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2212435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Alexandre%20L%C3%A9on%20Durand%20Linois | Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois | Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand, Comte de Linois (27 January 1761 – 2 December 1848) was a French admiral who served in the French Navy during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. He commanded the combined Franco-Spanish fleet during the Algeciras Campaign in 1801, winning the First Battle of Algeciras before losing the Second Battle of Algeciras. He then led an unsuccessful campaign against British trade in the Indian Ocean and South China Sea in 1803, being defeated by a harmless fleet of the East India Company during the Battle of Pulo Aura and ending his cruise and sea-going career being bested in battle by John Warren in the action of 13 March 1806. Following the Bourbon restoration, Linois was appointed Governor of Guadeloupe. He supported Napoleon during the Hundred Days and so, on his return to France, he was forced to resign and was court martialled. Although acquitted, he was placed in retirement and never served again.
Biography
Born in Brest, Linois joined the French Navy as a volunteer in 1776, when he was 15 years old, serving aboard the ships Cesar and Protée in his home port. In August 1778, during the American War of Independence, he joined Bien-Aimé , part of d'Orvilliers' fleet in the Caribbean where, after only eight months service, he was temporarily appointed, lieutenant de frégate pour le campagne. He served aboard the newly built Scipion from May 1779 to January 1781, when his two-year probationary period expired and he was confirmed, ensigne de vaisseau. Between October 1782 and April 1783, Linois served aboard Diadème, his last appointment of the war.
Service in the Indian Ocean
In March 1784, Linois joined the storeship Barbeau, carrying supplies and despatches to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). He left Barbeau in January 1785 and in March sailed for the Caribbean on the 64-gun Réfléchi where he remained for the next two years. Arriving at Saint-Domingue on 23 April, Linois spent eight months on the frigate, Danaé before rejoining Réfléchi. In May 1786, he took a land-based post as sous-lieutenant de port at Port-au-Prince, returning to sea aboard the frigate, Proserpine in December 1786. This was a short-lived appointment; on 1 March 1787, Linois left for home on the same storeship that had conveyed him to the Isle de France two years earlier.
Another position ashore, as lieutenant de port at Brest, ended a period of unemployment that had lasted until 1 May 1789 and was followed, on 12 October 1790, by a posting to the ship-of-the-line, Victoire. From 1791 to 1793 he served with the French forces in the Indian Ocean. He left for Isle de France on 25 January on board the 32-gun frigate Atalante as second officer to Denis Decres. On 15 May, the newly published naval list named Linois as lieutenant de vaisseau with his promotion backdated to 1 May 1789. On their return home in April 1794, Decres was arrested as an aristocrat and Linois was given command of Atalante.
The Brest Fleet
While acting as a decoy for an important convoy of wheat from the United States, Linois was captured by the Royal Navy at the action of 7 May 1794. On 5 May, Atalante, in company with the corvette Levrette, encountered a British convoy three days out from Cork. The convoy was under the protection of two ships of the line, the 74 and the 64-gun , which immediately hoisted their colours and opened fire. Linois realising he was outgunned, as senior officer, ordered his ships to divide and effect an escape. Levrette; managed to evade her pursuer, St Albans during the night but Atalante was unable to shake off Swiftsure which continued her chase throughout the following day. By 0325 on 7 May, Atalante had been overhauled and so badly damaged during the two-day running battle, Linois was forced to surrender. He and his crew were taken prisoner and Atalante was eventually taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Espion
Linois was exchanged and returned home in March 1795. He was promoted to capitaine de vaisseau in May, backdated to January 1794, taking command of the 74-gun Formidable of the Brest Fleet. The following year, in June, he was captured again at the battle of Groix, when his ship was one of the three rearmost in Villaret's withdrawing squadron. He was twice wounded in the battle and lost the sight of an eye. He was quickly exchanged and returned in August. In 1796 he took part in the Expédition d'Irlande as a chief of division, leading a 3-ship of the line and 4-frigate squadron, with his flag on Nestor. On arrival in Bantry Bay, the generals opposed a landing, and the squadron headed back to Brest. Linois moved his flag to the 74-gun Jean-Jacque Rousseau on 22 April 1798 and in the following February, took up the position of Chief of Staff at Brest.
Admiral
In 1799 Linois was promoted to Rear-Admiral and sent to the Mediterranean under Admiral Bruix. He joined the 120-gun flagship, Océan, in which he took part in Bruix' cruise of 1799. On 8 August, the expedition returned to Brest where Linois continued as Chief of Staff until 28 October 1800, when he was posted to Toulon as second in command to Admiral Ganteaume.
Linois did not join Ganteaume in the unsuccessful attempt to bolster the French forces in Egypt but instead commanded the remainder of the Toulon fleet at the Siege of Porto Ferrajo and orchestrated the attack on Elba in May 1801. In June, with Ganteaume still on manoeuvres, Linois was ordered to assemble a new combined French and Spanish naval force at Cadiz. Aboard Formidable and in company with Desaix, Indomptable and Muiron, he set sail on 13 June, passing Gibraltar on 3 July and capturing the British brig . After hearing from Speedy's captain, Thomas Lord Cochrane, that a powerful squadron under Sir James Saumarez was blockading Cadiz, Linois sought shelter beneath the Spanish guns of Algeciras. In addition to these land batteries, by the time Saumerez arrived with six ships-of-the-line, either end of the French line had been reinforced with Spanish gunboats. Linois' squadron was thus able to prevail during the first part of the Battle of Algeciras, aided by a lack of wind which prevented Saumarez' force arriving as one and left the British ships drifting helplessly. HMS Hannibal ran aground and was captured.
Both sides were still effecting repairs when, on 9 July, the French were joined by five Spanish ships-of-the-line from Cadiz. This combined fleet left for Cadiz at dawn on 12 July and Saumarez, who had been reinforced by , followed, intending to harass the Franco-Spanish fleet once it had moved out of range of the shore guns. Hannibal caused problems and at 19:45, Indienne was ordered to tow her back to Algeciras. The Spanish commander then turned the fleet towards Cadiz, heading into the Gut of Gibraltar. The British followed and at 20:40, Saumerez ordered independent action.
Superb was first into the action, engaging Real Carlos. Some of the shot was high and passed through her rigging, hitting the ship to her larboard, San Hermenegildo. Thinking the shot came from Real Carlos and that she was an enemy, San Hermenegildo fired into her. In about ten minutes the Real Carlos was on fire. When San Hermenegildo crossed her stern to deliver a raking fire, a sudden gust of wind brought them together and the fire spread through both ships, which subsequently blew up. In the meantime, Superb had moved on and forced the surrender of San Antonio. An independently sailing, Spanish frigate was also sunk during the battle but the remaining French and Spanish ships escaped into Cadiz the following morning. Linois was commended for his part in the battle and the previous one on 6 July, and received the 'Sabre of Honour' from Napoleon. He and his combined fleet however, were blockaded in Cadiz until peace negotiations began with Britain in October.
Early in 1802, Linois participated in an expedition to Saint-Domingue to depose the governor, Toussaint Louverture and reassert French control there. Louverture was a former slave who was suspected of trying to gain independence for the colony. In January Linois took command of a squadron of troopships, comprising three ships-of-the-line and three frigates, and sailed out to reinforce the 20,000 troops already there. The campaign was ultimately unsuccessful and Linois returned to France on 31 May.
Napoleonic wars
In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte appointed him to command the French forces in the Indian Ocean and to convey the new Captain-General of French India, Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen to Pondicherry. Flying his flag aboard the 74-gun-ship Marengo, Linois left Brest on 6 March with only three frigates in company; much of the French fleet still being occupied at Saint-Domingue. On arrival however, the British forces there, under Arthur Wellesley, refused to leave and Linois was obliged to detour to the Ile-de-France.
Linois received news that the war had resumed when he was joined by the 22-gun corvette, Berceau in September. Leaving half the troops to defend the Ile de France, Linois left with the remainder and his squadron for Batavia on 8 October; raiding a British trading station on Sumatra on the way, capturing eight merchant vessels, destroying three others and setting light to three stocked warehouses. Arriving at Batavia on 10 December, Linois was appraised of a British convoy returning from China. After dropping off the soldiers and adding the 16 gun brig-corvette, Adventurier, to his force, set sail on 28 December.
The Battle of Pulo Aura occurred on 14 February 1804 when Linois' squadron encountered the British China Fleet. Although lightly armed, the British merchant ships outnumbered Linois' forces and manoeuvred as though preparing to defend themselves. Some of the larger indiamen, with gun ports painted on and flying naval ensigns, formed a mock line of battle. With these tactics, the convoy commodore, Nathaniel Dance, fooled Linois into believing that the British fleet was defended by naval escorts and the French retired without attacking the virtually defenceless British.
In June, Linois embarked on a second cruise, this time minus the 40-gun Belle Poule, which was despatched on a separate mission. Setting out in Marengo with the 44-gun Atalante and Semillante, Linois first scoured the channel between Mozambique and Madagascar, before crossing the Indian Ocean to patrol the waters around Ceylon. After taking some lucrative prizes, Linois headed up the Coromandel Coast to Vizagapatam, having heard about a British convoy heading there. The French squadron arrived on 15 September to find two British east indiamen loading in the roadstead, under the protection of the 50-gun and 3 guns on the shore. Linois was cautious and, after Atalante had been chased off, decided to engage Centurion from distance. The damage inflicted by both ships therefore was superficial but while Centurion was occupied, Semilante was able to capture one of the indiaman and drive the other onto the shore. On the return journey, Linois' ships took another prize, and arrived at Ile de France on 1 November, to find Belle Poule with a capture of her own.
In May 1805, while Atalante and Semilante were attending to other duties, Linois took Marengo and Belle Poule into the South Atlantic. This cruise was not productive and, after visiting Cape Town, the squadron patrolled the east coast of Africa and the Red Sea. This also proved fruitless and it was not until 11 July, following a decision to search the sea lanes between Cape Town and Ceylon that any enemy vessels were encountered. It was off the coast of Ceylon they fell in with two unprotected merchant ships, one of which was driven onto the shore and the other, the east indiaman Brunswick, captured. With Brunswick under a prize crew, the squadron sailed for the Cape of Good Hope and at 16:00 on 6 August it encountered a convoy of ten east indiamen, accompanied by the 90-gun . Linois sent Brunswick to Ile de France and, with his remaining ships, fell down on the rear of the convoy. Unable to scatter the convoy and pick off prizes piecemeal, Marengo and Belle Poule sailed along its flank, engaging Blenheim for 30 minutes, on the way. By the time Belle Poule and Marengo had completed their pass at 18:00, they both required repairs; the former had received two holes in the hull and the latter, damage to the mainmast and foreyard. During the hours of darkness, the two French ships crossed the bows of the convoy and in the morning, occupied the weather gage. Two further attacks were made during the day but the French were unable to make an impression and with ammunition supplies dwindling, Linois gave the order to withdraw.
Having spent 17 weeks at sea, on 13 September, Linois' ships entered Simon's Bay for some much needed repairs. During the eight week stay, they were briefly reunited with Atalante which, shortly after arrival, foundered. The crew was saved but the ship could not be. On 11 November, Marengo and Belle Poule left on a cruise of the west coast of Africa, travelling as far as Cape Lopez, Gabon, but only managing to secure a ship and a brig. With only two ships at his disposal, Linois' options had dwindled to chasing lone ships and unarmed convoys. Realising his best chance of catching them was to scout around choke points, in December, his small squadron sailed for the popular British stop over of St Helena. On 29 January 1806, Linois learned from an American ship of the British capture of Cape Town. With the last accessible port closed, Linois could only turn around and head for home.
On the return journey to France, Marengo and Belle Poule encountered a large British squadron under Admiral Warren off Cape Verde. In the action of 13 March 1806, the 90-gun HMS London, the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant and the 38-gun frigate HMS Amazon, were sailing some miles ahead of their compatriots when, at 03:00, Linois' ships were spotted. The three British ships immediately gave chase and by 05:30, London had overhauled and begun an exchange with both French ships. By 06:00 Linois realised that he was unable to win the battle and attempted to move off, issuing orders for Belle Poule to do likewise.
Both Marengo and Belle Poule had been severely battered in the rigging and were finding it increasingly difficult to manoeuvre. Marengo could not avoid London's continuing fire nor the cannonade from Amazon as she passed in pursuit of Belle Poule. London too had been heavily damaged and was beginning to drift astern but the appearance of Foudroyant, and HMS Repulse at 10:25 and HMS Ramillies at 11:00, left the French ships with no option but to surrender.
Linois had been wounded and was captured again. Napoleon had ended the practice of exchanging officers and Linois remained a prisoner of war until Napoleon fell in 1814. In 1810, while held by the British, Linois was named Comte de Linois by Napoleon.
Following the Bourbon restoration, Louis XVIII named him to be Governor of Guadeloupe. During the Hundred Days, Linois finally declared for Napoleon but news of the emperor's return did not reach the West Indies until the day after the battle of Waterloo. He surrendered to British forces on 10 August. On his return to France, Linois was forced to resign. He was court martialled but acquitted on 11 March 1816. However, he was placed in retirement and never served again, although he was appointed as an honorary Vice-Admiral in May 1825 and Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour in March 1831. He lived in Versailles, where he died in 1848. His name is inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe.
In fiction
Linois is a minor, but highly respected, character in the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian. Frederick Marryat describes the Battle of Pulo Aura in his 1832 novel Newton Forster.
Citations
References
1761 births
1848 deaths
French Navy officers from Brest, France
French Navy admirals
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
French naval commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom
French prisoners of war in the Napoleonic Wars
Burials at the Cemetery of Saint-Louis, Versailles
French prisoners of war in the 18th century
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe |
2120456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Perkins%20%28politician%29 | Tony Perkins (politician) | Anthony Richard Perkins (born March 20, 1963) is an American politician and evangelical lobbyist. He is president of the Family Research Council, a Christian conservative policy and lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. Perkins, an ordained Southern Baptist pastor, was previously a police officer and television reporter, served two terms as a Republican member of the Louisiana House of Representatives and unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. Senate in 2002. On May 14, 2018, he was appointed to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom by Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, and on June 17, 2019, the Commission elected him Chairman.
Early life and career
Perkins was born and raised in the northern Oklahoma city of Cleveland and graduated in 1981 from Cleveland High School. He received his Bachelor of Science degree from Liberty University. He later earned a Master of Public Administration degree from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. After college, Perkins entered the United States Marine Corps. Following his tour of duty, he became a reserve deputy with the East Baton Rouge Parish Sheriff's Office and also worked with the U.S. State Department's Anti-Terrorism Assistance Program instructing hostage negotiation and bomb disposal to hundreds of police officers from around the world.
After the federal contract for the anti-terrorism program ended, Perkins left law enforcement to work for KBTR, the Baton Rouge TV station owned by then-State Representative Woody Jenkins. At KBTR, Perkins opened a news division.
Political career
Louisiana House of Representatives
Perkins won an open seat in the Louisiana House representing District 64 (the eastern Baton Rouge suburbs, including part of Livingston Parish) when he defeated Democrat Herman L. Milton of Baker 63% to 37% in the nonpartisan blanket primary held on October 21, 1995. He was elected on a conservative platform of strong families and limited government. Four years later, he was reelected without opposition. He retired from the legislature in 2004, fulfilling a promise to serve no more than two terms.
While in office, Perkins authored legislation to require Louisiana public schools to install Internet filtering software, to provide daily silent prayer, and to prevent what he termed "censorship of America's Christian heritage". Perkins also authored the nation's first covenant marriage law, a voluntary type of marriage that permits divorce only in cases of physical abuse, abandonment, adultery, imprisonment or after two years of separation.
Perkins opposed casino gambling in Louisiana, calling a 1996 plan to restrict the location of gambling riverboats to one side of the river, "putting lipstick on a hog". It doesn't make the bill any better, it just looks a little better." Perkins was described as "staunchly anti-abortion" by Public Broadcasting Service which also credited him with working on law and order and economic development issues while in the state house. Perkins was instrumental in increasing state regulation of Louisiana abortion clinics; he sponsored a law to require state licensing and sanitary inspections.
2002 U.S. Senate election
Perkins ran for the United States Senate in 2002 as a social and religious conservative Republican. Louisiana's then-Governor, Murphy J. Foster Jr., and the National Republican Senatorial Committee backed other candidates. Perkins finished in fourth place in the nonpartisan blanket primary with just under 10% of the vote. The Democratic incumbent, Mary Landrieu, was re-elected in the general election against another Republican, Suzanne Haik Terrell.
USCIRF appointment
On May 14, 2018, he was appointed as one of nine commissioners to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF). His appointment was opposed by the Hindu American Foundation for his track record of "hateful stances against non-Christians."
On June 17, 2019, the USCIRF elected Perkins as chair for the commission. On June 16, 2020, he became the USCIRF vice chair.
Political future
Perkins was floated as a potential Republican candidate for the U.S. Senate against Mary Landrieu in the 2014 election. Despite strongly criticising Bill Cassidy, the main Republican challenger to Landrieu, as "pretty weak on the issues", Perkins said in an interview in January 2014 that he would not run against Landrieu. He did however express interest in running for David Vitter's U.S. Senate Seat, should Vitter be elected Governor of Louisiana in 2015. Vitter lost the election and announced he would not run for re-election to the Senate, but Perkins declined to run in the 2016 election and endorsed John Fleming for the seat.
Activism
Louisiana Family Forum
According to the Baptist Press, Perkins' "concern about the influence of the homosexual movement" led to his involvement in the 1998 founding of the Louisiana Family Forum, a conservative, faith-oriented, anti-abortion, and non-profit group.
Family Research Council
In September 2003, Perkins withdrew from the race for Louisiana state insurance commissioner to become the president of the conservative Christian Family Research Council (FRC). He replaced Ken Connor. In addition to his duties as president of the FRC, Perkins hosts a radio program, Washington Watch with Tony Perkins.
Perkins was involved in the 2005 controversy over the disconnection of life support for Terri Schiavo, a woman who had been in a "persistent vegetative state" for a number of years. After a final court order permitted Schiavo's husband to remove her feeding tube and thereby cause her to die, Perkins stated, "we should remember that her death is a symptom of a greater problem: that the courts no longer respect human life."
In October 2008, Perkins called the passage of California Proposition 8 (which prohibited same sex marriage in the state) "more important than the presidential election", adding that the United States has survived despite picking bad presidents in the past but "we will not survive if we lose the institution of marriage."
In 2010, Perkins dismissed the SPLC hate group designation as a political attack on the FRC by a "liberal organization" and as part of "the left's smear campaign of conservatives".
Political positions
Candidates
In 2015, Perkins affirmed the debate over Obama's birth certificate as "legitimate", remarking that it "makes sense" to conclude that Obama was a Muslim. That year, a survey reported that "54 percent of GOP voters thought Obama was a Muslim".
In 2016, Perkins endorsed Ted Cruz for the Republican presidential nomination.
In 2017, some supporters of a political candidate, Wesley Goodman, who was alleged to have committed a sexual assault in 2015, complained that Perkins did not reveal information to the public about Goodman's actions.
In 2018, Perkins was willing to overlook Donald Trump's past, stating that President Trump should be given a "Mulligan". Perkins opined that Trump was "providing the leadership we need at this time, in our country and in our culture."
Israel
In 2014, Perkins released an editorial explaining why he supports Israel.
Judicial nominees
In 2005, Perkins opposed the filibustering of certain right-leaning federal judicial nominees by U.S. Senate Democrats, arguing that the Democrats were waging a "campaign against orthodox religious views", and that the judicial nominees were being persecuted for their Christian faith. He became one of the organizers and hosts of Justice Sunday, a series of events that sought to mobilize the evangelical Christian base in support of the nominees.
LGBT issues
In 2010, Perkins opposed the overturning of the "Don't ask, don't tell" law that prohibited people who were openly gay or lesbian from serving in the U.S. military. Perkins argued that the repeal would, among other things, infringe on the religious liberty of military chaplains and other service members holding orthodox Christian views.
In 2006, Perkins urged Congress to pass the Federal Marriage Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which would define marriage in the United States as the union between one man and one woman. He explained his reasoning in a 2006 Human Events column:
The definition... is rooted in the order of nature itself. It promotes the continuation of the human race and the cooperation of a mother and a father in raising the children they produce. This union can only be protected through amending the United States Constitution. If it's not, activists will continue using the courts to sell a five-legged dog.
Perkins believes natural disasters are divine punishments for homosexuality. His own home was destroyed in the 2016 Louisiana floods, which he described as "a flood of near-biblical proportions". News outlets noted the irony.
Minimum wage
Perkins opposes any increases in the minimum wage, which he stated in a book that he co-authored with Harry R. Jackson, Jr. in 2008. Jackson stated that the minimum wage is rooted in racism.
Religion
In June 2019, Perkins advocated for the "fundamental human right of religious freedom" for non-Christians.
He criticized the persecution of Uyghurs in China and religious minorities in Iran.
In September 2010, Perkins claimed that "the ultimate evil has been committed" when Muslims interpret the Quran in its literal context, that Islam "tears at the fabric of democracy," and that world history classes dishonestly portray Islam in a positive light by providing an "airbrushed" portrait of the religion itself.
In 2007, Perkins opposed the first-ever Hindu prayer before the United States Senate, saying, "There is no historic connection between America and the polytheistic creed of the Hindu faith." He also opposed a US Marines yoga and meditation program for PTSD prevention, characterizing the Hindu and Buddhist practices as "goofy".
Second Amendment
Perkins is a self-described "ardent supporter of the Second Amendment" who is "willing to talk about laws regarding the ownership and use of guns by those who should not have them."
