnel. Total casualties amounted to at least 206 men. The 1st Durham Light Infantry suffered the most during the operation losing 196 men killed, wounded or captured. The 2nd Scots Guards lost one man killed and four wounded, the 3rd Coldstream Guards lost one man killed and the 11th Hussars suffered four men wounded. Losses among the 2nd Rifle Brigade are unknown. German casualties numbered three tanks (a Panzer II and two Panzer IIIs, although several more suffered minor damage) and 258 men killed, wounded or captured. Jack Greene and Alessandro Massignani place total Italian losses at 395. Allied accounts record the capture of 347 of these men.
On 5 August, Herff praised the Bersaglieri, who had defended Halfaya Pass "...with lionlike courage until the last man against stronger enemy forces. The greatest part of them died faithful to the flag." Lieutenant Giacinto Cova, a platoon commander in the 8th Bersaglieri Regiment, received a posthumous Gold Medal of Military Valour, Italy's highest award for bravery. The medal citation reported that Cova had organised a counter-attack and was killed attempting to throw a hand-held bomb at a British tank. The British received plaudits from Winston Churchill, who sent a telegram to Wavell betraying his ignorance of events by stating: "Without using the Tiger cubs you have taken the offensive, advanced , captured Halfaya and Sollum, taken 500 German prisoners and inflicted heavy losses in men and tanks. For this twenty I tanks and 1,000 or 1,500 casualties do not seem too heavy a cost." Churchill ended the message by asking Wavell "What are your dates for bringing Tiger cubs into action?", in reference to the reinforcements that had arrived at Alexandria on 12 May as part of a convoy code-named Operation Tiger. The 11th Hussar's regimental history notes that "it was clear that no further offensive action would be possible before 7[th] Armoured Division was fully prepared". The Tiger convoy brought 238 tanks and made it possible to refit the 7th Armoured Division, which had been out of action since February as a result of the losses it sustained during Operation Compass. Preparations could now be made for Operation Battleaxe and the relief of Tobruk. In the system of British and Commonwealth battle honours, units that served in the Halfaya Pass area between 15 and 27 May were awarded the honour Halfaya 1941 in 1957.
Historian Thomas Jentz suggests that Brevity could have ended in victory for the British. While their tank forces were fighting ineffectively, the "gutsy" actions by 2RTR and their patrol toward Sidi Azeiz had convinced the Germans that the battle was lost by the evening of 15 May. Because of their failure to engage 2RTR late that day, several German commanders from Panzer Regiment 5, including its commanding officer, were removed from their posts after the battle. Jentz notes that a feint by the 1st and 7th RTR out of Tobruk might have caused a realignment of the Axis forces, weakening their overall position and perhaps even forcing them to give up the Sollum area.
Operation Brevity highlighted to Rommel the importance of the Halfaya Pass; whichever side held it would have a "comparatively safe route for his supplies" during offensives in the area. On 27 May, he launched Operation Skorpion, during which Herff recaptured the pass and reversed the last British territorial gain from Brevity.
See also
Operation Brevity order of battle
North African campaign timeline
List of British military equipment of World War II
List of German military equipment of World War II
List of Italian military equipment in World War II
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Further reading
published in
External links
Conflicts in 1941
1941 in Egypt
North African campaign
Western Desert campaign
Egypt in World War II
Libya in World War II
Battles of World War II involving Australia
Brevity
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
May 1941 events |
31463512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2/1st%20Machine%20Gun%20Battalion%20%28Australia%29 | 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion (Australia) | The 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion was a battalion of the Australian Army that was raised for service during World War II as part of the 6th Division. When it was formed on 14 December 1939, its component companies were spread across several Australian states, but it was later concentrated at Ingleburn, New South Wales, where it completed basic training in the early months of the war. In mid-1940, the battalion embarked for overseas, bound initially for the Middle East, but following the Fall of France it was diverted to the United Kingdom. Along with a larger contingent of Australians, it helped to bolster the island's garrison, undertaking defensive duties during a period when it was expected that the Germans might launch a cross-Channel invasion.
The battalion was transferred to the Middle East in late 1940, after the threat of invasion had passed. It underwent further training in Egypt, before taking part in fighting against the Germans in Greece and on Crete in mid-1941. Having lost most of its equipment and suffering heavy casualties, the 2/1st was rebuilt in Palestine before undertaking garrison duties in Syria in 1941–1942. The battalion was withdrawn to Australia as a result of Japan's entry into the war in December 1941. During 1943, the 2/1st fought a defensive role in the New Guinea campaign. Following its withdrawal to Australia in early 1944, the battalion was re-organised on the Atherton Tablelands and reassigned to the 7th Division. It was committed to its final campaign in mid-1945, during the Borneo campaign. After the war, the battalion was disbanded in early 1946. One of its mascots, Horrie the Wog Dog, became the subject of a book by Ion Idriess.
History
Formation
The 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 14 December 1939, as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF). It was raised following a reorganisation of the 6th Division's infantry battalions, which saw the removal of the machine gun platoons that had previously existed within each battalion and their centralisation in a single unit. Three other machine gun battalions were subsequently raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war to support its four infantry divisions. Developed by the British Army, the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915, when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then, later, four – had been grouped together and co-ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support. Over the course of the war on the Western Front, the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 to the establishment of machine gun battalions in 1918. Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. During the inter-war years, the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary. When the Army was reorganised in 1921, they were not re-raised, but in 1937, when the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed, four such units were raised within the part-time Militia by converting light horse units and motorising them. When the Second World War broke out, the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF, one allocated to each division.
Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Claude Prior, the 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion was formed with four machine gun companies, a headquarters company – consisting of an anti-aircraft platoon, a signals platoon and a transport platoon – and a battalion headquarters. Australian machine gun battalions were established with an authorised strength of around 800 to 900 personnel, and like the others, the 2/1st was a motorised infantry unit with both wheeled motor vehicles and tracked carriers. Equipped with 48 Vickers medium machine guns, the battalion's four machine gun companies – designated 'A' to 'D' and each consisting of three four-gun platoons – were initially formed separately, with 'A' Company forming at Ingleburn, in New South Wales, 'B' Company forming at Puckapunyal, in Victoria, 'C' in South Australia, and 'D' at Rutherford, in New South Wales. At the end of the month, 'B' and 'C' Companies concentrated at Rutherford, before moving to Ingleburn with 'D' Company in January 1940. An intense period of training followed, with range shoots at Liverpool, and field exercises in the Green Hills and Wallacia areas, the latter being conducted in conjunction with the infantry battalions of the 18th Brigade. This period concluded in early May 1940, when the battalion was moved by train to Darling Harbour and embarked upon the Queen Mary.
Defence of Britain
The men aboard Queen Mary were originally destined for the Middle East but a decision was made mid-voyage to divert them to the United Kingdom, as part of a larger contingent of Australians that were sent to help bolster the defences there. After making the long passage via Fremantle, Cape Town, and Freetown, the Queen Mary arrived off the coast of Gourock, Scotland, on 16 June. The evacuation at Dunkirk had been achieved just two weeks earlier and France had just fallen; Britain was now preparing for a potential cross-Channel invasion. The Australian troops from the 18th Brigade and, eventually, the 25th Brigade, along with various supporting arms, had been despatched to help bolster the island's defences. From Gourock, they entrained and moved south to Tidworth Camp on Salisbury Plain. They remained in Britain for much of the rest of the year, undertaking training, mounting guard, conducting patrols and exercises. A move to Colchester took place in October to afford the Australians a more permanent barracks for the coming winter, as they were mainly under canvas at Tidworth. The following month, as the threat of invasion seemingly passed, they received orders to move to Glasgow to embark on the transport Otranto, bound for the Middle East where they were to rejoin the rest of the 6th Division.
Middle East, Greece, and Crete
Sailing around the west coast of Africa to avoid the threat of air attack in the Mediterranean, the Otrango carried the battalion to Egypt, which was reached at the end of December, following stops at Freetown and Durban. After docking at Kantara, the battalion moved by rail over to Ikingi Maryut, west of Alexandria in the Western Desert. There they received a new commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gooch, after Prior was promoted and transferred to divisional headquarters, and they began training to acclimatise to the new conditions. The rest of the 6th Division had gone into action in the Western Desert but the 2/1st, still waiting on the majority of its equipment to arrive, was not committed, its place being taken by a British machine gun battalion from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers. The Australian battalion remained at Ikingi Maryut until late March and early April, when it was despatched, along with the rest of the 6th Division, to Greece, where a German invasion was expected.
Spread across several different transport vessels, after completing the crossing – during which the battalion’s machine guns were employed for anti-aircraft defence – the 2/1st's companies were split up: 'A' Company, supported the Australian 2/4th Battalion, while two companies – 'B' and 'C' – supported the New Zealand 4th Brigade, and another – 'D' Company – was assigned to the Australian 17th Brigade. The campaign proved to be short-lived, as the Allies were quickly pushed back by the advancing Germans, and the battalion was subsequently withdrawn around the end of April and early May, having fought major actions around the Aliakmon River, Servia Pass, Lamia and Mount Olympus. During the evacuation, elements of three companies were taken aboard the transport Costa Rica, which was later attacked by German aircraft. As the vessel was sinking, the troops on board were evacuated by Royal Navy destroyers and landed on Crete, minus the majority of their equipment which was lost at sea.
On Crete, the battalion's companies were once again separated; 'D' Company, the only company in possession of all of its equipment, was assigned to support the Australian 19th Brigade around Georgioupolis, while the other three companies went into camp around Suda. A single platoon from 'B' Company was later sent to reinforce 'D' Company; however, on 14 May, the remainder of the battalion – a total of 432 personnel – was evacuated from the island on the transport Lossiebank, sailing back to Egypt and subsequently missing the German invasion of Crete, which was launched a week later. A short but sharp campaign followed, which saw the machine gunners that remained – 170 personnel, including six officers – take part in fighting around Canea and Retimo before the island's garrison was finally defeated at the end of May. By the end of the fighting, the 2/1st had lost 104 men killed, wounded or captured in either Greece or on Crete; of these, two later escaped, while one died in captivity.
After arriving in Egypt, the remainder of the battalion was transported to Palestine, where it was subsequently rebuilt. The 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion remained stationed around Gaza until October, when it was sent to Syria to bolster the garrison that had been established there following the defeat of Vichy French forces. At this time, the 2/1st effectively became assigned to the 7th Division, and received a new commanding officer, as Lieutenant Colonel Cyril Fidock, a World War I veteran, replaced Gooch. The battalion was subsequently stationed in Damascus and at Zaboud, remaining there until early 1942, when it was moved back to Gaza as part of the draw-down of Australian forces in the Middle East and their return to Australia in response to Japan's entry into the war. The battalion embarked upon an American troop transport, USS West Point, in mid-March 1942, completing the voyage to Port Adelaide, via Fremantle, in just 19 days.
New Guinea and Borneo
Following the battalion's arrival in Adelaide, the men were billeted by locals in the city's suburbs while leave drafts were despatched throughout April. In early May, the 2/1st was reconstituted at Ingleburn, where it remained until June 1942, when the order came to move to Queensland. Moving up the coast via train, the battalion established a camp near Peachester, in the Sunshine Coast hinterland. Jungle training was undertaken there until September, when the 2/1st moved to another camp closer to the coast at Deception Bay. At the end of October, 'A' and 'B' Companies embarked in Brisbane, bound for New Guinea, to reinforce the troops fighting around Buna; en route they were diverted to Townsville, where they were unloaded. 'B' Company later re-embarked and arrived in Port Moresby in late November on the transport Both, before moving to Oro Bay, where it was deployed defensively around the US base and the mission at Eroro. 'A' Company also deployed in December, and the following month also moved to Oro Bay. The rest of the battalion remained at Deception Bay in Queensland and did not link up with the other companies until May 1943, landing in Port Moresby from the Duntroon. In the intervening period, the two deployed companies were temporarily detached to the Militia 7th Machine Gun Battalion, and 'A' Company went into action in the Pacific for the first time, fighting around Wau, before marching to Nassau Bay to support the 3rd Division during the Salamaua–Lae campaign.
The battalion was withdrawn back to Australia in early 1944 for rest and reorganisation. During this period it was stationed at Tenterfield, where the soldiers experienced a bitterly cold winter, before moving to Petrie and then Kiari on the Atherton Tablelands. The battalion was reorganised to conform with the requirements of the jungle divisional establishment, and as a result its vehicles were changed to include jeeps and trailers, instead of trucks, which were considered impractical in the jungle. A change of commanding officer also took place in this time, with Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Haupt – who had previously served as battalion second-in-command before leaving to take over command of the 62nd Battalion in January 1943 – returning to take over from Fidock. A long period of training, which included courses in amphibious warfare and various jungle exercises followed, as the focus of the fighting in the Pacific shifted away from Australian forces towards the US military. Consequently, it was not until close to the end of the war that the battalion went into action again. Before this, the battalion contributed to an Australian contingent that was sent to India to lecture British Army officers on the lessons of jungle warfare.
In May 1945, the battalion was transported to Morotai Island in preparation for Operation Oboe, the recapture of Borneo and the Netherlands East Indies. The 2/1st was assigned to support the 7th Division's landing on Balikpapan in July. Now largely being used as a divisional asset, the battalion provided a company to each of the division's component brigades – the 18th, 21st and 25th – while one company remained in reserve with the headquarters. Coming ashore aboard several landing craft, the two companies taking part in the initial assault – 'B' and 'D' – helped to secure the high ground overlooking the beachhead, while 'C' Company remained a floating reserve along with the 25th Brigade. The battalion's reserve company, 'A' Company, and headquarters element came ashore in a later wave to set up a secure base. During the subsequent advance inland, the battalion's main focus was progressing through what the Australians dubbed the "Vasey Highway", which ran east–west along the island's southern shore, as the Australians fought to take the oil pipeline and the airfield at Manggar, and the "Milford Highway", which ran north–south through the centre into the more mountainous hinterland. During the fighting on Borneo, the 2/1st lost 17 men killed or wounded.
Following the conclusion of hostilities, the battalion's personnel were returned to Australia in small drafts, as the 2/1st undertook garrison duties in the Balikpapan area. The longer-serving men were repatriated and discharged early, while volunteers were transferred to other units that were being raised as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force that would be deployed to Japan. In November, a batch of men were transferred to the 21st Brigade for occupation duties in the Celebes as the Australian forces began preparing to hand over the territories to Dutch authorities. By December, the battalion consisted of less than fifty personnel, and at the end of the month this cadre embarked upon the transport Kings Point Victory to make the journey back to Australia. The battalion was subsequently disbanded on 26 January 1946.
When they had been formed, it was intended that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support; however, Phillip Hocking, author of The Long Carry, highlights that throughout the war the utility of the machine gun battalions was largely misunderstood by commanders, particularly after the focus of the Australian Army's operations shifted to the Pacific. Some commanders used the machine guns largely in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets, rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could be employed to provide long range fire support. The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns, such as the Bren. Other reasons identified for the concept's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders, a preference for organic fire support over attached sub-units, over-estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle, and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen. After their disbandment, the machine gun battalion concept was not used in the post-war Australian Army, as the function became nested within the structure of a standard infantry battalion.
One of the 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion's mascots, Horrie the Wog Dog, was the subject of a book by Ion Idriess; the book was based on stories recounted by the dog's owner, Jim Moody, who served as a machine gunner in the 2/1st. Over 2,000 personnel served in the 2/1st throughout the war, and 34 members of the battalion were killed in action, died of wounds or died from accident. Decorations awarded included two Military Crosses, four Military Medals, one British Empire Medal and 16 Mentions in Despatches.
Commanders
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2/1st Machine Gun Battalion:
Lieutenant Colonel Claude Esdaile Prior (1939–1940);
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Neil Gooch (1941);
Lieutenant Colonel Cyril Henwood Fidock (1941–1944);
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Graham Keith Haupt (1944–1945).
Battle honours
The 2/1st received the following battle honours for their involvement in the war:
Greece 1941, Mount Olympus, Servia Pass, Middle East 1941, Crete, South West Pacific 1945, Borneo, Balikpapan, and Milford Highway.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
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14513725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocide | Ecocide | Ecocide (Greek oikos- home and Latin cadere – to kill) describes the mass destruction of nature by humans. Ecocide threatens all human populations who are dependent on natural resources for maintaining ecosystems and ensuring their ability to support future generations. The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide describes it as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts".
Commonly cited examples of ecocide include; deforestation during the Vietnam War, the destruction of the environment during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, deforestation in Indonesia and the Amazon rainforest, oil pollution in the Niger Delta and the Chernobyl disaster. The term was popularised by Olof Palme when he accused the United States of ecocide at the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment.
There is currently no international crime of ecocide that applies in peacetime, only in wartime, covered by the Rome Statute. It was originally planned to be included in the Rome Statute and support by many states, but was removed due to objections by the United Kingdom, France and the United States of America. Ecocide has been made a national law in several countries with many more discussing implementing a law, including the European Union. Stop Ecocide International and others are working to enshrine ecocide into the Rome Statute, making it both international law and national law in member states national law.
Several world leaders, environmentalists and scientists have publicly supported ecocide being made an international crime including Pope Francis, Antonio Guterres, Greta Thunberg, Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa, Emmanuel Macron, Jane Goodall and Paul McCartney. Several countries have also supported the proposal including Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu.
Ecocide is a common theme in fiction with many films and books set in a post ecocide world including; Blade Runner, Mad Max, Wall-E, Interstellar, Threads and Soylent Green.
Aspects of ecocide
The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide, convened by Stop Ecocide Foundation describes it as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts".
Genocide
Ecocide can threaten a people's cultural and physical existence, and several studies have shown that ecocide has genocidal dimensions. Destruction of the natural environment can result in cultural genocide by preventing people from following their traditional way of life. This is especially true for Indigenous people. Ecocide resulting from climate change and resource extraction may become a primary driver of genocide worldwide. Some Indigenous scholars have argued that ecocide and genocide are inextricable.
Mainstream understanding of genocide (as defined by the United Nations) restricts genocide to acts committed against the bodies of individual people. Some genocide researchers argue that this human rights framework does a disservice to colonised Indigenous people who experienced social death with the loss of relationship to their land but who were not always killed in the process of colonisation.
Climate change and mass extinction
The ongoing mass extinction of species has been called ecocide. US environmental theorist Patrick Hossay argues that modern industrial civilization is ecocidal.
Climate change may result in ecocide. For example, ocean acidification and warming causes damage to coral reefs, although ecocide of coral reefs has also been attributed to causes not related to climate change.
Criminalization of ecocide under the Rome Statute has been proposed as a deterrent to corporations responsible for climate change, although others argue that criminalizing ecocide will not address the root causes of the climate crisis.
Intent
Ecocide may occur with or without intent. Environmental lawyer Polly Higgins distinguishes between ascertainable and non-ascertainable ecocide, with the former having a clear human cause while the latter does not. An example of non-ascertainable ecocide is destruction due to extreme weather events related to climate change.
Arthur H. Westing discussed the element of intent in relation to ecocide, stating that "Intent may not only be impossible to establish without admission but, I believe, it is essentially irrelevant."
Examples of ecocide
While ecocide is recognised as a crime in a small number of countries, many examples of environmental destruction have been described as ecocides by academics, journalists, politicians and others.
Vietnam War
One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides (like Agent Orange) were sprayed on 6 million acres of forests and crops by the U.S. Air Force. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide weaponry and encampments under the foliage, and to deprive them of food. Defoliation was also used to clear sensitive areas, including base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land was sprayed at least once. 90% of herbicide use was directed at forest defoliation. The chemicals used continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. Official US military records have listed figures including the destruction of 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20-36% (with other figures reporting 20-50%) of the mangrove forests. The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Based on a preliminary assessment the war has inflicted USD 51 billion in environmental damage in both territories. According to a report by the Yale School of the Environment, some 687,000 tons of petrochemicals have burned as a result of shelling, while nearly 1,600 tons of pollutants have leaked into bodies of water. Hazardous chemicals have contaminated around 70 acres of soil, and likely made agricultural activities temporarily impossible. Around 30% of Ukraine's land is now littered with explosives and more than 2.4 million hectares of forest have been damaged.
According to Netherlands-based peace organization PAX, Russia's "deliberate targeting of industrial and energy infrastructure" has caused "severe" pollution, and the use of explosive weapons has left "millions of tonnes" of contaminated debris in cities and towns. In early June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam, under Russian occupation, was damaged, causing flooding and triggering warnings of an ″ecological disaster.″
The Ukrainian government, international observers and journalists have described the damage as ecocide. The Ukrainian government is investigating more than 200 war crimes against the environment and 15 incidents of ecocide (a crime in Ukraine). Zelenskyy and Ukraine's prosecutor general Andriy Kostin have met with prominent European figures (Margot Wallstrom, Heidi Hautala, Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg) to discuss the environmental damage and how to prosecute it.
Deforestation in Indonesia
Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia. Most recently, it has been driven by the palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The widespread deforestation (and other environmental destruction) in Indonesia is often described by academics as an ecocide. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros.
Chernobyl disaster
After the disaster, of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name of the "Red Forest". Some animals in the worst-hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of ecocide.
Niger Delta oil pollution
The effects of oil exploration in the fragile region of Niger Delta communities and environment have been vast. Local indigenous people have seen little improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage to their natural environment. Some of the hazardous damage of oil and gas exploration in the ecosystem are life threatening which includes Air pollution, Water pollution, Noise pollution etc. Affecting the aquatic lives, human health, also leads to deforestation. According to Nigerian federal government figures, there were more than 7,000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000.
It has been estimated that a clean-up of the region, including full restoration of swamps, creeks, fishing grounds and mangroves, could take 25 years. The Niger Delta is one of the most polluted regions in the world. The heavy contamination of the air, ground and water with toxic pollutants is often used as an example of ecocide.
Amazon rainforest deforestation
Damage to the Amazon has widely been described by indigenous groups, human rights groups, politicians, academics and journalists as an ecocide and a genocide. Indigenous chiefs and human rights organizations have submitted an Article 15 communication against Jair Bolsanaro to the International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity and genocide for harm to Indigenous people and destruction of the Amazon. Another has been submitted for ecocide by indigenous chiefs.
International law
There is no international law against ecocide that applies in peacetime, but the Rome Statute makes it a crime to
The UN's International Law Commission (ILC) considered the inclusion of the crime of ecocide to be included within the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, the document which later became the Rome Statute. Article 26 (crime against the environment) was publicly supported by 19 countries in the Legal Committee but was removed due to opposition from the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.
In 1977 the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile use of Environmental Modification Technique. Article I of this Convention says, "Each State Party to this Convention undertakes not to engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State Party." There is no definition of the terms 'widespread, long-lasting or severe'.
Efforts to expand international ecocide law
Efforts to criminalise ecocide have sought to include the crime among those prosecuted by the International Criminal Court established by the Rome Statute. These crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
In 2010, environmental lawyer Polly Higgins submitted a proposal to the United Nations International Law Commission that defined ecocide as:The extensive damage to, destruction of or loss of ecosystems of a given territory, whether by human agency or by any other causes, to such an extent that peaceful enjoyment by the inhabitants of that territory has been severely diminished.The full proposal, which was submitted to the International Law Commission, is set out in chapters 5 and 6 of her book Eradicating Ecocide: Laws and Governance to Prevent the Destruction of our Planet, Polly Higgins, Published by Shepheard Walwyn: 2010. This definition includes damage caused by individuals, corporations and/or the state. It also includes environmental destruction from 'other causes' (i.e. harm that is not necessarily caused by human activity). The purpose was to create a duty of care to mitigate or prevent naturally occurring disasters as well as creating criminal responsibility for human-caused ecocide. The proposal has yet to be accepted by the United Nations.
On 22 January 2013, a committee of eleven citizens from nine EU countries launched the "European Citizens Initiative (ECI) to End Ecocide in Europe". The initiative aimed at criminalizing ecocide and investments in activities causing ecocide, as well as denying market access to the EU for products derived from ecocidal activities. Three MEPs, Keith Taylor, Eva Joly, and Jo Leinen, publicly gave the first signatures. The initiative did not collect the 1 million signatures needed, but was discussed in the European Parliament.
In December 2019 at the 18th session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vanuatu and the Maldives called for ecocide to be added to the Statute.
In June 2021, an international panel of lawyers submitted a definition of ecocide and proposed a draft amendment to the Rome Statute that would include ecocide among the international crimes prosecuted under the Statute. The panel included members from the UK, Senegal, the US, France, Ecuador, Bangladesh, Sierra Leone, Samoa, and Norway, and their proposed definition is:For the purpose of this Statute, "ecocide" means unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts.
Notable supporters
Many notable people have publicly supported ecocide being made a crime at the International Criminal Court.
At the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme described the damage caused by defoliant Agent Orange in the Vietnam War as ecocide and called for it to be made an international crime.
United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said in 2017 that it is "highly desirable" to include ecocide as a crime at the International Criminal Court.
Pope Francis in his address to the International Association of Penal Law in 2019 stated that "By 'ecocide' we should understand the loss, damage and destruction of ecosystems of a given territory, so that its enjoyment by the inhabitants has been or may be severely affected. This is a fifth category of crimes against peace, which should be recognised as such by the international community." He also stated that "sins against ecology" should be added to Catholic teachings.
Environmentalist Jane Goodall supported ecocide being made an international crime, stating: "The concept of Ecocide is long overdue. It could lead to an important change in the way people perceive – and respond to – the current environmental crisis."
In 2023, Greta Thunberg, Luisa Neubauer, Anuna de Wever and Adélaïde Carlier demanded, in an open letter, that all European Union leaders and heads of state must "advocate to make ecocide an international crime at the International Criminal Court."
At the 54th session of the Human Rights Council, Volker Türk, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights supported ecocide being made a crime at national and international levels.
Stop Ecocide International
Stop Ecocide International (SEI) is an organisation which advocates amending the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to include ecocide. It works with governments, politicians, diplomats and wider society. The organisation has branches or associate groups in almost 50 countries. SEI's sister organisation, the Stop Ecocide Foundation convened the Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide.