2020 election results
Perkins signed a December 10, 2020, letter from the Conservative Action Project asking state legislatures in the battleground states of Pennsylvania, Arizona, Georgia, Wisconsin, Nevada, and Michigan to exercise their plenary power under the Constitution to overturn Joe Biden's victory by appointing pro-Trump slates of electors to the Electoral College.
Controversies
On May 17, 2001, Perkins gave a speech to the Louisiana chapter of the Council of Conservative Citizens, a white supremacist group that has described black people as a "retrograde species of humanity". Perkins said he did not know the group's ideology at the time. In an April 26, 2005, article in The Nation, Max Blumenthal reported that while managing the unsuccessful U. S. Senate campaign of Woody Jenkins in 1996, Perkins "paid former Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard David Duke $82,500 for his mailing list." Perkins denied knowing about the purchase. A document authorizing the payment was reported to contain Perkins' signature. The incident resurfaced in the local press in 2002, during Perkins' unsuccessful Senate run.
Personal life
Perkins is married to Lawana Perkins (née Lee), with whom he has five children. He also adopted 16-year-old Boko Haram-held captive, Nigerian Leah Sharibu.
He has been affiliated with the National Rifle Association of America, the American Legion, the Christian Coalition, and the Baton Rouge Rescue Mission. Perkins served as president of the Council for National Policy.
Perkins' family was affected by the 2016 Louisiana floods, and had to evacuate their Louisiana home by canoe.
References
External links
Tony Perkins on Gab
Louisiana Family Forum's website
The Family Research Council's Tony Perkins is a rising star in a crowded universe of evangelical Christian leaders (Bill Berkowitz, on mediatransparency.com, June 17, 2005)
People for the American Way: Family Research Council
Perkins, Tony. "Congress Fails Americans on Marriage ."
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1963 births
Living people
20th-century Baptists
21st-century Baptists
American Christian religious leaders
American Christian Zionists
American police officers
American television reporters and correspondents
American anti-same-sex-marriage activists
Baptists from Louisiana
Baptists from Oklahoma
American conspiracy theorists
American critics of Islam
American gun rights activists
Human Events people
Journalists from Louisiana
Liberty University alumni
Louisiana State University alumni
Republican Party members of the Louisiana House of Representatives
People from Cleveland, Oklahoma
Politicians from Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Southern Baptists
United States Marines
American far-right politicians
Christian fundamentalists
Christian nationalists |
29985758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Cadfael%20Chronicles | The Cadfael Chronicles | The Cadfael Chronicles is a series of historical murder mysteries written by the linguist-scholar Edith Pargeter (1913–1995) under the name "Ellis Peters". Set in the 12th century in England during the Anarchy, the novels focus on a Welsh Benedictine monk, Cadfael, who aids the law by investigating and solving murders.
In all, Pargeter wrote twenty Cadfael novels between 1977 and 1994, plus one book of short stories. Each draws on the storyline, characters and developments of the previous books in the series. Pargeter planned the 20th novel, Brother Cadfael's Penance, as the final book of the series, and it brings together the loose story ends into a tidy conclusion. Pargeter herself died shortly after its publication, following a long illness. Many of the books have been adapted as radio episodes, in which Ray Smith, Glyn Houston and subsequently Philip Madoc played the titular character. An ITV television series was also developed from the books, which starred Derek Jacobi as Cadfael.
Pargeter's Cadfael Chronicles have been credited for popularizing the genre of historical mystery novels.
Brother Cadfael
Unlike his fellow monks, who took their vows as youths (and some as children), Cadfael is a conversus who entered the cloister in his forties after being a well-travelled crusader and sea captain. His experiences give him an array of talents and skills useful in monastic life and in his frequent role as investigator. He is a skilled observer of human nature and a talented herbalist, a skill he learned from Muslims in the Holy Land. He is inquisitive and energetic, and has an innate though obviously modern sense of justice and fair play. Abbots call upon him as a medical examiner, detective, doctor and diplomat. His worldly knowledge, although useful, gets him into trouble with the more doctrinaire characters of the series, and the seeming contradiction between the secular and the spiritual worlds forms a central and continuing theme.
Historical background
The stories are set between 1137 and 1145, during the Anarchy, the destructive contest for the crown of England between King Stephen and Empress Matilda (also known as Empress Maud). Many historical events are described or referred to in the books. For example, the translation of Saint Winifred to Shrewsbury Abbey is fictionalised in the first chronicle, A Morbid Taste for Bones, and One Corpse Too Many is inspired by the siege of Shrewsbury Castle by Stephen in 1138. The burning of Worcester puts the characters on the run into the countryside around the town in The Virgin in the Ice. The pillage of Winchester and the burning of the abbey there sends the monks who are at the centre of the story to Shrewsbury Abbey in An Excellent Mystery. In Dead Man's Ransom the fictional characters are involved with the small group of Welshmen who take part in the Battle of Lincoln, drawing the historical prince of Gwynedd, Owain, into the plot. Empress Matilda's brief stay in London, when she tried to gain approval for her coronation while she held Stephen in prison, is the starting point for one character in The Pilgrim of Hate. The next turning of Henry of Blois's coat and the rising fortunes of King Stephen involve the Abbot and send three new people into the Foregate and the Abbey in The Raven in the Foregate. One main character in The Hermit of Eyton Forest arrives in Shropshire while the Empress is besieged in Oxford Castle. In The Potter's Field Hugh Beringar's force is called to the Fens to aid King Stephen in controlling the rampaging Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex; on return the Sheriff doublechecks the story of a character who escaped from that area back to Shropshire. The quarrel between Owain Gwynedd and his impetuous younger brother Cadwaladr on account of Cadwaladr's murder of the prince of a southern principality in Wales, combined with the push to spread the Roman rite into Wales, are parts of the story told in The Summer of the Danes.
In novels where the plot does not hinge on a historical event or have historical characters walking through the story the focus is on one or two aspects of life in medieval England. Examples include the importance of pilgrimage in The Heretic's Apprentice, the wool and clothmaking trades in The Rose Rent, the rules of inheritance under Welsh law in Monk's Hood, and specific merchant trades in Saint Peter's Fair and The Sanctuary Sparrow. The annual fair raised funds for the Abbey, authorised by Earl Roger or King Henry I. The use of a house of worship for sanctuary from secular law is also a feature of The Sanctuary Sparrow. Cadfael is an herbalist, whose skills and potions bring him into contact with people outside the monastery, integral in the plots not dependent on a historical event.
The real people portrayed in the series include:
King Stephen
Empress Matilda (whom Peters usually calls Empress Maud)
Robert of Gloucester and his son Philip
Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex
Robert of Leicester
Owain Gwynedd, his brother Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd, and his son Hywel
William of Ypres
Bishop Henry of Blois
Bishop Roger de Clinton
Abbots Heribert (1128–1138), Radolfus (1138–1148) and Robert Pennant (prior to 1148, then abbot to 1168)
Henry I of England (1068/9–1135)
Themes
Cadfael and love
A distinctive feature of the series is a pair of star-crossed lovers in nearly every book, who invariably get the full sympathy of Brother Cadfael (and the reader). Typically, Cadfael bends his full energy and ingenuity to the double task of solving the mystery and bringing the lovers to a happy union. In this latter, he seems the literary descendant of Shakespeare's Friar Laurence who made great (though ultimately futile) efforts to help Romeo and Juliet. Cadfael is far more successful, with virtually all pairs of lovers in the series getting off to happy consummations, except when one of them turns out to be the wanted murderer. In one case, indeed, the lovers get their happy ending with Cadfael's help, even though one of them is the murderer.
Lovers in the Cadfael books face a whole series of obstacles, which sometimes seem insurmountable (in one book, it seems they are relatives too close to marry) but are invariably overcome. However, the problem is almost never a significant difference in social status between the two. In this series, aristocratic boys usually fall in love with aristocratic girls, artisans fall for the daughters of artisans, and a lowly wandering juggler is charmed beyond measure by a lowly kitchen maid. In The Hermit of Eyton Forest a prosperous forester's daughter falls in love with a runaway villein, a skilled leatherworker who will work his year and a day to establish himself in his trade in Shropshire before he marries her. In St. Peter's Fair, a tradesman's daughter settles for another tradesman's son after her aristocratic first choice turns out to be a cad, calling her a "shopkeeper's girl of no account." In most cases, it seems that Pargeter's characters deliberately curtail their romantic aspirations where class conflict would undermine them. There are some exceptions to this class consciousness; in The Virgin in the Ice a noblewoman marries her guardian's favourite squire, though he is the illegitimate son of a footsoldier and a Syrian widow, and in The Pilgrim of Hate an aristocratic youth marries the daughter of a tradesman.
Aristocracy
A passage in The Confession of Brother Haluin introduces a nobleman whom the reader (and Cadfael) had not met before:
Here he came, Audemar de Clary, on a tall chestnut horse, a big man in dark, plain, workmanlike riding clothes, without ornament, and needing none to mark him as having authority here. (...) Not a man to be crossed lightly, but no one feared him. They approached him cheerfully and spoke with him boldly. His anger, when justified, might be withering, even perilous – but it would be just.
This is fairly typical of most members of the aristocracy depicted in the series, who are described as fair-minded and just to their underlings, within the context of the hierarchical feudal social system and ideology.
The books do present some manifestly unjust, tyrannical and or outright cruel members of the aristocracy, though they are definitely in the minority. Faced with such, peasants can and do resort to the "safety-valve" built within the feudal system itself, by escaping from their lord to a chartered borough where after a stay of one year and one day they become free. On several occasions, Cadfael facilitates and helps such escapes.
Also, cruel and unjust landowners may end up as the victims of the murder which Cadfael needs to solve, in which case the reader is curious to know the solution of the mystery, but is not particularly eager to see the perpetrator punished.
Civil war
The civil war between King Stephen and Empress Maud is a constant background to the series, called the Anarchy by many. Despite the lack of newspapers and other mass news media, the inhabitants of Shrewsbury are kept well informed of the latest developments as the town is a major centre of commerce, constantly getting visitors from all over the country.
In One Corpse Too Many, the second book in the series, Shrewsbury itself is a battlefield, and the wholesale execution of the defeated garrison by order of King Stephen forms the gruesome background to the book's murder mystery.
Further on, however, Shrewsbury is an island of calm in the raging storm. Refugees as well as spies and conspirators constantly come in, considerably impacting life in the town and setting up the plot for many of the books. Characters occasionally set out to the battlefields, either to take direct part in the fighting or (as in the case of Cadfael himself) to offer some needed aid or rescue. Stories of woe and disaster come in from other locations, such as Worcester (The Virgin in the Ice), Lincoln (Dead Man's Ransom) or Winchester (An Excellent Mystery). Moreover, Shrewsbury is in close proximity to the border of Wales, which has its own troubles and wars – distinct from, though often interconnected with, those of England (Dead Man's Ransom). In the last novel, Brother Cadfael's Penance, Cadfael and Sheriff Hugh Beringar start out at a peace conference in Coventry, but Cadfael ends up in the midst of a castle under siege, with castellan Philip FitzRobert seriously wounded by a projectile lobbed in by a siege machine. The castle was not too far from Gloucester, among the ongoing battles in the Thames Valley.
For all that, for most of the series the war happens elsewhere. Hugh Beringar, though in effect assuming the functions of a military governor and civil administrator as well as head of the police, finds the time and energy to personally work with Cadfael on solving a new mystery. Though living in a war-torn country, Cadfael is often seen sitting contented in his garden and reflecting on the harmonic turn of the year's seasons. An Excellent Mystery concludes:September was again September, mellowed and fruitful after the summer heat and drought. After every extreme the seasons righted themselves, and won back the half at least of what was lost.
In general, the war is seen as mainly the concern of the nobility. Some of its members take up a staunch and unwavering loyalty to one side or the other, and opposing partisans treat each other with utmost respect, as prescribed by the code of chivalry. Others are utterly opportunistic and seek only to make use of the situation for personal profit and advancement, and are regarded with contempt by the more principled characters (and seemingly by the writer as well).
The lower classes, burghers and peasants, in general have little interest in who would win the war as long as the death and destruction end, either by one of the contenders winning or by their reaching some kind of compromise (the latter is what the Church is shown as trying to achieve, with little success). In the manorial system they have no share in political power; however, workers on a manor were called up for service as men-at-arms when the need arose (An Excellent Mystery).
The burghers of Shrewsbury are concerned to repair the damage caused to their city during fighting in which they had little interest (the question who would pay for it is an undercurrent in Saint Peter's Fair). Thereafter, the traders and artisans of the city are well-content to live under the reasonably efficient and honest administration offered on behalf of King Stephen by Prestcote and later by Beringar. They might have been equally content to live under the Empress Maud, provided only that her local representatives offer them the same possibility of developing undisturbed their trade and commerce. This cannot be known, as Maud never held Shropshire, nor protected their farms, trade and commerce.
The series ends with the battles ongoing, though it is a stalemate, and the earls and barons began to make their own peace treaties. There was an effort to bring about a peaceful resolution ending in nought. The fighting ended mainly three years after the last book when Robert of Gloucester died, and Empress Maud returned to Normandy. A new era opened for England when King Stephen died in 1154, having signed a treaty with his successor, Henry FitzEmpress, eldest son of Maud and her second husband Geoffrey of Anjou. But for the writer's death, the format of the series – chronologically consecutive – might have left room for additional volumes before the end of Stephen's reign was reached. Cadfael would have been in his 70s, and based on actual history, Prior Robert Pennant would have become the Abbot in place of Radulfus, so the last book was perhaps a satisfying close, with Cadfael's personal life expanding, his son safe, and the lack of interest in the ongoing strife growing clear.
Crusades in the background
The Crusades form an important part of the backdrop to the books. There are Cadfael's own memories of his crusading life, which occur in virtually every one of the books, and the circumstances of Olivier's early life. In addition, most of Cadfael's knowledge of herbs and medicine was learned in the East, from more sophisticated sources than he would have found in England. (In the TV version of Virgin in the Ice, when Cadfael is treating a gravely wounded brother, the best remedy another brother can suggest is bleeding, which Cadfael scorns.)
Several of the books feature returning crusaders who have central roles in the plot, while in others there are characters who depart England on the way eastwards. All of these crusading characters are depicted as sterling, model knights, brave and chivalrous, and the crusading enterprise itself is invariably regarded by all characters as a most noble and worthy cause.
There is occasional oblique mention of acts of cruelty committed in the course of the Crusades. In conversation with a fellow crusader, Cadfael remarks, "After the killing that was done in Jerusalem, of so many who held by the Prophet, I say they deserved better luck against us than they had." In adding that his companion was never accused of brutality, he implicitly passes judgment on the Crusades as a whole (The Leper of Saint Giles). While on various occasions Cadfael makes remarks showing him not pleased with such brutalities, the references are rarely specific. Cadfael (as all other characters) never casts any doubt on the morality of carving out a Christian kingdom in the Muslim East and maintaining it by force; indeed, it would have been anachronistic to have him express such doubts.
Cadfael's experience of the Crusades didn't lead to bigotry. Cadfael remembers Mariam, a Muslim woman, as "well worth the loving," and had many other profitable friendships with Arabs and Muslims. His companion from The Leper of Saint Giles, who spent many years as a captive of the Fatimid Egyptians, agrees, saying he always found his hosts "chivalrous and courteous," who gave him medical help and supported him in his convalescence.
Differences between books and television series
Thirteen of the books were adapted for television. They starred Derek Jacobi. The sequence of the television episodes differs from the sequence of the novels. Within the individual screenplays, with one major exception, most are reasonably faithful to the books, being modified primarily to minimise the size of the speaking cast, the running time of the script, or the need for extravagant special effects. Only in the books, Cadfael speaks Welsh and translates for several non-English-speaking Welshmen.
One episode, The Pilgrim of Hate, bears almost no resemblance to the eponymous book save the presence of a few characters sharing the names (but not the actions) of the characters in the book. In The Holy Thief, one of the characters is turned into a villain. In A Morbid Taste For Bones the climax sequence is altered, giving Cadfael more of a speaking role. In the episode Monk's Hood, Hugh has a somewhat larger role than in the book, following Cadfael to the court and suffering a stab wound when he walks in unexpectedly on Cadfael's accusation of the true criminal. In The Rose Rent, Cadfael gives the young wife a potion to ease her terminally ill husband's pain, warning her that too much will kill him; in the next scene, the man is dead, implying a mercy killing. In the book, there is no such implication; the man dies of his illness without any hint that Cadfael or the widow acted to hasten his end.
The character of Hugh Beringar is markedly different in the television series, particularly in his relationship with Cadfael. In the series, Hugh is the sheriff who sometimes helps, and sometimes hinders Cadfael - friendly but maintaining a professional relationship. In the books, despite the more than thirty years difference in their ages, Hugh and Cadfael are best friends who think alike in crucial ways, particularly as to what is justice.
Hugh and Aline Siward are both introduced in One Corpse Too Many. Hugh appears in all of the books except A Morbid Taste for Bones and The Leper of St Giles whilst Aline does not appear in any of the subsequent television episodes. She appears in several of the books, where she plays an important role in sheltering women (Saint Peter's Fair, An Excellent Mystery, One Corpse Too Many, The Sanctuary Sparrow), and even when she does not appear in the books, Hugh speaks of her constantly and fondly. In the books, Hugh marries Aline and they have a son, Giles, named for Aline's dead brother. Cadfael is the godfather of Hugh's son, and he confides several of his deepest secrets only to Hugh.
Bibliography
Cadfael novels
These are numbered in order of the time in which the novel was set and the order of publication. Each book has been published in hardback and paperback, and in a number of languages. The first publication in the UK, by Macmillan (or Headline Book Publishing, beginning with The Hermit of Eyton Forest), is the year of first publication.
A Rare Benedictine is in the order of publication, but not in the order of setting. That book includes three short stories describing how Cadfael, man-at-arms in the Crusades and Normandy, joined a Benedictine monastery.
A Morbid Taste for Bones (published in August 1977, set in 1137)
One Corpse Too Many (July 1979, set in August 1138)
Monk's Hood (August 1980, set in December 1138)
Saint Peter's Fair (May 1981, set in July 1139)
The Leper of Saint Giles (August 1981, set in October 1139)
The Virgin in the Ice (April 1982, set in November 1139)
The Sanctuary Sparrow (January 1983, set in the Spring of 1140)
The Devil's Novice (August 1983, set in September 1140)
Dead Man's Ransom (April 1984, set in February 1141)
The Pilgrim of Hate (September 1984, set in May 1141)
An Excellent Mystery (June 1985, set in August 1141)
The Raven in the Foregate (February 1986, set in December 1141)
The Rose Rent (October 1986, set in June 1142)
The Hermit of Eyton Forest (June 1987, set in October 1142)
The Confession of Brother Haluin (March 1988, set in December 1142)
A Rare Benedictine: The Advent of Brother Cadfael (September 1988, set in 1120)
The Heretic's Apprentice (February 1989, set in June 1143)
The Potter's Field (September 1989, set in August 1143)
The Summer of the Danes (April 1991, set in April 1144)
The Holy Thief (August 1992, set in February 1145)
Brother Cadfael's Penance (May 1994, set in November 1145)
Note that the numbering of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles as published in paperback by Mysterious Press does not include A Rare Benedictine (instead, the cover refers to it as "The Advent Of Brother Cadfael"); the total of the numbered chronicles (by Mysterious Press) is therefore 20 (per the covers of this set).
All of the novels are also available as audiobooks. Narrators include Vanessa Benjamin (The Devil's Novice from Blackstone Audio), Philip Madoc, Derek Jacobi, Roe Kendall, Stephen Thorne, Patrick Tull and Johanna Ward. The series is also available as e-books from multiple sources, as noted in the publication history for each novel.
The first two novels in the series, along with Cadfael Country: Shropshire and the Welsh Borders, are available as one edition from Mysterious Press.
Seven Cadfael Omnibus editions were published, with three novels in each volume. Most are available as paperbacks, and were later published in hardback.
First Cadfael Omnibus A Morbid Taste for Bones, One Corpse Too Many, Monk's-Hood (December 1990 Sphere / 9780751504767 UK edition)
Second Cadfael Omnibus Saint Peter's Fair, The Leper of Saint Giles, The Virgin in the Ice (October 1991 Sphere / 9780751507294 UK edition)
Third Cadfael Omnibus The Sanctuary Sparrow, The Devil's Novice, Dead Man's Ransom (September 1992 Sphere / 9780751501117 UK edition)
Fourth Cadfael Omnibus Pilgrim of Hate, An Excellent Mystery, The Raven in the Foregate (September 1993 Sphere / 9780751503920 UK edition)
Fifth Cadfael Omnibus The Rose Rent, The Hermit of Eyton Forest, The Confession of Brother Haluin (September 1994 Sphere / 9780751509496 UK edition)
Sixth Cadfael Omnibus The Heretic's Apprentice, The Potter's Field, The Summer of the Danes (January 1996 Sphere / 9780751515893 UK edition)
Seventh Cadfael Omnibus The Holy Thief, Brother Cadfael's Penance, A Rare Benedictine (September 1997 Sphere / 9780751520811 UK edition)
There is also a three books "collection pack set" containing the first three books ("A Morbid Taste for Bones", "One Corpse Too Many" and "Monk's Hood" as separate books.
An omnibus edition published as The Brother Cadfael Mysteries (published by Quality Paperback Book Club, New York, in 1995) contains The Leper of Saint Giles, Monk's Hood, The Sanctuary Sparrow and One Corpse Too Many.
Short stories
Published in A Rare Benedictine: The Advent of Brother Cadfael (1988):
A Light on the Road to Woodstock (set in Autumn 1120)
The Price of Light (set at Christmas 1135)
Eye Witness (set in Spring 1140)
Adaptations
Stage
A stage adaptation of The Virgin in the Ice starred Gareth Thomas as Cadfael.