History
1970s
The concept of ecocide originated in the 1970s after the United States devastated the environment in Vietnam through use of Agent Orange during the Vietnam War. The word was first recorded at the Conference on War and National Responsibility in Washington DC, where American plant biologist and bioethicist Arthur Galston proposed a new international agreement to ban ecocide.
In 1972 at the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme called the Vietnam War an ecocide. Others, including Indira Gandhi from India and Tang Ke, the leader of the Chinese delegation, also denounced the war in human and environmental terms, calling for ecocide to be an international crime. A Working Group on Crimes Against the Environment was formed at the conference, and a draft Ecocide Convention was submitted into the United Nations in 1973. This convention called for a treaty that would define and condemn ecocide as an international war crime, recognising that "man has consciously and unconsciously inflicted irreparable damage to the environment in times of war and peace."
The ILC 1978 Yearbook's Draft articles on State Responsibility and International Crime included: "an international crime (which) may result, inter alia, from: (d) a serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas." Supporters who spoke out in favor of a crime of ecocide included Romania, the Holy See, Austria, Poland, Rwanda, Congo and Oman.
1980s
The Whitaker Report, commissioned by the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on the prevention and punishment of genocide was prepared by then Special Rapporteur, Benjamin Whitaker. The report contained a passage that Some members of the Sub-Commission have, however, proposed that the definition of genocide should be broadened to include cultural genocide or "ethnocide", and also "ecocide": adverse alterations, often irreparable, to the environment – for example through nuclear explosions, chemical weapons, serious pollution and acid rain, or destruction of the rain forest – which threaten the existence of entire populations, whether deliberately or with criminal negligence.Discussion of international crimes continued in the International Law Commission in 1987, where it was proposed that "the list of international crimes include "ecocide", as a reflection of the need to safeguard and preserve the environment, as well as the first use of nuclear weapons, colonialism, apartheid, economic aggression and mercenarism".
1990s
In 1996, Canadian/Australian lawyer Mark Gray published his proposal for an international crime of ecocide, based on established international environmental and human rights law. He demonstrated that states, and arguably individuals and organizations, causing or permitting harm to the natural environment on a massive scale breach a duty of care owed to humanity in general. He proposed that such breaches, where deliberate, reckless or negligent, be identified as ecocide where they entail serious, and extensive or lasting, ecological damage; international consequences; and waste.
2010s
In 2011, the Hamilton Group drafted a mock Ecocide Act and then tested it via a mock trial in the UK Supreme Court.
In 2012, a concept paper on the Law of Ecocide was sent out to governments. In June 2012 the idea of making ecocide a crime was presented to legislators and judges from around the world at the World Congress on Justice Governance and Law for Environmental Sustainability, held in Mangaratiba before the Rio +20 Earth Summit. Making ecocide an international crime was voted as one of the top twenty solutions to achieving sustainable development at the World Youth Congress in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012.
In October 2012 the international conference Environmental Crime: Current and Emerging Threats was held in Rome and hosted by the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) in cooperation with United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the Ministry of the Environment (Italy). The conference recognized that environmental crime is an important new form of transnational organized crime in need a greater response. One of the outcomes was that UNEP and UNICRI head up a study into the definition of environmental crime and give due consideration to making ecocide an international crime.
In May 2017 the grassroots citizen's movement End Ecocide on Earth published a proposal covering jurisdiction, substantive criminal law, procedural due process, declaratory judgements, reparations, and individual or corporate penalty provisions within the existing Rome Statute framework.
In November 2019 Pope Francis, addressing the International Association of Penal Law (AIDP), called on the international community to recognize ecocide as a "fifth category of crime against peace."
In July 2019, a group of 24 scientists called for ecocide committed in conflict areas be punished as a war crime.
2020s
In November 2020, a panel of international lawyers convened by Stop Ecocide International and chaired by British law professor Philippe Sands and Senegalese jurist Dior Fall Sow started drafting a proposed law criminalizing ecocide.
In May 2021, the European parliament adopted 2 reports advancing the recognition of ecocide as a crime.
In order to enforce implementation and increase citizens' trust in EU rules, and to prevent and remedy environmental damage more effectively, Parliament demands that the Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) and the Environmental Crime Directive (ECD) be improved.
Also in May 2021 the 179 members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) passed an almost-unanimous resolution inviting member parliaments recognise the crime of ecocide.
The governments of some of the island states at risk from climate change (Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase out fossil fuels and the 'rapid and just transition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmental law including introducing the crime of ecocide.
Domestic law
Ten countries have codified ecocide as a crime within their borders during peacetime. Those countries followed the wording of Article 26 of the International law Commission (ILC) Draft which referred to intentionally causing "widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment" within the context of war – bearing in mind that Article 26 was removed from the final draft submitted to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in 1996. None of the countries established procedures to measure 'intention'.
The countries with domestic ecocide laws are France (2021), Georgia (1999), Armenia (2003), Ukraine (2001), Belarus (1999), Ecuador (2008; 2014), Kazakhstan (1997), Kyrgyzstan (1997), Moldova (2002), Russia (1996), Tajikistan (1998), Uzbekistan (1994), Vietnam (1990).
France
In 2021, The French National Assembly approved the creation of an "ecocide" offence as part of a battery of measures aimed at protecting the environment and tackling climate change. Offenders will be liable to up to 10 years in prison and a fine of 4.5 million euros ($5.4 million).
In popular culture
See List of nuclear holocaust fiction for fiction which depicts ecocide by nuclear holocaust.
Movies
Many movies depict ecocide and its impacts including:
TV series
Blade Runner: Black Lotus
Extrapolations
The 100
Travelers
Documentaries
Several documentaries explore the subject including
Poisoning Paradise: Ecocide New Zealand
Ecocide changer ou disparaître
Ecocide: Voices from Paradise
Heart of Mother Earth
See also
Ecophagy
Ecotage
Environmental crime
Environmental disaster
Environmental justice
Holocene extinction
Involuntary manslaughter
List of environmental issues
Operation Ranch Hand
Rights of nature
Scorched earth
War on drugs#Aerial herbicide application
Water scarcity
Toxic colonialism
References
Further reading
Wijdekop, Femke. (2016). "Against Ecocide: Legal Protection for Earth." Great Transition Initiative.
External links
Official website of Stop ECOCIDE
Coverage of Stop ECOCIDE in NY Times
Official website of the European citizens' initiative
The story of stuff
To stop climate disaster, make ecocide an international crime. It's the only way. The Guardian. 24 February 2021.
Environmental justice
Environmental law
Theories of law
Global environmental issues
Proposed laws
International criminal law |
3271465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle%20City%20Light | Seattle City Light | Seattle City Light is the public utility providing electricity to Seattle, Washington, in the United States, and parts of its metropolitan area, including all of Shoreline, nearly all of Lake Forest Park, and parts of unincorporated King County, Burien, Normandy Park, SeaTac, Renton, and Tukwila. Seattle City Light is the 10th largest public utility in the United States and the first municipal utility in the US to own and operate a hydroelectric facility. In 2005, it became the first electric utility in the United States to fully offset all its carbon emissions and has remained carbon neutral every year since.
Seattle City Light is a department of the City of Seattle and is governed by the Economic Development, Technology & City Light committee of the Seattle City Council.
Overview
The approximately 906,595 residents (461,496 metered customers) served by Seattle City Light use about 9,074,062 megawatt-hours annually. Seattle City Light was the first electric utility in the nation to become greenhouse gas neutral (2005) and has the longest-running energy conservation program in the country. The utility owns a large portion of its generation, which is predominately hydro, so is able to offer some of the country's lowest rates to its customers (of utilities in urban areas). Seattle City Light's customer breakdown shows 381,419 residential customers who consumed 2,914,563 megawatt-hours of electricity in 2015 and 41,391 non-residential customers that consumed 6,242,931 megawatt-hours.
History
Public responsibility for electrical energy in Seattle dates to 1890 with creation of the Department of Lighting and Water Works. In 1902, Seattle voters passed a bond issue to develop hydroelectric power on the Cedar River under the administration of the Water Department. Electricity from this development began to serve Seattle in 1905. A City Charter amendment in 1910 created the Lighting Department. Under the leadership of Superintendent James D. Ross, the department developed the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, which began supplying power in 1924. As superintendent, Ross instituted programs to make Seattle City Light a national model for municipal ownership, such as encouraging the use of electricity for home heating, cooking, and other appliances, and directly selling appliances to customers. He staffed each branch office with an appliance salesman, and arranged for home economists to give lessons on new labor-saving devices. City Light's program of offering free appliance repair, which began in 1910, was ended by a disastrous drought in 1977 that impacted hydropower capacity.
Both public and private power were supplied to Seattle until 1951 when the City purchased the private electrical power supply operations, making the Lighting Department the sole supplier. The Boundary Project in northern Washington began operation in 1967 and currently supplies over half of City Light's power generation. Approximately ten percent of City Light's income comes from the sale of surplus energy to customers in the Northwest and Southwest. The current name of the agency was adopted in 1978 when the Department was reorganized.
In 1957, City Light was one of 17 utilities to join the Washington Public Power Supply System (later named Energy Northwest), a municipal corporation, to combine resources and build facilities.
In 2014, City Light completed the installation of 41,000 LED street lights along residential streets. Installation of LED streetlights on arterial streets started in 2015 and is expected to be complete by the end of 2018.
The utility's former CEO, Jorge Carrasco, entered a dispute with brand.com over search result "scrubbing" in 2014.
Electric vehicle prototypes
In the 1960s and 1970s, Seattle City Light's research and development department developed several prototype electric vehicles. The "Electruc," from 1968, was an experimental utility truck. In 1973 the department converted an AMC Gremlin to run on electric power. The RT1, developed in 1976, was a city car intended for use in downtown Seattle in a zone where most internal combustion engine-powered vehicles would be banned. The RT1 was intended to have a top speed of , a range of on eight 6-volt batteries, and seating for four passengers. It never entered production.
Seattle's electricity supply
The 2016 official fuel mix statistics by the state of Washington for Seattle City Light show approximately 88% hydroelectric, 5% nuclear, 4% wind, 1% coal, 1% natural gas, 1% biogas. City Light's portfolio of energy sources includes electricity purchased through long-term contracts with the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). The remaining power comes from a mixture of sources.
Owned facilities
The utility owns and operates a total of seven hydro facilities:
The Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, a series of three hydroelectric dams (Gorge, Diablo, and Ross) on the Skagit River in northern Washington State. The project supplies approximately 25 percent of Seattle's electric power.
The Boundary Dam on the Pend Oreille River in northeastern Washington State
Cedar Falls Dam, about 35 miles southeast of Seattle
South Fork of the Tolt
Newhalem
Seattle City Light residential customers currently pay about 10–14 cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity. Seattle has the lowest residential and commercial electrical rates among comparably-sized cities in the United States.
Conservation efforts
Seattle's Energy 1990 plan bound City Light to meet load growth through conservation efforts as well as increased power generation. City Light encouraged customers to wrap water heaters, insulate attics, adjust thermostats, and weatherize windows and doors. Over 20 years, conservation efforts reduced use by 6.5 million megawatt-hours and customers' bills by $215 million.
City Light implemented programs in the 1990s to mitigate the impact of the Skagit dams on salmon runs. Modifying water regulation to ensure that salmon nests remained under water resulted in a loss equivalent to more than $45 million in potential power over 30 years, yet dramatically increased the number of salmon returning to the Skagit River. Conservation efforts expanded in 2000, with increased emphasis on protecting salmon and other species and to develop renewable energy sources.
City Light became the first utility in the United States to reach net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in 2005.
Lawsuits and labor disputes
During the late 1960s, City Light instituted affirmative action programs designed to integrate men of color, mostly Black men, into the electrical trades field. These programs failed and resulted in a series of racial discrimination lawsuits against the utility.
In 1972 Gordon Vickery, the former chief of the Seattle Fire Department, was appointed as the superintendent of City Light by Seattle mayor Wes Uhlman. At the time, Vickery had been exploring the possibility of running for mayor, and his appointment was a calculated political move by Uhlman in an attempt to forge an alliance with him and prevent a future electoral challenge. In his role as superintendent, Vickery was tasked with reducing City Light's budget through wage cuts and work speed-ups, which proved deeply unpopular with employees. In addition, Vickery hoped craft a successful affirmative action program for women to use as experience that would position himself as a progressive in future electoral ventures.
In 1973, policy changes instituted by Vickery, seen by many as draconian, prompted electricians and office workers to stage a work stoppage for 11 days in April 1974 in protest. In 1975, a 98 day strike by electricians represented by the IBEW local 77 became the longest public employee strike in the history of the state. During the strike, supervisors and managers stepped in and were able to keep the system functional, although routine maintenance and new connections stopped. As City Light was unable to be shut down and local 77 failed to gain support of the broader union, and the electricians were forced to settle for a contract with worse working conditions.
In 1973 City Light hired Clara Fraser, a socialist feminist activist, as a training and education coordinator tasked with redesigning an affirmative action program to integrate women into the electrical trades. Fraser created an all-female electrical trades trainee (ETT) program in which the women were to be given two weeks of physical and classroom instruction and allowed membership, as well as their own bargaining unit, in the IBEW local 77 as soon as they began. Fraser used her connections to the feminist community to recruit women for the program, resulting in over 300 applications for 10 positions. The training was cancelled, however, only a week after it began, and the trainees were told to report for field work the next week. Fraser was laid off in July 1975. The ETT program was officially terminated in September 1975, and eight of the ten female trainees were laid off. These actions by Vickery and City Light management were widely seen as retaliation against Fraser for her participation in the 1974 walkout.
After the cancellation of training, nine of the female ETT's filed a discrimination complaint with the City of Seattle Office of Women's Rights, stating they were being denied the same amount of training and pay given to male employees, and their terminations were later added. In July 1976, City Light was ordered by a court to reinstate six of the eight terminated women, pay them damage fees, and make them eligible for apprenticeship programs.
Following her termination, Fraser filed a lawsuit against Seattle City Light, alleging discrimination on the basis of sex and political ideology. After a seven year legal battle, a court ruled in favor of Fraser, ordering her reinstatement and payment in damages.
In 1983, the Employee Committee for Equal Rights at City Light (CERCL) was established by a group of women employees and employees of color to fight discrimination and harassment in the workplace. CERCL membership grew rapidly over the course of the 1980s and pressured the Seattle Human Rights Department to investigate discrimination cases that had previously been met with inaction.
Art program
Seattle City Light began commissioning decorative designs for its manhole covers in the 1970s after suggestions from Jacquetta Blanchett Freeman, a member of the Seattle Arts Commission. A set of 19 manhole covers with relief maps of Downtown Seattle were designed by city employee Anne Knight and installed beginning in April 1977 to aid with wayfinding. Knight's covers use raised symbols to represent local landmarks, including the now-demolished Kingdome, that are labeled with a key on the outer ring other manhole. Other commissioned designs include portraits of city figures, a Tlingit-styled whale, and Northwestern flowers. , there are 115 manhole covers in Seattle with decorative designs.
In 2012, the Seattle City Light Conservation Program hired Adam Frank to produce a large scale installation that featured the City of Seattle's hydroelectric power sources. This work of light was a projected living map of Seattle's hydroelectric generation and electricity use.
Notes
Further reading
Archives
Megan Cornish Papers, 1970-2003. 10.26 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Clara Fraser Papers, 1905-1998, 36.70 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Heidi Durham Papers and Oral History Interviews, 1937-2017, 1.57 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Articles and interviews
Megan Cornish, Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, 2005.
Megan Cornish Interview with Nicole Grant and Alex Morrow, October 20, 2005, YouTube, uploaded by Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, September 9, 2016, Megan Cornish - YouTube
Megan Cornish, Conor Casey, and Ellie Belew Interview with Mike Dumovich, "We Do the Work," KSVR, February 22, 2019.
Nicole Grant, Challenging Sexism at City Light: The Electrical Trades Trainee Program, Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, 2006.
Ellie Belew Interview with Mimi Rosenberg, YouTube, uploaded by Radical Women - U.S., uploaded March 28. 2019, HIGH VOLTAGE WOMEN: Interview & slideshow
Books
Ellie Belew, High Voltage Women: Breaking Barriers at Seattle City Light, Red Letter Press, 2019.
External links
Seattle City Light website
Guide to the Seattle City Light Department History Files 1894-1972
Guide to the Seattle City Light Annual Reports 1910-2000
Seattle City Light
Companies based in Seattle
Municipal electric utilities of the United States
Government of Seattle
Seattle metropolitan area
Public utilities of the United States
Public utilities established in 1905
1905 establishments in Washington (state) |
304197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midshipman | Midshipman | A midshipman is an officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Canada (Naval Cadet), Australia, Bangladesh, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Kenya.
In the 17th century, a midshipman was a rating for an experienced seaman, and the word derives from the area aboard a ship, amidships, either where he worked on the ship, or where he was berthed. Beginning in the 18th century, a commissioned officer candidate was rated as a midshipman, and the seaman rating began to slowly die out. By the Napoleonic era (1793–1815), a midshipman was an apprentice officer who had previously served at least three years as a volunteer, officer's servant or able seaman, and was roughly equivalent to a present-day petty officer in rank and responsibilities. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or master's mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant. Promotion to lieutenant was not automatic, and many midshipmen took positions as master's mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipmen in the United States Navy were trained and served similarly to midshipmen in the Royal Navy, although unlike their counterparts in the Royal Navy, a midshipman was a warrant officer rank until 1912.
During the 19th century, changes in the training of naval officers in both the Royal Navy and the United States Navy led to the replacement of apprenticeship aboard ships with formal schooling in a naval college. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college. Trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the entry age was increased from 12 to 18.
Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in many other navies. Using US midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, the equivalent rank would be a naval cadet in training to become a junior commissioned officer. Using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a US ensign in role and responsibility. In many Romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French garde marine, Spanish guardia marina, Portuguese guarda-marinha, and Italian guardiamarina. Today, these ranks all refer to naval cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy, and were trained mostly on land as soldiers.
History
Apprentice officers
Royal Navy (1662–1836)
Origins
The rank of midshipman originated during the Tudor and Stuart eras, and originally referred to a post for an experienced seaman promoted from the ordinary deck hands, who worked in between the main and mizzen masts and had more responsibility than an ordinary seaman, but was not a military officer or an officer in training. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662. The word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship, or the location where midshipmen were berthed.
By the 18th century, four types of midshipman existed: midshipman (original rating), midshipman extraordinary, midshipman (apprentice officer), and midshipman ordinary. Some midshipmen were older men, and while most were officer candidates who failed to pass the lieutenant examination or were passed over for promotion, some members of the original rating served, as late as 1822, alongside apprentice officers without themselves aspiring to a commission. By 1794, all midshipmen were considered officer candidates, and the original rating was phased out.
Entry
Beginning in 1661, boys who aspired to become officers were sent by their families to serve on ships with a "letter of service" from the crown, and were paid at the same rate as midshipmen. The letter instructed the admirals and captains that the bearer was to be shown "such kindness as you shall judge fit for a gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in furthering his improvement". Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were often known as King's letter boys, to distinguish their higher social class from the original midshipman rating.
Beginning in 1677, Royal Navy regulations for promotion to lieutenant required service as a midshipman, and promotion to midshipman required some time at sea. By the Napoleonic era, the regulations required at least three years of services as a midshipman or master's mate and six years of total sea time. Sea time was earned in various ways, most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating, either as a servant of one of the ship's officers, a volunteer, or a seaman.
By the 1730s, the rating volunteer-per-order was phased out and replaced with a system where prospective midshipmen served as servants for officers. For example, a captain was allowed four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship; many of these servants were young men destined to become officers.
In 1729, the Royal Naval Academy in Portsmouth – renamed the Royal Naval College in 1806 – was founded, for 40 students aged between 13 and 16, who would take three years to complete a course of study defined in an illustrated book, and would earn two years of sea time as part of their studies. The rating of midshipman-by-order, or midshipman ordinary, was used specifically for graduates of the Royal Naval College, to distinguish them from midshipmen who had served aboard ship, who were paid more. The school was unpopular in the Navy, because officers enjoyed the privilege of having servants and preferred the traditional method of training officers via apprenticeship.
In 1794, officers' servants were abolished and a new class of volunteers called 'volunteer class I' was created for boys between the ages of 11 and 13 who were considered future midshipmen and lived in the gunroom on a ship-of-the-line or with the midshipmen on a frigate or smaller vessel. Volunteers were paid £6 per year. By 1816, the rating of midshipman ordinary was phased out, and all apprentice officers were rated as midshipmen.
Social background and uniform
In the 18th century Royal Navy, rank and position on board ship was defined by a mix of two hierarchies, an official hierarchy of ranks and a conventionally recognized social divide between gentlemen and non-gentlemen. Boys aspiring for a commission were often called young gentlemen instead of their substantive rating to distinguish their higher social standing from the ordinary sailors. Generally, aboard most warships common seamen berthed in the gundeck, while officers were quartered at the stern. Occasionally, a midshipman would be posted aboard a ship in a lower rating such as able seaman but would eat and sleep with his social equals in the cockpit.
Approximately 50 percent of midshipmen were the sons of professional men, which included the sons of naval officers, and there were notable sailing families throughout the Age of Sail, such as the Saumarez, Hood, and Parker families. The niceties of preferment and promotion made family connections an obvious advantage for prospective officers. Members of the peerage and landed gentry formed the next largest group, about 27 percent of officers. The numbers were smaller, but similarly, their connections gave them excellent prospects for promotion, and they had a considerable influence on the Royal Navy. A notable member of this group was Prince William, later William IV, who served as a midshipman from 1780 to 1785. The rest were from commercial or working class backgrounds, and because of the advantages possessed by the nobility and professional sailors, their chances of promotion to lieutenant were slim.
Since most midshipmen were from the gentry or had family connections with sailing ships, many used their connections to have their names placed on a ship's books. The practice, known colloquially as "false muster" was common even though it was technically illegal and frowned upon. This allowed some boys to be promoted to midshipmen, or in some cases lieutenant, without having completed the required amount of time at sea. A notable example was Thomas Cochrane, whose uncle had him entered at the age of five; his name was carried on various ships until he was 18 and received his commission.
When uniforms were introduced in the Navy in 1748, midshipmen started wearing the same uniform as commissioned officers. They also began wearing their traditional badge of rank, a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar. The uniform emphasized that midshipmen were gentlemen and officers under instruction.
Duties and promotion
Midshipmen were expected to work on the ship, but were also expected to learn navigation and seamanship. They were expected to have learned already, as able seamen and volunteers, to rig sails, other duties included keeping watch, relaying messages between decks, supervising gun batteries, commanding small boats, and taking command of a sub-division of the ship's company under the supervision of one of the lieutenants. On smaller ships, midshipmen were instructed by a senior master's mate, often a passed midshipman, who taught them mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Larger ships would carry a schoolmaster, who was rated as a midshipman but usually was a civilian like the chaplain. Midshipmen were expected to keep detailed navigational logs, which were shown to the captain to assess their progress.
Prior to promotion to lieutenant, a commissioned officer candidate in the Royal Navy had to pass a formal examination. Officially, a prospective lieutenant was at least 19, and was expected to produce proof of his service, which would include certificates from his commanders and journals kept while a midshipman. However, most midshipmen aspired to take the lieutenant examination at age 17 or 18, and the typical age of a midshipman was between 15 and 22. The candidate was summoned before a board of three captains and questioned about seamanship, navigation, and discipline. The board would ask questions such as: An enemy is observed; give orders for clearing your ship, and make all the necessary preparations for engaging.
Like the board, which might be an ad hoc affair, the actual exam questions were not standardized and their content depended mostly on individual captains. In seamanship, the candidate was expected to be able to splice ropes, reef a sail, work a ship in sailing and shift his tides. In navigation, he was expected to be able to keep a reckoning of the ship's way by plane sailing, to use Mercator projection maps and observation of the sun and stars to determine the course and position of the ship, and to understand the variation of the compass. He was also expected to be qualified to do the duty of an able seaman and midshipman.
Failure usually meant six more months of sea service before the examination could again be attempted. Some men never passed it. Successful completion made the midshipman a 'passed midshipman'. From the 18th century until the second half of the 19th century, a midshipman in the Royal Navy who passed the lieutenant's examination did not automatically receive a commission. Midshipmen with political connections were promoted first, while others would wait their turn on a roster. During wartime, when large numbers of ships and men might be lost in battle, most passed midshipman would be promoted in a year or two, but during peacetime the wait might be so long that the midshipman would eventually be considered too old and lose his chance for a commission.
Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become master's mates, a high-ranking petty officer who assisted the master with his duties, served on watch as deputy to the lieutenants, and commanded small boats. A midshipman who became master's mate earned an increase in pay from £2 5s to £3 16s per month but initially reduced his chances at a commission because master's mates, along with masters, were assumed to have a working-class background. Over time, however, appointment to master's mate became considered a normal part of the path to a commission; the situation caused some confusion during the last part of the 18th century, when two parallel roles – master's mates trying to become masters, and former midshipmen working toward a commission – held the same title and responsibilities aboard ship.
By the first years of the 19th century, the term 'mate', without the prefix master's, was used for passed midshipmen, to distinguish them from master's mates who had not served as midshipmen. In 1824, the rating of master's assistant replaced master's mate, and mate continued to be used unofficially by passed midshipmen. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigator's branch. In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant. In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant.
United States Navy (1794–1845)
When Congress created the United States Navy in 1794, midshipman was listed as a rank of warrant officer in the Naval Act of 1794, and they were appointed by the President of the United States. Midshipmen had similar duties and responsibilities as in the Royal Navy, and were typically young men between the age of 14 and 22 in training to become a naval officer. "Passed midshipman" was first used in 1819, and was an official rank of the US Navy.
During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846 midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion, and their warrants were often obtained via patronage. The poor quality of officer training in the US Navy became visible after the Somers Affair, an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS Somers in 1842, and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer. Spencer had gained his post aboard the Somers via the influence of his father, United States Secretary of War John C. Spencer.