Radio
BBC Radio 4 produced adaptations of several novels in the Cadfael Chronicles with three different actors voicing Cadfael.
Starring Ray Smith as Cadfael:
1 - A Morbid Taste for Bones (1980) with Steven Pacey as "Brother John"
Starring Glyn Houston as Cadfael:
2 - One Corpse Too Many (1989) with Geoffrey Whitehead as "Adam Courcelles"
Written and produced by Bert Coules and starring Philip Madoc as Cadfael:
3 – Monk's Hood (1991), with Sir Michael Hordern as "The Narrator", Geoffrey Whitehead as "Prior Robert" and Timothy Bateson as "Father Heribert"
6 – The Virgin in the Ice (1992) with Sir Michael Hordern as "The Narrator" and Douglas Hodge as "Hugh Beringar"
9 – Dead Man's Ransom (1995) with Michael Kitchen as "The Narrator", Jonathan Tafler as "Hugh Beringar" and Susannah York as "Sister Magdelen"
Television dramas
Produced in Britain by Central for ITV, 75 minutes per episode. Filmed on location in Hungary and starring Sir Derek Jacobi.
All thirteen episodes have been released on DVD.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
"The world of Brother Cadfael" Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture, Winter, 2008 by H. Wendell Howard
"Master of the medieval mystery" 11 June 2009 Guardian
"That Healing Touch in a Brutal Century" New York Times. January 3, 1999
Mystery novels by series
Crime novel series
Historical novels by series
British crime novels
Historical novels
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels set in Shropshire
Novels set in the 12th century
The Anarchy
Cultural depictions of Empress Matilda
Clerical mysteries
Historical mystery novels |
7306949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Devil%20and%20God%20Are%20Raging%20Inside%20Me | The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me | The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me is the third studio album by American rock band Brand New. It was recorded from 2005 to 2006 in studios in Long Island and Massachusetts with producer Mike Sapone, and released on November 21, 2006 through Interscope Records, making it their major label debut. The album arose following the online leaking of several unfinished demos that were meant to be early blueprints of the upcoming record. Two singles from the album were released – "Sowing Season" on November 21, 2006, and "Jesus Christ" on April 30, 2007. The album peaked at No. 31 on the Billboard 200, becoming the band's highest-charting record at the time of its release.
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me received positive reviews from critics, with many music publications pronouncing it as one of the best albums of the decade. Its legacy has grown immensely in the years since, and it is now credited as one of the most important and influential albums in the genres of alternative rock, post-hardcore and emo by fellow musicians, critics and music writers. Considered Brand New's best work by various sources including the band itself, the album shows the continuing progression and maturity as lyricists and songwriters by delving into darker subject matters such as existentialism, death, depression and religion. Musically, Brand New built off their pop punk origins and added in elements of indie rock, experimental rock and post-hardcore. The band embarked on a tour in 2016 to specifically commemorate the ten-year anniversary of the album's release, playing the seminal album in its entirety. On November 15, 2022, the album received a Gold certification from the RIAA, denoting sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States alone.
Background and recording
In mid-2004, after four years of regular touring and recording as Brand New, they decided to take time off and concentrate on their personal lives and pursuing other projects. At this point, the band had already written and recorded "10 or 11 songs" that they believed would form the next album. In late 2005, when the band reunited to continue work on the album, they found that the music they were writing was entirely different to the tracks they had previously recorded for the album, leading them to start over.When the band reentered the recording studio, they began working with producer Dennis Herring in Oxford, Mississippi. Lacey recalled that Herring understood exactly what the band was trying to do with the album, but due to time constraints and lack of money they instead opted to work with Mike Sapone, with whom they had worked with on their first album. Sapone acted more as a "fifth or sixth bandmember" than as a producer, Lacey recalled, which allowed the band the involvement and control over the production that they were looking for, as well as allowing the band freedom to be more experimental. Throughout the writing and recording, Jesse Lacey, Vincent Accardi, Garrett Tierney, Brian Lane and Derrick Sherman were each plagued with death and illness amongst their families and friends. Lacey recalled that each of them had become a little too comfortable with the idea of a funeral.
Recording with Sapone took place over the winter of 2005 through until the spring of 2006 at Longview Farm and later Cove City and Sapone's studio in the basement of his house.
Live guitarist Derrick Sherman who had been touring with the band for some time was also present during the recording sessions, contributing parts to all of the album's tracks. After the initial scrapped album session from 2004 and leaked demos in 2006, the band had written and recorded around forty tracks for the album.
As the band's first release on a major label, the band expressed hesitancy and nervousness over their increased fame. In an interview with their street team, Tierney said his biggest fear was "get[ting] too big", while Lacey's was that he was "scared of the hype" and "scared of people who never heard our band trying to sell it to people who are, you know, breathing it already."
Music executive Luke Wood of Interscope Records expressed frustration with the math rock and Slint influence on the early drafts of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me. "I thought you were going to be like Bruce Springsteen," he told the band. Wood and Jimmy Iovine had multiple discussions with the band in order to make the album something that Interscope felt was worth releasing.
Leaked demos
On January 24, 2006, nine untitled demos for the album leaked onto the Internet. The band was disappointed to hear of the leak; however, they had already been performing new tracks at live shows.
Initially leaked without song titles, two of the songs would be re-recorded for the album, with two others being re-recorded and released on singles from the album. Early versions of "Sowing Season" and "Luca" (with a possible early title of "Mamas") feature on the demos, with the original recording of the latter seeing official release in the UK edition of the album as "Luca (Reprisal Version)". "Brother's Song" was reworked as "aloC-acoC" and released on the "Sowing Season" single, while the original demo featured the "Jesus Christ" single under the title "Brothers". A completed version of "(Fork and Knife)" recorded during The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me sessions was released as a standalone single in 2007.
Music writer Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic commended the band for their reaction to the leaks, praising them for starting over and recording original tracks that showed more growth and development than the demos. "It was probably the best thing that could have happened to Brand New," he said, "because it forced them to rewrite the album with an even greater purpose and attention to detail."
Often referred to by fans as Fight Off Your Demons, the batch of leaked demos were remastered and officially released to the public on December 2, 2015 as Leaked Demos 2006, made available digitally and on cassette. On July 13, 2016, the band released 3 Demos, Reworked, an EP that consisted of re-recorded versions of "Brother's Song", "Missing You" and "1996". With that release, only one demo ("Good Man") has yet to be re-recorded or reworked.
Music and influence
Vocalist and guitarist Jesse Lacey wrote lyrics for all of the album's tracks with the exception of "Handcuffs", which was written by Vincent Accardi. The tracks "Degausser" and "Sowing Season" were composed spontaneously as a band, whilst Accardi composed the music for "Handcuffs", "Not the Sun" and "Welcome to Bangkok", with Lacey writing the rest.
Death and illness became two of the main themes present on the record. In an interview Lacey commented that the band purposely immersed themselves in the loss of friends and family to channel it into their songwriting and expel it. The liner notes dedicate the album to "Robert Sherman, Red Lacey, Leo Lacey, Bill and Virginia Sherman, James McAuliffe, Rosemary Kancelerski, Frances Ambrosio, Manfred Cardone III, Sid Rosen, Seymour Lane, Michelle Lane, George Moe, Alexander Lambros, and Omir Ortega, all of whom left us between the start and completion of the record."
Lyrical content
Lacey suffered from depression during the writing stage of the album due to anxiety revolving around the high expectations put upon the band following the critical success of Deja Entendu.
As with previous Brand New records, Lacey drew inspiration from popular culture and literature for his lyrics. Lacey also wrote about subjects that he would discuss with his friend Kevin Devine, with some of Lacey's lyrics directly responding to questions that Devine would ask him during writing.
The second verse to opening track "Sowing Season" is inspired by the Rudyard Kipling poem If— whilst the title of "Sowing Season" is a reference from Stephen King's novel Secret Window, Secret Garden, where the main character had written a short story of the same title. The song deals with topics such as death (as per the notable opening line of the album, "was losing all my friends, was losing them to drinking and to driving") and the desire to better oneself.
"Millstone", track two, is described by Sputnikmusic as being about "not a loss of hope but rather a loss of innocence", citing lines such as "I used to pray that God was listening / I used to make my parents proud" as examples of such. "Jesus Christ" is about "analyzing crises of faith" in a conversation with God, making references to Biblical figures such as Thomas the Apostle and Elijah. Its lyrics touch on loneliness, the validity of the afterlife and the struggle to maintain faith, influenced by Lacey's religious upbringing and his attending South Shore Christian School during his adolescence. The single's artwork pays homage to the album Goat by The Jesus Lizard.
Fourth track "Degausser" borrows the lyric "Take apart the demon, in the attic to the left" from the Roky Erickson track "Bloody Hammer".
Fifth song on the album "Limousine" is about the death of seven-year-old Katie Flynn from the band's hometown of Long Island. Travelling home with her family after a wedding, their limousine was hit by drunk driver Martin Heidgen, a few miles from where Lacey was living at the time, leading to the decapitation of the young Flynn, whose severed head fell into her mother's arms. In the track, Lacey tells the story from various perspectives, including that of Flynn's mother, Heidgen and Flynn herself. Lacey has commented that the story particularly resonated with him as he knew people who drove drunk the week the accident took place. Producer Mike Sapone had the idea to include samples of explosions in the track, hence the subtitle "MS Rebridge", with MS being Sapone's initials. At seven minutes and forty-two seconds, it remained Brand New's longest song until 2017's "Batter Up," which is eight minutes and twenty-eight seconds long. The track's bridge repeats itself seven times as Lacey counts up, one for each year of Flynn's life. "Limousine" is often cited as Brand New's greatest song.
Writing for Team Rock, Mischa Pearlman believed the title and lyrics of "Luca" reference the fictional character Luca Brasi of the 1972 American crime film The Godfather. "The Archers' Bows Have Broken" is described as being about people who use religion for self-serving purposes instead of the intentions of the prophets, including in politics. Its aural traits include "the sound of nihilism and religion converging, and the world burning down as a result."
Title and artwork
The name of the album came from a conversation Jesse Lacey had with a friend regarding Daniel Johnston, a musician who suffered from schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
The album cover is a picture titled "Untitled #44" from Nicholas Prior's "Age of Man" collection which the band saw at an art show in New York City. The outside of the cardboard case contains no song listings, and doesn't contain the name of the album or the band name anywhere but on the spine. The record company instead placed stickers on the plastic wrapping to indicate the name of the album and band, and on the UK version to indicate that it had the bonus track.
Release and promotion
Original release and touring
In June and July 2006, the band went on their first tour in three years, during which, they debuted "Sowing Season", "Degausser", "Luca", and "(Fork and Knife)". The album was announced September 10, 2006. On October 5, the album's title and track listing was revealed. From mid October to early December, the band went on a U.S. tour alongside Dashboard Confessional. On October 18, the album's cover art was revealed. Two days later, "Sowing Season" was made available for streaming via the band's Myspace account. Throughout October and November the band performed a series of in-store acoustic gigs. On November 14, "Degausser" was made available for streaming via the band's PureVolume account. The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was made available for streaming on November 20, and released a day later through Interscope. The album was original planned to be released on DreamWorks, but the label was folded into Interscope. People that pre-ordered the album received a CD single of "Sowing Season" with the B-side "Coca Cola". People that pre-ordered the album from BestBuy were able to download a video for "--".
In January 2007, the band announced they were in the process of making a music video. In February, the band went on their first UK tour in three years. After touring and promoting previous record Déjà Entendu, the band became increasingly reluctant to give interviews or talk to the press in promotion of the record. In one of a few exceptions during the UK tour, Lacey discussed that this was due to many journalists and publications misrepresenting and taking quotes out of context to make their interviews more interesting. Lacey also felt "more comfortable" not having to worry about photo shoots and music videos and instead just concentrate on writing and performing music. Few television, radio or online performances were given either. Lead singer Jesse Lacey was interviewed by WFNX on April 24, 2007 at the First Act Guitar Studio, Boston as part of an acoustic performance for VW Green Room that was subsequently made available to download. The track "Jesus Christ" was performed on both NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien and the Late Show with David Letterman on CBS.
In March and April 2007, the band went on a tour of the U.S. "Jesus Christ" was released to radio on March 27. The song peaked at No. 30 on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart, beating the No. 37 peak of "The Quiet Things That No One Ever Knows" to become the band's biggest hit on alternative radio. In July and August, Lacey went on a solo tour with Kevin Devine and Grace Read. In August, the band played several European festivals including Reading and Leeds in the United Kingdom, Lowlands in the Netherlands, FM4 Frequency Festival in Austria. From mid October to mid December, the band went on a tour of the U.S. with Thrice and MewithoutYou. A music video for "Jesus Christ" directed by Moh Azima was produced; however, it was never used by the band. Originally made available in 2009 before being taken down, Azima made the video available to stream on his own website in January 2012.
"Archers" was featured in the 2008 racing video game Burnout Paradise, and "Sowing Season" was included in the 2009 rhythm music game Guitar Hero 5. A live fancam performances of "Sowing Season" from the band's show at The Academy in Newcastle in February 2012 was made available by O2, with another performance from Brasil in July 2014.
In 2023, Interscope's Wood recalled the lack of promotion the band wanted to do for the album. "There wasn’t a music video, there wasn’t even a photo shoot. There wasn’t a bio. They wanted none of it. They were retreating from the commercialization of the genre they came from. They were like, 'Okay, everybody else is this, we’re gonna be that.'" The one event that Brand New agreed to do was the performance of "Jesus Christ" on Conan O'Brien and David Letterman.
Vinyl release and lyric booklets
After a July 30, 2008 solo show, Lacey stated that the long wait for the vinyl release of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was due primarily to the band's failure to secure the rights of Nicholas Prior's photograph. Lacey continued on saying that after the band either secured the rights to the picture, or chose an alternate cover, only then would the album be released on vinyl. The band managed to secure the rights to the image by 2010, and released the album on vinyl in that same year.
On January 11, 2010, Brand New announced via their Twitter account that The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me would be released as a double vinyl LP set through Procrastinate! Music Traitors and Triple Crown Records. This version included a lyric sheet that was not included with the original CD. The vinyl set was made available in stores on March 23, 2010. Another pressing of the album was done by Academy Fight Song, which went up for pre-order on their website on May 17, 2010. This pressing was released on September 17, 2010. The album was repressed by Music on Vinyl in late 2013.
Upon the album's release, the band requested in the liner notes for fans to send them $1 in the mail to receive a lyric booklet. In April 2015 the band began sending out lyric booklets to fans that had sent them $1 nine years previously. The first pressing of the lyric booklets titled Pogolith 000 contained a number of stickers, patches and a poster alluding to the release of the leaked demos from the album. A second "no thrills" version was subsequently made available at the band's merchandise kiosk at shows and on their website.
Critical reception
The Devil and God are Raging Inside Me received critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 78, based on 17 reviews. Critics emphasized the album's artistic leap in songwriting from the band's previous records.
In a positive review, Piero Scaruffi praised how "[t]he sonic quality is worthy of Pink Floyd, and guitarist Accardi especially shines as an atmospheric soundpainter... Few bands have changed so dramatically in the course of just three albums."
Channing Freeman, a Sputnikmusic staff member, gave the album a perfect five stars, firmly declaring "there are hundreds of albums to which I am connected in unique ways but this is the only one that asks me big questions, expects big answers, and does not hold it against me when I come up with the same old pile of bullshit that I always do." Praising "Limousine" as Lacey's best song lyrically and a "pinnacle of modern songwriting" along with "Degausser", "Sowing Season" and "You Won't Know", Freeman stated that the album "features one of the largest progressions I have ever seen from a band... most bands don't show that sort of growth even once throughout their career, but Brand New have done it twice."
Writing for AllMusic, Corey Apar called the record "dark and dense, yet accessible, a shadowy air permeating every crevice where Jesse Lacey's plaintive and often tortured lyrics aren't already residing." believing the album would give them to opportunity to break into the mainstream if they wanted to. Alternative Press highlighted how there was not a song on the album that could even be compared to material from their debut Your Favorite Weapon, whilst only "Not the Sun" and "Archers" bared any resemblance to material from Déjà Entendu believing the album to be dark, difficult, depressing and desolate, "Devil is the sound of four men hitting absolute rock bottom and desperately trying to rescue themselves through any means necessary; we as listeners are forced to hear the band suffer as a means to reach catharsis-all presumably for our edification" likening it to Modest Mouse and Radiohead's The Bends. Ben Sisario of Blender proclaimed the album to be "as creepy as it is magnificent" hailing Lacey's ability to write songs that "teeter between the gorgeously placid and the exhilaratingly hideous, Lacey leads a bipolar odyssey of blood and guts and desperate prayer". Andrew Blackie of PopMatters praised the album, calling it "certainly more mature, putting breakup and self-infliction clichés, thankfully, behind them".
Accolades
Commercial performance
The album debuted at No. 31 on the Billboard 200, in comparison to the No. 63 debut of their prior album Deja Entendu. It sold 60,000 copies in its first week. It also peaked at No. 5 on Billboard's Digital Albums Chart. A 2014 vinyl repressing of the album led to a No. 10 peak on the August 23, 2014 edition on the Billboard Vinyl Albums chart.
In November 2022, the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), signifying 500,000 copies sold.
Legacy and influence
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was Brand New's most critically acclaimed record until the release of Science Fiction in 2017 and was frequently considered to be their best album. During a 2012 interview, Lacey said the album "saved Brand New", calling it a "course correction" for the band's musical path. In 2016, ten years after its release, Lacey mentioned this album as a particularly important work for the band, and one that they "still use as a measuring post with which we compare the music we make now".
It was rated the best album of 2006 by Punknews and placed at number 74 in NME's list of the one-hundred best albums of the 2000s. Sputnikmusic's ranked the album No. 20 on their list of the Top 100 Best Albums of the 2000s, as voted by staff members, and it was ranked at number 16 in Kerrang!s "50 Albums You Need to Hear Before You Die" list.
The tenth anniversary of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me spawned several discussions regarding the album's legacy on Brand New, on the genres of post-hardcore, indie rock and emo, and on music as a whole. In a retrospective review, Ian Cohen of Pitchfork said that "by leaving his words and intentions up to interpretation, Lacey unwittingly shifted from a minor celebrity to a generational voice", giving the album an 8.5 out of 10 and comparing it to other critically acclaimed indie rock records of the 2000s such as Kid A and The Moon & Antarctica. Nina Corcoran of Consequence of Sound credited Brand New for "end[ing] the need to feel ashamed for connecting to emo", noting that the album's influence "altered the path of emo and alternative rock bands at large, blurred genre lines and bolded something beyond the band." In an article titled "The Immortality of Brand New's 'The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me'", Vice staff writer Ryan Bassil declared "by cutting to the core of the darkest elements of the human experience, never answering any questions, but presenting the feeling within them, it is a record that has the ability to grow with the listener, gaining more and more significance as life goes on."
Fellow musicians also commented on the album's influence and legacy. Tour mate and friend of the band Kevin Devine reflected on the first time he heard the track "Jesus Christ", praising it as "the best song [Brand New] had ever written... emotionally, educationally, intellectually, structurally, in every way". Labeling "Degausser" and "You Won't Know" as other album highlights, Devine referred to the bridge of "Not the Sun" as "[his] favorite minute of music in their catalog" and the album's legacy as "The Dark Side of the Moon but for emo", a comparison that he did not expect upon first listen. Andy Hull, frontman of American indie rock band Manchester Orchestra, complimented Lacey on being "a very clever songwriter", while guitarist Mike Weiss of mewithoutYou compared the influence of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me to that of Nirvana's Nevermind in how it "acted as sort of a pioneering watermark for musical genres that existed in our country", noting how it "broke the barrier [and]... destroyed that entire limitation, that boundary – and that is the importance of this record."
Geoff Rickly, the lead singer of Thursday, recalled how the album musically dwarfed the material his band was making at the same time. "I listened to Devil and God, and I remember about halfway through the third song maybe or fourth song, it just sorta sank on me like a ton of bricks that like, I thought our record [A City by the Light Divided] was a fairly radical change and I was pretty proud of it, and then I heard this absolute masterpiece that was totally different. Basically I was just crushed at how good that record was."
Jason Tate, the founder of music website AbsolutePunk, said that "After Brand New released Devil and God, you’d see all these bands that had been playing pop-punk make their attempt at a rock opus. Usually very badly."
The album's cover art, "Untitled #44" by Nicholas Prior, has been regarded as "iconic". The young girl depicted in the image, four years old when the picture was taken, was seventeen at the time of the record's tenth anniversary. When discussing her opinions on being the subject of such a notable image, Prior answered, "She's seen her likeness in stores, on T-shirts and tattooed on people's arms... while it's always meant something positive to her, I think the significance of it grows and evolves and she does." In a text to Prior, the girl replied, "The album art contributes a lot to the music's meaning, so by simply being in the photo, I feel like I’m contributing to an emotion felt by [their] fans. I consider myself a small part of the vehicle to help people learn more about themselves and what they love, which is a real honor."
In August 2016, Brand New announced that they would be touring the United States in the autumn with Modern Baseball and The Front Bottoms as supporting acts, playing smaller cities and venues that were not covered on the band's summer tour with Modest Mouse. A month later, as the band postponed the release of their unreleased fifth album from 2016 to 2017, they announced that they would be playing the entirety of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me on the tour, honoring the tenth anniversary of their most important album.
Track listing
Personnel
Brand New
Jesse Lacey – vocals, rhythm guitar
Vincent Accardi – lead guitar, backing vocals
Garrett Tierney – bass
Brian Lane – drums, percussion
Derrick Sherman – keyboards, rhythm guitar, backing vocals
Production and recording
Mike Sapone – production
Brand New – production
Claudius Mittendorfer – recording
R. Peterson – additional recording
Rich Costey – mixing
Emily Lazer – mastering
Sarah Register – mastering
L. Wood – A&R
Additional musicians
Irina Yalkowsky – theremin on "Luca"
Ron Piscitello – percussion
Brent Arnold – Cello on "Handcuffs”
Margaret White – Viola
Art and design
Jason Noto – art direction and layout
Morning Breath Inc. – art direction and layout
Jesse Lacey – photographs
Brand New – photographs
Borucki – photographs
N. Prior – cover
E. DeAngelis – skeletons
Charts
Certifications
Release history
References
External links
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
2006 albums
Brand New (band) albums
Interscope Records albums
Albums produced by Mike Sapone
Albums recorded at Long View Farm |
5195425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Target%20%28The%20Wire%29 | The Target (The Wire) | "The Target" is the series premiere of the HBO original series The Wire. The episode was written by David Simon from a story by Simon and Ed Burns and was directed by Clark Johnson. It originally aired on June 2, 2002. The title refers to Detective Jimmy McNulty setting his sights on Stringer Bell and Avon Barksdale's drug-dealing organization as the target of an investigation.
Plot summary
Baltimore homicide detective Jimmy McNulty investigates the murder of Omar "Snot Boogie" Betts, a "rip and run" kid who was shot while attempting to rob a back alley craps game. An eyewitness describes to McNulty the illogical, but to that point accepted, pattern of the regulars allowing Snot Boogie to join the game each week, knowing in advance he would rob it, followed by their chasing him down to beat him and retrieve their money. McNulty, "in exchange for some Grape Nehi and a few Newports", persuades the witness to testify in court. The following day, McNulty observes the courtroom trial of D'Angelo Barksdale, a young drug dealer charged with killing a low-ranking gang member. One of the two witnesses, a security guard named Nakeesha Lyles, changes her story on the stand and refuses to identify D'Angelo, resulting in an acquittal.
McNulty vents his frustration to Judge Daniel Phelan about the Baltimore Police Department's failure to investigate D'Angelo's uncle Avon and his right-hand man Stringer Bell, who are major players in West Baltimore's drug trade. Phelan makes a call to Deputy Commissioner Ervin Burrell. Later, Major William Rawls, incensed that McNulty went around the chain of command, forces him to write a report for Burrell about the Barksdale murders. Sergeant Jay Landsman warns McNulty that his behavior could end with reassignment. He asks where McNulty would not want to be reassigned, and McNulty admits he dreads being posted to the harbor patrol unit.
Wee-Bey Brice drives D'Angelo to Orlando's strip club, a front for the Barksdale Organization. When D'Angelo discusses the trial in Wee-Bey's car, Wee-Bey curtly reminds him not to discuss business in the car or on the phone, in case both are being monitored. Avon chides D'Angelo for committing a needless public murder, costing the organization time, effort, and money. D'Angelo also meets a stripper called Shardene Innes. When D'Angelo arrives at the high-rise Franklin Terrace housing projects, Stringer tells him he has been demoted to heading a crew in the low-rise projects, dubbed "the Pit." This new crew includes Bodie Broadus, Poot Carr, and young Wallace.
Narcotics lieutenant Cedric Daniels is tasked by Burrell with organizing a detail to investigate the Barksdales. Burrell wants to keep the investigation quick and simple, appeasing Phelan without becoming drawn into a protracted case. Daniels brings narcotics detectives Kima Greggs, Thomas "Herc" Hauk, and Ellis Carver with him. Rawls sends McNulty and Michael Santangelo, one of Homicide's more inept detectives. McNulty's FBI contact, Agent Terrance "Fitz" Fitzhugh, shows him the Bureau's far superior surveillance equipment, but explains that their drug investigations are winding down due to the War on Terror. McNulty objects to Daniels' plan of buy busts and suggests using a wiretap to get a conviction. However, Daniels insists on a fast-paced investigation, suggesting that the detail looks at old murders tied to the Barksdales.
McNulty goes drinking with his Homicide partner Bunk Moreland and complains about his ex-wife, who makes it difficult for him to see his two sons. Greggs returns home to her partner Cheryl. A heroin addict called Bubbles and his protege, Johnny Weeks, buy drugs with counterfeit money, but when they try to repeat the scam, Bodie leads the crew in beating Johnny. Bubbles is also a confidential informant for Greggs, and agrees to give her information on the Barksdales as revenge for the beating. At the start of his second day working the Pit, D'Angelo is shocked to find the murdered body of William Gant, another witness at his trial, lying in the street.
Production
Epigraph
This line is taken from a conversation in which McNulty criticizes his colleague Bunk Moreland for taking on a homicide case that he could have avoided – it not being his turn in the rotation to take the next case. Bunk took the case because he knew the corpse was found in a house, which statistically gave him a much better chance of solving the case than if the victim had been found outdoors. The conversation is ironic since McNulty has broken the rules in a much more serious fashion by circumventing the chain of command.
Commentary
The DVD release featured a commentary track recorded by creator and writer/producer David Simon. Simon discusses the season's novelistic structure and the theme of the corrupting influence of the institutions that the characters have committed to. He mentions many real-life inspirations for events and characters on the show.
He discusses the technique of using surveillance methods within shots (TV monitors, security cameras etc.) to give the sense of always being watched and a need to process the vast amount of information available to the show's detective characters. He also talks about trying to ground the show in realism by using only diegetic music.
Throughout the commentary, Simon tries to distinguish The Wire from other television crime dramas. He makes the point that the detectives are motivated not by a desire to protect and serve but by the intellectual vanity of believing they are smarter than the criminals they are chasing.
At the end of the episode, when the body of Gant is found, there is a brief flashback to the trial, re-identifying the character for the audience. David Simon cites it as one of the few things HBO urged them to do, to make sure audiences recognized the character. Although Simon concedes that 'maybe they were right', he says that they were reluctant to put it in as it broke from the style of the show. The show's storytelling has been entirely linear ever since.
Non-fictional elements
Both the Snot Boogie murder story and Bunk's tale of shooting a mouse in his kitchen are anecdotes from Simon's time researching his non-fiction book Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (1991). A real police officer named Jay Landsman is also a character in the book.
Reviewers have noted the pilot's grounding in the non-fiction political climate. The San Francisco Chronicle commented that the show had forecast a reduction of the FBI's attention to the War on Drugs because of the competing War on Terror. Simon confirms that the pilot was shot only a few weeks after 9/11, but that the writers correctly predicted what the FBI's response would be.
Locations
The opening scene (the Snot Boogie crime scene) was filmed at the corner of Fulton and Lexington in West Baltimore. The scenes set at Orlando's gentleman's club were filmed at the Ritz Cabaret in Fells Point.
Credits
Starring cast
The credited starring cast consists of Dominic West (Jimmy McNulty), John Doman (William Rawls), Idris Elba (Stringer Bell), Frankie Faison (Ervin Burrell), Larry Gilliard, Jr. (D'Angelo Barksdale), Wood Harris (Avon Barksdale), Deirdre Lovejoy (Assistant State's Attorney Rhonda Pearlman), Wendell Pierce (Bunk Moreland), Lance Reddick (Cedric Daniels), Andre Royo (Bubbles), and Sonja Sohn (Kima Greggs).
Guest stars
Peter Gerety as Judge Daniel Phelan
Seth Gilliam as Detective Ellis Carver
Domenick Lombardozzi as Detective Thomas "Herc" Hauk
Leo Fitzpatrick as Johnny Weeks
J. D. Williams as Preston "Bodie" Broadus
Hassan Johnson as Roland "Wee-Bey" Brice
Michael B. Jordan as Wallace
Clayton LeBouef as Wendell "Orlando" Blocker
Melanie Nicholls-King as Cheryl
Doug Olear as FBI Special Agent Terrance "Fitz" Fitzhugh
Delaney Williams as Sergeant Jay Landsman
Richard De Angelis as Major Raymond Foerster
Wendy Grantham as Shardene Innes
Michael Kostroff as Maurice Levy
Michael Salconi as Detective Michael Santangelo
Ingrid Cornell as Nakeesha Lyles
Larry Hull as William Gant
Lucy Newman-Williams as Assistant State's Attorney Taryn Hansen
Michael Stone Forrest as Detective Frank Barlow
The episode introduces many characters who are important over the course of the series, despite only being credited as guest stars. Domenick Lombardozzi plays Herc. Leo Fitzpatrick plays homeless, hapless drug addict Johnny Weeks. Hassan Johnson plays criminal enforcer Wee-Bey Brice. Michael B. Jordan plays naive sixteen-year-old drug dealer Wallace. Melanie Nicholls-King plays Detective Greggs' domestic partner Cheryl. Doug Olear plays FBI Special Agent Terrence "Fitz" Fitzhugh. Richard DeAngelis plays Major Raymond Foerster. Wendy Grantham plays stripper Shardene Innes. Michael Kostroff plays defense lawyer Maurice Levy. Michael Salconi plays Detective Michael Santangelo.
Reviewers have noted that several actors appearing in the series have previously appeared in Homicide: Life on the Street and Oz. In addition to Reddick and Harris, Oz alumni include Seth Gilliam (Ellis Carver) and J.D. Williams (Bodie Broadus). Peter Gerety (Judge Phelan) and Clayton LeBouef (Orlando) were both major characters on Homicide, on which Delaney Williams (Sgt. Jay Landsman) had also appeared. This episode was the first of several directed by Clark Johnson, also an alumnus of Homicide. The Corner star Larry Hull appears as maintenance man and witness William Gant.
Reception
The Guardian Unlimited review noted the pilot episode established the series' themes of institutional dysfunction, the ineffectiveness of the War on Drugs and novelistic structure. The review compared the series to Richard Price's 1992 novel Clockers and wondered if the pace could be sustained for an entire season. The review picked out the characters of Jimmy and Avon as particularly significant. An Entertainment Weekly reviewer praised Johnson's direction of the episode and credited him with drawing subtle performances out of Gerety and Reddick. Tim Goodman of The San Francisco Chronicle characterized the show as another success for the HBO network and a well-produced and complex subversion of the cops and robbers genre. He credited Simon's reporter's eye for detail for the series' verisimilitude. He also noted the series themes of institutional dysfunction, the ineffectiveness of the War on Drugs, and novelistic structure. A separate Chronicle article highlighted the theme of institutional dysfunction through the comparable experience of characters on opposite sides of the law using Jimmy and D'Angelo as examples. The review also made favorable comparisons between the show and Simon's previous work on Homicide: Life on the Street, attributing the improvement to the switch to cable television for The Wire from the NBC network who produced Homicide.
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette was more critical of the show. They stated that the producers' expectations that the audience would have the patience for a complex, morally ambiguous, and slowly unfolding story might prove unfounded. They noted the cast members from Homicide and Oz and described The Wire as less accessible than either of these shows and also compared the pacing to Farscape. They praised the performances of some of the cast and said that the show had moments that drew the viewer in but ultimately required too much of its audience. The New York Times also felt that the show "went out of its way to be choppy and confusing" and eschewed conventions of signposting the introduction of characters and obvious exposition but commented that while some viewers may be alienated others would find this refreshing. They noted the theme of institutional dysfunction and the use of parallel storylines for characters in different organizations to highlight this, citing the pariah status of Jimmy and D'Angelo. The review also criticized the show's attempts at realistic dialogue, saying that it often seemed self-conscious, and the examination of the detectives' personal lives, saying that it had been done before. The review stated that the show's success would hinge not on its apparent high quality but on the tolerance of the viewer for the complexity of the continuing narrative, which they characterized as considerably more downbeat than high-octane shows like 24.
The opening scene at the Snot Boogie crime scene has been praised as being a "perfectly crafted set-up" for the series' themes of institutional dysfunction, devaluing human life, and epitomizing the bleak humor of the show.
References
External links
"The Target" at HBO.com
The Wire (season 1) episodes
2002 American television episodes
American television series premieres
Television episodes directed by Clark Johnson
Television episodes written by David Simon |
59633251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borze%C8%99ti%20Petrochemical%20Plant | Borzești Petrochemical Plant | Borzeşti Petrochemical Plant (formerly GIP - Borzeşti Petrochemical Industrial Group) is an industrial complex consisting of five large-scale plants: Synthetic Rubber and Petrochemicals Complex, No. 10 Oil Refinery, Borzești Chemical Plant, Borzești Power Plant and Chemical Equipment Company, being the largest industrial complex in Bacău County and the largest unit of its kind in Romania, which covers an area of , with an average length of and a width of . It is located on the Trotuș Valley, on the northeastern outskirts of Onești (named between 1965 and 1990 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej).
Its construction began in 1952 and the first plants were put into operation in 1956 at the No. 10 Oil Refinery.
On April 1, 1969, the three distinct plants on the industrial platform in Borzeşti merged into the giant "Petrochemical Industrial Group Borzeşti" complex, and in 1973 it was renamed the "Borzeşti Petrochemical Plant". The abandonment of the centralized management system of the Romanian economy in 1990 determined the reappearance of the distinct entities, thus the Petrochemical Platform was divided into the private companies: Carom Onești, Rafo, Chimcomplex, Întreprinderea Electrocentrale Borzeşti and Uton.
Emplacement
The space occupied by the petrochemical plant is located in the north-northeast of Onești, near the former village of Borzești. It stretches on the lower terraces of the Trotuș River in the valley of the confluence area with altitudes of and . It has a rectangular shape oriented north-east, southwest with an average length of and a width . The choice of place is motivated by the relatively flat levels of the terraced bridges, with passages dimmed by the colluvium, the presence of the Trotuş River water on the northern and north-eastern side, the existence of the communication ways.
History
In 1952, a team of geographers and urbanists headed by Mihail Florescu, Minister of Chemical Industry, went to the Trotuş Valley to establish the location of a city and a large industrial compound. In this team was also the geographer Vintilă M. Mihăilescu. It was preferred Onești because:
is located at the meeting place of Trotuș River () with its most important tributaries: Cașin River (), Oituz River () and Tazlău River ().
is situated at a convergence of roads in four main directions: towards Brașov via Târgu Secuiesc through the Oituz Pass; towards Târgu Ocna (with a branch to Slănic-Moldova), Comănești (with a branch to Moinești) and Miercurea Ciuc through Ghimes-Palanca Pass; towards Bacău, through the Tazlău subcarpathian depression (with a branch pointing to Moinești); towards Adjud, in the lower valley of the Trotuș River.
is seated in a well-populated area.
is set in a relief made up of a slab built of sandstone gravel in a thick blanket covered with clay, consisting of two terraces, a taller one and a lower one.
However, natural elements were not enough to achieve a medium-sized city (40 to 60,000 inhabitants). This is consistent with the French geographer Paul Vidal de La Blache in the sense that "the elements of the site have elements of fixation, whereas those of the situation (geographical position) are factors of progression, of development. The site receives the city, but it is the situation which vivifies it." Vidal's concept was also verified in the case of Onești, the potential regional elements were concentrated in the petrochemical plant: petroleum crude oil from Bacău Region oilfield, sodium chloride from Târgu Ocna mine. The energy base was completed with the methane gas transported through the trans-Carpathian pipeline Nadeș-Oituz Pass.
The location between Onești and of a large petrochemical industrial complex - approved by H.C.M. (Hotărârea Consiliului de Miniștrii) No. 1638/1952, an integral part of the measures taken by the Romanian Workers' Party for the development of Moldavia, proved to be optimal on technical, economical and social criteria, taking into account the amounts of considerable natural resources in the Trotuș basin. The same decision stipulated the need for the construction of a thermal power plant in Borzeşti, which was to supply the new industrial complex in Onesti with electric and thermal energy. The data in 1951 showed that the electricity demand in Moldova amounted to 1,350 million KWh for the year 1955, that is for 5.6 times more than the entire production of the first year of the 1951-1955 Five-Year Plan.
By the Decision of the Council of Ministers (H.C.M.) No. 1635/1952, it was envisaged that in the Bacău Region, Târgu Ocna Raion, the construction of Borzești Industrial Group and the related proletarian city, Onești. The industrial zone was built northeast of the former village of Borzești, between the railway and the Trotuș River, its surface exceeding that of other parts of the city. As a result of this decision, in 1952, the colonies for construction workers began to be built and then the foundations of the first apartment buildings. At the city and industrial sites have worked alongside construction workers assembled in colonies and common law detainees or political prisoners. Soon the city had the highest number of intellectuals per thousand inhabitants, and the average age was 28 years old.
The petrochemical plant was built in four stages: First stage (1952-1960), comprises the first works from the Borzești Thermal Power Plant (1952), the No. 10 Oil Refinery (by H.C.M .1683/1952), the Rubber Plant (H.C.M. 1498/1957) grouped on 610 ha; (1961-1965), the phenol, acetone equipments (1961), synthetic rubber (1963) and styrene-polystyrene (1964), the industrial platform exceeds 846 ha. In the third stage (1966-1970), works were started at Refinery II and the Poly-isoprenic factory. In the fourth stage, two industrial objectives were put into operation: Synthetic Rubber Plant II and Refinery II. The surface of the platform has exceeded 1000 hectares and includes the city platform based on the food industry, wood processing and others.
At the same time, beginning construction of the electrolytic caustic soda plant (H.C.M. 2068/1954), later became the Borzesti Chemical Plant, whose first capacities were put into operation in 1960, when the salt brought directly from the Târgu Ocna mine or the brine transported through the plants in pipelines began to be transformed into highly demanded products: caustic soda, chlorine, hydrogen.
Between June 18–25, 1962, a Soviet delegation led by Nikita Khrushchev took place in Romania. The Delegation, accompanied by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, visited the town of Onești and the industrial group. In the same year, between September 15–21, a government delegation of the German Democratic Republic, headed by Walter Ulbricht, visited Romania. It also visited the town of Onesti and the industrial complex. In September 1966 the Industrial Complex and the city were visited by Nicolae Ceaușescu and Ion Gheorghe Maurer.
Installations commissioned in 1960 were: diaphragm electrolysis, liquid chlorine evaporation-melting, lime chloride, sulfuric acid, monochlorobenzene, Detexan and hexachlorane - commissioning continued in 1961 with chlorination plants and methylene chloride. Featuring chlorine in large quantities, this plant becomes one of the largest chlorinated insecticides producers in the country, managing to cover not only the needs of agriculture, but also to provide products for export.
The operation of the third industrial unit on the current petrochemical complex was carried out in 1962, when the first quantities of Isopropylbenzene, phenol and acetone were produced. For industrial complex and for the national economy, this year was a crucial moment, since the commissioning of the Synthetic Rubber and Petrochemicals Complex has created the premises for a broad economic development for the coming years and a jump in the economic potential of Bacău County. These units continued with new technologies, at the oil refinery the atmospheric and vacuum distillation plants no. 3, thermal cracking, catalytic cracking no. 1 and 2, absorption-fractionation gas, coke calcination, catalytic reforming complex and furfurol gas oil solvent plant, which have created opportunities to capitalize products at a higher level. At the same pace, the electrolytic caustic soda plant increased production. At old plants have been added new ones: fatty alcohols, vinyl compounds, caustic soda. At the rubber plant, new polyisoprene rubber plants were put into operation.
On April 1, 1969, the three factories on the Borzești Industrial Complex merged into the giant "Petrochemical Industrial Group Borzeşti", and in 1973 it became the "Borzeşti Petrochemical Plant", comprising 12,000 of employees, out of which 463 have higher education. In the over 20 years that have passed since the establishment of the first plant, through an organic bonding between technological processes and through superior valorization, it has continuously strengthened its economic power, maintaining itself as the most important industrial unit of Bacău County.
In 1970 the chemical production of the Borzesti Petrochemical Industrial Group accounted for 99.9% of the production of the chemical industry of Bacău County and 8% of the chemical industry of the country.
At the end of 1979, the value of the fixed assets in the endowment amounted to 7860 million lei, resulting in an industrial production of almost 7 billion lei, representing 26% of the entire industrial production of the county. Value production in 1979 was 3.4 times higher than in 1965, when the average annual growth rate was 9.2%. Significant increases were recorded over 1965 in a series all products such as: caustic soda 1.9 times, synthetic rubber 4.7 times, phenol 2.4 times, polystyrene 3.7 times, gasoline 2.3 times, vinyl polychloride 1.4 times, insecticides 1.5 times.
The products manufactured by the petrochemical complex have been exported to more than 40 countries including: The union of Soviet Socialist Rebublics, China, Germany, Hungary, Yugoslavia, England, Italy, Spain, France Egypt, Israel, Czechoslovakia, Iran, Japan, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, India, Poland, Bulgaria, Sweden, Turkey and others.
Between 11 and 14 October 1976, King Baudouin of Belgium, accompanied by Queen Fabiola, visited Romania, among others by visiting the petrochemical complex.The platform had 12,000 workers in 1980, achieving a productivity of 2.8 times higher than in 1965. The benefits obtained in 1979 by this unit amounted to 520 million lei.
The Petrochemical plant Borzeşti directly influenced the establishment and development of a new city, which became the municipality of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (Onești), which ensures conditions for the petrochemical workers of Trotuș Valley. The new city is remarkable by the pace of development and specialization, modern architecture and a dynamic influence area. These qualities were synthesized by the French geographer André Blanc - "Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej is the brightest example of the creative transformation of the natural environment based on systematic studies in order to raise the economic level of a region that was underdeveloped until short time ago."
Industrial structure
The Trotuș basin had a natural and human potential corresponding to economic and social transformations. After World War II, oversized industrial construction plans were developed that surpassed regional potential, leading to large investments, difficulties in raw materials supply and distribution of products and, in some cases, pollution of the area. In 1986, the workers of the Onești industry exceeded 22,000 people and the industrial platform reached 1,038 ha. In the first stage of development, the foundations of an energy industry were established.