Cadet officer
This rank is used in Merchant Marine/Merchant Navy service. There are two types of cadet officer
Deck Cadet
Cadet Engineer
Cadet officer commonly used in maritime service. It's know as a Trainee officer on board a ship.
Royal Navy from 1836
The original Royal Naval College closed in 1837, after which the only method for training midshipmen in the Royal Navy was aboard ships. In 1844 the rank of naval cadet was created, and to qualify as a midshipman a candidate had to be 14 years old, successfully pass an admiralty examination and have two years of service as a naval cadet or three years of service in the Navy. A decline in qualified officers prompted the Navy to order training in a ship at anchor for all cadets, which began in 1857 aboard HMS Illustrious, which was replaced by HMS Britannia in 1859. Britannia was moved to Portland in 1862, and to the present location of the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth in 1863.
Beginning in the 1840s, the normal entry age for executive officer cadets, those destined to command ships and fleets, was between 12 and 13, and instruction consisted of two years of classroom training, during which time trainees were rated as naval cadets. Cadets who received a first-class passing grade in studies, seamanship and conduct on their final examination could receive a credit for up to a year of sea time, and could be rated as midshipmen immediately after passing out of the college. After passing out of the college, cadets served aboard a special training vessel for one year. Cadets were then rated as midshipmen, and served aboard the fleet another two years. Midshipmen lived in the gunroom, kept watches, and ran the ship's boats. They received instruction in navigation every day. After five total years of training and having reached the age of 19, the midshipmen were eligible to take the examination for lieutenant. After passing the examination for lieutenant, midshipmen were commissioned as sub-lieutenants, and were transferred to the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, which opened in 1873 as the 'University of the Navy'.
Beginning in 1903, officer training of military and engineering students was reformed by the Selborne-Fisher scheme, and engineering and executive officer candidates began to enter the Navy in the same way, which was termed 'Common Entry'. Previously, engineer cadets had been trained separately at the Royal Naval Engineering College, Keyham which was closed in 1910. In 1903 a new preparatory college was opened at the Royal Naval College, Osborne, in part of Queen Victoria's favorite residence but not a favorite of her successor Edward VII who had donated it to the nation in 1902. Training initially consisted of two years at Osborne and two years at Dartmouth as cadets, later four years at Dartmouth, followed by approximately 3 years of sea duty as midshipmen prior to promotion to sub-lieutenant. In 1905, a new building was completed on shore to replace Britannia, which was named Britannia Royal Naval College. In 1913, increasing demand for officers led to recruitment of 18-year-old graduates of public schools, which was called 'Special Entry', and was conducted separately from Selborne scheme cadets. Special entry cadets trained for approximately 6 months prior to service in the fleet as midshipmen. When World War I began in 1914, all the cadets at Dartmouth were quickly mobilized as midshipmen in the Reserve Fleet. During the war, two midshipmen, George Drewry and Wilfred Malleson were awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry, during the Landing at Cape Helles. After World War I ended, opposition to the Selborne-Fisher scheme led to re-segregating executive and engineering officers into separate branches, while common entry and special entry were maintained.
After World War II another series of reforms, influenced by the quality of officers produced by the special entry scheme and other nations' experience with training officer candidates in a university setting, were initiated to increase the quality of officers in the Navy. In 1949 the entry age was increased to 16, and by 1955 the entry age was increased to 18 and entry required a minimum of two A levels. After 1957 midshipmen no longer served in the fleet. In 1972, all cadets became midshipmen when the rank of cadet was abolished.
United States Navy from 1845
Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802, but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers. One major reason for the delay was that Navy leaders preferred the apprenticeship system, citing famous officers such as Nelson and the captains of the War of 1812 who did not attend a formal naval school. However, after the Somers Affair, officers realized that the system for training officers had to change to be more efficient.
George Bancroft, appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845, decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers. He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers, and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy in 1851. Midshipmen studied at the academy for four years and trained aboard ships each summer. Midshipman began to mean "passed midshipman" at this time, and a student at the Naval Academy was a cadet midshipman. The rank of ensign was created in 1862, and passed midshipmen were promoted to ensign when vacancies occurred.
In 1865, the Department of Steam Enginery was created and cadet engineers were admitted to the academy for the first time. In 1874, Congress changed the curriculum to include four years of classroom training and two years of sea duty aboard a regular vessel prior to examinations as warranted midshipmen. In 1882, Congress eliminated the distinction in training between engineer and naval cadets, and designated the student officers as naval cadets; the name reverted to midshipmen in 1902. By an act of Congress passed in 1903, two appointments as midshipmen were allowed for each senator, representative, and delegate in Congress, two for the District of Columbia, and five each year at large. In 1912, Congress authorized commissioning midshipmen as ensigns on graduation day, and ended the previously required two years of post-graduation sea service as warrant officers.
In 1930, the Naval Academy received accreditation as an approved technological institution. In 1933, a new law enabled the Naval, Military, and Coast Guard Academies to award bachelor of science degrees, and the class of 1933 was the first to receive this degree and have it written in the diploma. In 1937, the superintendent of the Naval Academy was granted the authority to award Bachelor of Science degrees to all living graduates.
Commonwealth navies
As Dominions of the British Empire formed their own navies during the 20th century, further countries began using the rank of midshipman. Today Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Kenya use the rank. Prior to 1968 Canada also used the rank of midshipman, until the National Defence Act consolidated the Royal Canadian Navy with the Army and Air Force into a single military, called the Canadian Forces. As part of the act, the rank of midshipman was replaced with the rank of naval cadet.
Snotty
In Royal Navy slang, a midshipman is sometimes referred to as a "snotty". Two popular stories give origins for the term: the first claims that it arose from a shortage of handkerchiefs among midshipmen, who would consequently use their sleeves to wipe their noses. Prince William, later William IV, is sometimes cited as a notorious example of this practice among midshipmen. The other story claims that the three buttons formerly sewn onto midshipmen's jacket cuffs were placed there to prevent them from wiping their noses on their sleeves.
Modern usage
Royal Navy
In the modern Royal Navy, a midshipman is the lowest rank of officer, and ranks with second lieutenant in the British Army and pilot officer in the Royal Air Force and above all enlisted and warrant ranks. A midshipman's rank insignia, which has changed little since Napoleonic times, is called a "turnback": a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar.
Prospective officers must have at least five GCSEs, including English and maths, plus at least 72 (new tariff) UCAS points from at least two A levels or other suitable qualifications (each qualification must be over 45 (old tariff) UCAS points). They must pass a two-and-a-half-day assessment, called the Admiralty Interview Board, and a medical examination. As of 2013, it is no longer the case that those joining the Navy as university graduates start as sub-lieutenants, with non-graduates joining as midshipmen. Graduates and non-graduates all start as midshipmen, and wait to be promoted at the same time.
General basic training (initial officer training) for Royal Navy officers takes place at the Britannia Royal Naval College. Training takes up to a year depending on specialisation; all midshipmen participate in at least the first two terms, which are 14 weeks each. Until they have completed initial fleet training, both midshipmen and sub-lieutenants at Britannia Royal Naval College do not use their substantive ranks, but instead use the rank of officer cadet.
During the first seven weeks of training, officer cadets learn militarisation and sea sense, focusing on learning about the military environment, along with team and leadership skills. During the second seven weeks, officer cadets learn essential sea officer skills, including navigation and the marine environment, strategic studies, and basic sea survival. During the second term officer cadets spend 6 weeks in Initial Sea Time (IST), serving aboard capital warships as junior ratings. Upon completion of Initial Sea Time, officer cadets return to Dartmouth for four weeks to complete their final leadership assessment, the Maritime Leadership Exercise (MARL). MARL may be completed prior to IST depending on scheduling. If they have been successful, officers of all branches then pass out of the college.
Upon completion of initial officer training, university cadet entrants, engineering, logistics and flight specialisation officer cadets move to their second phase of training elsewhere within the Royal Navy. Midshipmen specializing in warfare remain at the college for the Initial Warfare Officer's Foundation course, which completes part of a foundation degree in naval studies (equating to two thirds of a bachelor's degree), on completion of initial professional training. Officers can complete degrees via distance learning with the Open University, although completion is not required.
Royal Australian Navy
A midshipman in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) holds a commission, which is effective from the date of their appointment. Officer candidates enter the RAN at various ranks depending on previous experience or degree qualifications; graduates from a three-year course, non-degree qualified entrants, and sailor changeovers below the rank of leading seaman enter as midshipman.
On joining the RAN, midshipmen complete six months' initial officer training (New Entry Officers' Course) at the Royal Australian Naval College. Following this, all members serve six months in the fleet completing Primary Qualification (PQ) continuation training. Direct entry midshipmen continue their normal training and Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) entry midshipmen post to Canberra to study at the ADFA in their second year in the Navy. Midshipmen undertake an undergraduate degree over the course of three years, whilst also completing elements of their naval training. ADFA midshipmen are also undergraduate students of the University of New South Wales (UNSW). When they graduate from UNSW at ADFA at the completion of their three- or four-year undergraduate program, they do so with a fully recognized degree from UNSW – the same degree received by graduates of UNSW's campus in Sydney. During Single Service Training (SST) at ADFA, midshipmen have the opportunity to return to sea during the SST period as well as visiting shore establishments for PQ related training.
Royal New Zealand Navy
In the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN), midshipman is the lowest officer rank for officers under training and retained upon completion of initial training by those without a university degree. Unlike officer cadet ranks in the Army, midshipmen are treated as officers but do not hold a commission. The RNZN has approximately 60 midshipmen in service at a time.
Midshipman begin their career at Junior Officer Common Training, which lasts 23 weeks. After completing their initial training course, midshipmen serve aboard ships for a short time, followed by specialty training for 16 weeks. After approximately two years in the Navy, midshipmen are promoted to ensign. Officers who entered the service with a university degree are promoted to sub-lieutenant after completion of Junior Officer Common Training. Officers without a degree have the option of earning a university degree while serving in the Navy.
South African Navy
A midshipman in the South African Navy (SAN) is an officer of the lowest rank. Officer candidates are citizens between the ages of 18 and 22, either in grade 12 or graduated from high school with an academic background in mathematics and science. Cadets initially spend a year training at the South African Naval College in Gordon's Bay, about 55 km southeast of Cape Town, and upon graduation are commissioned as midshipmen. Midshipmen can then study for three more years at the South African Military Academy, and upon graduation receive a B Mil degree from Stellenbosch University.
Indian Navy
Midshipmen in the Indian Navy begin their career as cadets at the National Defence Academy or the Indian Naval Academy, where they study for approximately three years. After graduation they receive a BTech degree from Jawaharlal Nehru University and are assigned to training ships for one year. After six months aboard the training ship, the cadets are promoted to midshipman. At the end of their training midshipmen are examined by a board and are cleared for promotion to sub-lieutenant.
Pakistan Navy
Cadets in the Pakistan Navy undertake an initial 18 months' training at the Pakistan Naval Academy. They study humanities, engineering, professional and technical subjects. After passing out they are appointed midshipmen, and undertake another six months of training at sea. They are assigned to operations, weapons engineering, mechanical engineering, or logistics. After passing the final fleet examination, they are promoted to the rank of sub-lieutenant.
United States Naval and Merchant Marine Academies
In the modern United States Navy, a midshipman is classified as an officer of the line, though their exercise of authority is limited by their training status. Legally, midshipmen are a special grade of uncommissioned officer that ranks between the senior noncommissioned enlisted grade (E-9) and the lowest grade of chief warrant officer (W-2, in the U.S. Coast Guard, which does not currently use the grade of warrant officer (W-1)) or warrant officer (W-1), U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, or U.S. Marine Corps.
Students at the United States Naval Academy (USNA) are appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy, by the President, alone, without Senate confirmation. Students at the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) are appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy Reserve, by the Secretary of the Navy, using delegated Presidential authority, and are likewise not subject to Senate confirmation. Students in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) are also appointed to Office as midshipmen, United States Navy Reserve, by the Secretary of the Navy, without Senate confirmation. The student body at the USNA is the Brigade of Midshipmen, and the student body at the USMMA is the Regiment of Midshipmen.
Generally, a nomination from a member of Congress or the Vice President is required to receive an appointment to the USNA. A nomination does not guarantee an appointment; in a typical year about 38% of nominees receive an appointment. Currently each member of Congress and the Vice President can have five appointees attending the Naval Academy at any time. Other nomination sources include the Secretary of the Navy, who may appoint 170 enlisted members of the regular and reserve Navy and Marine Corps to the Naval Academy each year, and the President may nominate an unlimited number of children of career military personnel for up to 100 appointments each year. Additionally, children of Medal of Honor recipients and select cadets of JROTC Honor Unit with Distinction units do not need a nomination but need only qualify for admission. The United States Merchant Marine Academy only accepts nominations from members of Congress. There are currently no Presidential, Vice-Presidential, military-affiliated, JROTC-honor unit, ROTC or Unit Commander, or Medal of Honor nominations permitted to the USMMA.
Midshipmen at the US Naval Academy, US Merchant Marine Academy, and in the NROTC wear uniforms that comply with standards established for commissioned officers of the Navy, with shoulder board and sleeve insignia varying by school year or midshipman officer rank as prescribed by Chapter 6 of Navy Uniform Regulations. Midshipmen wear gold fouled anchors as the primary insignia on caps and shoulder boards and gold plain anchors as collar insignia on service dress and full dress uniforms. Marine-option midshipmen in the NROTC wear gold Eagle, Globe and Anchor insignia in place of the fouled anchor insignia worn by all other midshipmen.
Midshipmen at the US Naval Academy study a core curriculum of engineering, natural sciences, the humanities, and social sciences, and participate in a required "surface cruise" with an active vessel during the summer. Upon graduation, midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps.
Midshipmen at the United States Merchant Marine Academy study a similar core curriculum, except they are split into deck (navigation oriented) and engineering programs. Additionally, they typically spend a year at sea working as cadets on U.S. flagged merchant ships, visiting ports around the world. At graduation they have two options: (1) a job in the maritime industry ashore or sailing aboard commercial US-flagged vessels, plus a US Navy Reserve commission, or (2) an active-duty commission in any of the United States Uniformed Services (Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, or United States Public Health Service) as an ensign or second lieutenant.
Other countries
Today, ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in many countries. Using U.S. midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, the equivalent rank would be a naval cadet in training to become a junior commissioned officer. Using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a U.S. ensign in role and responsibility.
The Dutch navy has since the early 17th century included a midshipman rank which literally means 'young gentleman' (); today, adelborsten train at the Royal Netherlands Naval College () for 3 years. Officer cadets in the German navy begin their training at the Naval Academy Mürwik () in Flensburg-Mürwik holding enlisted ranks with the qualifier officer candidate (), abbreviated as OA. After about a year, they are promoted to Seekadetten, equivalent to the non-commissioned officer (NCO) rank Mate (), and move to the University of the German Federal Armed Forces. About nine months later, they are promoted to Fähnrich zur See rank, equivalent to the NCO rank Boatswain (). After 30 months of total training they are promoted to the final officer candidate rank, Oberfähnrich zur See, equivalent to the NCO rank Hauptbootsmann, and after about 4 years of total training graduate with a master's degree.
In many romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French garde-marine, Spanish guardia marina, Portuguese guarda-marinha, and Italian guardiamarina, and in most cases the term refers to the lowest ranking commissioned naval officer. The French rank of garde de la marine was established in 1670, when an office of the monarchy selected young gentlemen from the nobility to serve the King in the Gardes de la Marine. The concept of the Gardes was borrowed from the various guards units within the Maison militaire du roi de France. In 1686 these guards were organized into companies of cadets at the ports of Brest, Rochefort and Toulon. Unlike midshipmen in the Royal Navy, the Gardes trained mostly on shore and focused on military drill and theory rather than practical skills in gunnery, navigation and seamanship. After the succession of the Bourbon Philip V of Spain to the Spanish throne, the French system of naval officer education spread to Spain. The Spanish Navy created the rank of guardia marina in 1717, with the formation at Cadiz of the Royal Company of Midshipmen ().
By restricting the French officer corps to members of the nobility, there were not enough Gardes to man all of the ships during wartime. To fill the gaps, volunteers were temporarily recruited from the merchant service; they were allowed to hold permanent rank in the navy starting in 1763. These professional officers wore blue uniforms to distinguish them from the Gardes de la Marine who wore red uniforms. After the revolution, the royal connotations of the term garde marine led to its replacement with aspirant (officer cadet), and later élèves de la Marine (naval officer candidate). Contemporary French naval officer training still reflects this structure: students at the École navale begin their first year as élève-officier, are promoted in their second year to aspirant, and in their third year are commissioned as an acting sub-lieutenant (). In a modern French-English dictionary, élève officier translates to midshipman, but both the historical term garde-marine and the modern term for an officer candidate, aspirant, are also equivalent to midshipman.
Comparative ranks and insignia
Notes
References
Bibliography
Military ranks
Naval ranks
Military ranks of Australia
Former military ranks of Canada
Military ranks of the Commonwealth
Military ranks of the Royal Navy
Military ranks of the United States Navy
Marine occupations |
3770710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulgentius%20of%20Ruspe | Fulgentius of Ruspe | Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius, also known as Fulgentius of Ruspe (462 or 467 – 1 January 527 or 533) was a North African Christian prelate who served as Bishop of Ruspe, in modern-day Tunisia, during the 5th and 6th century. He has been venerated as a saint.
Biography
Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius was born in the year 462 at Telepte (modern-day Medinet-el-Kedima), Tunisia, North Africa, into a senatorial family. His grandfather, Gordianus, a senator of Carthage, was despoiled of his possessions by the invader Genseric, then banished to Italy. His two sons returned after his death; though their house in Carthage had been taken over by Arian priests, they recovered some property in Byzacene.
His father Claudius died when Fulgentius was still quite young. His mother Mariana taught him to speak Greek and Latin. Fulgentius became particularly fluent with the former, speaking it like a native. His biographer says that at an early age Fulgentius committed the entire works of Homer to memory. He quickly gained wide public respect for the conduct of his family's affairs. This reputation helped him to acquire a post as a procurator or tax collector of Byzacena. He soon grew tired of the material life, and this combined with his religious studies, particularly a sermon of Augustine of Hippo on Psalm 36, which dealt with the transitory nature of physical life, convinced him to become a monk.
Around the year 499 he set out to join the hermits of the Thebaid in Egypt, but changed his mind when he learned from Eulalius, Bishop of Syracuse, of the influence of monophysitism on Egyptian monasticism.
He applied to Faustus, a bishop who had been forced from his diocese by the Vandal king Huneric and later set up a monastery at Byzacena. Faustus tried to dissuade Fulgentius because his physical weakness made him a poor candidate for the rigorous life of the monastery. When Fulgentius persisted, Faustus admitted him on a trial basis.
Upon learning of her son's decision, Mariana, who evidently had never been told of Fulgentius's wish, was very upset. She rushed to the gates of the monastery, demanding to know how a church that was supposed to protect widows could deprive her of her only son. Her protestations were ineffective, and Fulgentius was ultimately confirmed in his vocation.
Renewed Arian attacks on the area forced Fulgentius to leave for another nearby monastery. The abbot there, Felix, gave Fulgentius the duty of managing the temporal affairs of the monastery, while he managed the spiritual affairs. The two of them worked well together, and so in 499, during another wave of persecution, they both fled for Sicca Veneria. A local Arian priest had them arrested and tortured after learning the pair were preaching the orthodox Nicene teaching.
In 500, he visited Rome, where he prayed at the tombs of the apostles. His visit coincided with a formal address to the people by king Theodoric, which confirmed Fulgentius in his low esteem for the earthly vanities of this world. He then returned to Byzacena, where he built a monastery, electing to live in an isolated cell. Fulgentius's reputation quickly spread, and he was several times offered the post of bishop of one of the dioceses which had been vacated through the actions of the Arian king Thrasamund. He chose not to accept these offers, knowing Thrasamund had specifically ordered that only Arians be permitted to fill those seats.
Bishop of Ruspe
In 502 Fulgentius was persuaded to take the post of bishop of Ruspe in Tunisia. His obvious virtues made a strong impression on the people of his new diocese, but he was soon banished to Sardinia with some sixty other bishops who did not hold the Arian position. Pope Symmachus knew of their plight and sent them annual provisions of food and money.
While in Sardinia, Fulgentius turned a house in Cagliari into a monastery, and determined to write a number of works to help instruct the Christians of Africa. In 515, he returned to Africa, having been summoned there by Thrasamund for a public debate with his Arian replacement. His book, An Answer to Ten Objections, is supposed to have been collected from the answers he had made regarding objections to the Catholic Nicene position. Thrasamund, impressed by Fulgentius' knowledge and learning, and fearing social discord if these persuasive arguments fell into the hands of his Arian subjects, ordered that all Fulgentius' future statements could only be delivered orally. Fulgentius responded with a further rebuttal to the Arian position, now known as the Three Books to King Thrasamund. Thrasamund's respect for Fulgentius grew, leading him to allow Fulgentius to stay in Carthage, but after renewed complaints from the local Arian clergy he banished Fulgentius back to Sardinia in 520.
Fulgentius founded several communities not only in Africa, but also in Sardinia.
In 523, following the death of Thrasamund and the accession of his Catholic son Hilderic, Fulgentius was allowed to return to Ruspe and try to convert the populace to the Catholic position. He worked to reform many of the abuses which had infiltrated his old diocese in his absence. The power and effectiveness of his preaching was so profound that his archbishop, Boniface of Carthage, wept openly every time he heard Fulgentius preach, and publicly thanked God for giving such a preacher to his church.
Tensions with Quodvultdeus (died c.450) over precedence appear to have been overcome by Fulgentius' modest concessions.
Later, Fulgentius retired to a monastery on the island of Circinia (Kerkenna), but was recalled to Ruspe and served there until his death on 1 January 527 or 533.
Vita
The Life of Fulgentius, (generally attributed to Ferrandus of Carthage, but more recently to Redemptus a monk of Telepte) is of value to historians as a record of migrations of social élites to Italy, Sicily and Sardinia due to vicissitudes of the Vandal rulers in North Africa, navigation in the Western Mediterranean, estate management, and the development of an episcopal monastic familia.
Writings
As a theologian, Fulgentius's work shows knowledge of Greek and a strong agreement with Augustine of Hippo. He wrote frequently against Arianism and Pelagianism. Some letters and eight sermons survive by Fulgentius. During the Middle Ages, he was conflated with Fabius Planciades Fulgentius and considered the author of the famous Mythologies, but this identification is now questioned. Three excerpts of Fulgentius's writing are included in the appendix of Henri Cardinal de Lubac's book, "Catholicism," (French original 1947, recent English edition 1988 Ignatius Press).
Doctrine
Filioque
Fulgentius writes in his Letter to Peter on the Faith:
"Hold most firmly and never doubt that the same Holy Spirit, who is the one Spirit of the Father and the Son, proceeds from the Father and the Son. For the Son says, 'When the Spirit of Truth comes, who has proceeded from the Father,' where he taught that the Spirit is his, because he is the Truth."
Veneration
His saint's day is January 1, the day of his death. His relics were transferred to Bouvines in France in 1903.
See also
Saint Fulgentius of Ruspe, patron saint archive
References
Further reading
A. Isola (ed.), Anonymus. Vita S. Fulgentii episcopi, Turnhout, 2016 (Corpus Christianorum. Series Latina, 91F),
Fulgence de Ruspe, Lettres ascetiques et morales. Critical text by J. Fraipont. Introduction, translation, and notes by Daniel Bachelet. Paris: Cerf, 2004, Pp. 298. (Sources Chretiennes, 487).
Fulgentius, Fulgentius of Ruspe and the Scythian Monks: Correspondence on Christology and Grace. Edited by Donald Fairbairn. Translated by Bob Roy McGregor and Donald Fairbairn. Vol 126 of The Fathers of the Church. Washington D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2013.
"Fulgentius" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, eds. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.
Catholic Encyclopedia article "St. Fulgentius"
Saint of the Day, January 1 at SaintPatrickDC.org
Burns, Paul. Butler's Lives of the Saints:New Full Edition. Collegeville, MN:The Liturgical Press, 1995. .
Gumerlock, Francis X. Fulgentius of Ruspe on the Saving Will of God: The Development of a Sixth-Century African Bishop’s Interpretation of 1 Timothy 2:4 During the Semi-Pelagian Controversy. Edwin Mellen Press, 2009.
Prosopographie de l'Afrique Chrétienne (303–533), ed. André Mandouze pp. 507–513 'Fulgentius 1'
External links
Life of St. Fulgentius (Augustinians of the Midwest)
460s births
6th-century deaths
Saints from the Vandal Kingdom
6th-century Christian saints
6th-century Christian theologians
Sermon writers
5th-century writers in Latin
6th-century writers in Latin
People from Kasserine Governorate |
29719523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20acts%20of%20violence%20against%20LGBT%20people | List of acts of violence against LGBT people | This is a list of notable violent acts against LGBT individuals and organizations. Examples include corrective rape, homicide, gay bashing, and other types of assault.
Argentina
On October 16, 2016, in Bella Vista, Buenos Aires, lesbian football player , known as "Higui", was surrounded by a group of men who threatened to rape her. When the men hit her, she pulled out a knife and killed one of them. She was incarcerated for the killing, leading to protests in Argentina. Eva Analía De Jesús was absolved of the murder on March 17, 2022.
On March 11, 2021, in San Vicente, Buenos Aires, Tehuel de la Torre, a trans man, left his home for a job interview with Luis Alberto Ramos at Alejandro Korn. This is the last date Tehuel was seen alive. While there is no definitive information as to his whereabouts, Tehuel's cell phone was found in Ramos' home, burned, along with Tehuel's jacket and blood stains that were determined to be Tehuel's through DNA testing. Ramos and his friend, Oscar Alfredo Montes, were charged with aggravated murder due to hatred of gender identity on November 9, 2021.