After 1980 there were significant mutations in the structure of production, in the superior valorization of raw materials in the area. In 1984 over 54% of industrial production was petroleum products, 21,8% synthetic rubber and latex, 5,5% plastics, 4,8% insecticides, fungicides and herbicides for agriculture, 3,7% caustic soda and 9% organic and inorganic chemicals, solvents, chlorinates.
Energy industry
The Borzești Power Station began building in 1956, when the first 25 MW generator was installed. Until 1966 were completed with 25 MW, in 1957, 50 MW in 1960, 25 MW in 1961, 50 MW in 1962 and 1966. The largest increase in capacity was in 1969 with 2x200 MW, the main fuels being oil and the gas flowing from the Tazlău Valley. The installed power of the thermal plant in 1970 exceeded the installed power of existing generating sets throughout the country in 1938.
The grid generated electricity over the requirements of the industrial complex and the residential city, with production increasing 63.7 times in 1985 compared to 1956, so 110 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV power lines were built for the industrial centers in Moldavia and southeastern Transylvania and the railway networks in the Trotuș, Olt and Siret valleys.
Petrochemical industry
The No. 10 Oil Refinery is part of the large refinery category with capacity over 1 million tons. It consists of: Refinery I ("Onești 10") with electrical desalination plants (1957-1960), atmospheric distillation (1961) and Refinery II with gas fraction sections (1980), catalytic reforming (1980) hydrofinishing of gasoline (1980).
The refinery processes oil from Bacău County and some quantities are transferred from refineries in Muntenia or distributed from export. The transport of regional oil and petroleum products is done through pipelines or the railway network. Products include petrol, fuel oil, diesel fuel and derivatives such as benzene, xylene, orthoxylene, ethylbenzene, liquefied gases, and the like.
The Synthetic Rubber and Petrochemicals Complex produced the first quantities of synthetic ethylene-styrene butadiene rubber, being the only enterprise of its kind in the country. The construction took place between 1958 and 1963. Unlike the refinery which primarily processes petroleum into petroleum products (fractions), the rubber plant transforms oil fractions into finished products, such as polystyrene, phenol, acetone, benzene, used in the medicine and paint industry. Since 1976, a second polyisoprene rubber plant has been put into operation and later facilities for the manufacture of latex and butadiene-styrene rubbers.
The synthetic rubber output was 30,820 tonnes in 1965 and 155,909 tonnes in 1985, of which the polyisoprene rubber was 57,079 tonnes in 1985.
In 1970 the fourth line of rubber was put into operation and 70,000 tons of synthetic rubber was produced in that year. The manufactured rubber products were: CAROM 1500: for automotive tires, tractors, scooters, motorcycles, technical articles, conveyor belts, transmission belts and other items requiring good physical properties and good strength. CAROM 1502: for black and colored technical articles, sanitary ware, rubber cloth, carpets. CAROM 1503: for consumer goods, especially footwear. CAROM 1712: for cable and yarn insulation, technical articles, tires and many other applications.
Chemical industry
The Borzesti Chemical Plant is located in the southeastern part of the industrial platform. It was built between 1956 and 1964 with the following structure: caustic soda plant (1960), toxan plant (1961) and polyvinyl chloride - PVC (1964) plant with acetylene, monomer, polychlorinated vinyl emulsion, vinyl polychloride suspension. Acetylene was obtained from a mixture of methane and propane gas by the arc cracking process developed by Aurel Ionescu (1902-1954). The initial profile included chlorosodic products: caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), hydrochloric acid, aluminum chloride, lime chloride, further diversifying production, adding organic solvents: methyl chloride, methylene chloride, cloroform; plastics: vinyl polychloride, emulsion and suspension, ferric vinyl; fatty alcohols, liquid chlorine, and the like. In addition, installations for the production of ammonium chloride, chlorinated insecticides and others have been put into operation.
The chemical plant participated in the national production in the chemical branch by 14% - 25.6%. The production of caustic soda recorded an increase of 48.7 times in 1980 compared to 1960 and the production of insecticides by 30.6 times.
Machine building industry
Borzești Chemical Equipment Company was established between 1973 and 1976, in the following years, manufacturing products such as: technological equipment for chemical, petrochemical, crude, pulp and paper processing; metal structures and mounting elements. The raw materials used were purchased mainly from the Galați Steel Works, Roman Steel Pipes Works, "Republica" Bucharest Steel Pipes Works.
In 1980, I.U.C. Borzești was the only manufacturer of equipment for pilot plants in the chemical industry in the country. In the same year export activity started in countries such as: Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Austria and Germany.
References
Sources
Dr. Pintilie Rusu (coordinator); Stelian Nanianu, Nicolae Barabaș, Ioan Mirea, Dumitru Zaharia, Gheorghe Bucur, Vasile Florea (contributors); Județele Patriei – Județul Bacău, Ed. Sport-Turism, București (1980), pp. 158–160
Rozalia și Teodor Verde; Monografia Municipiului Onești – în date și evenimente , July 2003, pp. 44–47
Șandru Ioan, Toma V. Constantin, Aur Nicu; Orașele Trotușene – Studiu de geografie umană II, Întreprinderea Poligrafică Bacău (1989), pp. 190–197, 208
External links
Romanian Television (TVR) shooting, CAROM and No. 10 Oil Refinery, 1963
TVR shooting, inside the rubber plant CAROM, interview with sound, 1964
TVR shooting, No. 10 Oil Refinery, 1965
TVR shooting, Power Plant Borzești, 1973
TVR shooting, construction of L.E.A. Borzești-Iași, 1973
British Movietone archived shooting by AP Archive with the No. 10 Oil Refinery, 1956
Cineclub Cotidian Onești: "Întunecare" ("Darkness"), directed by Giliu Maximov, 1975 - cinematographic approach to the consequences of ingestion of methyl alcohol from the Borzești Chemical Plant
Cineclub Cotidian Onești: "Nuntă în cer" ("Wedding in the sky"), directed by Giliu Maximov, 1988 – the same topic with the short film "Darkness", after a real fact.
Documentary movie RAFO Onești, 2002
Documentary movie CAROM Onești, 2002
Reportage "România, te iubesc!", Prin cenușa imperiului petrochimic ("Through the ashes of the petrochemical empire"), 11–30 October 2015, part. 1, 2, 3 and part. I, II, III.
Energy infrastructure in Romania
Oil refineries in Romania
Rubber industry
Chemical plants
Companies of Bacău County |
29691020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla%20Model%20X | Tesla Model X | The Tesla Model X is a battery electric mid-size luxury crossover SUV built by Tesla, Inc. since 2015. Developed from the full-sized sedan platform of the Tesla Model S, the vehicle notably uses falcon wing doors for passenger access.
The Model X has an EPA size class as an SUV, and shares around 30 percent of its content with the Model S, half of the originally planned 60 percent, and weighs about 10 percent more. Both the Model X and Model S are produced at the Tesla Factory in Fremont, California. The prototype was unveiled at Tesla's design studios in Hawthorne, California on February 9, 2012. First deliveries of the Model X began in September 2015. After one full year on the market, in 2016, the Model X ranked seventh among the world's best-selling plug-in cars. A refresh of the Tesla Model X was introduced in 2021, offering a new "Plaid" performance model, along with a revised interior, powertrain, and suspension.
, the Model X is available as a Long-Range version with an estimated EPA range of and a high performance "Plaid" version with an estimated EPA range of .
History
Initially, Tesla planned for deliveries to commence in early 2014. However, in February 2013, the company announced that deliveries had been rescheduled to begin by late 2014 in order to achieve its production target of 20,000 Model S cars in 2013. In November 2013, Tesla said it expected to begin Model X high volume production the second quarter of 2015. In November 2014, Tesla again delayed and announced that Model X deliveries would begin in the third quarter of 2015. Deliveries began on September 29, 2015. Among the reasons for delay were problems with the falcon-wing doors and cooling the motors when hauling trailers.
In 2016, the company filed a lawsuit against Swiss hydraulics firm Hoerbiger Holding for not producing satisfactory falcon-wing doors for the Model X. Tesla claimed the doors suffered from oil leakage and overheating. Many believe this is one of the reasons for the delay of the Model X. The lawsuit was settled in September 2016.
On July 13, 2016, Tesla introduced its Model X 60D, which is slightly lower priced than the Model X's starting price. The Model X 60D has a range and can accelerate from in 6 seconds, with a top speed of . The battery capacity in the Model X 60D is 75 kWh but has been software restricted to 60 kWh. Post purchase, owners have the option to unlock the additional 15 kWh, bringing the 60D to 75D range specifications.
Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States. In August 2016, Tesla introduced the P100D with Ludicrous Mode to be the new top Model X. The P100D has a 100 kWh battery, accelerate from in 2.9 seconds ( in 3.1 seconds) and of range. In October 2016 Tesla discontinued the 60D version and made the "Smart Air Suspension" standard instead of coil springs, increasing the base price to $85,000. In June 2017, the 90D version was discontinued.
In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to slightly improve reliability; it also enabled dashcam and sentry mode capabilities.
In March 2018 it was announced that Tesla upgraded the MCU to version 2. MCU 2 improved the performance of the 17 inch center console screen.
Global cumulative sales since inception totaled 106,689 units through September 2018.
In January 2019, Tesla discontinued the 75D version, making the 100D the base version of the Model X. The base price of the Model X 100D is $97,000 (~$ in ) as of Jan 2019. In July 2019, Tesla added a Long Range model of the Model X with a 325-mile EPA range priced at $84,500 (~$ in ).
In an engineering refresh in May 2019, range was increased to and smart air suspension was added.
In February 2020 Tesla increased the range of the Model X to of range.
In October 2020 Tesla increased the range of the Long Range Plus to , and the Performance increased to .
In September 2023, Tesla heavily discounted the price of a base Long Range Model X In the United States to US$79,990, allowing it to fall under the US$80,000 MSRP cap for a federal tax rebate under Inflation Reduction Act.
Design
A series production vehicle was unveiled on September 29, 2015. It has a panoramic windshield. According to Tesla CEO Elon Musk, it is the safest SUV in terms of frontal and side impact crash, being more than twice as safe as the next closest SUV in rollover tests as well. The Model X does come with Autopilot as standard, and has an optional full self-driving system. The Model X has standard a collision avoidance system that uses radar-based autonomous emergency braking (AEB) and side-directed ultrasound detection that steers the car away from threats. Tesla uses a wide-band radar system to help prevent the falcon wing doors from hitting nearby objects when opening or closing.
The Model X has double-hinged falcon wing doors which open upwards, allowing the leading edge of the door to remain tucked close to the body, unlike traditional gull-wing doors. Tesla claims the falcon-wing (modified gull-wing) doors ease access to the vehicle by having the door raise up vertically, rather than swinging out hinged at the front, which tremendously reduces accessibility. The Model X offers room for seven adults and their luggage in three rows of seating and front and rear trunks.
As of mid 2021 it's the largest fully electric SUV in terms of exterior dimensions.
Specifications
The Model X weighs about 8% more than the Model S and shares about 30% of its parts content – down from around 60% expected when development began. The cargo space is 87.8 ft³.
Over the years, the Model X has been available with four lithium-ion battery packs, rated at either 60, 75, 90, or 100 kW·h. The highest performance version, the Model X Performance, goes from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 2.6 seconds and the in 11.4 seconds, outperforming the fastest SUVs and most sports cars. The Model X's all-wheel-drive system uses two motors (one for the front and the other for the rear wheels), unlike conventional AWD systems that have a single source of power. The 2020 Tesla Model X Long Range Plus has an official EPA rated range of up to .
The company planned to offer rear-wheel-drive models, but instead all models use all-wheel drive. The standard AWD has on both the front and rear motors, while the performance edition has front and rear. With an optional towbar, the Model X has a towing capacity of up to 5000 lb or 2250 kg. At the towing speed limit in California, a Model X may have 70% of the EPA-registered range when pulling a travel trailer.
Energy consumption
The following table shows the EPA's official ratings for fuel economy in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for the variants of the Model X rated and as displayed in the Monroney label.
Production and sales
Tesla started taking reservations for the Model X in February 2012 without announcing prices. The standard Model X required a deposit, while the limited time production Signature model required a deposit in 2013. More than 20,000 Model Xs had been reserved by September 2014. In August 2015, user groups estimated around 30,000 Model X pre-orders had been received, compared to 12,000 for the Model S.
The first six Founders Series models were delivered at a market launch event in the Fremont factory on September 29, 2015. The first Signature edition was delivered on December 18, 2015. Pricing for the limited edition Signature version of the Model X varies between and , while the standard production version of the Model X will be priced at more than a comparably equipped AWD Model S that is priced at for the base Model 70D.
After the first quarter of 2016 all Tesla Model X deliveries had gone to US customers. Nevertheless, in January 2016 a Tesla car other than the Model S was registered in Germany and a Tesla Model X was sighted driving there with a license plate from Ingolstadt. Since the Audi headquarters are located in Ingolstadt, this led to speculation that Audi has acquired a Tesla Model X as part of its effort to develop its own battery-electric SUV.
Tesla produced 507 Model X in the fourth quarter of 2015, of which 206 were delivered to customers. Model X sales totaled 2,400 units during the first quarter of 2016. According to Tesla Motors, deliveries were lower than expected because production was impacted by severe Model X supplier parts shortages in the first two months of 2016, and because Tesla had been too ambitious in wanting advanced features (committed "hubris"). The first Model X that didn't need corrections was made in April 2016.
Sales during the second quarter of 2016 totaled 4,638 units. Although production was up 20% from the previous quarter, the number of vehicles in transit at the end of June 2016 was much higher than expected (5,150 including Model S cars), representing 35.8% of the number of cars delivered in the quarter (14,402 vehicles including the Model S). Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016. A total of 8,774 units were delivered in the third quarter of 2016, totaling 15,812 Model X cars sold during the first nine months of 2016.
The Model X ranked as the top-selling plug-in electric car in Norway in September 2016. However, when Volkswagen Golf nameplate registrations are broken down by each variant's powertrain, the all-electric e-Golf registered 392 units, the Golf GTE plug-in hybrid 358, and the internal combustion-powered Golf only 242 units. Therefore, the Model X also ranked as the top-selling new car model in September 2016. Norway was the world's first country to have all-electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. Previously, the Model S had been the top-selling new car four times, and the Nissan Leaf twice.
According to Tesla, with 5,428 units sold in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2016, the Model X captured a 6% market share of the luxury SUV market segment, outselling Porsche and Land Rover, but behind seven SUV models manufactured by Mercedes, BMW, Cadillac, Volvo, Audi, and Lexus. With an estimated 9,500 units delivered worldwide during the fourth quarter of 2016, global sales in 2016 totaled 25,312 Model X cars, allowing the Model X to rank seventh among the world's top ten best-selling plug-in cars just in its first full year in the market.
, cumulative sales totaled 25,524 units since its inception. The United States is its main country market with 18,240 units delivered through December 2016, of which, an estimated 18,028 Model X vehicles were delivered during 2016, making the electric SUV the third best-selling plug-in electric in the American market that year after the Tesla Model S and the Chevrolet Volt. Registrations in California totaled 6,289 units in 2016, representing a 7.0% market share of the state's luxury mid-size SUV segment, ranking as the fifth best-selling car in this class, which was led by the Lexus RX with 20,070 units. Retail deliveries in China began in June 2016, and a total of 4,065 Model X vehicles were sold in 2016.
Global sales totaled about 11,550 units during the first quarter of 2017. A severe production shortfall of 100 kWh battery packs limited the second quarter of 2017 global deliveries to just about 10,000 Model X vehicles, with a slight increase to 11,865 vehicles during the third quarter of 2017. An additional 13,120 units were delivered in the fourth quarter of 2017, for total annual deliveries of 46,535 units globally. , cumulative sales since inception totaled about 72,059 units. Global sales during the first nine months of 2018 totaled 34,630 units, allowing the Model X to pass the 100,000 milestone in September 2018, with 106,689 units delivered since inception.
On April 30, 2019, 5 Model X 75Ds were bought and operated by Blue Bird Group for their premium taxi service, Silver Bird, in Indonesia.
In the UK from 2021 to 2022, deliveries of Model X vehicles dropped significantly to almost zero. In 2023, Tesla also stated that the Model X will not be sold in the UK or Ireland in right-hand drive for the 'foreseeable future'.
Reception
Consumer Reports wrote that the all-wheel-drive Model X 90D largely disappoints, as rear doors are prone to pausing and stopping, the second-row seats that cannot be folded, and the cargo capacity is too limited. Even its panoramic, helicopter-like windshield was disapproved of as it is not tinted enough to offset the brightness of a sunny day. Also, Consumer Reports added that overall "the ride is too firm and choppy for a $110,000 car".
Car and Driver, despite some criticism of the Model X's falcon wing doors, approved of the panoramic windshield, stating "We were left dumbfounded, like slack-jawed tourists endlessly looking upward. Lose the Falcon Wing doors, Elon; the windshield is the Model X's best gimmick". Overall, it was given a rating of 5/5 stars, stating "There are no other electric SUVs at the moment. And even against fossil-fuel-fed SUVs, the Tesla's effortless performance and efficiency can't be matched."
Motoring journalist Jeremy Clarkson's made his first review of a Tesla vehicle after 10 years on his TV show The Grand Tour in February 2018; Clarkson gave a positive review of the car that he called "fabulous" that is unlike anything on the road. Lawyers were present during the review presumably because Clarkson's previous scathing review of the original Roadster caused a lawsuit.
The 2016 Model X was named one of the top ten tech cars in 2016 by IEEE Spectrum.
Awards
On November 16, 2015, the Tesla Model X was chosen as AutoGuide.com's 2016 Reader's Choice Green Car of the Year and Luxury Utility Vehicle of the Year awards. The model was noted for its falcon-wing doors, long range, efficiency, and acceleration.
On November 8, 2016, the Model X was awarded the Golden Steering Wheel (), one of the most prestigious automotive awards in the world, in the "Large SUV" category. Candidates for this award are nominated by hundreds of thousands across Europe for excellence across six categories. The Golden Steering Wheel jury, composed of professional race car drivers, accomplished technicians, editors, designers, and digital and connectivity experts, then spent three days judging Model X.
On April 18, 2017, the American Automobile Association named the Tesla Model X 75D its Top Green Vehicle overall, as well as best in the SUV/Minivan category, with a score of 100/130. The vehicle scored 10/10 for its EPA Emissions Score, crashworthiness, Fuel Economy and Luggage Capacity. Though ambivalent toward Autopilot and the Model X's glass roof, AAA favoured its falcon-wing doors, and approved of the vehicle's performance, stating that its "acceleration is smooth and strong, as is the braking."
On June 8, 2017, the Model X was awarded the Australian Good Design Award in the Automotive and Transport category. The design of the vehicle was described as "set with an athletic build, whilst remaining proportional. Delivering on the functional form of a cross between SUV and people mover, the design remains true to a sports SUV."
On December 11, 2017, Forbes named the Model X 100D Best Vehicle of the Year stating that "Tesla makes every internal combustion vehicle on the highway seem a clunky, clumsy relic of the 20th century."
Use by SpaceX
Starting from 2020, modified Tesla Model X (with umbilical for the astronauts) were used to transport astronauts, especially for SpaceX Commercial Crew Program missions from NASA, for examples:
Crew Dragon Demo-2 – the two vehicles used had the NASA meatball logos on the driver and passenger doors, while the Worm logos were on the upper part of the rear window, and have special license plates, dubbed ISSBND for "ISS Bound".
SpaceX Crew-1 – the three vehicles used had same characteristics as Demo-2 except for the special license plates, dubbed L8RERTH for "(see you) later, Earth".
SpaceX Crew-2 – the three vehicles used had no NASA logos (both meatball and worm) and have special license plates, each of them dubbed "REDUCE", "REUSE", and "RECYCLE", since the mission was originally scheduled on Earth Day.
SpaceX Crew-3 – all three vehicles had the NASA worm logo on the doors painted in grey. The meatball logo was on the rear windshield. The license plates on all of them read "S3ND IT" for "SEND IT".
Guinness World Record
On May 15, 2018, the Tesla Model X and Qantas set the Guinness World Record for "heaviest tow by an electric production passenger vehicle." The Model X was able to tow a Boeing 787–9 nearly on a taxiway at Melbourne Airport.
Issues with production units
The Tesla Model X faced criticism in 2016 for issues with the falcon-wing doors, which sometimes did not open or latch properly in some early production units, and the windows, which sometimes did not open or close all the way. Tesla addressed these issues with several software updates, and no known issues remained after the 8.0 firmware was released. On June 27, 2016, Tesla settled on a lawsuit over usability concerns, accepting that the Model X was rushed to production before it was ready, and by October 2016, Tesla claimed the problems had been reduced by 92%.
In 2017 Chinese newspaper Xinhua reported that security researchers from Keen Security Lab at Tencent were able to remotely gain control of the Tesla Model X, allowing them to remotely open the car's doors, blink the lights and control their brakes. They found zero day vulnerabilities that allowed them to install new firmware. The lead researcher for the team said they informed Tesla of the findings and most of the cars were patched by an update one month after Tesla was made aware of issues.
Recalls
, Tesla has had four product safety recalls the Model X:
On April 11, 2016, 2,700 Model X vehicles were recalled due to the third-row seats unlatching during collision testing, folding over to the second row.
On April 20, 2017, Tesla recalled 53,000 (~70%) of the 76,000 Model S and Model X vehicles it sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes.
In October 2017, Tesla issued an 11,000 vehicle recall for a faulty locking cable mechanism in the second-row seats, estimating that about 3% of recalled vehicles may be affected.
In February 2020, 15,000 vehicles Model X vehicles were recalled due to corrosion found on aluminum bolts that attach the electric power steering motor.
Safety
NHTSA
On June 13, 2017, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration announced its crash testing results for the 2017-manufactured Tesla Model X, revealing 5-star ratings in all assessed categories, the only SUV to have done so. Tesla attributed the ratings to safety-focused design, in addition to a low centre-of-gravity resulting from its battery pack, adding "More than just resulting in a 5-star rating, the data from NHTSA's testing shows that Model X has the lowest probability of injury of any SUV it has ever tested. In fact, of all the cars NHTSA has ever tested, Model X's overall probability of injury was second only to Model S."
Euro NCAP
The Model X has been tested and received five stars from Euro NCAP.
See also
Electric car use by country
Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
List of production battery electric vehicles
List of Easter eggs in Tesla products
Tesla Supercharger
References
External links
Model X – video of production
Model X – emergency response guide
2020s cars
Automobiles with gull-wing doors
Cars introduced in 2015
Crossover sport utility vehicles
Electric car models
Electric cars
Full-size sport utility vehicles
Euro NCAP large off-road
Production electric cars
Model X |
7668434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danell%20Nicholson | Danell Nicholson | Danell Nicholson (born November 15, 1967) is a former American Olympian and a boxer in the heavyweight division. He held the IBO World Heavyweight title in 1994, and in 2003 challenged Wladimir Klitschko for the WBA Intercontinental Heavyweight title.
Professional career
Amateur
Nicholson was a member of the 1992 United States Olympic Team as a Heavyweight. His results were:
Defeated Paul Lawson (Great Britain) 10-2
Defeated Zeljko Mavrovic (Croatia) 9-6
Lost to Félix Savón (Cuba) 13-11
Professional
He boxed professionally from 1992 to 2003 training under Emanuel Steward. Perhaps his best win as a professional was his split decision win over future heavyweight titlist John Ruiz on August 4, 1994. With that win came the lightly regarded International Boxing Organization heavyweight title. Other notable fighters he faced but to whom he lost were Andrew Golota, Kirk Johnson, David Tua, and Wladimir Klitschko.
Professional boxing record
|-
|align="center" colspan=8|42 Wins (32 knockouts, 10 decisions), 5 Losses (4 knockouts, 1 decision)
|-
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Result
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Record
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Opponent
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Type
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Round
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|Loss
|
|align=left| Wladimir Klitschko
|TKO
|4
|20/12/2003
|align=left| Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Ken Murphy
|TKO
|2
|14/06/2003
|align=left| Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Sione Asipeli
|UD
|6
|23/03/2003
|align=left| Temecula, California, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Melvin Foster
|TKO
|4
|18/01/2002
|align=left| Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|
|align=left| David Tua
|KO
|6
|23/03/2001
|align=left| Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Reynaldo Minus
|TKO
|2
|04/11/2000
|align=left| New York City, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Tim Pollard
|KO
|2
|25/06/2000
|align=left| Elgin, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Terrence Lewis
|TKO
|2
|31/03/2000
|align=left| New York City, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Tony LaRosa
|TKO
|2
|09/02/2000
|align=left| Rosemont, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Marcellus Brown
|TKO
|2
|05/08/1999
|align=left| Tunica, Mississippi, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Abdul Muhaymin
|UD
|8
|17/06/1999
|align=left| Worley, Idaho, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Frankie Swindell
|UD
|10
|12/03/1999
|align=left| New York City, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Levi Billups
|TKO
|4
|07/01/1999
|align=left| Tunica, Mississippi, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Jimmy Haynes
|TKO
|1
|22/09/1998
|align=left| New York City, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Mike Sedillo
|PTS
|10
|03/09/1998
|align=left| Mashantucket, Connecticut, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Everett Martin
|TKO
|4
|16/06/1998
|align=left| Biloxi, Mississippi, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Everett Mayo
|TKO
|3
|31/01/1998
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Thomas Williams
|TKO
|2
|30/08/1997
|align=left| Buenos Aires, Argentina
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Moses Harris
|TKO
|3
|26/04/1997
|align=left| Cicero, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Marcos Gonzalez
|KO
|2
|03/04/1997
|align=left| Worley, Idaho, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|
|align=left| Kirk Johnson
|UD
|10
|23/08/1996
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|
|align=left| Andrew Golota
|TKO
|8
|15/03/1996
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Darren Hayden
|PTS
|8
|21/12/1995
|align=left| Bossier City, Louisiana, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Jesse Ferguson
|TKO
|8
|19/10/1995
|align=left| Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Anthony Willis
|TKO
|6
|11/08/1995
|align=left| New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Art Card
|KO
|2
|31/03/1995
|align=left| Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| William Morris
|TKO
|5
|07/03/1995
|align=left| Prior Lake, Minnesota, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Larry Davis
|TKO
|1
|10/02/1995
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Terry Anderson
|KO
|2
|19/01/1995
|align=left| Auburn Hills, Michigan, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| John Basil Jackson
|TKO
|5
|20/12/1994
|align=left| Rosemont, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| John Ruiz
|SD
|12
|04/08/1994
|align=left| Mashantucket, Connecticut, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Mark Young
|UD
|10
|17/02/1994
|align=left| Joliet, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| David Graves
|PTS
|6
|06/12/1993
|align=left| Rosemont, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Michael Greer
|TKO
|4
|27/08/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Phil Scott
|TKO
|2
|23/07/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Nick Kendrick
|KO
|1
|25/06/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|
|align=left| Jeremy Williams
|KO
|2
|08/05/1993
|align=left| Stateline, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Tim Morrison
|TKO
|3
|26/04/1993
|align=left| Rosemont, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Rocky Bentley
|KO
|3
|26/03/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Luis Torres
|KO
|3
|13/03/1993
|align=left| Aurora, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Mark Posey
|KO
|1
|26/02/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Danny Blake
|UD
|6
|22/01/1993
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Jordan Keepers
|KO
|1
|08/01/1993
|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| James Holly
|KO
|1
|11/12/1992
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Don Blake
|KO
|1
|25/11/1992
|align=left| Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Dave Slaughter
|KO
|1
|23/10/1992
|align=left| Countryside, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|
|align=left| Dan Nieves
|UD
|4
|14/10/1992
|align=left| Rosemont, Illinois, U.S.
|align=left|
|}
References
External links
HBO Boxing Archive
Living people
1967 births
Boxers from Chicago
Heavyweight boxers
Olympic boxers for the United States
Boxers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
American male boxers |
13264467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol%20Stein | Sol Stein | Sol Stein (October 13, 1926 – September 19, 2019) was the author of 13 books and was Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of Stein and Day Publishers for 27 years.
Early life
Born in Chicago on October 13, 1926, Stein was the son of Louis Stein and Zelda Zam Stein. The family moved to New York in 1930. In 1941, while living in the Bronx, Sol Stein wrote his first book, "Magic Maestro Please", followed shortly by "Patriotic Magic". He attended DeWitt Clinton High School, where he served on the Magpie literary magazine with Richard Avedon and James Baldwin. He graduated in 1942 and enrolled at CCNY, which then provided a free education.
Between the time of Stein's enlistment in the Army Air Corps in 1944 and being called to active duty on March 1, 1945, Stein had completed nearly three years of infantry ROTC at CCNY. After qualifying for pilot and bombardier training, a backlog of pilots caused Stein to voluntarily transfer to the infantry. Overseas, he served as an Information & Education officer in the Headquarters of the 1st Infantry Division (United States) in Germany as Commandant of Division Schools, located in three cities, Regensburg, Ansbach, and Triesdorf. On 5 November 1946 Stein was cited by Lt. General Geoffrey Keyes for having organized and commanded the best occupational training schools in the Third Army Area in the American Zone of Germany.
Upon returning from Europe in 1946, Stein completed work for his degree at CCNY and simultaneously with his graduation in 1948 was employed at the college as a lecturer in social studies. While teaching, he took his master's degree in English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University in 1949 and was accepted for the famed doctoral seminar conducted jointly by Lionel Trilling and Jacques Barzun, both of whose writings Stein was later to edit.
Script writer for the Voice of America
From 1951 to 1953 Stein was employed by the Voice of America, eventually as senior editor of the Ideological Advisory Staff of the Voice of America. He wrote daily scripts that were translated into 46 languages and broadcast to two million people risking their lives listening behind the Iron Curtain. It was at the Voice that Stein's association with Bertram Wolfe began; Stein was instrumental in causing the re-publication of Wolfe's masterpiece, Three Who Made a Revolution, which had been allowed to go out of print. The book subsequently sold half a million copies in a few years and was adopted in almost all Soviet Studies programs in the U.S. and elsewhere.
In 1953 Stein, a centrist, was appointed Executive Director of the American Committee for Cultural Freedom, an organization of 300 leading American intellectuals of left and right working together in support of civil liberties and battling Senator Joseph McCarthy in the U.S. and Soviet propaganda and influence among intellectuals in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. It was in this period that the eventual publisher supervised the writing and publication of McCarthy and the Communists, which made The New York Times Bestseller List for 13 weeks and was credited with contributing to the unseating of Senator McCarthy.
Playwright
In 1952 Stein was granted a leave of absence from the Voice of America to accept back-to-back fellowships at Yaddo, an artists’ colony, and the MacDowell Colony.
At MacDowell, Stein completed his first play, Napoleon, under the watchful eye of Thornton Wilder, a fellow at the same time. The verse drama was produced the following year by the New Dramatists organization at the ANTA Theater in New York and was chosen by the Dramatists Alliance as “the best full length play of 1953”.
Stein completed a second play, A Shadow of My Enemy, originally intended as an adaptation of Whittaker Chambers' best-selling memoir, Witness (1952), but, when denied rights, based on public record and published in 1957. The play, whose synopsis runs "A senior editor of Time magazine accuses his closest friend of being a Communist", was originally commissioned by the Theater Guild and subsequently produced on Broadway by Roger Stevens, Alfred deLiagre Jr., and Hume Cronyn. The cast starred Ed Begley and Gene Raymond.
In the early 1950s, Stein and Elia Kazan formed a friendship that was cemented in 1955 when Stein served as the production observer from first reading to opening night of the Tennessee Williams play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, which won the Pulitzer Prize for drama that year. Stein's play A Shadow of My Enemy was produced in 1957 by Roger Stevens, Alfred deLiagre Jr. and Hume Cronyn at the National Theater in Washington and the ANTA theatre on Broadway in New York starring Ed Begley and Gene Raymond. In 1957 Stein was one of 10 founding members of the Playwrights Group at the Actors Studio in New York with William Inge, Tennessee Williams, Lorraine Hansberry, and others.
From 1957–1959 Stein served for two and a half years as Managing Editor of the Executive Membership Division of the Research Institute of America.
Editor and publisher
In 1953 Stein edited and supervised the publication of McCarthy and the Communists by James Rorty and Moshe Decter for the Beacon Press in Boston. Melvin Arnold, director of the Beacon Press appointed Stein as General Editor of Beacon's Contemporary Affairs Series in the book size trade paperback format developed by Stein. Working as a freelance contractor, Stein's first list for Beacon included Three Who Made a Revolution by Bertram Wolfe, Homage to Catalonia by George Orwell, The Century of Total War by Raymond Aron, An End to Innocence by Leslie Fiedler, The Need for Roots by Simone Weil, The Hero in History by Sidney Hook, Social Darwinism in American Thought by Richard Hofstadter, and The Invisible Writing by Arthur Koestler.
Sol Stein edited the classic work Notes of a Native Son by James Baldwin, selected as #19 of the “100 best nonfiction books of the 20th century”; Elia Kazan's America America; and Lionel Trilling’s Freud and the Crisis of Our Culture. He was also responsible for the continued publication of Bertram D. Wolfe’s The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera and George Orwell’s Homage to Catalonia, selected as #42 of the 100 best nonfiction books of the 20th century.
In 1959 Lionel Trilling, Jacques Barzun, W. H. Auden and Sol Stein launched The Mid-Century Book Society, an upscale book club, which was an immediate success.
Stein and Day
In 1962 Stein founded the New York-based publishing firm Stein and Day with his then-wife, Patricia Day. Stein was both publisher and editor-in-chief of the firm. The publishing house’s first book was Elia Kazan’s America America, which sold three million copies in hardback, paperback, and book club editions. The success of many of Stein and Day’s books was attributable in part to the amount of publicity work that Stein and Day did for each book. Stein worked with Kazan daily for five months on Kazan’s s first novel The Arrangement, which was #1 on The New York Times bestseller list for 37 consecutive weeks.
The firm relocated from Manhattan to Briarcliff Manor, New York in 1975, and published about 100 books each year until the company was compelled to close its doors, the background of which was the subject of Stein’s nonfiction book, A Feast for Lawyers. The New York Times said, “He has produced an appalling, Dickensian portrait of the entire system...ought to be read not only by executives facing Chapter 11 but by all entrepreneurs and indeed by anyone who fantasizes about running his own company." Stein's book was honored by The American Bankruptcy Association at its annual convention in Washington, D.C. Columbia University now hosts the Stein and Day Archives, which chronicles the firm's 27 years of existence. Stein and Day was the originating publisher of works by Leslie Fiedler, David Frost, Jack Higgins, GordonThomas, Budd Schulberg, Claude Brown, Bertram Wolfe, Mary Cheever, Harry Lorayne, Barbara Howar, Elaine Morgan, Wanda Landowska, Marilyn Monroe, Oliver Lange, and F. Lee Bailey, among others. Stein and Day was also the American publisher of J. B. Priestley, Eric Partridge, Anthony Sampson, Maxim Gorky, Che Guevara, L. P. Hartley, and George Bernard Shaw.
The WritePro Corporation
In 1989 Stein founded a software publishing company with his wife Patricia Day Stein and his youngest son, David Day Stein. Together they took their combined knowledge of writing with their son's technical expertise and created software to teach aspiring writers how to write fiction. WritePro® teaches in-depth character creation, how to create plot, suspense and conflict through the interaction of characters and more advanced topics. WritePro® has over 100,000 users in 38 countries and received many accolades in its reviews.
After the success of WritePro®, they created two sets of writing tools for professional writers called FictionMaster® and FirstAid for Writers®. Though they were also successful, Stein chose to license the software to another company in 1995.
The licenses were taken back in 2010 and the process of updating the programs began in 2011 and The New WritePro was launched in 2012. However, Stein became ill shortly thereafter and work to bring back the professional tools was interrupted. Stein's son David still hopes to bring them back some day with the help of his brother Leland who now co-owns The WritePro Corporation with him. The New WritePro® is still available through writepro.com.
Honors
Honorary Life Member, International Brotherhood of Magicians, Ring 26, 1947.
Honorary Phi Beta Kappa, College of the City of New York, tc
Distinguished Instructor Award, University of California at Irvine, 1992
Bibliography
Novels
The Husband, Coward-McCann, 1969, Pocket Books, 1970. British Commonwealth: Michael Joseph, Mayflower. Translated into German, Spanish, Japanese, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, Dutch.
The Magician, Delacorte, 1971, Dell, 1972. Selected by the Book-of-the-Month Club. British Commonwealth: Michael Joseph, Mayflower. Translated into French, Spanish, German, Japanese, Russian. Film rights to Twentieth-Century Fox. Screenplay by Sol Stein.
Living Room, Arbor House, 1974, Bantam, 1975. The Literary Guild, Doubleday Book Club. British Commonwealth: The Bodley Head, New English Library. Translated into French, German (2 editions), Italian, Japanese.
The Childkeeper, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, Dell, 1976. British Commonwealth: Collins, Fontana. Translated into German, Spanish. German-language TV motion picture released
Other People, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980, Dell, 1981. British Commonwealth: Collins, Fontana. French, German, Italian (3 editions), Greek.
The Resort, Morrow, 1981, Dell, 1982. British Commonwealth: Collins, Fontana. Translated into Russian. Motion picture rights optioned (twice).
The Touch of Treason, Marek/St. Martin's Press, 1985, Berkley, 1986. British Commonwealth: Macmillan. Translated into German, Greek, Swedish, Norwegian.
A Deniable Man, McGraw-Hill, April, 1989. Translated into German.
The Best Revenge, Random House, 1991.
Nonfiction books
A Feast for Lawyers, hardcover, M. Evans, 1989, paperback 1992. Trade paperback, Beard Books, 1999.
Stein on Writing, St. Martin's Press, 1995 hardback, 2000 paperback; British Commonwealth under the title Solutions for Writers, Souvenir Press. German edition, Zweitausendeins.
How to Grow a Novel, St. Martin's Press, 1999, British Commonwealth under the title Solutions for Novelists, Souvenir Press, 2000, in German, Zweitausendeins 2000.
Native Sons, correspondence and commentary with James Baldwin, 2004)
Plays and screenplays
Napoleon (previously titled The Illegitimist), produced New York and California, 1953, winner of Dramatists Alliance Prize, “best full-length play of 1953”
A Shadow of My Enemy, produced by Roger Stevens, Hume Cronyn, and Alfred DeLiagre, ANTA Theater, 1957, starring Ed Begley and Gene Raymond
The Magician, screenplay, 20th Century Fox
Software
WritePro® and The New WritePro®, Fiction writing lessons, created in 1989 with his wife Patricia Day Stein and his son David Day Stein.
FictionMaster®, tools for fiction writers, created with his wife Patricia Day Stein and his son David Day Stein.
FirstAid for Writers®, tools for fiction and non-fiction writers, created with his wife Patricia Day Stein and his son David Day Stein.
References
External links
Sol Stein Papers at the Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Columbia University
1926 births
Writers from New York (state)
American publishers (people)
City College of New York alumni
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
2019 deaths
People from Briarcliff Manor, New York
American people of Jewish descent |
1887690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20H.%20Cone | James H. Cone | James Hal Cone (August 5, 1938 – April 28, 2018) was an American theologian. He is best known for his advocacy of black theology and black liberation theology. His 1969 book Black Theology and Black Power provided a new way to comprehensively define the distinctiveness of theology in the black church. His message was that Black Power, defined as black people asserting the humanity that white supremacy denied, was the gospel in America. Jesus came to liberate the oppressed, advocating the same thing as Black Power. He argued that white American churches preached a gospel based on white supremacy, antithetical to the gospel of Jesus.
Cone's work was influential from the time of the book's publication and his work remains influential today. His work has been both used and critiqued inside and outside the African-American theological community. He was the Charles Augustus Briggs Distinguished Professor of Systematic Theology at Columbia University-affiliated Union Theological Seminary until his death.
Life and career
Cone was born on August 5, 1938, in Fordyce, Arkansas, and grew up in the racially segregated town of Bearden, Arkansas. He and his family attended Macedonia African Methodist Episcopal Church. He attended Shorter College (1954–1956), a small AME Church junior college, before receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree from Philander Smith College in 1958, where he was mentored by James and Alice Boyack. In his 2018 memoir Said I Wasn't Gonna Tell Nobody, Cone wrote that they were the first whites he met who respected his humanity. Although he had decided against parish ministry, their advice led him to obtain a Bachelor of Divinity degree from Garrett–Evangelical Theological Seminary in 1961, and Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy degrees from Northwestern University in 1963 and 1965, respectively. He was shocked to learn that most northern whites would not treat him with respect like the Boyacks. Yet he was excited to learn of unfamiliar theologians, controversies, and biblical study methodologies. At the urging of and with support from the white theologian William Hordern at Garrett he applied and gained acceptance into the doctoral program in theology.
He taught theology and religion at Philander Smith College, Adrian College, and beginning in 1970 at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, where he was awarded the distinguished Charles A. Briggs Chair in systematic theology in 1977. In 2018, he was elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Cone and his wife, Rose Hampton, married in 1958 and divorced in 1977. They had two sons, Micheal and Charles. In 1979, Cone married Sondra Gibson, who died in 1983. They raised two daughters, Krystal and Robynn. He died on April 28, 2018.
Theology
Hermeneutics
Cone wrote, "Exodus, prophets and Jesus—these three—defined the meaning of liberation in black theology." The hermeneutic, or interpretive lens, for James Cone's theology starts with the experience of African Americans, and the theological questions he brings from his own life. He incorporates the powerful role of the black church in his life, as well as racism experienced by African Americans. For Cone, the theologians he studied in graduate school did not provide meaningful answers to his questions. This disparity became more apparent when he was teaching theology at Philander Smith College in Little Rock, Arkansas. Cone writes, "What could Karl Barth possibly mean for black students who had come from the cotton fields of Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi, seeking to change the structure of their lives in a society that had defined black as non-being?"
Cone's theology also received significant inspiration from a frustration with the black struggle for civil rights; he felt that black Christians in North America should not follow the "white Church", on the grounds that it was a willing part of the system that had oppressed black people. Accordingly, his theology was heavily influenced by Malcolm X and the Black Power movement. Martin Luther King Jr. was also an important influence; Cone describes King as a liberation theologian before the phrase existed. Cone wrote, "I was on a mission to transform self-loathing Negro Christians into black-loving revolutionary disciples of the Black Christ." Nevertheless, "The black church, despite its failures, gives black people a sense of worth."
Methodology
His methodology for answering the questions raised by the African-American experience is a return to scripture, and particularly to the liberative elements such as the Exodus-Sinai tradition, prophets and the life and teaching of Jesus. However, scripture is not the only source that shapes his theology. In response to criticism from other black theologians and religious scholars (including his brother, Cecil), Cone began to make greater use of resources native to the African-American Christian community for his theological work, including slave spirituals, the blues, and the writings of prominent African-American thinkers such as David Walker, Henry McNeal Turner, and W. E. B. Du Bois. His theology developed further in response to critiques by black women, leading Cone to consider gender issues more prominently and foster the development of womanist theology, and also in dialogue with Marxist analysis and the sociology of knowledge.