Australia
In 1972, George Duncan and Roger Jones were thrown into a river in Adelaide by a group of men believed to be police officers, resulting in Duncan's death. Jones refused to identify their attackers out of fear for his life. Two police officers were charged but acquitted, and the case was said to have been the subject of a government cover-up. An independent police report described it as the result of a "'high-spirited frolic' that went wrong".
In January 1987, Raymond Keam was killed in Alison Park, Randwick, Sydney. His injuries were consistent with attackers having jumped on his chest while he lay on the ground.
In December 1988, Scott Johnson's body was found at the bottom of a 50-metre cliff near Blue Fish Point around Manly, Sydney. There have been many investigations into the cause of this death. The police had historically described his death as suicide, but a 2017 inquest – the third on his death – admitted he was murdered in an anti-gay hate crime.
In January 1989, Richard Johnson was lured to a toilet block in Alexandria Park, Sydney where he had left his phone number on the wall where he was gang bashed to death.
In July 1989, after a night drinking with friends on Oxford Street in Sydney, Ross Warren's keys were found at the base of the cliffs at Tamarama, his car was nearby. His body was never found.
In November 1989, John Russell was found at the bottom of Marks Park (between Bondi and Tamarama) with a clump of hair in his hand. Police found no suspicious circumstances.
In December 1989, David McMahon was attacked in Bondi while jogging in the same place another was attacked a couple days before. He says he clearly remembers them saying, "let's throw him off where we threw the other one off."
In May 1990, a high school teacher named William Wayne Tonks was found dead in his home in Artarmon, Sydney.
In July 1990, Kritchikorn Rattanajurathaporn was attacked with a hammer and staggered off a cliff in Bondi. Three men were convicted of his murder in the early 1990s.
Several of the victims of the Snowtown murders (1992–1999) were openly gay men, while others were labeled by the killers as being gay and/or child abusers. Prosecutor Wendy Abraham suggested the accused men's attitude to paedophiles and homosexuals was a motive.
On 3 December 2007, Craig Gee was attacked by four men whilst holding his boyfriend's hand walking down Crown Street in Surry Hills, Sydney. Part of his skull was reduced to powder and his leg was broken during the attack. This incident prompted a vigil against the rising level of homophobia in the city and apathy from police, and despite the attack, Gee and his boyfriend joined the Chief of Parade Margaret Cho to lead the 2008 Sydney Gay & Lesbian Mardi Gras parade.
In 2016, a gay teenager named Tyrone Unsworth killed himself after prolonged homophobic bullying at his school, which culminated with his being hospitalized after his jaw was struck with a fence used as a weapon by another boy.
Roffee and Waling (2016) conducted a study that aimed to investigate incidents of bullying, harassment and violence committed towards LGBTIQ people. They discovered an issue, however, when they found that many people did not view what they had been subjected to as a hate crime, or even a crime at all. Furthermore, many of the participants commented on feeling that they did not meet the criteria of being a victim of harassment, bullying or violence. This established that prospective participants may not have felt that they met the criteria and thus would not have elected to take part in the study. The conclusion of the study established that all of the participants had been subjected to some form of victimisation, with some of the attacks being extremely violent and criminal.
In January 2019, news.com.au published an investigation into the murders of several gay men in Victoria in the 1980s and 1990s.
Brazil
On June 10, 2006, the burnt bodies of Edivaldo Silva de Oliveira and Jeovan Bandeira were found in the back of a car in Bahia, Brazil.
Osvan Inacio dos Santos, 19, was attacked and murdered in September 2007, on a street near a bar where he had just won the local "Miss Gay" competition in the town of Batingas in northeast Brazil. Dos Santos' naked body was found on Sunday morning, and forensic examination found his skull had been fractured, and had also indicated sexual assault.
Alexandre Peixe dos Santos, a gay rights activist, was gagged, attacked, and beaten unconscious in February 2008 at the offices of São Paulo's Gay Pride Association in Brazil. Activists estimate that more than 2,680 gay people were murdered in Brazil between 1980 and 2006.
Alexandre Thome Ivo Rajao, only 14 when he was brutally tortured and murdered in 2010, whilst on the way home from watching the South African World Cup at a friend's house. Many believe this attack to be motivated by homophobia, as Alexandre had been in a same-sex relationship with the cousin of one of the attackers.
On June 16, 2016, 21-year-old Gabriel Figueira Lima, described as a "travesti", was stabbed in the neck and left to die.
On June 24, 2016, the body of Wellington Júlio de Castro Mendonça was found northwest of Rio, and he was allegedly stoned to death.
On February 4, 2017, Ágatha Mont, a 26 year old transgender woman, was a university student found strangled in Itapevi, São Paulo, after being threatened for using the women's restroom.
Mirella de Carllo, a 39 year old trans woman and activist, was found strangled to death on February 19, 2017.
Emanuelle Muniz, a 21-year-old trans woman who had been preparing for gender confirmation surgery, was kidnapped and murdered in Ańapolis, Goiás on February 26, 2017, by blunt trauma to the head with a stone.
Hérika Izidoro, 24; Michelly Garcia, 25; Jennifer Celia Henrique, 37; Lexia Famosinha, 30; Camila Albuquerque, 20; and Bruninha Tavares, 17, were all violently killed between March and April 2017, on account of their gender identity.
On June 27, 2016, Antonio Kvalo was beaten for being gay in Rio de Janeiro. Kvalo created a website named Tem Local? for people to document instances of LGBTI violence.
On February 19, 2017, a 20-year-old university student, Marcos Valdevino, was punched in the face in public in Olinda, Pernambuco, while waiting for his friends to arrive.
In 2020, an Evangelical bishop in Recanto das Emas, Brazil, was sentenced to twenty years in prison for raping a 13-year-old lesbian girl. The rape was an attempt to change her sexuality.
In 2020, lesbian student Gabriela Oliveira Guimarães was harassed and beaten by a seven or eight men for her sexuality in São Bernardo do Campo. They called her slurs, then punched and kicked her until she lost consciousness. A group of trans women managed to scare the attackers away.
Canada
Kenneth Zeller, a gay man in Toronto, Ontario, who was employed as a schoolteacher, was murdered by five young offenders in High Park in 1985. The incident spurred the Toronto District School Board to implement a program to combat anti-gay discrimination and violence – culminating in the creation of the Triangle Program, Canada's first alternative school program for at-risk LGBT youth, in 1995.
On March 19, 1989, Joe Rose, a young gay activist in Montreal, was stabbed to death by a gang of teenagers who targeted him for having pink hair. The incident later inspired educator Michael Whatling, who had been a classmate of Rose's at the time of his death, to publish A Vigil for Joe Rose, an exploration of the struggles faced by LGBT students.
On August 21, 1989, Alain Brosseau, a straight man in Ottawa, was attacked by a gang of teenagers who wrongly assumed him to be gay, while walking home from his job at the Château Laurier. The attackers chased him through Major's Hill Park to the Alexandra Bridge, and then threw him off the bridge resulting in his death. This resulted in a gay and lesbian community outcry and eventually led to the formation of the Ottawa Police Service's GLBT Liaison Committee two years later.
On November 29, 1992, Yves Lalonde was murdered in Montreal's Angrignon Park by a gang of four neo-Nazi skinheads.
Aaron Webster, a gay man in Vancouver, British Columbia, was beaten to death with baseball bats and pool cues on November 17, 2001, in a part of Stanley Park known for cruising. Ryan Cran, along with two unidentified youths, was convicted of manslaughter in Webster's death. Cran was paroled in February 2009 after serving four years of a six-year sentence.
Conner Copeman, 20, of Cumberland, British Columbia, was assaulted in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, on July 11, 2007, by a group of men in a park in the city's Buena Vista neighbourhood. Copeman had recently moved to the city, and told police that he was flirting with some men, who later attacked him. Copeman was found lying in the street six blocks east of the park, with a broken neck. Copeman ended up a quadriplegic as a result of his injuries.
Jordan Smith, 27, of White Rock, British Columbia, was assaulted on September 27, 2008, by 20-year-old Michael Kandola of Vancouver. Smith was holding hands with another male while walking in Vancouver's Davie Village, an area frequented by LGBTQ individuals, when Kandola started following the pair with four to five of his friends and began shouting anti-gay obscenities towards the gay pair. Kandola confronted the two and punched Smith on the side of his head, knocking him unconscious. Smith required surgery for his injuries. Kandola was charged with assault causing bodily harm, and police sought to invoke Canadian hate-crime legislation against Kandola. A Facebook group with over 4000 members was established and they petitioned for a minimum life imprisonment sentence for Kandola. On April 30, 2010, the assault was deemed by the B.C. Supreme Court to be a hate crime and Kandola was sentenced to 17 months in jail.
Anji Dimitriou and Jane Currie were physically assaulted on November 3, 2008, at an Oshawa, Ontario public school while waiting to pick up their children. Mark Scott, the attacker, punched both women in the face, referring to them as "men", "fucking dyke bitches" and spit in Dimitriou's face. He was in court in January 2009, for two counts of assault causing bodily harm. However, the incident was prosecuted as a simple assault rather than a hate crime, because Scott did not advocate genocide nor did he incite anyone else to participate in the attack.
On March 13, 2009, Shawn Woodward was charged with aggravated assault after physically attacking 62-year-old Ritchie Dowrey in Vancouver's Fountainhead Pub, allegedly because "He's a faggot. He deserved it." Dowrey had briefly bumped into Woodward's shoulder, which the heterosexual Woodward characterized during his trial as a predatory sexual advance. Although Dowrey survived the assault, he suffered serious and permanent brain damage, and spent the entire rest of his life living in care facilities until his death in 2015. At Woodward's trial, Justice Jocelyn Palmer rejected the allegation that Dowrey had groped Woodward, ultimately finding that "[Woodward's] intention was to deny, deflect and dissemble. He fabricated this story to justify his outrageous assault."
On October 18, 2010, the home of a gay couple in Little Pond, Prince Edward Island, was firebombed. Both men escaped the fire unharmed, but their home was destroyed. In late October and November, a series of rallies and fundraising concerts was held in both Little Pond and Charlottetown to support the couple and to oppose homophobic violence.
On December 8, 2011, in Whitehorse, Yukon, a gay man, Owen Williams, was kicked out of a bar, handcuffed and detained by the RCMP for looking at gay hookup sites on his laptop. As a result, a former supreme court justice stated that the RCMP tolerates 'misogynistic, racist, and homophobic attitudes'.
On April 17, 2012, Halifax gay activist Raymond Taavel was beaten to death outside Menz & Mollyz, a gay bar on the city's Göttingen Street, by Andre Denny, a paranoid schizophrenic who was on an unsupervised leave from a nearby forensic hospital for those who are found Not Criminally Responsible for their previous unlawful actions, after he attempted to break up a fight between Denny and another man. Taavel was a former chair of Halifax Pride, the city's gay pride festival, and a former editor at the LGBT magazine Wayves and the spiritual magazine Lion's Roar. Over 1,000 people attended a vigil in Taavel's memory later that evening, which included performances by poet Tanya Davis, actor and writer Stewart Legere and singer-songwriters Rose Cousins and Ria Mae. Although there were unconfirmed allegations that Denny used anti-gay slurs while he was attacking Taavel, to date media and the police have not asserted that the case clearly constituted a hate crime, generally attributing the attack to Denny's mental illness rather than to a specifically anti-gay bias. Taavel had previously survived a more clearly anti-gay physical attack, which he wrote about in Wayves in May 2010.
On September 30, 2012, in New Westminster, British Columbia, January Marie Lapuz, 26, was found in her home in the 500 block of Third Avenue around 10 p.m. September 30, 2012 suffering from stab wounds. She died the next morning at Royal Columbian Hospital. Charles Jameson Neel, 22, pleaded guilty to manslaughter in June in her stabbing death and was sentenced to eight years in prison. Lapuz was the first transgender person on the executive of Sher Vancouver, an organization supporting gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender South Asians. She was named the organization's social coordinator, according to its website in 2012.
On October 12, 2013, Scott Jones, a gay resident of New Glasgow, Nova Scotia, was stabbed by a knife-wielding man after leaving the Acro Lounge. He was left paraplegic by the attack. His attacker, Shane Matheson, was found guilty and sentenced to 10 years in prison in June 2014. During his recovery, Jones participated in the creation of Don't Be Afraid, a province-wide campaign to combat homophobia, and was selected as the grand marshal of the 2014 Halifax Pride parade. He was profiled in the 2018 documentary film Love, Scott.
On June 28, 2023, Geovanny Villalba Alemán, an international student from Ecuador, stabs and injures 3, including a professor, during a gender studies class in Hagey Hall at the University of Waterloo.
Chile
Mónica Briones, an openly lesbian artist, was beaten to death on a sidewalk in Santiago in 1984 for her sexual orientation. She was with a friend, who survived the attack. The culprit has never been found.
María Pía Castro, an out lesbian football player, was beaten to death in 2008 in Limache. Her body was set on fire to cover evidence. Her case was closed even though no culprit was found; a feminist group, (Chilean Network Against Violence Toward Women), protested this decision.
Daniel Zamudio, a Chilean gay man, was tortured and murdered in Santiago in 2012 after his attackers learned of his sexual orientation. After his murder he has become a symbol against homophobic violence in Chile, and his death and all the media attention contributed to accelerating legislation against discrimination, as well as opening new doors of acceptance and tolerance of differences in the conservative country. An anti-discrimination law, informally known as , was named for him.
, an out butch lesbian, was murdered in Limache in 2016. Her body showed signs of torture. The Chilean Network Against Violence Toward Women also protested her murder, labeling it a femicide. Activists and Saavedra's family criticized the justice system for not solving her case.
(born Ana González Villarroel), a lesbian DJ, was killed in Angol in 2017. Her body was found completely naked, and there was semen in her mouth. Her death was initially ruled an overdose. However, a friend of Cook's believed that she'd been raped and murdered, as she was an open lesbian and would not have willingly had sex with a man. A lawyer in the Cook case described her death as a lesbophobic crime. Her unsolved murder gained national attention, with the graffiti message "Who killed Anna Cook?" showing up in cities across Chile.
Susana Sanhueza, a lesbian animal rights activist, was found dead in the town hall of San Felipe in March 2017. She was meeting with her friend Cristian Muñoz, the last person to see her alive. Sanhueza had type 1 diabetes and was prone to hypoglycemia. Muñoz told police that she began to have a seizure and, being unable to revive her, he covered her head with a grocery bag and tied it shut. He was not charged with her murder. Sanhueza's family believes that Muñoz killed her because he was attracted to her and became frustrated when Sanhueza did not reciprocate. Karen Vergara, a Chilean lesbian activist, told the BBC that "His lack of acceptance that she was a lesbian, and then not alerting the police [of her death], speaks to a hatred of gay women...it's lesbophobia."
Dominique Moreau and Melannie León, a young lesbian couple living together in Santiago, received death threats from their neighbors in 2017. Neighbors also vandalized their household, spraying the door with red paint and destroying potted plants. Violence escalated when neighbors hit the women; one threatened them with a gun. The couple fled their home.
Carolina Torres, a butch lesbian football player, was out with her girlfriend for Valentine's Day in 2019 when three men attacked her outside a post office in Pudahuel. They fractured her skull and caused internal bleeding, intending to kill her. The same group of men had attacked her previously. Bystanders did not intervene; Torres' girlfriend had to call a relative for help. The attack left Torres severely disabled. Two of her attackers were sentenced to prison.
Cynthia Leslie Velásquez, a butch lesbian known as "Chico Leslie" in her neighborhood, was attending a party in Lo Espejo in 2020 when a male guest attempted to sexually assault a female guest. Velásquez intervened, and the man stabbed her. The two knew each other; the man had previously insulted Velásquez for her masculine appearance and presentation. Neighbors took her to the hospital, where she died. Feminist groups in Chile have demanded that the murderer be found and charged.
Croatia
30 participants at a gay pride event in Croatia were attacked by multiple assailants on July 7, 2007. The attackers had also prepared Molotov cocktails but were stopped by the police before using them. Many people taking part in Gay Pride marches in Eastern Europe (e.g.: Romania, Russia, Serbia) have been beaten after leaving the marches.
France
Francois Chenu was murdered (beaten and drowned) by neo-Nazi skinheads on September 13, 2002, in Reims, France. The murder became the subject of the documentary Beyond Hatred, which includes extended interviews with members of Francois' family during and after the trial. As depicted in the documentary, one of the assailants was a minor, who received a 15-year sentence, while two adult attackers received 20-year sentences. The parents of the 15-year-old also received 6-month sentences for their neglect, contributing to their son's violence.
Bertrand Delanoë, the openly gay mayor of Paris, was non-fatally stabbed by a Muslim immigrant, Azedine Berkane, in October 2002.
Alexis Frumin was murdered June 9, 2007, in Reims by white power skinheads motivated by hatred of his ethnicity and sexual orientation.
Wilfred de Bruijn was beaten while walking with his boyfriend in the 19th arrondissement of Paris on April 7, 2013. De Bruijn later posted a photograph of his badly injured face on Facebook to raise awareness of homophobic attacks, attracting international media attention in the process. The attack was executed by Taieb K. and Abdelmalik M.
Germany
In June 2017, a heterosexual male verbally harassed a lesbian couple in Berlin. When the couple did not respond to his provocations, the man started beating both women relentlessly with a glass bottle and choked one of them until she lost consciousness.
On June 9, 2019, a lesbian couple was insulted and physically assaulted at a streetfood truck by a patron in Berlin.
A lesbian couple was gay bashed by three unknown males in December 2019 while riding the tram in Berlin.
On October 4, 2020, a gay couple was attacked by a 20-year-old Islamic extremist in the old town of Dresden. The perpetrator stabbed one of them to death and severely wounded the other one and is now facing charges of murder and attempted murder. The prosecutor of the case believes homophobia was the main motivation behind the crime.
On August 27, 2022, a transgender man was killed at Münster gay pride. The victim wanted to help a group of women who were insulted by perpetrator
Iraq
In 2005, the Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani issued a fatwa on his website calling for the execution of gays in the "worst, most severe way". Following protests from UK-based Iraqi gay rights groups, Sistani agreed to remove the fatwa from his website except for the section calling for the punishment of lesbianism. In January 2007, a United Nations report described the increased persecution, torture and extrajudicial killing of Iraqi lesbians and gay men by the Shia death squads of the Badr and Sadr militias (the armed wings of the two main Shia parties that control the government of Iraq).
Ireland
Charlie Self, a 33-year-old set designer at the TV network RTÉ and a well-known member of the gay community in Dublin, was stabbed fourteen times in his apartment on 21 January 1982. Nobody has been brought to justice for the killing. It has been alleged in the press that homophobia on the part of the police may have led to a lack of willingness to pursue justice against Self's killer. In 2011 the case was reinvestigated as part of a cold cases review.
John Roche, a 29-year-old who worked as a night porter at the then-named Munster Hotel in Cork City, was stabbed to death in a homophobic murder on 8 September 1982. Michael O'Connor of Windsor Place, St Luke's in Cork was arrested and charged. He admitted to police that he engaged in sexual activity with Roche before killing him in room 26 of the hotel. O'Connor told police that Roche 'tried to make him gay', saying "I had to kill him, he would have ruined my life. He wanted me to become a gay. I said 'No way' and I killed him". O'Connor pleaded not guilty to Roche's murder. Despite his admission of pre-mediation and of tying Roche to a chair and killing him by stabbing him in the chest, O’Connor was only convicted of the lesser sentence of manslaughter. Mr Justice McMahon, when passing sentence on O’Connor, cited a ‘gay panic defence’. The judge and said he believed Roche was a homosexual who enticed O'Connor to take part in homosexual acts with him, telling O’Connor "after engaging in these acts you were likely to feel hostility and revulsion, and because of your low level of intelligence, you have less than normal self-control". O’Connor was only sentenced to five year in prison.
Just one day after John Roche's murder in Cork, Declan Flynn was beaten to death in Fairview Park, Dublin, on 9 September 1982. The murder and subsequent suspended sentences of the perpetrators who pleaded guilty to murder saw the emergence of a more vocal gay community in the aftermath.
In January 1999, American expatriate writer Robert Drake was left permanently brain damaged after being assaulted by two men, Glen Mahon and Ian Monaghan, whom he had let into his home in Sligo. Drake was targeted because of his sexual orientation. The story of the attack and Drake's subsequent recovery became the subject of the 2013 documentary Where I Am.
TV personality Mark O'Neill and his partner came under a bloody attack from a gay bashing gang while walking on Patrick Street in Dublin in 2010.
TV presenter Brendan Courtney was battered by a gay bashing stranger while walking home down South Great George's Street in Dublin in 2011. A man in his early twenties punched him in the face and shouted "queer" before running away. Courtney said it was "disgraceful" that such an incident could occur in Dublin. He told Liveline that more than 50 other gay people had told him of their own experiences of being assaulted or verbally abused in towns nationwide.
Israel
Three marchers in a gay pride parade in Jerusalem on June 30, 2005 were stabbed and wounded by Yishai Shlisel, a Haredi Jew. Shlisel claimed he had acted "in the name of God". He was charged with attempted murder.
The 2009 Tel Aviv gay centre shooting resulted in the death of two people and wounding of 15.
On 30 July 2015, a marcher was killed and six other injured, again by Yishai Shlisel when he stabbed them. It was three weeks after he was released from jail.
Italy
Friends Elisa Pomarelli and Massimo Sebastiani disappeared in the Province of Piacenza on August 25, 2019. Pomarelli's strangled body was found in the woods on September 7, 2019. Massimo Sebastiani had killed her. He was charged with the murder in 2020. He was attracted to her, but Pomarelli repeatedly refused his advances, telling him she was a lesbian and only interested in women.
On September 12, 2020, an 18-year-old woman and her transgender partner were rammed with a car by the woman's brother. She died at the scene, while her partner sustained serious injuries. He was also kicked after the crash. The victim's brother, who was arrested and accused of manslaughter, claimed that he did not accept his sister's relationship.
In 2020, two men attacked their lesbian neighbors in a courtyard in Novara. One woman sustained a broken nose and skull fractures. The young couple had previously received insults from their neighbors, including "Shut up lesbians" and "Fucking lesbians."
In 2020, an older woman threatened a teenage couple with a knife and called them "ugly lesbians" on public transport in Genoa.
On November 9, 2021, a mixed-race Tunisian-Italian lesbian was attacked while getting into her girlfriend's car. Her father grabbed her by the hair and slapped her, while her mother insulted her. A hotel clerk saw and brought her to safety.
Jamaica
Brian Williamson, Jamaican gay rights activist, was murdered on June 5, 2004, in Kingston. His killer, Dwight Hayden, who used a machete to stab and chop him some 70 times, pleaded guilty and received a life sentence.
An alleged gay man was chased down a pier by a Jamaican mob in December 2005. The man, fearful of the crowd, jumped into the water and drowned.
An alleged gay student was attacked during a student riot in April 2006 at the University of the West Indies in Jamaica.
A group of gay men, including gay-rights activist Gareth Williams, were stoned by a mob in Mandeville, Jamaica, on February 14, 2007. Their attackers reportedly had earlier demanded that the men leave the community.
During the funeral of a gay man in Mandeville, Jamaica, on April 8, 2007, approximately 100 men gathered outside the church where 150 people were attending. According to mourners, the crowd broke the windows with bottles and shouted, "We want no battyman [gay] funeral here. Leave or else we're going to kill you. We don't want no battyman buried here in Mandeville."
Three gay men were attacked in the privacy of their dwelling in January 2008, by an angry mob who had days before threatened them if they did not leave the community in Mandeville. According to reports, two men were hospitalised, one with serious injuries, while another man is still missing and feared dead.
Martinique
In 1964, American composer Marc Blitzstein was murdered in a homophobic attack by three sailors.
Mexico
On May 22, 2016, reports indicate that between five and 15 people were killed in a mass shooting at La Madame, a gay bar in Xalapa. Three gunmen entered the bar and carried out a mass shooting. Although the state prosecutor issued a statement noting that five people were killed, and 14 were injured, contradictory reports suggest there were many more deaths. Although police are searching for the gunmen, no arrests have been made.
In January 2022, the bodies of Nohemí Medina and Yulizsa Ramírez were found alongside the road in Ciudad Juárez. They had been tortured and murdered; their corpses were dismembered and left in garbage bags. The women lived in El Paso in the US and were married with three children. They were traveling to Juárez to visit family when they were killed. Their suspected killers were charged with femicide.
New Zealand
Jeff Whittington, a supposedly gay teenager, was beaten, kicked, and stomped to death by two men who reportedly later boasted of beating up a "faggot". The murder took place in Wellington, New Zealand, on May 8, 1999. Whittington's attackers, Jason Morris Meads and Stephen James Smith, were sentenced to life in prison.
Norway
Magne Andreassen was murdered on August 21, 1992, in Lillehammer. The police investigation took about a year before Bård Faust, the drummer of the band Emperor, was tried and convicted of the killing. He was released from prison in 2002.
On 25 June 2022, two people were killed and 21 more injured in a mass shooting at three sites in Oslo, Norway. The shootings are believed by the police to have targeted Oslo Pride, the local LGBT pride event hosted by the Oslo branch of the Norwegian Organisation for Sexual and Gender Diversity. The police arrested a man, a naturalised immigrant from Iran, who has been charged with murder, attempted murder, and terrorism. They are investigating the shooting as an act of Islamic terrorism.
Peru
On May 31, 1989, six members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement entered the nightclub "Las Gardenias" in Tarapoto because they had heard rumors that the place functioned as a clandestine gay bar. In the place there were homosexual men and transgender women, the terrorists apprehended eight of them at random and took them to the outskirts of the bar to shoot them in front of the population. Months later, in September, Fransuá Pinchi, a transgender woman and beauty salon owner, was shot in the head by the same group.
In May 2021, Shining Path guerrillas killed upwards of 14 people in bars in the VRAEM region. Men, women, and children were killed, either by flame or gunfire. The goal was social cleansing (). A pamphlet left on scene read, "We must clean VRAEM and Peru of or brothels, madmen, homosexual degenerates, lesbian degenerates, drug addicts, undisciplined individuals who do not respect anyone, thieves, kidnappers, corrupt people, snitches, spies, infiltrators" and so on.