Contextual theology
Cone's thought, along with Paul Tillich, stresses the idea that theology is not universal, but tied to specific historical contexts; he thus critiques the Western tradition of abstract theologizing by examining its social context. Cone formulates a theology of liberation from within the context of the black experience of oppression, interpreting the central kernel of the Gospels as Jesus' identification with the poor and oppressed, the resurrection as the ultimate act of liberation.
As part of his theological analysis, Cone argues for God's own identification with "blackness":
Despite his associations with the Black Power movement, however, Cone was not entirely focused on ethnicity: "Being black in America has little to do with skin color. Being black means that your heart, your soul, your mind, and your body are where the dispossessed are."
In 1977, Cone wrote, with a still more universal vision:
I think the time has come for black theologians and black church people to move beyond a mere reaction to white racism in America and begin to extend our vision of a new socially constructed humanity in the whole inhabited world ... For humanity is whole, and cannot be isolated into racial and national groups.
In his 1998 essay "White Theology Revisited", however, he retains his earlier strong critique of the white church and white man for ignoring or failing to address the problem of race.
Early influences
Cone credits his parents as being his most important early influences. His father had only a sixth-grade education but filed a lawsuit against the Bearden, Arkansas, school board despite threats on his life. White professors of religion and philosophy, James and Alice Boyack at Philander Smith College aided his belief in his own potential and deepened his interest in theodicy and black suffering. He found a mentor, advisor and influential teacher in Garrett scholar William E. Hordern. Professor Philip Watson motivated him to intensive remedial study of English composition. Classmate Lester B. Scherer was a great help in this. Scherer volunteered to edit manuscripts of Cone's early books while Cone's wife Rose typed them, yet Cone complained that neither understood him. Cone wrote his doctoral thesis on Karl Barth. A 1965 breakfast meeting with Benjamin Mays, president of Morehouse College in Atlanta, convinced him that teaching and scholarship were his true calling. The sociologist C. Eric Lincoln found publishers for his early books (Black Theology and Black Power and A Black Theology of Liberation) which sought to deconstruct mainstream Protestant theologians such as Barth, Niebuhr and Tillich while seeking to draw on the figures of the black church such as Richard Allen (founder in 1816 of the AME Church), black abolitionists ministers Henry Highland Garnet, Daniel Payne, and Henry McNeil Turner ("God is a Negro") and Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, James Baldwin, and other figures of the black power and black arts movement.
Criticism
Womanist critique
Womanist theologians, such as Delores Williams, have critiqued Cone for both male-centered language and for not including the experiences of black women in his sources. Williams, in 1993, acknowledged in a footnote in her book Sisters in the Wilderness, that Cone has modified exclusive language for the reprinting of his works and acknowledged the issues with the previous language. However, she argues that he still does not use the experiences of African-American women in his method, and therefore still needs to deal with the sexism of his work.
Other scholarly critiques
Other critiques of Cone's theological positions have focused on the need to rely more heavily on sources reflecting black experience in general, on Cone's lack of emphasis on reconciliation within the context of liberation, and on his ideas of God and theodicy. Charles H. Long and other founding members of the Society for the Study of Black Religion were critics of Cone's work. Long rejected black theology, contending that theology itself was a western invention alien to the black experience. Others objected to his endorsement of Black Power, lack of interest in reconciliation and concern with scoring academic points.
Political commentary and controversy
Aspects of Cone's theology and words for some people have been the subject of controversy in the political context of the 2008 US presidential campaign as Jeremiah Wright, at that time pastor of then-candidate Barack Obama, noted that he had been inspired by Cone's theology.
Some scholars of black theology noted that controversial quotes by Wright may not necessarily represent black theology. Cone responded to these alleged controversial comments by noting that he was generally writing about historic white churches and denominations that did nothing to oppose slavery and segregation rather than any white individual.
Hoover Institute fellow Stanley Kurtz, in a political commentary in National Review, wrote:
Educator
After receiving his doctorate, Cone taught theology and religion at Philander Smith College and Adrian College. At the urging of his mentor, C. Eric Lincoln, Union Theological Seminary in New York City hired him as assistant professor in 1969. He remained there until his death in 2018 rising to assume an endowed full professorship. Cone made significant contributions to theological education in America. Prior to Cone's arrival in 1969, Union Theological Seminary had not accepted a black student into its doctoral program since its founding in 1836. During his career there, Cone supervised over 40 black doctoral students. These included Dwight Hopkins and some of the founders of womanist theology Delores Williams, Jacquelyn Grant, and Kelly Brown Douglas. He also taught Conrad Tillard, the former Minister of Mosque No. 7 and the Nation of Islam. He delivered countless lectures at other universities and conferences.
Works
Black Theology and Black Power (1969, ) | Find at Orbis Books
A Black Theology of Liberation (1970, ) | Find at Orbis Books
The Spirituals and the Blues: An Interpretation (1972 ) | Find at Orbis Books
God of the Oppressed (1975, ) | Find at Orbis Books
For My People: Black Theology and the Black Church (Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?) (1984, ) | Find at Orbis Books
Speaking the Truth: Ecumenism, Liberation, and Black Theology (1986, )
Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare? (1992, ) | Find at Orbis Books
Risks of Faith: The Emergence of a Black Theology of Liberation, 1968-1998 (1999, )
The Cross and the Lynching Tree (2011, ) | Find at Orbis Books — German edition: Kreuz und Lynchbaum (2019, ) | Find at mutual blessing edition
My Soul Looks Back (1982,) | Find at Orbis Books
Said I wasn't gonna tell nobody : the making of a Black theologian (2018, ) | Find at Orbis Books
See also
Albert Cleage
Gustavo Gutiérrez
J. Deotis Roberts
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Orbis Books James H. Cone's works available at Orbis Books
James Hal Cone Resources from UrbanMinistry.org
Speaking the Truth
Jeremy D. Lucas, The Segregated Hour: A Layman's Guide to the History of Black Liberation Theology, Wipf & Stock, 2009,
Interview with James Cone.
washingtonpost.com / Samuel G. Freedman: One of America’s most influential religious figures has died. He deserves more notice
1936 births
2018 deaths
20th-century African-American writers
20th-century American theologians
20th-century Methodist ministers
20th-century Protestant theologians
Adrian College faculty
African Methodist Episcopal Church clergy
African-American Methodist clergy
African-American theologians
American anti-capitalists
American Christian theologians
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Garrett–Evangelical Theological Seminary alumni
Liberation theologians
Methodist theologians
Northwestern University alumni
People from Fordyce, Arkansas
People from Ouachita County, Arkansas
Philander Smith College alumni
Systematic theologians
Union Theological Seminary (New York City) faculty |
5704868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss%20Life | Swiss Life | The Swiss Life Group is the largest life insurance company of Switzerland and one of Europe’s leading comprehensive life and pensions and financial services providers, with approximately CHF 276.3 bn of assets under management. Founded in 1857 in Zurich as the Schweizerische Lebensversicherungs und Rentenanstalt cooperative, the company entered the Swiss stock market in 1997 and adopted its current name in 2002. In 2022 the group declared an adjusted profit from operations of CHF 2.06 billion, a 17% decrease compared to the previous year. Net profit increased by 16% to CHF 1.46 billion. Swiss Life is one of the twenty companies listed under the Swiss Market Index, as SLHN.
History
Foundation and growth
Conrad Widmer established the Schweizerische Rentenanstalt ("Swiss annuity institution") in 1857 as the first life insurance company in Switzerland, backed by guarantees from Schweizerische Kreditanstalt. Prominent Zurich politician Alfred Escher was closely involved in the development of the cooperative, whose goal was to provide Swiss families with insurance against the uncertainties of life: the company's board included representatives of most Swiss cantons. In 1866, Widmer obtained a license in Prussia, and a year later, the Rentenanstalt had business operations in Hamburg and Bremen. Beginning in 1894, it was one of the first insurance institutions to offer occupational insurance. Between 1866 and 1987, Rentenanstalt expanded to Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Spain, Luxembourg, and Italy. In 1988 it took over La Suisse insurance company of Lausanne.
The first registered office of Rentenanstalt was in the Tiefenhoefe buildings on the Paradeplatz in Zurich. Rapid expansion saw the offices moving in quick succession from the Gruene Schloss on Zwingliplatz, to the Chamhaus on the Untere Zäune and finally to the Alpenquai, where the new head office was opened in 1898. Although this building was spacious for its time, further expansion in the interwar period necessitated yet another move. During 1937–1939 a modern building designed by the Pfister firm of architects was constructed close to the old head office. It is this building, extended during 1961–1963 and later, that houses today's company head office in Zurich.
Going corporate
In 1997, under the management of Manfred Zobl, Rentenanstalt changed from a mutual into a publicly traded proprietary company, with Rentenstalt/Swiss Life shares debuting in the Swiss Market Index in 1998. Swiss Life then embarked on an expansionary strategy, acquiring Livit, Banca del Gottardo, the Lloyd Continental and UTO Albis in 1999, and Schweizerische Treuhandgesellschaft in 2000, and taking over the real estate properties of Oscar Weber Holding AG in 2001. In 2002, the rapid acquisitions ceased as the company looked to restructuring and going back to its core business.
Acquisitions and divestments
In 2002, the company changed its name to Swiss Life for all its operations except in the Netherlands, where it remained under the old name Zwitser Leven (Dutch for "Swiss Life"); the Netherlands company was sold in 2007 to SNS Reaal together with the Belgium business. In 2004, it sold its British operations to Resolution Life Group. In November 2007, Swiss Life sold off Banca del Gottardo for 1.775 billion CHF. On 3 December 2007, Swiss Life announced that it had launched a takeover bid for AWD Holding; on 13 March 2008, it succeeded in acquiring a total of 86.2% of AWD, which became Swiss Life Select in 2013. The acquisition of Corpus Sireo, a German real estate asset management service provider, was completed in the summer of 2014, and that of Mayfair Capital, a UK real estate investment management firm, in 2016. In 2021, Swiss Life Asset Managers acquired the real estate business of Ness, Risan & Partners, a provider of real estate projects and funds in the Nordic region.
Acquisition history
Schweizerische Lebensversicherungs und Rentenanstalt (Founded 1857 by Conrad Widmer)
Rentenstalt/Swiss Life shares (Acq 1998, Launch on Swiss stock market)
Livit (Acq 1999)
Banca del Gottardo (Acq 1999)
Lloyd Continental (Acq 1999)
UTO Albis (Acq 1999)
Schweizerische Treuhandgesellschaft (Acq 2000)
Oscar Weber Holding AG (Acq 2001)
AWD Holding (Acq 2008)
Swiss Life Select
Corpus Sireo (Acq 2014)
Mayfair Capital (Acq 2016)
Ness, Risan & Partners (Acq 1999)
elipsLife (Acq 2021)
Versdiagnose (Acq 2022)
Franke und Bornberg (Acq 2022)
Corporate structure
The Swiss Life Group reports by country. Besides the three core markets Switzerland, France and Germany, the Group separately discloses its cross-border segments International and Asset Managers.
Switzerland
Swiss Life Switzerland is a comprehensive life and pensions and financial service provider with the brands Swiss Life and Swiss Life Select, and is one of the leading providers with over one million insured persons.
France
Swiss Life France specialises in personal insurance but also provides, through its Swiss Life Banque Privée subsidiary, asset management and insurance services combined with private banking for high net worth individuals.
Germany
The German branch of Swiss Life, founded in 1866, is based in Munich and offers private and corporate clients services in pensions saving and financial security. Core competencies are occupational disability insurance and occupational pensions. Swiss Life's financial distribution subsidiaries (Swiss Life Select, HORBACH, Tecis and Proventus) are headquartered in Hanover.
International
With locations in Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein and Singapore, Swiss Life International offers Private placement life insurance (a form of investment with an insurance wrapper) for high-net-worth individuals in Europe and Asia, and provides employee benefits for large corporate clients. The financial advisors from Swiss Life Select Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Chase de Vere in the UK also operate under the Swiss Life International umbrella.
Asset Managers
Swiss Life Asset Managers offers institutional and private investors access to investment and asset management services. In Switzerland, it is one of the largest institutional asset managers and the third largest fund provider in the country. In Germany, Swiss Life Asset Managers significantly strengthened its position in the market with the acquisition of the real estate asset management service provider Corpus Sireo in 2014. The real estate management company Livit AG is also a subsidiary of the Swiss Life Asset Management entity, along with London-based Mayfair Capital Investment which was acquired in 2016. In 2018, Swiss Life Asset Managers acquired the German real estate company BEOS AG and in 2019 Fontavis, an investment manager for clean energy and infrastructure funds.
Corporate governance
Board of directors
The board of directors is responsible for the general direction of the Group and the supervision of the Corporate Executive Board. The Board is elected for one-year terms and is composed as follows:
Corporate executive board
The group CEO directs the business operations of the group and works out the long-term objectives and strategic orientation of the group, together with the corporate executive board.
Group CEO: Patrick Frost
Group CFO: Matthias Aellig
Group CIO: Stefan Mächler
CEO Switzerland: Markus Leibundgut
CEO France: Tanguy Polet
CEO Germany: Jörg Arnold
CEO International: Nils Frowein
Financials
According to Swiss law, shareholders are obliged to disclose information regarding their shareholdings in Swiss-based companies when these amount to or exceed 3%. Shareholders currently holding registered shares (purchasing positions included) of Swiss Life Holding Ltd., are BlackRock Inc. (over 5%), and UBS Fund Management (Switzerland) AG (over 3%).
CSR and sponsorship
The “Perspectives Foundation” of Swiss Life, established in 2005, promotes charitable initiatives in the Swiss home market in the areas of health, science, education, culture and sport, donating between CHF 1.3 and 1.5 million every year to social and charitable projects.
Swiss Life also jointly founded the Swiss Climate Foundation with eleven other companies in 2008. All partners donate their net gains from redistributed levies to the foundation, which in turns supports projects helping small and medium-sized enterprises to reach voluntary target agreement with the Energy Agency of the Swiss Private Sector (EnAW), develop operational energy savings and climate protection systems.
In March 2016, the Swiss Life Group presented its first Corporate Responsibility Report in accordance with the guidelines of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), as an integral part of the Annual Report 2015. The Corporate Responsibility Report focuses on business activities, society, employees and the environment and is guided by the principle of materiality. The report is published annually.
From 2004 to 2020, Swiss Life sponsored the Swiss national football team.
In the field of culture, Swiss Life supports, among others, the Zurich Film Festival (ZFF), the Lucerne Festival, the Zurich Opera House, the Tonhalle Orchestra Zurich and the Davos Festival.
Since the 2015/16 season, Swiss Life has been supporting the ice hockey club ZSC Lions as general sponsor. Swiss Life Arena, the hockey and sports arena for 12,000 fans of the ZCS Lions club in Altstetten, is also named after Swiss Life. The opening took place in October 2022.
See also
Swiss Insurance Association
Swiss Life Select
References
Financial services companies established in 1857
Insurance companies of Switzerland
Swiss Life (demutualized 1997)
Life insurance companies
Swiss brands
Companies listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange
Swiss Life |
24496299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech%20Valley | Tech Valley | Tech Valley began as a marketing name for the eastern part of the U.S. state of New York, encompassing the Capital District and the Hudson Valley. Originating in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high-tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston, the moniker subsequently grew to represent the counties in New York between IBM's Westchester County plants in the south and the Canada–United States border to the north, and has since evolved to constitute both the technologically oriented metonym and the geographic territory comprising most of New York State north of New York City. The area's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute.
Tech Valley grew to encompass 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway, and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy, has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high-technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector, digital electronics design, and water- and electricity-dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing, involving companies including IBM in Armonk and its Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, GlobalFoundries in Malta, and others. As of 2015, venture capital investment in Tech Valley had grown to US$163 million. Westchester County has developed a burgeoning biotechnology sector in the 21st century, with over US$1 billion in planned private investment as of 2016, earning the county the nickname Biochester. In April 2021, GlobalFoundries, a company specializing in the semiconductor industry, moved its headquarters from Silicon Valley, California to its most advanced semiconductor-chip manufacturing facility in Saratoga County, New York near a section of the Adirondack Northway, in Malta, New York.
History
The name "Tech Valley", or "Techneurial Valley" as was originally used, is usually credited to Wallace "Wally" Altes, a former president of the Albany-Colonie Regional Chamber of Commerce ("the Chamber"), while the shortened name from "Techneurial" to "Tech" was the idea of Jay Burgess. In 1998, the Albany-Colonie Chamber began using Tech Valley as a marketing name for an initial ten-county area centered on New York's Capital District to show in name the merging of entrepreneurial activity and high-tech companies in the region. Tech Valley then evolved into a 19-county region in eastern New York stretching from the Canadian-US border to the northern suburbs of the city of New York. The 19 counties were Albany, Clinton, Columbia, Dutchess, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Greene, Hamilton, Herkimer, Montgomery, Orange, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, Ulster, Warren, and Washington. That region was 15,637 square miles, about 270 miles north–south at its longest and about 80 miles east–west at its widest. In 2010, those 19 counties had a population estimate in 2010 of 2,312,952, a 9.2 percent increase over the 2000 census; population density was 148 people/sq. mile. 51 percent of the population was female, with 48.2 percent male. 88.5 percent of the population was White, 6.2 percent Black, 4.9 percent Latino, 1.5 percent Asian, with a median age of 37.5 years.
From the inception of the name, the Chamber stated that it would not limit the label of Tech Valley to just the Capital District; rather, Tech Valley was envisioned as running from IBM's Westchester County plants and headquarters north to Saratoga Springs and west up the Mohawk Valley. Early businesses that used the Tech Valley name helped spread the word, businesses such as Albany Molecular Research Inc. (AMRI) who used the phrase in its job recruitment material, MapInfo Corporation, Tech Valley Communications, Tech Valley Office Interiors, and Tech Valley Homes Real Estate. The first use of the phrase by a business may have been the accounting firm Urbach, Kahn, & Werlin in 1998, which put the Tech Valley name and logo on its postage meter, shortly before that the Chamber had begun instituting a new telephone greeting, "Albany-Colonie Chamber. Tech Valley. May I help you".
Also in 1998, Rupprecht & Patashnick put "Made in New York's Tech Valley" stickers on all its air quality sensors for the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) national monitoring network. In 2000, Tech Valley license plates became available, with three numbers and the letters TEC, for a $34.50 fee, they were the first plates in New York that had a website on them- techvalley.org.
Initially, the name Tech Valley was derided as over-enthusiastic self-boosterism, but SEMATECH's decision in 2002 to relocate its headquarters to the University at Albany, SUNY began Tech Valley's rise in the public's perception. In 2004, however, when Bill Gates was asked by an Albany Times Union reporter what he thought about Tech Valley, he responded that he had no idea where that was; two years later though, $400,000 from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation was used to fund the Tech Valley High School.
Luring a chip-fab plant
The goal of luring a computer chip fabrication plant (chip fab) was one of the earliest goals of, and reasons underlying, the Tech Valley name. The plan to get a chip fab to the Capital District predates the Tech Valley slogan. In 1997, New York set out submissions for possible chip fab sites that it could whittle to 10 sites around the state that would be pre-approved and pre-permitted for a chip plant. Years before that the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's RPI Tech Park had been visited by semiconductor companies, but they had chosen not to build. The renewed interest by the region in luring them was spurred by the research centers and training of specialists for the industry by area colleges such as the University at Albany, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and Hudson Valley Community College. Responding to the state's request for potential sites, Rensselaer County proposed the same RPI Tech Park site; Schenectady County proposed two sites, one of which was in Hillside Industrial Park in Niskayuna; Saratoga County proposed two sites; and Albany County proposed three sites, two in Bethlehem and one in Guilderland. The state ultimately decided on 13 sites it would aggressively promote, most of which were in Tech Valley. As one of the thirteen sites chosen, the RPI Tech Park site originally met little opposition from the town of North Greenbush in which it sat. As time progressed opposition grew in response to concerns about potential impacts on traffic and the environment. The RPI Tech Park site, which by October 1999 had become one of only nine sites still being marketed by the state, ended when the North Greenbush town council voted to terminate the review process. A site in Wallkill, Orange County was the first site in Tech Valley and in the entire state to receive pre-approval for a chip fab.
In 2002, the Saratoga Economic Development Corporation (SEDC) began to tout its proposed tech park, to be named the Luther Forest Technology Campus, in Malta, New York, along the Adirondack Northway within Saratoga County, as a site for a chip plant. It would be there that GlobalFoundries, a spin-off of Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), decided to build a $4.2 billion chip fab, ground breaking was in July 2009. The State of New York gave nearly $1.4 billion in cash and tax incentives, the largest such package in state history. New York's incentive package was the same as that offered by Russia, China, and Brazil; though it was not the deciding factor it meant that any region not offering the package was out of contention for the fab. The deciding factor on picking Tech Valley was the $5 billion College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at the SUNY Polytechnic Institute and the resulting "high-tech ecosystem" put in place during Governor George Pataki's administration. Subsequently, in April 2021, GlobalFoundries, a company specializing in the semiconductor industry, moved its headquarters from Silicon Valley, California to its most advanced semiconductor-chip manufacturing facility in Malta, Saratoga County, New York.
Tech Valley Chamber Coalition
The Tech Valley Chamber Coalition is an organization that is made up of 24 local chambers of commerce from 19 counties of Tech Valley. Those 24 chambers represent over 21,000 businesses, schools, and organizations that employ more than 531,000 workers. It was formed in June 2002 and manages the Tech Valley Portal, and publishes an annual publication called Images of Tech Valley.