Poland
On 4 January 2014, a Polish gay student named Patrick was beaten to death after spending the night at local gay bars and clubs in Szczecin. The two suspects involved did not have any previous criminal records, and police suspected that the crime was motivated by homophobia.
On 20 July 2019, the first Białystok equality march was held in Białystok. Approximately a thousand pride marchers were opposed by thousands of members of far-right groups, ultra football fans, and others. Firecrackers were tossed at the marchers, homophobic slogans were chanted, and the marchers were pelted with rocks and bottles. Dozens of marchers were injured. Amnesty International criticized the police response, saying they had failed to protect marchers and "failed to respond to instances of violence". According to the New York Times, similar to the manner in which the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville shocked Americans, the violence in Białystok raised public concern in Poland over anti-LGBT propaganda.
Portugal
Gisberta Salce Júnior, more commonly known in Portugal as the Gisberta case, was a homeless Brazilian transsexual immigrant, who was HIV positive, had drug problems, and was a sex-worker. She was found dead on February 22, 2006, inside a pit 10 metres deep, in an unfinished building in Porto, the second biggest Portuguese city. The crime was confessed to by a group of 14 boys, between the ages of 10 and 16 years old, most of whom came from a child protection institution belonging to the Catholic Church, although financed by the state. From this confession, details of the dreadful act became known. The victim had a deeply fragile health condition, and these boys frequently harassed, insulted, and chased her. On the 19th, a group of these boys entered the unfinished and abandoned building where Gisberta was staying, tied her up, gagged and assaulted her with extreme violence, kicking her and beating her up with sticks and stones. The group also confessed to having introduced sticks into Gisberta's anus, whose body presented great injuries, and to having abandoned her at the scene. Her body also had cigarette-burn marks. On the 20th and 21st, they returned to the scene and repeated the aggressions. By dawn, from the 21st to 22nd, they finally threw her into the pit, attempting to hide the crime.
Puerto Rico
Kevin Fret was a Puerto Rican singer and the first openly gay Latin trap artist. On January 10, 2019, while Fret was riding his motorcycle in Santurce, San Juan, at about 5:30 am, an unidentified gunman shot at him eight times, hitting him in the head and hip. The Puerto Rico Trans Youth Coalition labeled Fret's murder as a hate crime.
Serbia
Participants of the first Serbian Pride Parade in Belgrade on June 30, 2001, were attacked by hundreds of Serbian nationalists, skinheads, and soccer hooligans.
Sierra Leone
FannyAnn Eddy was the most prominent Sierra Leonean gay and lesbian rights activist, working for Sierra Leone Lesbian and Gay Association (SLLGA) which she had founded in 2002, and had addressed the United Nations on lesbian and gay issues in her country during the discussion on the Brazilian Resolution. On September 28, 2004, Eddy was raped and murdered while working alone in the Freetown SLLGA office. It is believed up to three men took part in the attack. Sierra Leone Police Force said that the murder could not be blamed on homophobia, and dismissed the claim that she had been raped, or that there was more than one attacker. The one suspect that had been captured escaped from police custody before trial and has not been recaptured or prosecuted. Human rights activists are unclear whether this was a hate crime or not, but regard her attack by one or more individuals in the offices of SLLGA as significant. They have asked why only one suspected attacker was captured, expressed concern over repeated delays in prosecution, and how the suspect was able to escape custody. In 2007 the Hirschfeld Eddy Foundation for the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people was established in Berlin; the name is a combination of Eddy and Magnus Hirschfeld's names.
Singapore
Philip Low Cheng Quee, the operator of an illegal brothel where he hired male prostitutes from Thailand and Malaysia to provide sexual services. One of these prostitutes, 18-year-old Malaysian teen Lim Chin Chong, had killed Low and was sentenced to death for murder.
South Africa
Two people were injured when Blah Bar, a gay bar in Cape Town, South Africa, was bombed in November 1999.
Sizzlers massacre was a massacre that took place on January 20, 2003, at a gay massage parlour in Cape Town, South Africa. Nine men were brutally butchered to death and only one victim managed to escape. It was described by the High Court Judge and local police as one of the most vicious and bloodiest massacres the city of Cape Town had ever seen.
In 2007 in Soweto, lesbian activist Sizakele Sigasa and her partner, Salome Masooa, were gang-raped and murdered.
In Johannesburg, Gauteng, between 2011 and 2012 there were a number of serial killings that targeted eight gay men who were murdered in their homes in strikingly similar circumstances. The men were all found with their hands tied behind their backs and there was no forced entry. The police made a statement saying it was believed that these men were targeted by a gang using online dating websites in pretending to hook up with their victims and obtaining the trust of their victims who'd allow them into their homes. To this day, the case remains a mystery.
In February 2021, Bonang Gaelae was killed by a stab to the neck. Her fiancé, a transgender man, believed she was murdered because killers perceived her to be a lesbian. He survived the attack.
In March 2021, openly gay man Sphamandla Khoza was murdered and dumped in a ditch near his home in Inanda. He faced regular harassment for his sexuality, and family members believe the attack was a hate crime.
In April 2021, the body of Andile Ntuthela, nicknamed Lulu, was found in a shallow grave in KwaNobuhle. He had been repeatedly stabbed. Ntuthela was a young gay man, and both police and LGBT activists suspected that his murder was a hate crime.
The body of Anele Bhengu, a young lesbian, was found in a ditch in KwaMakhutha on June 13, 2021. She had been raped and stabbed in multiple places.
On September 25, 2021, Sisanda Gumede's cousin killed her in Umbumbulu. Local LGBT organizations and Gumede's relatives believed the attack to be a hate crime. Sisanda Gumede was a lesbian and an activist for LGBTQ causes.
On October 12, 2021, lesbian Limakatso Puling was shot and killed in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Her family suspects that the shooting was a hate crime.
Lindokuhle Cele, an openly gay 23 year old musician from UMlazi, Durban was stabbed to death 21 times in the back and on his face by a man known as Mvuyisi Mabhuthi Mogudu who had previously seen the victim at a night club and suspected that he was raped by the victim, the victim died with a knife stuck in his left eye, the killer sustained visible cut wounds on his hands from the stabbing and was waring cloth on his hands to cover the wounds during his first court appearance, the post-mortem revealed that 18 of the 21 stab wounds the victim suffered resulted in his death – they penetrated his face, lungs, heart and head the killer was later sentenced to 25 years by the Durban high court for the crime.
Spain
Julio Anderson Luciano and his fiancé Isaac Ali Dani Peréz Triviño were killed on January 13, 2006, in the home they shared with Peréz Triviño's mother in the Spanish city of Vigo. Jacobo Piñeiro Rial, who stabbed them 22 and 35 times, respectively, then set fire to the home, was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for arson and later was acquitted by a regional jury of murder charges on a "gay panic" defense, and on July 12, 2010, Piñeiro walked out of jail a free man. However, on September 26 a second jury found Piñeiro guilty of both murders as well as setting their place on fire and on October 14, 2010, he was sentenced to 58 years in jail, minus time already served (the maximum allowed time for this type of crime).
Slovakia
Juraj Vankulic and Matus Horwath were shot to death on October 12, 2022, by the radicalized teenage son of a far-right politician from an extremist party founded by Stefan Harabin - ex-Chief of highest court of Slovak Republic. The perpetrator was found dead next day morning. The incident came as a result of long term escalation of lobby of so-called "pro-family" and far-right parties.
St. Maarten
Richard Jefferson, senior producer of CBS Evening News, and Ryan Smith, producer-researcher of 48 Hours, both American, were severely beaten with a tire iron on April 6, 2006, outside the Sunset Beach Bar on the Caribbean island of St. Maarten. Three men and one woman were convicted and sentenced to prison for the attack, which was ruled a hate crime.
Turkey
Ahmet Yıldız, a gay man, was shot to death on July 15, 2008, in İstanbul.
Hande Kader, a transgender woman, burned alive on August,2016, in İstanbul.
Uganda
David Kato, a prominent Ugandan gay rights activist, was beaten to death in his home on January 27, 2011. Kato had recently appeared on the front page of an anti-gay newspaper under the headline "Hang Them". Gay rights activists believe he was murdered for this reason, though the police say he was the victim of theft, not a hate crime.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
Kenneth Crowe, an English schoolteacher, aged 37, was found dead on 31 July 1950 in Rotherham, wearing her wife's clothes and a wig. She had approached a miner on her way home from the pub, who upon discovering Crowe was trans female, beat and strangled her. John Cooney was found not guilty of murder and sentenced to five years for manslaughter.
George Brinham, an English trade unionist, was killed in November 1962 in his flat by a young man, who claimed that Brinham had propositioned him. The killer was found not guilty of murder and manslaughter on the grounds of "provocation".
Christopher Schliach, a barrister who was gay, was murdered in his home in September 1989; he was stabbed more than 40 times.
Henry Bright, a hotelier who was gay, was stabbed to death at his home in December 1989.
William Dalziel, a hotel porter who was gay, was found unconscious on a roadside in Acton, west London in January 1990. He died from severe head injuries.
Michael Boothe, an actor who was gay, died in April 1990 in west London, beaten to death by a gang of up to six men close to a public lavatory. The police said he had been the victim of "an extraordinarily severe beating, of a merciless and savage nature". He managed to give a description of his attackers before he died, and a reward of £15,000 was offered, but no one was caught, and the crime remains unsolved. The police review identified institutional homophobia within the Metropolitan Police as a factor.
Colin Ireland, age 43, was jailed for life in 1993 for murdering five gay men. Ireland picked up the men at pubs in London, and then killed them in their own homes. A Scotland Yard review showed that Ireland's capture was hampered by institutional homophobia within the Metropolitan Police.
Andrew Collier, a housing warden, aged 33, was one of Ireland's victims; the murder was classified as homophobic and linked with the death of Peter Walker, Ireland's first victim. The report said the police could have done more to warn the community of the links between the murders.
Emanuel Spiteri, age 41, was strangled to death in his flat in Catford by Ireland, after meeting in a pub in Earls Court, west London.
Robyn Brown, a 23-year-old trans sex worker, was found stabbed to death in her flat in London on 28 February 1997. The original report described her as being 23-year-old Gemma Browne, formerly James Darwin Browne. The case went cold for over ten years, but her killer, James Hopkins, was eventually caught; in January 2009 he was jailed for life. The report found that identifying her to the public using different names may have hampered attempts to connect with relevant communities.
In May 1999, the Admiral Duncan, a gay pub in Soho, was bombed by former British National Party member David Copeland, killing three people and wounding at least 70.
Jaap Bornkamp, a 52-year-old florist, was knifed in a homophobic attack in south-east London in June 2000; the murder remains unsolved despite the police displaying 20 ft by 10 ft images of CCTV footage taken near the murder scene. He was attacked after leaving a night club, and the police are reported as saying there was no confrontation or argument, but that the attack was homophobic and unprovoked. The report found this case to have been a model of police good practice.
Damilola Taylor was attacked by a local gang of youths on 27 November 2000 in Peckham, south London; he bled to death after being stabbed with a broken bottle in the thigh, which severed the femoral artery. The BBC, Telegraph, Guardian and Independent newspapers reported at the time that during the weeks between arriving in the UK from Nigeria and the attack he had been subjected to bullying and beating, which included homophobic remarks by a group of boys at his school. "The bullies told him that he was gay." He "may not have understood why he was being bullied at school, or why some other children taunted him about being 'gay' – the word meant nothing to him." He had to ask his mother what 'gay' meant, she said "Boys were swearing at him, saying lots of horrible words. They were calling him names." His mother had spoken about this bullying, but the teachers failed to take it seriously. "She said pupils had accused her son of being gay and had beaten him last Friday." Six months after the murder, his father said, "I spoke to him and he was crying that he was being bullied and being called names. He was being called 'gay'." In the New Statesman two years later, when there had still been no convictions for the crime, Peter Tatchell, gay human rights campaigner, said, "In the days leading up to his murder in south London in November 2000, he was subjected to vicious homophobic abuse and assaults," and asked why the authorities had ignored this before and after his death.
Geoffrey Windsor, 57, in south London died in June 2002 from head injuries at Beaulieu Heights, a well-known gay cruising area, after he was beaten and robbed. The police said the murder was motivated by homophobia. A review of this and similar cases in the area highlighted poor policing due to institutional homophobia within the police, particularly in not taking previous attacks in the area more seriously.
Lauren Harries, a trans woman and British media personality, was attacked in July 2005 along with her father and brother in their home in Cardiff by eight youths who shouted the word "tranny" while beating their victims. One youth pleaded guilty to inflicting grievous bodily harm and was sentenced to two years probation; his accomplices were not formally identified or charged.
Jody Dobrowski was beaten to death on 14 October 2005 on Clapham Common in London by two men who perceived him as being gay; Dobrowski was beaten so badly he had to be identified by his fingerprints. Thomas Pickford and Scott Walker were given life sentences in what was described as a 'homophobic murder' in June 2006. This was the first prosecution in England and Wales where Section 146 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 was used in sentencing the killers; this enabled the courts to impose a tougher sentence for offenses motivated or aggravated by the victim's sexual orientation, in this case a minimum of 30 years in prison.
Rt Rev Dr Barry Rathbone, an openly gay priest, was attacked in April 2006. He was sitting in a park in Bournemouth, Dorset when Martin Powell and his girlfriend approached and spoke to him. Rathbone informed them that it was a cruising area, then Powell produced a metal baseball bat, called him a 'queer', and started to hit him, causing multiple injuries. Powell was subsequently jailed after plea bargaining down from attempted murder to assault occasioning serious bodily harm with intent and served years in total. Rathbone publicly forgave Powell in an interview with the BBC.
Michael Causer, 18, was attacked by a group of men on 25 July 2008 at a party in Liverpool, and died from his injuries. It is alleged that he was killed because he was gay.
Daniel Jenkinson, 23, a gay hairdresser, was the victim of a homophobic attack on 23 October 2008 in a Preston club. His attacker, Neil Bibby, also from Preston, was sentenced to 200 hours' unpaid work, a three-month weekend curfew, and ordered to pay £2,000 compensation after he pleaded guilty to assault. Daniel needed facial reconstruction surgery after the attack, and said he was too scared to go out in the city.
Gerry Edwards, 59, and his partner of over twenty years, Chris Bevan, 56, were stabbed by an assailant shouting homophobic abuse on 3 March 2009 in Bromley, south London. Gerry died from his injuries, and Chris was admitted to hospital in a critical condition. The police dealing with the case said they had an open mind, but were treating it as a homophobic murder. Two men were subsequently arrested.
Sol Campbell, a footballer, was the target of disgruntled fans shouting homophobic abuse during a match. On 15 May 2009, an English court found two football fans guilty of shouting the homophobic chants. This was the first prosecution for indecent chanting in the UK. The police reported that up to 2,500 fans shouted chants at the match that included "Sol, Sol, wherever you may be, Not long now until lunacy, We won't give a fuck if you are hanging from a tree," the footballer commented "I felt totally victimised and helpless by the abuse I received on this day. It has had an effect on me personally". Three men and two boys were given cautions after the match.
Scotland
In 2009, the Scottish Parliament unanimously passed legislation that means that crimes motivated by hatred of gay or disabled people will now be considered as 'aggravated offences'.
6 April 1960. Queen's Park (near Hampden Park), Glasgow. John Cremin murder. John Cremin was hit over the head with a flat piece of wood by 19-year-old Anthony Miller after being lured from a public toilet by a 16-year-old accomplice James Denovan. Cremlin fell to the ground with a fractured skull and died due to massive haemorrhaging. He was robbed of his bank book, a wallet, a knife and £67. This led to the last hanging in Scotland at Barlinnie Prison, convicted murderer Antony Millar 19 years old, on 22 December 1960 - the last teenager to be hanged in the United Kingdom in the 20th century before the death penalty was abolished. Millar was buried within Barlinnie as was common practice at the time with hanged prisoners. Accomplice James Denovan at 16 was too young in law to face the death penalty.
Summer 1995. Michael Doran, 35 years old, was violently attacked and murdered in Queen's Park Glasgow by a gang of three boys and a girl that were on a queer bashing rampage. He received 83 blows to his body, was stabbed several times in the groin, stamped on, and broke every bone in his face. The gang then joined a nearby party and bragged about what they had done.
April 2007. James Kerr Murder. A teenager who murdered a gay council worker in a public park in Perth was jailed for life. David Meehan, 19, from Perth, admitted murdering James Kerr in a homophobic attack at South Inch Park in April. Kerr, 51, was left lying in a pool of blood with major head injuries while Meehan and his accomplices went to a party. Meehan will serve at least 16 years in jail.
United States
On June 24, 1973, thirty-two people died of fire or smoke inhalation as the result of an arson attack on the UpStairs Lounge, a gay bar in New Orleans, Louisiana.
Several men were assaulted on July 5, 1978, by a gang of youths armed with baseball bats and tree branches in an area of Central Park in New York City known to be frequented by homosexuals. The victims were assaulted at random, but the assailants later confessed that they had deliberately set out to the park to attack homosexuals. One of those injured was former figure skater Dick Button, who was assaulted while watching a fireworks display in the park.
Harvey Milk, the openly gay San Francisco city supervisor, along with Mayor George Moscone, were assassinated on November 27, 1978, by political rival Dan White at San Francisco City Hall. Outrage over the assassinations and the short sentence given to White (seven years) prompted the White Night Riots.
In March 1979, an assault on several women in a San Francisco lesbian bar by off-duty police officers drew national attention to the strained relationship between police and LGBT San Franciscans at that time. One woman was hospitalized for ten days with skull injuries.
Tennessee Williams was the victim of an assault in January 1979 in Key West, being beaten by five teenage boys. He escaped serious injury. The episode was part of a spate of anti-gay violence inspired by an anti-gay newspaper ad run by a local Baptist minister.
Steven Charles, 17, of Newark was beaten to death in New York City on October 7, 1979, by Costabile "Gus" Farace, Robert DeLicio, David Spoto and Farace's cousin Mark Granato. They also beat Charles' friend, 16-year-old Thomas Moore of Brooklyn. Moore was critically injured but managed to get help at a nearby residence. It was Moore that identified the four men via a lineup four days after the incident. Farace, the leader of the attack, pled guilty to first-degree manslaughter, and was paroled after 8 years, in 1988, then murdered on November 17, 1989.
On November 19, 1980, Ronald K. Crumpley, a former Transit Authority policeman, fired 40 rounds from a semiautomatic rifle and two Magnum pistols (all stolen from a Virginia gun shop) into a cluster of men standing in front of two gay bars—Ramrod and the next-door Sneakers—in West Greenwich Village, killing 21-year-old Jörg Wenz, from the Netherlands, the Ramrod's doorman, and 32-year-old Vernon Kroening, from Minnesota, a church organist, and wounding six others. Rene Malute, 23, later died of his wounds. A survivor described the shootings as "a massacre, a bloodbath." Crumpley admitted to having paranoid delusions that gay men were agents of the devil, stalking him and "trying to steal my soul just by looking at me." He was found not responsible by reason of insanity and committed to maximum-security Kirby Forensic Psychiatric Center on Ward's Island. In 2001, a judge denied Crumpley's request to be transferred to a less restrictive psychiatric facility. He died in 2015.
Charlie Howard was drowned in Bangor, Maine, in 1984.
Rebecca Wight was murdered on May 13, 1988, when she and her partner, Claudia Brenner, were shot by Stephen Roy Carr while hiking and camping along the Appalachian Trail. Carr later claimed that he became enraged by the couple's lesbianism when he saw them having sex.
Gordon Church was murdered on November 22, 1988, after he was kidnapped, raped, and tortured by Michael Archuleta and Lance Wood, in Millard County, Utah. Archuleta was sentenced to death for his role in the crime. Wood claimed they murdered Church because he was gay.
James Zappalorti (1945–1990), a gay Vietnam War veteran, was stabbed to death.
Paul Broussard (1964–1991), a Houston-area banker, was murdered.
U.S. Navy Petty Officer Allen Schindler was murdered by a shipmate who stomped him to death in a public restroom in Japan on October 27, 1992. Schindler had complained repeatedly about anti-gay harassment aboard ship. The case became synonymous with the gays in the military debate that had been brewing in the United States culminating in the "Don't ask, don't tell" bill.
Brandon Teena, a trans man, was raped and later murdered on December 31, 1993, when his birth gender was revealed by police to male friends of his. The events leading to Teena's death were depicted in the movie Boys Don't Cry.
Scott Amedure was murdered on March 9, 1995, after revealing his attraction to his friend Jonathan Schmitz on an episode of The Jenny Jones Show titled "Revealing Same Sex Secret Crush". Schmitz purchased a shotgun to kill Amedure and did so after Amedure implied he still was attracted to him; Schmitz then turned himself in to police.
Roxanne Ellis and Michelle Abdill, a lesbian couple in Medford, Oregon, were murdered on December 4, 1995, by a man who said he had "no compassion" for bisexual or homosexual people. Robert Acremant was convicted and sentenced to death by lethal injection.
On December 5, 1997, Ali Forney was found by the police shot on the sidewalk in front of a housing project on East 131st Street. According to the New York Times she was the third young transgender prostitute murdered in Harlem in 14 months. The killing has never been solved.
The Otherside Lounge, a lesbian nightclub in Atlanta, was bombed by Eric Robert Rudolph, the "Olympic Park Bomber," on February 21, 1997; five bar patrons were injured. In a statement released after he was sentenced to five consecutive life terms for his several bombings, Rudolph called homosexuality an "aberrant lifestyle".
Matthew Shepard (1976–1998), a gay student, was fatally attacked in Laramie, Wyoming, on October 7, 1998. Shepard was tortured, beaten severely, tied to a fence, and abandoned; he was found 18 hours after the attack and succumbed to his injuries less than a week later, on October 12. His attackers, Russell Arthur Henderson and Aaron James McKinney, are both serving two consecutive life sentences in prison.
Billy Jack Gaither was murdered by two acquaintances on February 19, 1999, in Alabama. The killers later admitted that they murdered Gaither because he was gay.
Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder, a gay couple, were murdered on July 1, 1999, by white supremacist brothers Matthew and Tyler Williams in Redding, California. Tyler Williams was sentenced to a minimum of 33 years in prison, to be served after his completion of a 21-year sentence for firebombing synagogues and an abortion clinic. Benjamin Williams claimed that by killing the couple he was "obeying the laws of the Creator". He died by suicide in 2003 while awaiting trial. Their former pastor described the brothers as "zealous in their faith" but "far from kooks".
U.S. Army Pfc. Barry Winchell was murdered on July 6, 1999, in Fort Campbell, Kentucky, by fellow soldier Calvin Glover. Winchell was beaten to death with a baseball bat after rumors spread on base of his relationship with transgender author Calpernia Addams. Glover was sentenced to life in prison.
Steen Fenrich was murdered in September 1999, apparently by his stepfather, John D. Fenrich, in Queens, New York. His dismembered remains were found in March 2001, with the phrase "gay nigger number one" scrawled on his skull along with his social security number. His stepfather fled from police while being interviewed, then killed himself.
Arthur Warren was punched and kicked to death by two teenage boys on July 3, 2000, in Grant Town, West Virginia, who reportedly believed Warren had spread a rumor that he and one of the boys, David Allen Parker, had a sexual relationship. Warren's killers ran over his body to disguise the murder as a hit-and-run. Parker pleaded guilty and was sentenced to "life in prison with mercy", making him eligible for parole after 15 years. His accomplice, Jared Wilson, was sentenced to 20 years.
Ronald Gay entered a gay bar in Roanoke, Virginia, on September 22, 2000, and opened fire on the patrons, killing Danny Overstreet, 43 years old, and severely injuring six others. Ronald said he was angry over what his name now meant, and deeply upset that three of his sons had changed their surname. He claimed that he had been told by God to find and kill lesbians and gay men, describing himself as a "Christian Soldier working for my Lord"; Gay testified in court that "he wished he could have killed more fags," before several of the shooting victims as well as Danny Overstreet's family and friends.
Nizah Morris, a trans woman, was the victim of a possible homicide in December 2002 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Gwen Araujo, a trans woman, was murdered on October 4, 2002, by at least three men who were charged with committing a hate crime. Two were convicted of murder, the third manslaughter; however, the jury rejected the hate crime enhancement.
Sakia Gunn, a 15-year-old lesbian, was murdered on May 11, 2003, in Newark, New Jersey. While waiting for a bus, Gunn and her friends were propositioned by two men. When the girls rejected their advances, declaring themselves to be lesbians, the men attacked them. One of the men, Richard McCullough, fatally stabbed Gunn. In exchange for his pleading guilty to several lesser crimes including aggravated manslaughter, prosecutors dropped murder charges against McCullough, who was sentenced to 20 years.
Guin "Richie" Phillips of Elizabethtown, Kentucky, was killed on June 17, 2003, by Joseph Cottrell. His body was later found in a suitcase in Rough River Lake. During his trial, two of Cottrell's relatives testified that he lured Phillips to his death, and killed him because he was gay. Cottrell was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 20 years in prison.
Nireah Johnson and Brandie Coleman were shot to death on July 23, 2003, by Paul Moore when Moore learned after a sexual encounter that Johnson was transgender. Moore then burned his victims' bodies. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to 120 years in prison.
Scotty Joe Weaver was an 18-year-old murder victim from Bay Minette, Alabama, whose burned and partially decomposed body was discovered on July 22, 2004, a few miles from the mobile home in which he lived. He was beaten, strangled and stabbed numerous times, partially decapitated, and his body was doused in gasoline and set on fire.
Ronnie Antonio Paris, a three-year-old boy living in Tampa, Florida, died on January 28, 2005, due to brain injuries inflicted by his father, Ronnie Paris, Jr. According to his mother and other relatives, Ronnie Paris, Jr., repeatedly slammed his son into walls, slapped the child's head, and "boxed" him because he was concerned the child was gay and would grow up a sissy. Paris was sentenced to thirty years in prison.
Jason Gage, an openly gay man, was murdered on March 11, 2005, in his Waterloo, Iowa apartment by an assailant, Joseph Lawrence, who claimed Gage had made sexual advance to him. Gage was bludgeoned to death with a bottle, and stabbed in the neck, probably post-mortem, with a shard of glass. Lawrence was sentenced to fifty years in prison.
18-year-old Jacob D. Robida entered a bar on February 2, 2006, in New Bedford, Massachusetts, confirmed that it was a gay bar, and then attacked patrons with a hatchet and a handgun, wounding three. He fatally shot himself three days later.
Kevin Aviance, a female impressionist, musician, and fashion designer, was robbed and beaten in Manhattan on June 10, 2006, by a group of men who yelled anti-gay slurs at him. Four assailants pleaded guilty and received prison sentences.
Six men were attacked with baseball bats and knives on July 30, 2006, after leaving the San Diego, California Gay Pride festival. One victim was injured so severely that he had to undergo extensive facial reconstructive surgery. Three men pleaded guilty in connection with the attacks and received prison sentences. A 15-year-old juvenile also pleaded guilty.
An altercation occurred in Manhattan on August 18, 2006, between a man and seven black lesbians from Newark, New Jersey. During the altercation, the man was stabbed. The women claim that they acted in self-defense after he screamed homophobic epithets, spit on them, and pulled one of their weaves off, while he has described the attack as "a hate crime against a straight man."
Michael Sandy was attacked on October 8, 2006, by four young heterosexual men who lured him into meeting after chatting online, while they were looking for gay men to rob. He was struck by a car while trying to escape his attackers, and died five days later without regaining consciousness.
Andrew Anthos, a 72-year-old disabled gay man, was beaten with a lead pipe by a man who was shouting anti-gay names at him on February 27, 2007, in Detroit, Michigan. Anthos died 10 days later in the hospital.
Sean William Kennedy, 20, was walking to his car from Brew's Bar in Greenville, South Carolina, on May 16, 2007, when Stephen Andrew Moller, 18, got out of another car and approached Kennedy. Investigators said that Moller made a comment about Kennedy's sexual orientation, and threw a fatal punch because he did not like the other man's sexual preference.
Duanna Johnson, a transsexual woman, was held down by Officer James Swain and beaten and pepper-sprayed at close quarters by Officer Bridges McRae on February 12, 2008, while she was awaiting booking in the Shelby County Criminal Justice Center in Tennessee. Johnson said the officers reportedly called her a "faggot" and "he-she", before and during the incident. On November 6, 2008, she was found dead in the street, reportedly gunned down by three unknown individuals.
Lawrence "Larry" King, a 15-year-old junior high school student, was shot twice by a classmate at E.O. Green School in Oxnard, California, on February 12, 2008. He was taken off life support after doctors declared him brain dead on February 15. According to Associated Press reports, "prosecutors have charged a 14-year-old classmate with premeditated murder with hate-crime and firearm-use enhancements".
Angie Zapata, an 18-year-old trans woman, was beaten to death on July 17, 2008, in Colorado, two days after meeting Allen Ray Andrade. The case was prosecuted as a hate crime, and Andrade was found guilty of first degree murder on April 22, 2009.
Nima Daivari, 26, was attacked by a man who called him "faggot" on September 13, 2008, in Denver, Colorado. The police that arrived on the scene refused to make a report of the attack.
A Bourbonnais, Illinois elementary school bus driver was charged with leading a homophobic attack on a 10-year-old student passenger on September 15, 2008. The boy was taunted by the driver who then encouraged other students to chase and beat the child.
Lateisha Green, a 22-year-old transgender woman, was shot and killed by Dwight DeLee on November 14, 2008, in Syracuse, New York, because he thought she was gay. Local news media reported the incident with her legal name, Moses "Teish" Cannon. DeLee was convicted of first-degree manslaughter as a hate crime on July 17, 2009, and received the maximum sentence of 25 years in state prison. This was only the second time in the nation's history that a person was prosecuted for a hate crime against a transgender person and the first hate crime conviction in New York state.
Carl Joseph Walker-Hoover, an 11-year-old child in Springfield, Massachusetts, hanged himself with an extension cord on April 6, 2009, after being bullied all school year by peers who said "he acted feminine" and was gay.
Justin Goodwin, 36, of Salem, Massachusetts, was attacked and beaten on April 10, 2009, by as many as six people outside a bar in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Goodwin suffered a shattered jaw, broken eye socket, broken nose and broken cheekbone. Goodwin later died by suicide.
Seaman August Provost was found shot to death and his body burned at his guard post on Camp Pendleton on June 30, 2009. LGBT community leaders "citing military sources initially said that Provost's death was a hate crime." Provost had been harassed because of his sexual orientation. Military leaders have since explained that "whatever the investigation concludes, the military's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy prevented Provost from seeking help." Family and friends believe he was murdered because he was openly gay (or bisexual according to some family and sources); the killer died by suicide a week later after admitting the murder. The Navy has not concluded if this was a hate crime.
CeCe McDonald, a young African American trans woman, was attacked outside a tavern shortly after midnight on June 5, 2011, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. CeCe fatally stabbed her attacker with a pair of scissors. She was subsequently convicted of manslaughter and jailed for 19 months in a men's prison.
Mark Carson, a 32-year-old gay man, was shot to death by a man who trailed and taunted him and a friend as they walked down the street in Greenwich Village, New York, yelling anti-gay slurs and asking one of them, "You want to die tonight?" Elliot Morales was arrested shortly after the shooting and charged with murder and weapons charges on May 19, 2013.
In March 2014, John Patrick Masterson, an openly gay rapper professionally known as Jipsta was attacked in a New York City subway station as he and his partner were celebrating their 10-year anniversary. The assailant began calling the couple homophobic slurs, and following a verbal disagreement, Jipsta was beaten by the unidentified subject, resulting in multiple fractures to his face. As a result of the incident, Jipsta required surgery due to seven broken bones sustained to his nose and eye socket, which forced him to cease promotion of his second album Turnt Up.
49 people were killed, and 53 injured, in a shooting at an Orlando gay nightclub on June 12, 2016.
Kylen Schulte and Crystal Turner, an American married lesbian couple, were murdered on August 13, 2021, by a man named Adam Pinkusiewicz, who later committed suicide, before it was discovered that he was the killer.
5 people were killed, and 25 injured, in a shooting at a Colorado gay nightclub on November 19–20, 2022.
On July 29, 2023, O'Shae Sibley, a 28-year-old gay man, was stabbed and later died outside a gas station in Brooklyn, New York. The suspect responsible for the stabbing was identified as a 17-year-old, who turned himself into police custody on August 4, 2023, and was later charged with second-degree murder as a hate crime.
See also
Hate crime
References
LGBT timelines |
24385806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast%20development | Breast development | Breast development, also known as mammogenesis, is a complex biological process in primates that takes place throughout a female's life.
It occurs across several phases, including prenatal development, puberty, and pregnancy. At menopause, breast development ceases and the breasts atrophy. Breast development results in prominent and developed structures on the chest known as breasts in primates, which serve primarily as mammary glands. The process is mediated by an assortment of hormones (and growth factors), the most important of which include estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and growth hormone.
Biochemistry
Hormones
The master regulators of breast development are the steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone, growth hormone (GH), mostly via its secretory product, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and prolactin. These regulators induce the expression of growth factors, such as amphiregulin, epidermal growth factor (EGF), IGF-1, and fibroblast growth factor (FGF), which in turn have specific roles in breast growth and maturation.
At puberty, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted in a pulsatile manner from the hypothalamus. GnRH induces the secretion of the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), from the pituitary gland. The secreted gonadotropins travel through the bloodstream to the ovaries and trigger the secretion of estrogen and progesterone in fluctuating amounts during each menstrual cycle. Growth hormone (GH), which is secreted from the pituitary gland, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which is produced in the body in response to GH, are growth-mediating hormones. During prenatal development, infancy, and childhood, GH and IGF-1 levels are low, but progressively increase and reach a peak at puberty, with a 1.5- to 3-fold increase in pulsatile GH secretion and a 3-fold or greater increase in serum IGF-1 levels being capable of occurring at this time. In late adolescence and early adulthood, GH and IGF-1 levels significantly decrease, and continue to decrease throughout the rest of life. It has been found that both estrogen and GH are essential for breast development at puberty – in the absence of either, no development will take place. Moreover, most of the role of GH in breast development has been found to be mediated by its induction of IGF-1 production and secretion, as IGF-1 administration rescues breast development in the absence of GH. GH induction of IGF-1 production and secretion occurs in almost all types of tissue in the body, but especially in the liver, which is the source of approximately 80% of circulating IGF-1, as well as locally in the breasts. Although IGF-1 is responsible for most of the role of GH in mediating breast development, GH itself has been found to play a direct, augmenting role as well, as it increases estrogen receptor (ER) expression in breast stromal (connective) tissue, while IGF-1, in contrast, has been found to not do this. In addition to estrogen and GH/IGF-1 both being essential for pubertal breast development, they are synergistic in bringing it about.
Despite the apparent necessity of GH/IGF-1 signaling in pubertal breast development however, women with Laron syndrome, in whom the growth hormone receptor (GHR) is defective and insensitive to GH and serum IGF-1 levels are very low, puberty, including breast development, is delayed, although full sexual maturity is always eventually reached. Moreover, breast development and size are normal (albeit delayed) in spite of GH/IGF-1 axis insufficiency, and in some the breasts may actually be large in relation to body size. The relatively large breasts in women with Laron syndrome have been suggested to be due to increased secretion of prolactin (which is known to produce breast enlargement) caused by a drift phenomenon from somatomammotrophic cells in the pituitary gland with a high GH secretion. An animal model of Laron syndrome, the GHR knockout mouse, shows severely impaired ductal outgrowth at 11 weeks of age. However, by 15 weeks, ductal development has caught up with that of normal mice and the ducts have fully distributed throughout the mammary fat pad, although the ducts remain narrower than those of wild-type mice. In any case, female GHR knockout mice can lactate normally. As such, it has been said that the phenotypes of women with Laron syndrome and GHR knockout mice are identical, with diminished body size and delayed sexual maturation accompanied by normal lactation. These data indicate that very low circulating levels of IGF-1 can nonetheless allow for full pubertal breast development.
Development of the breasts during the prenatal stage of life is independent of biological sex and sex hormones. During embryonic development, the breast buds, in which networks of tubules are formed, are generated from the ectoderm. These rudimentary tubules will eventually become the matured lactiferous (milk) ducts, which connect the lobules (milk "containers") of the breast, grape-like clusters of alveoli, to the nipples. Until puberty, the tubule networks of the breast buds remain rudimentary and quiescent, and the male and female breast do not show any differences. During puberty in females, estrogen, in conjunction with GH/IGF-1, through activation of ERα specifically (and notably not ERβ or GPER), causes growth of and transformation of the tubules into the matured ductal system of the breasts. Under the influence of estrogen, the ducts sprout and elongate, and terminal end buds (TEBs), bulbous structures at the tips of the ducts, penetrate into the fat pad and branch as the ducts elongate. This continues until a tree-like network of branched ducts that is embedded into and fills the entire fat pad of the breast is formed. In addition to its role in mediating ductal development, estrogen causes stromal tissue to grow and adipose (fat) tissue to accumulate, as well as the nipple-areolar complex to increase in size.
Progesterone, in conjunction with GH/IGF-1 similarly to estrogen, affects the development of the breasts during puberty and thereafter as well. To a lesser extent than estrogen, progesterone contributes to ductal development at this time, as evidenced by the findings that progesterone receptor (PR) knockout mice or mice treated with the PR antagonist mifepristone show delayed (albeit eventually normal, due to estrogen acting on its own) ductal growth during puberty and by the fact that progesterone has been found to induce ductal growth on its own in the mouse mammary gland mainly via the induction of the expression of amphiregulin, the same growth factor that estrogen primarily induces to mediate its actions on ductal development. In addition, progesterone produces modest lobuloalveolar development (alveolar bud formation or ductal sidebranching) starting at puberty, specifically through activation of PRB (and notably not PRA), with growth and regression of the alveoli occurring to some degree with each menstrual cycle. However, only rudimentary alveoli develop in response to pre-pregnancy levels of progesterone and estrogen, and lobuloalveolar development will remain at this stage until pregnancy occurs, if it does. In addition to GH/IGF-1, estrogen is required for progesterone to affect the breasts, as estrogen primes the breasts by inducing the expression of the progesterone receptor (PR) in breast epithelial tissue. In contrast to the case of the PR, ER expression in the breast is stable and differs relatively little in the contexts of reproductive status, stage of the menstrual cycle, or exogenous hormonal therapy.
During pregnancy, pronounced breast growth and maturation occurs in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding. Estrogen and progesterone levels increase dramatically, reaching levels by late pregnancy that are several hundred-fold higher than usual menstrual cycle levels. Estrogen and progesterone cause the secretion of high levels of prolactin from the anterior pituitary, which reach levels as high as 20 times greater than normal menstrual cycle levels. IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels also increase dramatically during pregnancy, due to secretion of placental growth hormone (PGH). Further ductal development, by estrogen, again in conjunction with GH/IGF-1, occurs during pregnancy. In addition, the concert of estrogen, progesterone (again specifically through PRB), prolactin, and other lactogens such as human placental lactogen (hPL) and PGH, in conjunction with GH/IGF-1, as well as insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2), acting together, mediate the completion of lobuloalveolar development of the breasts during pregnancy. Both PR and prolactin receptor (PRLR) knockout mice fail to show lobuloalveolar development, and progesterone and prolactin have been found to be synergistic in mediating growth of alveoli, demonstrating the essential role of both of these hormones in this aspect of breast development. Growth hormone receptor (GHR) knockout mice also show greatly impaired lobuloalveolar development. In addition to their role in lobuloalveolar growth, prolactin and hPL act to increase the size of the nipple-areolar complex during pregnancy. By the end of the fourth month of pregnancy, at which time lobuloalveolar maturation is complete, the breasts are fully prepared for lactation and breastfeeding.
Insulin, glucocorticoids such as cortisol (and by extension adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)), and thyroid hormones such as thyroxine (and by extension thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)) also play permissive but less well-understood/poorly-characterized roles in breast development during both puberty and pregnancy, and are required for full functional development. Leptin has also been found to be an important factor in mammary gland development, and has been found to promote mammary epithelial cell proliferation.
In contrast to the female-associated sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, the male-associated sex hormones, the androgens, such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), powerfully suppress the action of estrogen in the breasts. At least one way that they do this is by reducing the expression of the estrogen receptor in breast tissue. In the absence of androgenic activity, such as in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), modest levels of estrogen (50 pg/mL) are capable of mediating significant breast development, with CAIS women showing breast volumes that are even above-average. The combination of much higher levels of androgens (about 10-fold higher) and much lower levels of estrogen (about 10-fold less), due to the ovaries in females producing high amounts of estrogens but low amounts of androgens and the testes in males producing high amounts of androgens but low amounts of estrogens, are why males generally do not grow prominent or well-developed breasts relative to females.
Calcitriol, the hormonally active form of vitamin D, acting through the vitamin D receptor (VDR), has, like the androgens, been reported to be a negative regulator of mammary gland development in mice, for instance, during puberty. VDR knockout mice show more extensive ductal development relative to wild-type mice, as well as precocious mammary gland development. In addition, VDR knockout has also been shown to result in increased responsiveness of mouse mammary gland tissue to estrogen and progesterone, which was represented by increased cell growth in response to these hormones. Conversely however, it has been found that VDR knockout mice show reduced ductal differentiation, represented by an increased number of undifferentiated TEBs, and this finding has been interpreted as indicating that vitamin D may be essential for lobuloalveolar development. As such, calcitriol, via the VDR, may be a negative regulator of ductal development but a positive regulator of lobuloalveolar development in the mammary gland.
A possible mechanism of the negative regulatory effects of the VDR on breast development may be indicated by a study of vitamin D3 supplementation in women which found that vitamin D3 suppresses cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in the breast, and by doing so, reduces and increases, respectively, the levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and transforming growth factor β2 (TGF-β2), a known inhibitory factor in breast development. Moreover, suppression of PGE2 in breast tissue is relevant because, via activation of prostaglandin EP receptors, PGE2 potently induces amphiregulin expression in breast tissue, and activation of the EGFR by amphiregulin increases COX-2 expression in breast tissue, in turn resulting in more PGE2, and thus, a self-perpetuating, synergistic cycle of growth amplification due to COX-2 appears to potentially be present in normal breast tissue. Accordingly, overexpression of COX-2 in mammary gland tissue produces mammary gland hyperplasia as well as precocious mammary gland development in female mice, mirroring the phenotype of VDR knockout mice, and demonstrating a strong stimulatory effect of COX-2, which is downregulated by VDR activation, on the growth of the mammary glands. Also in accordance, COX-2 activity in the breasts has been found to be positively associated with breast volume in women.
Growth factors
Estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, as well as GH/IGF-1, produce their effects on breast development by modulating the local expression in breast tissue of an assortment of autocrine and paracrine growth factors, including IGF-1, IGF-2, amphiregulin, EGF, FGF, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor β (TNF-β), transforming growth factor α (TGF-α), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), heregulin, Wnt, RANKL, and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). These factors regulate cellular growth, proliferation, and differentiation via activation of intracellular signaling cascades that control cell function, such as Erk, Akt, JNK, and Jak/Stat.
Based on research with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) knockout mice, the EGFR, which is the molecular target of EGF, TGF-α, amphiregulin, and heregulin, has, similarly to the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), been found to be essential for mammary gland development. Estrogen and progesterone mediate ductal development mainly through induction of amphiregulin expression, and thus downstream EGFR activation. Accordingly, ERα, amphiregulin, and EGFR knockout mice copy each other phenotypically in regards to their effects on ductal development. Also in accordance, treatment of mice with amphiregulin or other EGFR ligands like TGF-α or heregulin induces ductal and lobuloalveolar development in the mouse mammary gland, actions that occur even in the absence of estrogen and progesterone. As both the IGF-1R and the EGFR are independently essential for mammary gland development, and as combined application of IGF-1 and EGF, through their respective receptors, has been found to synergistically stimulate the growth of human breast epithelial cells, these growth factor systems appear to work together in mediating breast development.
Elevated levels of HGF and, to a lesser extent, IGF-1 (by 5.4-fold and 1.8-fold, respectively), in breast stromal tissue, have been found in macromastia, a very rare condition of extremely and excessively large breast size. Exposure of macromastic breast stromal tissue to non-macromastic breast epithelial tissue was found to cause increased alveolar morphogenesis and epithelial proliferation in the latter. A neutralizing antibody for HGF, but not for IGF-1 or EGF, was found to attenuate the proliferation of breast epithelial tissue caused by exposure to macromastic breast stromal cells, potentially directly implicating HGF in the breast growth and enlargement seen in macromastia. Also, a genome-wide association study has highly implicated HGF and its receptor, c-Met, in breast cancer aggressiveness.
Lactation
Upon parturition (childbirth), estrogen and progesterone rapidly drop to very low levels, with progesterone levels being undetectable. Conversely, prolactin levels remain elevated. As estrogen and progesterone block prolactin-induced lactogenesis by suppressing prolactin receptor (PRLR) expression in breast tissue, their sudden absence results in the commencement of milk production and lactation by prolactin. Expression of the PRLR in breast tissue may increase by as much as 20-fold when estrogen and progesterone levels drop upon childbirth. With suckling from the infant, prolactin and oxytocin are secreted and mediate milk production and letdown, respectively. Prolactin suppresses the secretion of LH and FSH, which in turn results in continued low levels of estrogen and progesterone, and temporary amenorrhea (absence of menstrual cycles) occurs. In the absence of regular, episodic suckling, which keeps prolactin concentrations high, levels of prolactin will quickly drop, the menstrual cycle will resume and hence normal estrogen and progesterone levels will return, and lactation will cease (that is, until next parturition, or until induced lactation (i.e., with a galactogogue), occurs).
Breast size and cancer risk
Some factors of breast morphology, including their density, are clearly implicated in breast cancer. While breast size is moderately heritable, the relationship between breast size and cancer is uncertain. The genetic variants influencing breast size have not been identified.
Through genome-wide association studies, a variety of genetic polymorphisms have been linked to breast size. Some of these include rs7816345 near ZNF703 (zinc finger protein 703); rs4849887 and rs17625845 flanking INHBB (inhibin βB); rs12173570 near ESR1 (ERα); rs7089814 in ZNF365 (zinc finger protein 365); rs12371778 near PTHLH (parathyroid hormone-like hormone); rs62314947 near AREG (amphiregulin); as well as rs10086016 at 8p11.23 (which is in complete linkage disequilibrium with rs7816345) and rs5995871 at 22q13 (contains the MKL1 gene, which has been found to modulate the transcriptional activity of ERα). Many of these polymorphisms are also associated with the risk of developing breast cancer, revealing a potential positive association between breast size and breast cancer risk. However, conversely, some polymorphisms show a negative association between breast size and breast cancer risk. In any case, a meta-analysis concluded that breast size and risk of breast cancer are indeed importantly related.
Circulating IGF-1 levels are positively associated with breast volume in women. In addition, the absence of the common 19-repeat allele in the IGF1 gene is also positively associated with breast volume in women, as well as with high IGF-1 levels during oral contraceptive use and with lessening of the normal age-associated decline in circulating IGF-1 concentrations in women. There is great variation in the prevalence of the IGF1 19-repeat allele between ethnic groups, and its absence has been reported to be highest among African-American women.
Genetic variations in the androgen receptor (AR) have been linked to both breast volume (as well as body mass index) and breast cancer aggressiveness.
COX-2 expression has been positively associated with breast volume and inflammation in breast tissue, as well as with breast cancer risk and prognosis.
Rare mutations
Women with CAIS, who are completely insensitive to the AR-mediated actions of androgens, have, as a group, above-average sized breasts. This is true despite the fact that they simultaneously have relatively low levels of estrogen, which demonstrates the powerful suppressant effect of androgens on estrogen-mediated breast development.
Aromatase excess syndrome, an extremely rare condition characterized by marked hyperestrogenism, is associated with precocious breast development and macromastia in females and similarly precocious gynecomastia (women's breasts) in males. In complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, a condition in which the AR is defective and insensitive to androgens, there is full breast development with breast volumes that are in fact above average in spite of relatively low levels of estrogen (50 pg/mL estradiol). In aromatase deficiency, a form of hypoestrogenism in which aromatase is defective and cannot synthesize estrogen, and in complete estrogen insensitivity syndrome, a condition in which ERα is defective and insensitive to estrogen, breast development is completely absent.
See also
Breast augmentation
Breast enlargement
Mammoplasia
Premenstrual water retention
Thelarche
References
Further reading
Breast
Endocrinology
Human development
Puberty |
32823475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thure%20Riefenstein | Thure Riefenstein | Thure Riefenstein is an international actor, director, writer and producer.
Riefenstein was born in Germany with an Austrian-Serbian background. He speaks German, English, French and Spanish.
His awards include: 2010 Bambi audience award nomination for Boeseckendorf - the night a village vanished, 2009 International Emmys Award nomination for Boeseckendorf - the night a village vanished, 2007
Adolph Grimme award nomination for Best Film for "Kommissarin Lukas". 2005 International Emmy Award Nomination for best Mini-Series "Julie, chevalier du Maupin". As a director: 2003 German board of filmclassification rating of "highly precious movie" for "God is no Soprano". 1995 the German board of filmclassification rating of "highly precious movie" for Lonely Nights.
He is licensed for motorboat, sailing, motorcycle, scuba diving.
Biography / film / theatre
Thure Riefenstein graduated 1989 as an actor in Germany, worked for five years on stage in repertory and Berlin Broadway theaters (see below) and continued studying acting and film in New York and Los Angeles. He since has been working internationally for cinema, television and theater in the United States, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Austria, Russia, Czech Republic, Sweden, Serbia, Morocco and Turkey.
Important features in leading parts are the US-Canadian feature Sophie (director: Leif Bristow) with John Rhys-Davies and Deborah Kara Unger. In the Golden Czech Lion Award winning WW2 drama Dark Blue World, he played for director and Academy Award Winner Jan Sverák and in the action thriller Hostile Takeover he worked with director Carl Schenkel. In the US-German feature Baltic Storm (Dir.: Reuben Leder) he took a leading part aside Greta Scacchi, Jürgen Prochnow, and Donald Sutherland. In 2012 he worked with Academy Award Winner Steven Soderbergh in Behind the Candelabra and played with Michael Douglas, Matt Damon and Dan Aykroyd. In 2017-2018 he played August on the feature Willie and Me directed by Eva Hassmann, starring country song icon Willie Nelson and in 2018 he finished shooting the part of the Captain in the epic WW2 movie Torpedo, aka U-235 (release: Oct. 23rd 2019), directed by Sven Huybrechts.
Mr. Riefensteins acclaimed TV-work includes the French period movie Julie, chevalier de Maupin (Dir.: Charlotte Brändström), where he starred with Marisa Berenson, Pierre Arditi and Gottfried John and which achieved an 'International Emmy Award' nomination for best foreign film. The TV production series Kommissarin Lucas (Detective Lukas) with Thure Riefenstein as the male leading detective, achieved the highly acclaimed German Adolf Grimme Award nomination for Best Film. In the Film he was nominated in the category Best Lead Male Actor (Bambi Audience Award 2009 & Quotenmeter Award 2010) and was also semi finalist for the International Emmy Award 2010 in the same category as Best Lead Male Actor. He guest starred in the US-Series Leverage (TNT) with Academy Award Winner Timothy Hutton and also in The Brink (HBO) where he played with Academy Award Winner Tim Robbins. In the Sci-Fi series 12 Monkeys he guest starred as SS-Sturmbannführer Waesch in the episode Die Glocke with Barbara Sukowa and Amanda Shull.
Mr. Riefenstein also starred in the European action drama mini-series Crusaders (Dir.: Dominique Othenin-Girard) with Armin Mueller-Stahl and Franco Nero, the successful feature comedy 666: In Bed with the Devil (Dir.: Rainer Matsutani), the Canadian film Criminal Instinct (Dir.: Brad Turner) with Victor Garber or in the science fiction feature Ainoa (Dir.: Marko Kalantari).
Riefenstein is a trained theater actor and has performed theater-plays such as Shakespeare's Pericles, Brecht's Life of Galileo, Walter Jens's The Downfall, Ariane Mnouchkine's Mephisto and also in musicals such as Linie 1 or the revue The Blue Angel where he played with Ute Lemper at the Berlin Broadway theater Theater des Westens and the Hamburger Schauspielhaus. The legendary show was directed by European theater icons Peter Zadek and Jérôme Savary. Riefenstein also worked with Bertolt Brechts former assistant Peter Palitzsch on Pericles at the Berliner Ensemble and with Vlad Mugur on Carlo Goldoni's The Liar. His latest theatre work was in Captains Greedys Carnival (2018), a production of Tim Robbins Actors Gang.
He lived in London to practice in fringe theatre and in New York to work with Kristin Linklater. His American debut was in the New Yorker production of Jean Genet's The Maids for the Berkshire Theatre Festival. In Los Angeles he studied acting at the ACI based on Lee Strasberg's and Sandford Meisner’s working techniques and worked with several coaches such as Doug Warhit, Sam Christensen, Bruce Davison or Michelle Danner. He trained in the Actors Gang, Culver City with Cynthia Ettinger and Tim Robbins were he worked as an associate member for a year.
Riefenstein is also a director, producer and writer for the movie industry.
His Voice Over work as Actor includes Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War and the Wolfenstein sequel
s The New Collossus and the new Order
He is married to author Patricia Lueger (maiden name) and has a son named Paris Aaron Lazar Riefenstein (b. 2003).
Filmography (excerpts)
1998: Oskar und Leni (Nomination for Adolf Grimme Award, Nomination for Max Ophüls Award), (theatrical)
1998: Best of the Best 4: Without Warning (theatrical)
1998: Doppeltes Spiel mit Anne (movie for TV)
1998: Romantic Fighter (movie for TV)
1998: Pensacola: Wings of Gold (movie for TV), USA, Dir.: James Brolin, Cast: James Brolin, Sandra Hess, Kenny Johnson, a.o.
1998: Scent of Seduction (movie for TV)
1999: Der letzte Zeuge: Die Erpressung (movie for TV)
1999: Kein Weg zurück (movie for TV)
2000: (DE, IT), (movie for TV)
2000: Anna H. – Geliebte, Ehefrau und Hure (movie for TV)
2000: Hostile Takeover (theatrical)
2000: (movie for TV)
2001: The Crusaders (DE, IT), (Mini Series) Dir.: Dominique Othenin Girard, Cast: Allesandro Gassman, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Franco Nero, Uwe Ochsenknecht, a.o.
2001: Dark Blue World (CZ, GB) (Czech Golden Lion, European Film Award, u. a.), (theatrical) Dir.: Jan Sverak, Cast: Ondrej Vechtry, Kristoff Hadek, Tara Fitzgerald, Charles Dance, a.o.
2001: The Wandering Soul Murders (CAN), (Golden Reel Award, USA), (movie for TV) Dir: Brad Turner, Cast: Wendy Crewson, Victor Garber, a.o.
2002: (movie for TV)
2003: Baltic Storm (DE), (theatrical) Cast: Greta Scacchi, Jürgen Prochnow, Donald Sutherland, a.o.
2003: Ainoa (A), (theatrical)
2003: Heiraten macht mich nervös (Marrying makes me nervous), (movie for TV)
2003: Kommissarin Lucas: Die blaue Blume (movie for TV, special)
2003: Im Namen des Herrn (movie for TV)
2003: Polizeiruf 110: Tiefe Wunden (Adolf Grimme Award), (movie for TV)
2004: Kommissarin Lucas: Vertrauen bis zuletzt (movie for TV, special)
2004: Kommissarin Lucas: Vergangene Sünden (movie for TV, special)
2004: Rose unter Dornen (movie for TV)
2004: Julie, Chevalier de Maupin (France) (nomination for "international Emmy Award"), (Mini Series) Dir.: Charlotte Brandström, Cast: Sarah Biasini, Pierre Arditi, Jürgen Prochnow, Marissa Berenson, Gottfried John, a.o.
2006: Kommissarin Lucas: Das Verhör (Grimmepreis nomination), (movie for TV, special)
2006: Kommissarin Lucas: Skizze einer Toten (movie for TV, special)
2006: Wachgeküsst (movie for TV)
2007: Alarm für Cobra 11: Todfeinde (movie for TV)
2007: Kommissarin Lucas: German Angst (movie for TV)
2007: Kommissarin Lucas: Das Totenschiff (movie for TV, special)
2008: Kommissarin Lucas: Wut im Bauch (movie for TV, special)
2008: Der Amokläufer (movie for TV)
2008: Jack Hunter and the Lost Treasure of Ugarit (mini series), Sci-fi Channel (US release) Dir.: Terry Cunningham, Cast: Ivan Sergei, Joanne Kelly, a.o.
2008: Jack Hunter and the Star of Heaven (mini series), Sci-fi Channel (US release)
2008: Jack Hunter and the Quest for Akhenaten's Tomb (mini series), Sci-fi Channel (US release) Cast: Ivan Sergei, Joanne Kelly, a.o.)
2009: A Date for Life (movie for TV)
2009: , TV-Event Film, nomination for "Bambi audience award 2009", Quotenmeter Award: "Best lead actor"
2009: High Society Murder – Das eitle Gesicht des Todes (movie for TV)
2009: (movie for TV)
2010: The Whore (Event-movie for TV)
2011: Inga Lindström: Das dunkle Haus (movie for TV)
2011: Machtergreifung (Hitler – The Takeover) (Movie for TV)
2011: Sophie, USA, Canada, (theatrical), Dir.: Leif Bristow, Cast: Brittany Bristow, John Rhys Davies, Augustus Prew, Donna Kara Unger a.o.
2012: Running with the Wind (movie for TV)
2012: Leverage: The Blue Line Job (TNT, USA) Dir.: Mark Roskin, Cast: Timothy Hutton, Gina Bellman, Christian Kane, Beth Riesgraf, Aldis Hoge, a.o.
2013: Behind the Candelabra (USA) Dir.: Steven Soderbergh, Cast: Michael Douglas, Matt Damon, Dan Aykroyd a.o.
2013: Schwestern, Dir.: Olaf Krainsen, Cast: Sophie Schütt, Alwara Höfels, a.o,
2014: My Whole Half Life (mini series for TV)
2014: The Old Gun (mini series for TV, Russia)
2014: Der Geruch von Erde (feature for TV)
2014: The Old Fox: Der Tod in dir (feature for TV)
2014: Kreuzfahrt ins Glück: Hochzeitsreise nach Dubai
2015: SOKO 5113: Der Rattenfänger (TV-Series)
2015: The Cello Player (Short-Feature, USA)
2015: The Brink: Sticky Wicket (Series, USA), Dir.: Michael Lehmann, Cast: Tim Robbins, Jack Black, a.o.
2016: Inga Lindström: Familienbande (TV-Movie), Dir.: John Delbridge
2016: Der Staatsanwalt: Der Schein trügt (TV-Movie, Ge), Dir.: Martin Kinkel
2016: SOKO Donau: Der Preis der Macht (Series, Ge), Dir.: Erhard Riedlsberger
2016: The Man in the High Castle: Fallout (Series, USA), Dir.: Daniel Percival
2017: X Company: Friendly Fire (Series, Canada), Dir.: Stephanie Morgenstern
2017: Kept Boy (Feature, US), Dir.: George Bamber
2017: Die Chefin: Glaube, Liebe, Hoffnung (Series, Ge), Dir.: Florian Kern
2017: Letzte Spur Berlin: Ehrenamt (Series, Ge), Dir.: Peter Ladkani
2017: Die Spezialisten: Diamantenfieber (Series, Ge), Dir.: Kerstin Ahlrichs
2018: Cologne P.D.: Fatale Begierde (Series, Ge), Dir.: Joerg Mielich
2018: 12 Monkeys: Die Glocke (Series, USA), Dir.: David Grossman, Terry Matalas
2019: Die Spezialisten: Gespenster (Series, Ge), Dir.: Steffi Doehlemann
2018/2019: Willie and Me (Feature, USA), Dir.: Eva Hassman
2019: Eneme (Feature, Ge, RUS), Dir.: Jakob Gisik
2019: Torpedo aka U-235 (Feature, Be), Dir.: Sven Huybrechts
2021: V2. Escape from Hell: Kommandant Berghoff
2023: ''MAYA (Feature, USA) Dir.: Julia Verdin
Director/Writer/Producer (excerpts)
1994: Lonely Nights (comedy, English) (German Board of film Classification: "Highly Precious Movie")
2003: God is no Soprano (comedy, English) (Filmfestival Audience Award; German Film Classification: "Highly Precious Movie")
2007: Hagen (writer, producer)
2015: Leon (writer, producer)
2017: Book of Skulls adaption (writer)
2023: Taffkuki (comedy, English/German), (writer, producer, director)
References
Sources
https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/12-monkeys/cast/682067/
https://www.argunners.com/trailer-torpedo-u235-2019/
External links
Thure Riefenstein website
Talent Agency
Crew-united.com
1965 births
Living people
People from Langenau
German male film actors
German male stage actors
German male television actors
German people of Austrian descent
German people of Serbian descent
20th-century German male actors
21st-century German male actors |
3511195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20Juliette%20%282001%29 | Hurricane Juliette (2001) | Hurricane Juliette was a long-lived Category 4 hurricane in the 2001 Pacific hurricane season. It caused 12 deaths and $400 million (2001 USD; $ USD) in damage when it hit Baja California in late September. Juliette developed from a tropical wave that had previously produced a tropical depression. The wave moved from the Atlantic to the Eastern Pacific, where it started to intensify. Soon, it became a tropical storm and was named Juliette. It then became a hurricane two days later, after struggling to do so. Rapidly intensifying due to favourable conditions, Juliette reached Category 4 status. However, an eyewall replacement cycle caused Juliette to significantly weaken down to a Category 2 hurricane. It eventually completed the cycle, and Juliette was able to reintensify to its peak intensity of 145 mph and 923 milibars. Another eyewall replacement cycle ensued however, resulting in Juliette having 3 eyewalls at once, which is an extremely rare occurrence. Eventually, Juliette weakened to a tropical storm, but Juliette's circulation was still well-defined. Warm waters allowed it to re-intensify to a hurricane, but this was short-lived as Juliette meandered near Baja California and its center became difficult to locate. It made landfall on Baja California as a tropical storm. Its circulation reached the Gulf of California, where it restrengthened slightly. Juliette made landfall on Baja California and dissipated on October 3.
Meteorological history
The tropical wave that later produced Juliette first produced Tropical Depression Nine in the Atlantic Ocean. Forming in the Caribbean Sea, the depression dissipated over Central America on September 20, a day after formation. By early on September 21, the remnants of Nine had re-organized in Pacific, and was then upgraded into a tropical depression. Six hours later, the depression was upgraded into a tropical storm. However, the storm was not named Juliette until later that day, when the storm was operationally believed to have formed (which came after reports from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft).
In an environment of light wind shear, meteorologists predicted the new system to reach hurricane intensity within two days. Within off the coast of Guatemala, the system moved generally west-northwest over the next five days, paralleling the Mexican Riviera. While a major decrease in thunderstorm activity initially inhibited intensification it became better organized on September 22. By the afternoon of September 23, Juliette had become a hurricane, with maximum sustained winds reaching 75 mph (120 km/h).
Upon becoming a hurricane, infrared imagery suggested that the hurricane had developed a pinhole eye. Forecasters were also expecting Juliette to reach major hurricane status, Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Steadily moving west, the storm underwent rapid deepening. By 1800 UTC September 23, Juliette had reached Category 2 status, with winds of 100 mph (145 km/h). Shortly thereafter, the hurricane intensified directly into a Category 4 storm, bypassing the Category 3 stage, an unusual occurrence for a tropical cyclone. In all, Juliette had intensified 60 mph (130 km/h) in 18 hours.
After reaching its initial peak as a low-end Category 4 hurricane, microwave and Hurricane Hunter data indicated that Juliette underwent an eyewall replacement cycle. Subsequently, Juliette weakened into a Category 3 hurricane on September 24 and then into a high-end Category 2 system with 110 mph (160 km/h) winds; however, by September 25, Juliette had completed the cycle and quickly regained major hurricane status. The hurricane developed very cold cloud top temperatures. along with a classic structure of an intense hurricane and a very well-defined eye. A large hurricane, Juliette reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (230 km/h) and on the same day. Around that time, Reconnaissance Aircraft reported a minimum central pressure of 923 mbar.
Shortly after its peak, a strong trough of low pressure brought Hurricane Juliette northward where the cyclone moved over cooler water temperatures. While Juliette initially maintained well-defined banding features and an impressive upper-level outflow, another eyewall replacement cycle took its toll on the storm; this time three centric eyewalls formed compared to the normal two, a very rare occurrence. Moving much farther east than anticipated, an eye was no longer visible on satellite imagery by September 27.
Juliette slowed its forward motion as it continued north-northwestward and weakened to a tropical storm on September 28. Even though thunderstorm activity decreased markedly, Tropical Storm Juliette maintained a well-defined atmospheric circulation and a large area of gale-force winds. A small area of warm waters near the Baja California Peninsula allowed the storm to re-strengthen into a hurricane early on September 29 as convection increased. At this time, computer models suggested two distinct possibilities of the storm's path. Some suggested Hurricane Juliette might move inland while others expected the hurricane to parallel the peninsula.
Meandering offshore, the center soon became difficult to locate. The low-level circulation became exposed from the deep convection as increased vertical shear again took its toll on Juliette, and the storm hit Baja California near Cabo San Lucas as a minimal tropical storm at 0000 UTC September 30. Although scientists noted the possibility of slight re-intensification over the Gulf of California, Juliette's low level circulation remained as it crossed the peninsula, and it restrengthened in the northern Gulf of California as the circulation became better defined. Lacking deep convection, it drifted westward, where, after making a landfall in northeastern Baja California, it finally dissipated early on October 3.
Preparations
Not long after Juliette was designated as a tropical storm on September 21, the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for areas between Salina Cruz and Acapulco and a tropical storm watch for areas west of Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán. Later that day, the warning was updated to include areas through Zihuatanejo and a watch through Manzanillo, Colima. Once Juliette turned westward and no longer posed a threat to the country, all watches and warnings were discontinued by the afternoon of September 22. However, due to the system's slow, erratic track on September 23, a hurricane watch and tropical storm warning was issued for areas between Lázaro Cárdenas and Cabo Corrientes. These advisories remained in place through the afternoon of September 25, by which time Juliette had picked up forward momentum and tracked northwestward. By September 26, the hurricane threatened land once more, prompting watches and warnings for the Baja California Peninsula. Initially, only a tropical storm watch was issued for the southern tip of Baja California Sur but, as the storm neared the peninsula, more extensive advisories were declared. By the morning of September 27, a hurricane warning covered much of both coasts of Baja California Sur as the storm was forecast to track directly through the state. The following day, a tropical storm warning was issued for areas between Mazatlán and Yavaros in Sonora but, this was discontinued later that day. As the storm stalled offshore and weakened, all hurricane warnings were replaced with tropical storm warnings which were later canceled once Juliette weakened to a tropical depression. Forecasters also noted the possibility of moisture spreading into the Southwestern portion of the United States.
Impact
Southern Mexico
Along coastal areas around Acapulco, the storm brought heavy rainfall and strong winds. Offshore, one fisherman was killed by the storm after he set sail directly into it. In Guerrero, heavy rains triggered flash floods that washed out two bridges and destroyed 20 homes. As rains continued to fall over the following days, mountainsides gave way, producing landslides which killed seven people. Strong winds also uprooted trees and downed power lines in several states. Additionally, two fishermen were listed as missing after venturing out into swells produced by Juliette. Throughout Michoacán, an estimated 1,000 people were left homeless by the hurricane.
Baja California Peninsula
As Hurricane Juliette stalled just off the coast of Baja California Sur, it produced prolonged heavy rainfall in the region. A large swath of the state, along the eastern coast, received more than of rain and areas along the southern tip reported more than . A maximum of fell in Caudaño, the highest known total ever recorded from a tropical cyclone in the state.
The extreme rainfall led to widespread flooding and mudslides across the state. Along the southern tip of the peninsula, roughly 3,000 people were stranded after their town was isolated by flood waters. About 800 more people had to be evacuated due to the state of their homes. Damage from the floods were widespread in the area, with more than 9,000 people reported damage to their property from the storm. At least two people were killed across the peninsula in storm-related incidents. Damage from Hurricane Juliette was estimated at $400 million (2001 USD; $ USD).
Southwestern United States
Late in Juliette's life and in its aftermath, the remnants brought strong thunderstorm activity to the American Southwest, knocking down trees and power lines in southern California. Rainfall in the United States peaked at 0.9 inches in Patagonia, Arizona.
Aftermath and records
Following the significant damage across southern states, Mexican authorities and the army deployed transport and rescue aircraft along with medical teams and emergency supplies. As reports of damage began to come out of Baja California Sur, the state governor declared the entire area a disaster zone.
At its peak, Juliette attained a minimum pressure of 923 mbar (hPa; 27.26 inHg), ranking it as the fifth-strongest Pacific hurricane on record, along with Olivia in 1994. However, in subsequent years, five other storms have surpassed it and the storm now ranks as the tenth-strongest in the basin. At the time, it held the record for having the lowest barometric pressure of any Category 4 hurricane in the region, a record shared with Olivia; it has since been surpassed by Odile in 2014 with a minimum pressure of 918 mbar (hPa; 27.23 inHg) .
See also
Other storms named Juliette
List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes
List of Baja California Peninsula hurricanes
References
External links
NHC Report
Juliette Best Track
Juliette effects in Cabo San Lucas
HPC rainfall report for Juliette
Boating Effects
Early Effects
Michoacán Effects
After Effects
Juliette
2001 in Mexico
Juliette (2001)
Juliette (2001)
Juliette (2001)
Juliette (2001)
2001 natural disasters in the United States
Juliette
Juliette (2001)
Juliette (2001)
September 2001 events in Oceania
October 2001 events in Oceania
Juliette |
44631498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Brisbane%20State%20School | East Brisbane State School | East Brisbane State School (EBSS) is a heritage-listed state school at 90 Wellington Road, East Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The school has two other street frontages: Vulture Street and Stanley Street. It was designed by Department of Public Works and built from 1899 to 1939. It is also known as Brisbane East State School. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 November 1994.
The school will be relocated by the start of the 2026 school year to a new site on the grounds of Coorparoo Secondary College (CSC). In 2023, the school had 297 students enrolled.
History
East Brisbane State School, (officially Brisbane East State School until September 1994), was one of the first large brick state schools in Brisbane. The original portion of the school was erected in 1899, with extensions added in 1900, 1938 and 1939. The single-storeyed timber Infants' School was erected in 1910–11.
These buildings did not replace an earlier school on the site, but were erected to cater for a rapidly escalating East Brisbane/Woolloongabba population. East Brisbane's first suburban boom was in the mid-1880s, when the larger estates, such as Mowbraytown (1884), were subdivided, but at that time no provision was made for a state school, and East Brisbane children attended state schools at South Brisbane, Kangaroo Point and Dutton Park. The Brisbane's electric tramway reached Woolloongabba/East Brisbane in 1897, and in 1901 an extension through East Brisbane to Norman Park was constructed. The provision of this cheap, efficient form of public transport encouraged working-class families to the East Brisbane area on an unprecedented scale.
The Department of Public Instruction, when recognising in 1897 the need for the establishment of a primary school in East Brisbane, underestimated the rate of population growth in the area and potential school enrolment. When the first school contract was let in 1899, it was for a brick building to cost and to accommodate 350 pupils; the school opened on 10 July 1899 with approximately 800 students, and by the end of the year, 1008 children were enrolled. By mid-1901, the school had been extended with the addition of two classrooms and a central entrance with bell turret, at a cost of . The school could then accommodate officially 730 pupils in four large and three small classrooms.
East Brisbane State School was the first of several large brick schools constructed in Queensland around the turn of the century, in response to the population explosion which accompanied the post-Depression recovery. Norman Park State School was opened on 9 July 1900, and New Farm State School was completed in time for the start of the 1901 school year. They were designed for the Department of Public Instruction by the Government Architect's Office in the Department of Public Works, and reflected a new era of Queensland prosperity.
Alfred Barton Brady was employed with the Queensland Government as Government Architect from 1892 to 1922. Brady claimed that he always advised on arrangement, style and materials, but it appears that his Senior Assistant, Thomas Pye supervised much of the detailed design. During the 30 years they worked together in the department, Brady and Pye assembled a talented group of architects and draftsmen who were considered the equal of any in Australia, including from 1893 to 1903 John Smith Murdoch, who was to become Commonwealth Director-General of Works in 1927. From the office of the Government Architect there developed a tradition of fine government buildings, including many post offices, customs houses and court houses throughout the State. The Department of Public Instruction had handled school design and construction between 1879 and 1893, following which responsibility was returned to the Government Architect's office. Two of the most significant early 20th century schools designed by the Government Architect's office are Wooloowin State School (1914) and Windsor State School (1915-16), both of which were considered model schools when erected.
Enrolments at East Brisbane State School continued to rise during the first decade of the 20th century. A large playshed was erected during the 1907-08 financial year, and in 1910-11 a separate, single-storeyed timber Infants' School was constructed at a cost of approximately . This building measured , and comprised two classrooms with dual desks and "kindergarten equipment", the latter being considered modern and progressive at the time.
In 1910, the Australasian United Steam Navigation Company gave to the school the bell of the SS Melbourne. This still hangs in the bell turret.
From the 1910s to the 1930s, East Brisbane grew gradually as a residential suburb. By the late 1930s, the need for increased accommodation at Brisbane East State School became acute. During the 1937-38 financial year, the Department of Public Works undertook additions costing . This comprised the extension of the northern and southern wings of the building and the remodelling of the existing portions of these wings. In the following year, a further worth of additions was authorised; this consisted of an extra storey erected over the central block, and alterations to the lower level of this block. The extensions were completed in 1939.
The changing character of Brisbane's inner suburbs away from family homes has resulted in falling enrolments. In 2013 there were 197 children enrolled with 19 teachers (12 full-time equivalent). Many of the children have English as a second language. The trend in decreasing enrolments ended by 2017 with students enrolments continually rising from 209 in 2017 to 297 in 2023. The school is forecast to exceed its maximum allowable capacity of 309 in 2024 with expected enrolments reaching 314. Of the 297 enrolments in 2023 15.2% were from out of catchment, this is in spite of an enrolment management plan which restricts out of catchment students to ensure capacity is not reached. Teacher numbers have also increased to 27 (21 full-time equivalent) in line with increased enrollments.
In 2023, it was announced that the school will be relocated for the 2026 school year. The $100 million relocation will build a standalone school on the site of Coorpooro Secondary College, where barriers will be erected to separate students and buildings from each other. To facilitate this separation existing builds will be demolished to enable the standalone school to be constructed. This option was chosen over an integrated p-12 college because EBSS's stakeholders desired an entirely separate school on the site. The school will be relocated prior with the rebuild of The Gabba for the 2032 Summer Olympics, which acted as a catalyst for its relocation from its existing unsuitable site. The new site was deemed more suitable for a school as it could cater for the growing school body with an increased capacity of 350 students. Furthermore, the new location will provide more green space while being a safer location for students as it isn't bordered by 3 main roads. Facilities at new location will include an indoor sports hall (Shared with the co-located CSC), and a new swimming pool. To facilitate the move some existing buildings at CSC will be demolished and the Brisbane School of Distance Education's facilities could be relocated from the "underutilised site". According to community consultation, this was unpopular with employees and students at both of these schools
The existing heritage listed buildings are slated to be integrated into the rebuild of the Gabba.
Description
The East Brisbane State School is a brick building with a two-storeyed central section and two projecting single-storeyed wings flanking an entrance court. The roof is of corrugated iron. The entrance to the building is marked by a tower with a bell turret and the name of the school in decorative lettering, over a flight of stairs to an arched porch. Originally the central block was single-storeyed and in 1939 the upper floor was added. The projecting single-storeyed wings have also been extended. Some of the verandahs have been enclosed.
The walls are of polychrome brickwork. Internally the walls are rendered to a height of above the floor, beyond that height the brickwork being kalsomined. In the 1899 section, the roof members are of light wrought iron, with ceilings of diagonal pine boarding.
The under part of the school is open for play grounds and is asphalted. The rooms are well lighted from high gable windows; outlet ventilation from panels in the ceilings is conducted through iron tubing and Boyle's ventilators.
Heritage listing
East Brisbane State School was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 November 1994 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
East Brisbane State School survives as evidence of the rapid growth of East Brisbane and Woolloongabba which accompanied the expansion of public transport in Brisbane around the turn of the 19th century. Both the population boom and the substantial brick buildings at East Brisbane State School are illustrative of the late 1890s/early 1900s economic high on which Queensland entered the 20th century.
East Brisbane State School is significant as one of the first large State Schools in Brisbane.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
The use of brick and restrained detailing is typical for government buildings of the period. The building displays characteristics of the style through its simple massing, contrasting materials and central tower.
The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.
East Brisbane State School is significant as an outstanding example of a school building designed by the office of the Queensland Government Architect, which at the time was the equal of any architectural office in Australia.
References
Attribution
External links
East Brisbane State School Discover Queensland Buildings website
Queensland Heritage Register
East Brisbane, Queensland
Public schools in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register |
5894168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery%20at%20common%20law | Slavery at common law | Slavery at common law in the British Empire developed slowly over centuries, and was characterised by inconsistent decisions and varying rationales for the treatment of slavery, the slave trade, and the rights of slaves and slave owners. Unlike in its colonies, within the home islands of Britain, until 1807, except for statutes facilitating and taxing the international slave trade, there was virtually no legislative intervention in relation to slaves as property, and accordingly the common law had something of a "free hand" to develop, untrammelled by the "paralysing hand of the Parliamentary draftsmen". Two attempts to pass a slave code via Parliament itself both failed, one in the 1660s and the other in 1674.
Some scholars assert slavery was not recognised as lawful, often on the basis of pronouncements such as those attributed to Lord Mansfield, that "the air of England is too pure for any slave to breathe". However the true legal position has been both complex and contested. In the 17th and 18th centuries, some African slaves were openly held, bought, sold, and searched for when escaping within Britain.
Early common law
There was an Irish decree in 1171 "that all the English slaves in the whole of Ireland, be immediately emancipated and restored to their former liberty". The same source indicates that slavery in England was abolished by a general charter of emancipation in 1381. Other historical sources for such an emancipation proclamation appear thin, although the date would coincide with the Peasants' Revolt, after which a number of concessions were made by the 14-year-old King Richard II, which were later rescinded. Certainly villeinage continued in England, slowly decaying, until the last villein died in the early 17th century.
In later common law cases, none of the foregoing decrees or proclamations were cited or referred to as binding law in relation to the status of slaves generally.
Cartwright's case
In 1569, a man, Cartwright, was observed savagely beating another, which in law would have amounted to a battery, unless a defence could be mounted. Cartwright averred that the man was a slave whom he had brought to England from Russia, and thus such chastisement was not unlawful. The case is reported by John Rushworth in his 1680 summary of John Lilburne's case of 1649. He wrote: "Whipping was painful and shameful, Flagellation for Slaves. In the Eleventh of Elizabeth [i.e., 1569], one Cartwright brought a Slave from Russia, and would scourge him, for which he was questioned; and it was resolved, That England was too pure an Air for Slaves to breath in. And indeed it was often resolved, even in Star-Chamber, That no Gentleman was to be whipt for any offence whatsoever; and his whipping was too severe." It is reported that the court held that the man must be freed, and it is often said that the court held "that England was too pure an air for a slave to breathe in."
It is unclear if the effect of the case was to actually make slavery in England illegal, but rather generally to impose limits on the physical punishment on slaves [citation needed]. In none of subsequent common law cases prior to Somersett's case was Cartwright's case cited as authority for the proposition that slavery was unlawful [citations needed]. However, those disputes predominantly concerned disputes between slave merchants (the notable exception being Shanley v Harvey, as to which see below), for whom it would have been commercially unwise to plead that slavery was unlawful [citations needed].
It is inferred that, because he was from Russia, Cartwright's slave was white, and probably a Christian, although this is not recorded.
African slave trade and the common law
However, the initial opposition of the courts of England to the status of slavery began to change with the rising importance of the African slave trade. An extensive traffic in black slaves from Africa began in the 17th century, primarily to supply labour for the sugar and tobacco plantations in British colonies abroad. In the Caribbean, Barbados became an English Colony in 1624 and Jamaica in 1655. These and other Caribbean colonies became the centre of wealth and the focus of the slave trade for the growing English empire. In 1660, what became the Royal African Company was chartered by King Charles II with a monopoly in the trade. The Royal African Company, governed by James, Duke of York, the king's brother, was central to England's slave trade, and its commercial disputes over slavery soon presented the English courts with novel legal questions. Under the lex mercatoria slaves were sometimes treated as chattels, with few if any rights, but the English courts did not always recognise mercantile custom as law, and even in English mercantile law, the subject was disputed. The question arose in English courts because personal actions could be laid in England even if the cause of action arose abroad. In 1698, an act of parliament opened the slave trade to all English subjects. In the 18th century, owners in England would advertise their sales of African slaves and also for the return of runaway slaves.
Butts v. Penny and Defining People as Property
In 1677, after the Royal African Company went bankrupt, the high court of King's Bench intervened to change the legal rationale for slavery from feudal law to the law of property. In 1677 in Butts v. Penny the courts held that an action for trover (a kind of trespass) would lie for black people, as if they were chattels. The rationale was that infidels could not be subjects because they could not swear an oath of allegiance to make them so (as determined in Calvin's Case in 1608). As aliens, they could be considered as "goods" rather than people for purposes of trade. Chief Justice Holt rejected such a status for people in Harvey v. Chamberlain in 1696, and also denied the possibility of bringing an assumpsit (another kind of trespass) on the sale of a black person in England: "as soon as a negro comes to England he is free; one may be a villein in England, but not a slave." It is alleged that he commented as an aside in one case that the supposed owner could amend his declaration to state that a deed was created for the sale in the royal colony of Virginia, where slavery was recognised by colonial law, but such a claim goes against the main finding in the case. In 1706 Chief Justice Holt refused an action of trover in relation to a slave, holding that no man could have property in another, but held that an alternative action, trespass quare captivum suum cepit, might be available.
Ultimately the Holt court decisions had little long-term effect. Slaves were regularly bought and sold on the Liverpool and London markets, and actions on contract concerning slaves were common in the 18th century without any serious suggestion that they were void for illegality, although the York-Talbot position, discussed below, probably helped to create that legal stability. In 1700 there was no extensive use of slave labour in England as in the colonies. African servants were common as status symbols, but their treatment was not comparable to that of plantation slaves in the colonies. The legal problems that were most likely to arise in England were if a slave were to escape in transit, or if a slave-owner from the colonies brought over a slave and expected to continue exercising his power to prevent the slave from leaving his service. Increasing numbers of slaves were brought into England in the 18th century, and this may help to explain the growing awareness of the problems presented by the existence of slavery. Quite apart from the moral considerations, there was an obvious conflict between defining property in slaves and an alternative English tradition of freedom protected by habeas corpus. If the courts acknowledged the property which was generally assumed to exist in slaves in the colonies, how would such property rights be treated if a slave was subsequently brought to England?
The Yorke–Talbot slavery opinion
However, the decisions of the Holt court in the wake of the Glorious Revolution had caused sufficient consternation as to the legal status of slaves that some slave owners sought clarity of the law. In 1729 various slave owners obtained the Yorke–Talbot slavery opinion made by the Crown's principal law officers at one of the Inns of Court. The law officers opined that under English law (i) a slave's status did not change when he came to England, (ii) a slave could be compelled to return to the colonies from England, and (iii) that baptism would not manumit a slave. The opinion cited no authorities, and set out no legal rationale for the views expressed in it, but it was widely published and relied upon. One of the authors of the opinion, Lord Hardwicke (although at the time he was only known as Philip Yorke), subsequently endorsed the views expressed in the opinion (although not expressly referring to it) whilst sitting in judicial capacity in Pearne v Lisle (1749) Amb 75, 27 ER 47. The case revolved around title to fourteen slaves who were in Antigua, and involved a number of technical points as to colonial law. But Lord Hardwicke held that slavery was not contrary to English law, and that as the common law of England applied at the time to Antigua, that slavery was not unlawful in Antigua.
At this time the cases in which the English courts had recognised property in slaves had arisen from purely commercial disputes and did not establish any rights exercisable as against the slaves themselves, if the slave was within the jurisdiction. As with villeins centuries before, the analogy with chattels (as between putative owners) failed to answer the leading question whether slaves could establish their freedom by bringing suit in the courts (as between slave and owner). The writ de homine replegiando was outmoded, and so the usual eighteenth-century question was whether habeas corpus lay to free slaves from captivity. Sir William Blackstone was in no doubt that "the spirit of liberty is so deeply ingrained in our constitution" that a slave, the moment he lands in England, is free. Other prominent lawyers, such as Lord Hardwicke and Lord Mansfield, felt that it was better to recognise slavery, and to impose regulation on the slave trade rather than to withdraw from it, since less enlightened nations would reap the benefits of abolition and slaves would suffer the consequences. The "infidel" argument for maintaining African slaves as chattels was abandoned in the middle of the 18th century, since by then many slaves had been converted to Christianity without gaining de facto freedom; and legal justifications for slave ownership were now sought by analogy with the old law of villeinage.
Shanley v Harvey
In Shanley v Harvey (1763) 2 Eden 126, a claim was instituted by Shanley as administrator of the estate of his deceased niece.
Shanley had brought Harvey as a child slave, to England, 12 years earlier and had given him to his niece. She had him baptised and had changed his name. She became very ill and about an hour before her death, she gave Harvey about £800 in cash (a substantial sum in those days), asked him to pay the butcher's bill and to make good use of the money. After her death, Shanley brought an action against Harvey to recover the money.
Lord Henley, the Lord Chancellor, dismissed the action, with costs against Shanley. In his judgment he held that as soon as a person set foot on English soil, he or she became free and that a "negro" might maintain an action against his or her master for ill usage, together with an application for habeas corpus if detained. However, such comments were not necessary for the decision in the case, and in law were only obiter dictum and not binding on subsequent courts.
R v Stapylton
One of the few non-commercial disputes relating to slavery arose in R v Stapylton (1771, unreported) in which Lord Mansfield sat. Stapylton was charged after attempting to forcibly deport his purported slave, Thomas Lewis. Stapylton's defence rested on the basis that as Lewis was his slave, his actions were lawful.
Lord Mansfield had the opportunity to use a legal procedure at the time in criminal cases referred to as the Twelve Judges to determine points of law (which were not for the jury) in criminal matters. However, he shied away from doing so, and sought (unsuccessfully) to dissuade the parties from using the legality of slavery as the basis of the defence.
In the end Mansfield directed the jury that they should presume Lewis was a free man, unless Stapylton was able to prove otherwise. He further directed the jury that unless they found that Stapylton was the legal owner of Lewis "you will find the Defendant guilty". Lewis was permitted to testify. The jury convicted. However, in the course of his summing up, Lord Mansfield was careful to say "whether they [slave owners] have this kind of property or not in England has never been solemnly determined."
James Somersett's case
The question of a slave's rights as against his putative master (as opposed to merchants' rights as against each other) eventually came before Lord Mansfield and the King's Bench in 1771. A writ of habeas corpus had been issued to secure the release of James Somersett, a black man confined in irons on board a ship arrived in the Thames from Virginia, bound for Jamaica, and the return stated that he was a slave under the law of Virginia. Lord Mansfield was anxious to avoid the issue principle, and pressed the parties to settle; but the case was taken up by the West India merchants, who wanted to know whether slaves were a safe investment, and by abolitionists such as Granville Sharp, so that it became a cause célèbre.
Delivering his judgement, Lord Mansfield stated that slavery was so 'odious' that it could only be introduced by positive (i.e. statute) law, of which there was none in English law. He ordered that "the black must be discharged", granting Stewart freedom.
The judgement had far-reaching implications. In his book on King George III, Andrew Roberts argues that it added another reason for American colonists to oppose British rule, particularly those in the south, who might otherwise have been expected to have been less supportive of American independence. Answering this as well as Somersett's council who had put pressure on the court by observing the very large profits dependent on slavery, Mansfield said, "fiat justitia, ruat cælum, let justice be done whatever be the consequence."
R v Inhabitants of Thames Ditton
Lord Mansfield subsequently commented upon his decision in the Somersett case in R v Inhabitants of Thames Ditton (1785) The official report notes that Mansfield expressed the view during counsel's argument that his ruling in the Somerset case decided only that a slave could not be forcibly removed from England against his will: "The determinations go no further than that the master cannot be force compel him to go out of the kingdom." In Thames Ditton a black woman by the name of Charlotte Howe had been brought to England as a slave by one Captain Howe. After Captain Howe died Charlotte sought poor relief from the Parish of Thames Ditton. Mansfield stated that the Somersett case had only determined that a master could not force a slave to leave England, much as in earlier times a master could not forcibly remove his villein. He ruled that Charlotte was not entitled to relief under Poor Laws because relief was dependent on having been "hired", and this did not relate to slaves.
Joseph Knight's case
In 1777 after the Mansfield decision in England, a servant in Scotland, Joseph Knight, sought the freedom to leave the employment of John Wedderburn of Ballendean, and claimed in his pleadings that the very act of landing in Scotland freed him from perpetual servitude, as slavery was not recognised in Scotland (records do not now record whether this was on the basis of the Mansfield decision). Many years earlier Knight had been purchased by Wedderburn in Jamaica from a slave trader, although his status at the time of the trial was the subject of disagreement (Knight averred that Wedderburn wished to take him back to Jamaica to sell him on as a slave in the colonies, which Wedderburn denied).
The case caused disagreement in the courts as Wedderburn insisted that slavery and perpetual servitude were different states. He argued that in Scots law Knight, even though he was not recognised as a slave, was still bound to provide perpetual service in the same manner as an indentured servant or an apprenticed artisan. The Justices of the Peace in Perth, at first instance, found in favour of Wedderburn. However, when Knight then appealed to the Sheriff Deputy the first instance decision was then overturned. Wedderburn then made a further appeal to the Lords of Council and Session. The Court of Session emphatically rejected Wedderburn's appeal, ruling that "the dominion assumed over this Negro, under the law of Jamaica, being unjust, could not be supported in this country to any extent: That, therefore, the defender had no right to the Negro’s service for any space of time, nor to send him out of the country against his consent: That the Negro was likewise protected under the act 1701, c.6. from being sent out of the country against his consent."
Evidence presented by both sides in the case survives in the National Archives of Scotland (reference CS235/K/2/2). Henry Dundas, then Lord Advocate, acted for Knight.
Zong massacre
In late November or early December 1781 the captain and crew of the English slave ship, Zong, threw various African slaves into the sea off the island of Hispaniola, to save the lives of the remaining slaves as provisions were short. The shipowners then sought to claim under policies of insurance, arguing that jettisoning the cargo constituted a recoverable loss, even though it necessarily resulted in the murder of the slaves. In the first round of legal proceedings a jury initially held for the shipowners and upheld the claim. On a subsequent application to set that judgment aside, Lord Mansfield indicated that the jury in the initial trial "had no doubt (though it shocks one very much) that the Case of Slaves was the same as if Horses had been thrown over board". That finding was overturned and fresh trial ordered, but in both legal actions it was accepted in principle by the court that the killing of the negro slaves was permissible, and did not thereby invalidate the insurance by virtue of being an unlawful act. Shortly afterwards provisions in the Slave Trade Act 1788 made it unlawful to insure against similar losses of slaves.
R v Hodge
In 1811, Arthur Hodge became the first (and only) British subject ever to stand trial for the murder of a slave. As part of his defence, Hodge argued that "A Negro being property, it was no greater offense for his master to kill him than it would be to kill his dog," but the court did not accept the submission, and point was dismissed summarily. Counsel for the prosecution also obliquely referred to the Amelioration Act 1798 passed by the Legislature of the Leeward Islands, which applied in the British Virgin Islands. That Act provided for penalties for slave owners who inflicted cruel or unusual punishments on their slaves, but it only provides for fines, and does not expressly indicate that a slave owner could be guilty of a greater crime such as murder or another offence against the person.
The trial took place under English common law in British Virgin Islands. However, there was no appeal (Hodge was executed a mere eight days after the jury handed down their verdict). The jury (composed largely of slave owners) actually recommended mercy, but the court nonetheless sentenced Hodge to death, and so the directions of the trial judge are not treated by commentators as an authoritative precedent.
Forbes v Cochrane
Confirmation of the Mansfield ruling, that "positive law" would be required to make slavery lawful, appears in the judgment of Mr. Justice Best in Forbes v Cochrane in 1824. He said, "There is no statute recognising slavery which operates in that part of the British empire in which we are now called upon to administer justice." He described the Somerset case as entitling a slave in England to discharge (from that status), and rendering any person attempting to force him back into slavery as guilty of trespass. But not all reports of the case agree.
Subsequent legislation
The common law, ultimately, would go no further. But the decision of 1772 in James Somersett's case was widely interpreted as making slavery illegal. Whilst some academics have disupted this, the perception was fuelled by the growing abolitionist movement, notwithstanding this was scarcely an accurate reflection of the decision. Slavery did not, like villeinage, die naturally from adverse public opinion, because vested mercantile interests were too valuable. In 1788 the Slave Trade Act 1788 was passed, partly in response to the Zong Massacre to ameliorate the conditions under which slaves might be transported (the Act would be renewed several times before being made permanent in 1799). In 1792 the House of Commons voted in favour of "gradual" abolition, and in 1807 Parliament outlawed the African slave trade by legislation. This prevented British merchants exporting any more people from Africa, but it did not alter the status of the several million existing slaves, and the courts continued to recognise colonial slavery. The abolitionists therefore turned their attention to the emancipation of West Indian slaves. Legally, this was difficult to achieve, since it required the compulsory divesting of private property; but it was finally done in 1833, at a cost of £20 million paid from public funds to compulsorily purchase slaves from their owners and then manumit them. Freed slaves themselves received no compensation for their forced labour. From 1 August 1834, all slaves in the British colonies were "absolutely and forever manumitted."
In British colonies, it was widely assumed that positive law was needed to make slavery lawful, and various royal colonies passed laws to this effect.
See also
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775
History of slavery
Joseph Knight (slave)
Slavery Abolition Act 1833
Slavery in international law
Slavery in the colonial United States
Slave Trade Acts, with a listing of international, UK and US slavery laws
Slave Trade Act 1807
Slavery in Britain
Slavery in Ireland
Somersett's case
Notes
References
External links
Slavery in England and the law
M. Kaufmann, 'English Common Law, Slavery and', Encyclopaedia of Blacks in European History and Culture (2008),Vol. I, pp. 200-203)
Slavery law
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
Legal history of England
Common law |
17019665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Days%20of%20Infamy%20series | Days of Infamy series | Days of Infamy is a two-novel alternate history of the initial stages of the Pacific War by Harry Turtledove.
The major difference is that the Empire of Japan not only attacks Pearl Harbor, but follows it up with the landing and occupation of Hawaii.
Days of Infamy
In Days of Infamy, the logic of how the battle could have developed in Oahu is that the point of divergence occurs at a conference in March 1941, when Commander Minoru Genda and Admiral Yamamoto manage to convince the Imperial Japanese Army to follow up the Pearl Harbor air attack with an invasion to capture Hawaii whereas in reality, they did not.
As is usual in Turtledove novels, the action occurs from several points of view, including historical figures such as Minoru Genda and Mitsuo Fuchida. Besides these historical figures, viewpoint characters include a corporal in the Japanese Army, a surfer (who invents the sailboard so he can fish once Honolulu is occupied), a pair of 20-something Nisei brothers caught between the warring cultures, prisoners of war, and others.
The way that control of the islands is established is that after a third wave of the Japanese air attack on Pearl Harbor (instead of two in reality) destroys the American naval fuel depots, army barracks, and all airfields on Oahu thus establishing air superiority, an amphibious landing is carried out on December 8, 1941 on the northern shores of the island and drive what little U.S. forces remain towards Honolulu. In the meantime, the Imperial Japanese Navy destroys U.S. Admiral William F. Halsey's fleet by sinking the American carriers and Lexington while they fruitlessly try to counterattack. (It is implied that Halsey himself is killed.) After weeks of fierce fighting and nowhere to retreat, U.S. forces on Oahu (led by Admiral Kimmel and General Short) surrender and the Territory of Hawaii is annexed to Japan.
With the United States' main forward base in the Pacific conquered and much of its fleet crippled beyond repair, this allows Japan to dominate much of the southern Pacific Ocean almost unopposed from successfully defeating the British in the Indian Ocean, occupying all of New Guinea and the Dutch East Indies, attacking Australia, capturing Wake and Midway Islands, and having the ability to launch bombing raids on the West Coast of the United States. But there is a version of the Doolittle Raid that is also featured, where it is remembered as when America struck back at Hawaii, and not Japan in reality, but doing little damage.
In June 1942, there is a reverse version of the Battle of Midway where an American task force attempting to invade Oahu is defeated when the Japanese make use of captured American radar systems on the island, and the carriers and Saratoga are lost while the USS Hornet is badly damaged.
The novel ends when, as was common in their other occupied territories, the Japanese create a puppet government of a revived Hawaiian Kingdom, ruling through a member of the Hawaiian Royal Family installed as King in the Iolani Palace; while Americans back on the mainland, humiliated by their losses to the Japanese, swear revenge and begin a massive military buildup that sets the stage for the second novel.
End of the Beginning
End of the Beginning carries the story forward through the rest of the occupation. By mid-1943, Japanese occupation of Hawaii has brought a toll of strict food rationing, severe martial law, and American prisoners (military and civilian) suffer abuses from their occupiers. However, the occupation has also affected Japan's military presence on the island chain as the nation has to forgo their war efforts in bringing supplies to the islands; their military conquests in Asia and the Pacific Rim have overstretched their resources, and suffer severe reductions in supplies due to frequent American submarine raids on Japanese supply ships. As a result, the Japanese forces on the islands, commanded by Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi and General Tomoyuki Yamashita (the historical leaders of Japanese forces during the Philippines Liberation of 1944-1945), are left without any military support.
In the United States, the Americans have amassed the ships and troops to retake Hawaii, and launch another, but larger, invasion attempt. The Americans quickly gain the upper hand, torpedoing the Japanese carrier Zuikaku from a submarine, and sinking the carriers Akagi and Shōkaku in aerial attacks at the loss of only one escort carrier. The Americans, greatly aided by their new F6F Hellcat fighter, quickly gain control of the air, and gradually defeat the Japanese on Oahu. Most important, Japanese officials and their collaborators escape on a submarine as Honolulu falls, but Minoru Genda and the King and Queen of Hawaii choose to commit suicide. Following the American victory, Hawaii becomes the staging point for the American war effort in the Pacific theater, as it was in the actual war, albeit longer.
What happens outside Hawaii is sparsely referred to in the two novels of the series. The projected invasion of Port Moresby succeeded, so New Guinea was entirely under Japanese control from mid-1942 onward. The Battle of Stalingrad took place and was a Soviet victory, but there were no landings in French North Africa. Instead, the US shipped a massive army around Africa, possibly larger than the British and Commonwealth forces present for the historical Battle of El Alamein. The buildup of American naval forces for the second attempt to take Hawaii would need a faster buildup of ships than is historical, implying that much more industrial effort was put into this buildup, leaving less for Europe. The implication is that the Allies would not prevail in Europe, with no Sicilian or Italian campaign in 1943, and no Normandy landings in 1944. By the end of the novel it appears that there will be no major Nisei combat forces, and that most ethnic Japanese will be shipped from Hawaii to join those in relocation centers in the United States, a blow to civil rights in postwar America.
Characters
Viewpoint characters are identified with (vp). Historical characters are identified with (h)
Fletcher "Fletch" Armitage (vp) -- Army first lieutenant stationed in Hawaii; later, a P.O.W.
Jane Armitage (vp) -- Estranged wife of Fletch, third grade teacher, later enslaved as a comfort woman.
Jim Peterson (vp) -- Grumman F4F Wildcat pilot flying off the USS Enterprise who is shot down on the first day of the war. With no plane to fly, he joins the US Army as a private and fights as an infantryman until the surrender.
Joe Crosetti (vp) -- Son of a San Francisco fisherman who enlists after Pearl Harbor and eventually flies a Grumman F6F Hellcat fighter.
Orson Sharp -- A Mormon from Salt Lake City who becomes Joe Crosetti's friend in flight training and goes on to serve with him in the same fighter squadron.
Lester Dillon (vp) -- Crusty Marine Platoon Sergeant, in the Corps since 1918. Dillon is familiar with the islands from his peacetime service, so he provides not only a view of the fighting when the US retakes Oahu but insights into the prewar period.
Isoroku Yamamoto (h) — Notorious in the U.S. for planning the Pearl Harbor attack, Yamamoto was killed in April 1943 in real history.
Tomoyuki Yamashita (h)—In real history, Yamashita led the brilliant campaign that drove Britain from Malaya, and captured Singapore in less than three months against forces that outnumbered his own by more than two to one. In the series, he leads the troops that invade Oahu and stays in the Islands after the conquest.
Minoru Genda (vp,h)— Main planner of the Pearl Harbor attack. Both Yamamoto and Genda wanted to invade Hawaii, but in actual history were not able to persuade the Japanese Army to allocate troops.
Stanley Owana Laanui -- The puppet "King of Hawaii" the Japanese set up during their occupation.
Cynthia Laanui -- King Stanley's red-headed queen, and eventually Minoru Genda's lover.
Yasuo Furusawa (vp) -- A mere Superior Private in his army, Furusawa is better educated than most of his fellow troops and, as the son of a druggist, has at least learned how to make out English writing. He is the only viewpoint character in the Japanese armed forces to survive as a prisoner of war.
Jiro Takahashi (vp) -- Born in Japan and still a Japanese citizen (it was impossible for Japanese-born aliens to become US citizens in this era), Jiro has in fact lived in Hawaii most of his life, and owns his own fishing boat, the sampan Oshima Maru, named after the county in Japan where he was born. His sons Kenzo (Ken) and Hitoshi (Hank) do not share in his unshakeable Japanese patriotism.
Kenzo Takahashi (vp) -- Born in Hawaii and, thus, a U.S. citizen, Ken sees Japan as enemy nation, especially after his mother is killed by a Japanese air raid on Honolulu.
Elsie Sundberg -- Ken's haole girlfriend.
Oscar van der Kirk (vp) -- An early convert to surfing culture who never went home after a Hawaiian vacation. He gets to invent sailboarding in order to catch more fish as food becomes hard to get in Hawaii, especially for non-Japanese civilians.
Charlie Kaapu -- Oscar's best bud and fellow surfer. After getting caught sleeping with the mistress of a Japanese Officer, Charlie gets to join Jim Peterson and other POWs being worked to death digging a tunnel.
Susie Higgins -- Oscar's latest girl, another divorcee from the mainland, caught by the invasion.
See also
1942 (novel)
Pacific War series
References
2004 American novels
American alternate history novels
Alternate history book series
Novels by Harry Turtledove
Novels about World War II alternate histories
Novels set in Hawaii
Fiction set in 1941
Fiction set in 1942
Fiction set in 1943 |
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