The 24 local chambers are-
Adirondack Regional Chamber of Commerce
Adirondacks Speculator Region Chamber of Commerce
Albany-Colonie Regional Chamber of Commerce
Bethlehem Chamber of Commerce
Chamber of Schenectady County
Chamber of Southern Saratoga County
Colonie Chamber of Commerce
Columbia County Chamber of Commerce
Dutchess County Regional Chamber of Commerce
Fulton County Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Greater Greenwich Chamber of Commerce
Greater Southern Dutchess Chamber of Commerce
Greene County Chamber of Commerce
Guilderland Chamber of Commerce
Herkimer County Chamber of Commerce
Mechanicville/Stillwater Area Chamber of Commerce
Montgomery County Chamber of Commerce
New Paltz Regional Chamber of Commerce
Orange County Chamber of Commerce
Plattsburgh-North Country Chamber of Commerce
Rensselaer County Regional Chamber of Commerce
Schoharie County Chamber of Commerce
Ulster County Chamber of Commerce
Whitehall Chamber of Commerce
Organizations that use the Tech Valley name
Tech Valley Communications (1999)
Tech Valley Homes Real Estate (2001)
Tech Valley Angel Network (2001)
Tech Valley Chamber Coalition (2002)
Tech Valley Technologies (2003)
Tech Valley Office Interiors (2005)
Tech Valley Exotic Dance Emporium
Tech Valley High School (2007)
Tech Valley Talent
Leadership Tech Valley
Tech Valley Center of Gravity (2012)
StartUp Tech Valley (2013)
Tech Valley Game Space (2014)
FIRST NY Tech Valley Regional Robotics Competition (2014)
Tech Valley Machine Learning, Data Science, and AI Meetup (2016)
Tech Newbies in Tech Valley Meetup (2017)
NetSquared Tech Valley (2018)
See also
BioValley
Silicon Alley
Silicon Hills
Silicon Valley
References
High-technology business districts in the United States
Economy of New York (state)
Regions of New York (state)
Hudson Valley
Capital District (New York) |
79460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo | Abruzzo | Abruzzo (, , ; , Abbrìzze or Abbrèzze ; ), historically known as Abruzzi, is a region of Southern Italy with an area of 10,763 square km (4,156 sq mi) and a population of 1.3 million. It is divided into four provinces: L'Aquila, Teramo, Pescara, and Chieti. Its western border lies east of Rome. Abruzzo borders the region of Marche to the north, Lazio to the west and north-west, Molise to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Geographically, Abruzzo is divided into a mountainous area in the west, which includes the highest massifs of the Apennines, such as the Gran Sasso d'Italia and the Maiella, and a coastal area in the east with beaches on the Adriatic Sea.
Abruzzo is considered a region of Southern Italy in terms of its culture, language, history, and economy, though in terms of physical geography it may also be considered part of Central Italy. The Italian Statistical Authority (ISTAT) also deems it to be part of Southern Italy, partly because of Abruzzo's historic association with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Almost half of the region's territory is protected through national parks and nature reserves, more than any administrative region on the continent, leading it to be dubbed "the greenest region in Europe." There are three national parks, one regional park, and 38 protected nature reserves. These ensure the survival of rare species, such as the golden eagle, the Abruzzo (or Abruzzese) chamois, the Apennine wolf and the Marsican brown bear. Abruzzo's parks and reserves host 75% of Europe's animal species. The region is also home to Calderone, one of Europe's southernmost glaciers.
Nineteenth-century Italian diplomat and journalist Primo Levi (1853–1917) (note that this is not the Holocaust writer Primo Levi) chose the adjectives forte e gentile ("strong and kind") to capture what he saw as the character of the region and its people. "Forte e gentile" has since become the motto of the region.
Provinces and politics
Provinces
Abruzzo is divided into four administrative provinces:
Politics
The Politics of Abruzzo takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democracy, whereby the President of Regional Government is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Regional Council.
The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione), who is elected for a five-year term, and is composed by the President and the Ministers (Assessori), who are currently 8, including a Vice President (Vicepresidente) and an undersecretary (Sottosegretario).
History
Human settlements in Abruzzo have existed since at least the Neolithic times. A skeleton from Lama dei Peligni in the province of Chieti dates back to 6,540 BC under radiometric dating. The name Abruzzo appears to be derivative of the Latin word "Aprutium". In Roman times, the region was known as Picenum, Sabina et Samnium, Flaminia et Picenum, and Campania et Samnium. The region was known as Aprutium in the Middle Ages, arising from four possible sources: it is a combination of Praetutium, or rather of the name of the people Praetutii, applied to their chief city, Interamnia, the old Teramo.
Many cities in Abruzzo date back to ancient times. Corfinio was known as Corfinium when it was the chief city of the Paeligni, and later was renamed Pentima by the Romans. Chieti is built on the site of the ancient city of Teate, Atri was known as Adria. Teramo, known variously in ancient times as Interamnia and Teramne, has Roman ruins which attract tourists.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a string of invasions and rulers dominated the region, including the Lombards, Byzantines, and Hungarians. Between the 9th and 12th centuries, the region was dominated by the popes, and at times was part of the Duchy of Spoleto and (partly) the Duchy of Benevento. Subsequently, the Normans took over, and Abruzzo became part of the Kingdom of Sicily, later the Kingdom of Naples. The House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies took over in 1734, establishing the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1816, and ruled until Italian unification (also known as the Risorgimento) in 1860.
The administrative region of Abruzzo was formed in the 1230s, when Frederick II divided his realms into justiciarates, with Abruzzo forming one of them. This was subsequently divided into Abruzzo Citra (nearer Abruzzo) and Abruzzo Ultra (farther Abruzzo), named in relation to the capital Naples, by Carlo I of Anjou in the 1270s, and in 1806 Abruzzo Ultra was itself divided in two (in the Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)), as Abruzzo Ultra I and Abruzzo Ultra II (being divided at the Gran Sasso d'Italia); the same Citra/Ultra I/Ultra II scheme was used for Calabria. When Abruzzo was divided into smaller regions, these were referred to collectively by the plural term Abruzzi. In the 1948 Italian Constitution, these were unified with Molise into the Abruzzi e Molise region, though in the first draft Abruzzo and Molise were separate, and in 1963 Abruzzi e Molise were separated into the two regions of Abruzzo and Molise. Abruzzo Citeriore is now the province of Chieti. The province of Teramo and province of Pescara now comprise what was Abruzzo Ulteriore I. Abruzzo Ulteriore II is now the province of L'Aquila.
During the Second World War, Abruzzo was on the Gustav Line, part of the German's Winter Line. One of the most brutal battles was the Battle of Ortona. Abruzzo was the location of two prisoner of war camps, Campo 21 in Chieti, and Campo 78 in Sulmona. The Sulmona camp also served as a POW camp in World War I; much of the facility is still intact and attracts tourists interested in military history.
Geography
Geographically, Abruzzo is nearly at the center of Italian peninsula, stretching from the heart of the Apennines to the Adriatic Sea, and includes mainly mountainous and wild land. The mountainous land is occupied by a vast plateau, including Gran Sasso, at the highest peak of the Apennines, and Mount Majella at . The Adriatic coastline is characterized by long sandy beaches to the North and pebbly beaches to the South. Abruzzo is well known for its landscapes and natural environment, parks and nature reserves, characteristic hillside areas rich in vineyards and olive groves. Many beaches have been awarded the Blue Flag beach status.
Climate
In Abruzzo there are two climatic zones. The coastal strip and sub-Apennine hills have a climate markedly different from that of the mountainous interior. Coastal areas have a Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and mild winters. Inland hilly areas have a sublittoral climate with temperatures decreasing progressively with increasing altitude. Precipitation is also strongly affected by the presence of the Apennines mountain range. Rainfall is abundant on slopes oriented to the west, and lower in east and east-facing slopes. The Adriatic coast is shielded from rainfall by the barrier effect created by the Apennines. The minimum annual rainfall is found in some inland valleys, sheltered by mountain ranges, such as Peligna or Tirino (Ofena, Capestrano), where as little as were recorded. Rainfall along the coast almost always never falls below . Pescara has relatively less rainfall (about ) than Chieti (about ). The highest rainfall occurs in upland areas on the border with Lazio; they are especially vulnerable to Atlantic disturbances. Around of precipitation is typical.
Flora and fauna
The flora of Abruzzo is typically Mediterranean. Along the coastal belt Mediterranean shrubland Is the dominant natural vegetation, with species like myrtle, heather and mastic. Inland we find olive, pine, willow, oak, poplar, alder, arbutus, broom, acacia, capers, rosemary, hawthorn, licorice and almond trees, interspersed with oak trees. At elevations between there is sub-montane vegetation, with mixed woodlands of oak and turkey oak, maple and hornbeam; shrubs include dog rose and red juniper. Elevations between are dominated by beech. In the Apennine Mountains at elevations above species include alpine orchid, mountain juniper, silver fir, black cranberry and the Abruzzo edelweiss.
The fauna of Abruzzo is very diverse, including the region's symbol, the Abruzzo chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata), which has recovered from near-extinction. Common species include Marsican brown bear, Italian wolf, deer, lynx, roe deer, snow vole, fox, porcupine, wild cat, wild boar, badger, otter, and viper.
The natural parks of the region are the Abruzzo National Park, the Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park, the Maiella National Park and the Sirente-Velino Regional Park, as well as many other natural reserves and protected areas.
In 2017, the ancient beech forests of the Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park of Europe were recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, with the region thus gaining its first prestigious site.
Economy
Until a few decades ago, Abruzzo was a backward region of Southern Italy. Since the 1950s, Abruzzo has showed steady economic growth. In 1951, per capita income or GDP was 53% of that of wealthier Northern Italy. The gap has since narrowed, being 65% in 1971 and 76% by 1994. The region reached the highest per capita GDP of Southern Italy through the highest growth rate of every other region of Italy. The unemployment rate stood at 9.3% in 2020.
Abruzzo is the 16th most productive region in the country, and is the 13th for GRP per capita among Italian regions.
As of 2003, Abruzzo's per capita GDP was €19,506 or 84% of the national average of €23,181, compared to the average value for Southern Italy of €15,808. In 2006, the region's average GDP per capita was approximately 20,100 EUR. The construction of motorways from Rome to Teramo (A24) and Rome to Pescara (A25), which provided better access to the region, is credited as a driver of public and private investments.
The 2009 L'Aquila earthquake led to a sharp economic slowdown. However, according to statistics at the end of 2010, some signals of recovery were noted. Regional economic growth was recorded as 1.47%, which actually placed Abruzzo fourth among Italy's regions after Lazio, Lombardy and Calabria. In 2011 Abruzzo's economic growth was +2.3%, the highest percentage among the regions of Southern Italy.
Industry
From the early 1950s to the mid-1990s Abruzzo's industrial sector expanded rapidly, especially in mechanical engineering, transportation equipment and telecommunications. The structure of production in the region reflects the transformation of the economy from agriculture to industry and services. The industrial sector relies on few large enterprises and the predominance of small and medium enterprises. In the applied research field, there are major institutes and enterprises involved in the fields of pharmaceutics, biomedicine, electronics, aerospace and nuclear physics. The industrial infrastructure is dispersed throughout the region in industrial zones. The most important of these are: Val Pescara, Val di Sangro, Val Trigno, Val Vibrata and Conca del Fucino.
The province of Teramo is one of the most industrialized areas of Italy and of the region, with numerous small and medium-sized companies, then follows the province of Chieti and that of Pescara, which is also supported by tourism; the Val Vibrata (province of Teramo), on the border with the Marche region, is home to a myriad of small and medium-sized enterprises, especially in the textile and footwear sectors. The Val di Sangro (province of Chieti), on the other hand, is home to important multinationals and a factory belonging to the Fiat (Sevel) group. The area of Valle Peligna (province of L'Aquila) is also home to industries (the famous one of Sulmona sugared almonds), while other areas such as Pescara and Theatine are home to numerous industries, including multinationals (for example De Cecco, Procter & Gamble, Monti & Ambrosini Editori, Brioni, Ennedue and Miss Sixty, mostly concentrated in the industrial district of Val Pescara in the province of Chieti).
Agriculture
Agriculture, based on small holdings, has modernised and produces high-quality products. The mostly small-scale producers are active in wine, cereals, sugar beet, potatoes, olives, vegetables, fruit and dairy products. Traditional products are saffron and liquorice. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Montepulciano d'Abruzzo, the region's most famous wine, had become one of the most widely exported DOC-classed wines in Italy.
As for the figures, the region produces about 850,000 quintals of fruit, 5 million quintals of vegetables, 1,600,000 quintals of potatoes, 5,000,000 quintals of grapes produced, both for table and for the production of wine; the latter is estimated at between 3 and 4 million hectoliters with the production of wines such as Montepulciano d'Abruzzo in the red and cerasuolo (rosé) varieties, Trebbiano d'Abruzzo, Pecorino and the Chardonnay; oil production, on the other hand, stands at 1,350,000 quintals of olives and 240,000 quintals of oil (Aprutino Pescarese, Pretuziano delle Colline Teramane and Colline Teatine), figures that put Abruzzo in sixth place among the Italian regions; as regards cereals, the durum wheat with over 1.5 million quintals constitutes the main cereal, followed by soft wheat (one million quintals), then barley (0.5 million quintals ); other crops are also grown such as beetroot (2,500,000 quintals), and tobacco (45,000 quintals).
Tourism
Tourism is an important economic sector; in the past decade, tourism has increased, mainly centered around its national parks and natural reserves, ski and beach resorts, in particular along the Trabocchi Coast. Abruzzo's castles and medieval towns, especially in the area of L'Aquila, have led to the creation of the nickname of "Abruzzoshire", along Tuscany's "Chiantishire". In spite of this, Abruzzo is still "off the beaten path" for most visitors to Italy.
Very popular with visitors from all over Italy and Europe the natural parks of the region such as the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park, the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park, the Maiella National Park and the Sirente-Velino Regional Park which every year attract thousands of visitors thanks to their nature unspoiled and rare wild fauna and flora species such as Abruzzo chamois moreover the region can boast many reserves, protected natural areas and lakes (Campotosto Lake and Lago di Scanno).
In the inland mountain areas there are the ski resorts of Scanno, Ovindoli, Pescasseroli, Tagliacozzo, Roccaraso, Campo Imperatore, Campo Felice, Rivisondoli, Pescocostanzo, Prati di Tivo, San Giacomo (Valle Castellana), Passolanciano-Majelletta, Prato Selva, Campo Rotondo, Campo di Giove, Passo San Leonardo, Passo Godi, Pizzoferrato, and Gamberale, where winter tourism is highly developed and then you can play sports such as alpine skiing, snowboarding, ski mountaineering, ski touring, cross-country skiing and dog sledding.
Also of considerable importance is the summer coastal and seaside tourism, which sees the presence of numerous tourist bathing establishments equipped in various centers of the coast such as Pescara, Montesilvano, Pineto, Roseto degli Abruzzi, Giulianova, Alba Adriatica, Tortoreto, Ortona, Vasto, Martinsicuro, Silvi Marina and the Trabocchi Coast.
Finally, tourism for historical and cultural purposes is also important, concentrated above all in the cities of Chieti, Teramo, Vasto, Giulianova, Sulmona, and above all L'Aquila which can boast many monuments, museums, castles and churches (St. Gabriel's shrine and Santa Maria di Collemaggio) of national importance; also Pescara despite being a modern city, boasts monuments, churches and museums of historical importance such as the Birthplace of Gabriele D'Annunzio Museum. In the inland mountain areas there are ancient villages, castles, hermitages, sanctuaries abbeys, and ancient churches.
Demographics
Although the population density of Abruzzo has increased over recent decades, it is still well below the Italian national average: in 2008, 123.4 inhabitants per km2, compared to 198.8. In the provinces, the density varies: Pescara is the most densely populated with 260.1 inhabitants per km2, whereas L'Aquila is the least densely populated with 61.3 inhabitants per km2, although it has the largest area. After decades of emigration from the region, the main feature of the 1980s is immigration from third world countries. The population increase is due to the positive net migration. Since 1991 more deaths than births were registered in Abruzzo (except for 1999, when their numbers were equal). In 2008, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 59,749 foreign-born immigrants live in Abruzzo, equal to 4.5% of the total regional population.
The most serious demographic imbalance is between the mountainous areas of the interior and the coastal strip. The largest province, L'Aquila, is situated entirely in the interior and has the lowest population density. The movement of the population of Abruzzo from the mountains to the sea has led to the almost complete urbanization of the entire coastal strip especially in the province of Teramo and Chieti. The effects on the interior have been impoverishment and demographic aging, reflected by an activity rate in the province of L'Aquila which is the lowest among the provinces in Abruzzo – accompanied by geological degradation as a result of the absence of conservation measures. In the coastal strip, however, there is such a jumble of accommodations and activities that the environment has been negatively affected. The policy of providing incentives for development has resulted in the setting-up of industrial zones, some of which (Vasto, Avezzano, Carsoli, Gissi, Val Vibrata, Val di Sangro) have made genuine progress, while others (Val Pescara, L'Aquila) have run into trouble after their initial success. The zones of Sulmona and Guardiagrele have turned out to be more or less failures. Outside these zones, the main activities are agriculture and tourism.
Main settlements
L'Aquila is both the capital city of the Abruzzo region and of the Province of L'Aquila and second largest city (pop. 73,000). L'Aquila was hit by an earthquake on 6 April 2009, which destroyed much of the city centre. The other provincial capitals are Pescara, which is Abruzzo's largest city and major port (pop. 123,000); Teramo (pop. 55,000) and Chieti (pop. 55,000). Other large municipalities in Abruzzo include the industrial and high tech center Avezzano (pop. 41,000), as well as three important industrial and touristic centers such as Vasto (pop. 40,636), Lanciano (pop. 36,000), and Sulmona (pop. 25,000).
Transport
Airports
Abruzzo International Airport is the only international airport in the region. Open to civilian traffic since 1996, the number of passengers has increased over the years because of low-cost air carriers' use of the facility. Today, the airport has a catchment area of over 500,000 passengers annually.
L'Aquila-Preturo Airport is located near L'Aquila, but remains underused.
Ports
There are four main ports in Abruzzo: Pescara, Ortona, Vasto and Giulianova.
Over the years the Port of Pescara has become one of the most important tourist ports of Italy and the Adriatic Sea. Heavily damaged in World War II, it underwent major renovations for some sixty years. It now consists of a modern marina with advanced moorings and shipbuilding facilities. It has been awarded the European Union's blue flag for its services. The port of Pescara has lost passenger traffic because of its shallowness and silting, but its fishery and aquaculture activities are thriving.
Railways
There is a significant disparity between the railways of the Abruzzo coast and the inland areas, which badly need modernization to improve the service, in particular, the Rome-Pescara line.
Existing railway lines:
Adriatic railway runs through the whole of Italy from north to south, along the Adriatic Sea.
Rome – Sulmona – Pescara
Sulmona – Carpinone
Sulmona–Terni railway
Avezzano railroad – Roccasecca
Giulianova – Teramo
Sangritana (Lanciano – Castel di Sangro)
Highways
There are three highways that serve the region:
A24 (Rome – L'Aquila – Teramo) was built in the 1970s and connects Rome with the Adriatic coast in less than two hour-drive. The Gran Sasso tunnel, the longest road tunnel entirely on Italian territory, was opened in 1984.
A25 (Torano – Avezzano – Pescara) connects Rome with Pescara. The road branches off A24 in Torano, spans across the Fucino basin, crosses the Apennines, and merges with A14 near Pescara.
A14 Bologna – Taranto known as the "Adriatica", includes of dual-carriage motorway between Bologna and Taranto.
Culture
The museum Museo Archeologico Nazionale d'Abruzzo in Chieti houses the famed statue Warrior of Capestrano which was found in a necropolis of the 6th century B.C. Across the region, among the prominent cultural and historical buildings are: Teramo Cathedral, its archeological museum and the Roman theater, the Castello della Monica, the Collurania-Teramo Observatory, the famous L'Aquila Basilica of Santa Maria di Collemaggio (which holds the remains of Pope Celestine V), the Museo Nazionale d'Abruzzo, Santa Maria del Suffragio, the Forte Spagnolo, the Fountain of 99 Spouts, Gabriele D'Annunzio's house in Pescara, Campli's Scala Sancta and its church, the church of Santissima Annunziata in Sulmona, the cathedrals of Chieti, Lanciano, Guardiagrele, Atri and Pescara along with the castles of Ortona, Celano and Ortucchio.
Every year on 28–29 August, L'Aquila's Santa Maria di Collemaggio commemorates the Perdonanza Celestiniana, the indulgence issued by Pope Celestine V to anyone who, "truly repentant and confessed" would visit that Church from the Vespers of the vigil to the vespers of 29 August. Sulmona's Holy Week is commemorated with traditional celebrations and rituals, such as "La Madonna che scappa in piazza", when a large statue of the Mary, carried by a group of local fraternities, is carried across the square in procession. Cocullo, in the province of L'Aquila, holds the annual "Festa dei serpari" (festival of snake handlers) in which a statue of St. Dominic, covered with live snakes, is carried in a procession through the town; it attracts thousands of Italian and foreign visitors. In many Abruzzo villages, Anthony the Great's feast is celebrated in January with massive and scenic bonfires.
In the past, the region of Abruzzo was well known for the transumanza, the seasonal movement of sheep floks: these used to travel mostly southbound towards the region of Puglia during the cold winter months. The Feast of St. Biagio, protector of wool dealers is celebrated across the region. On the third of February in Taranta Peligna every year since the sixteenth century an evocative ritual is held: panicelle, or small loaves made of flour and water, in the shape of a blessing hand, are distributed among the faithful.
Historical figures from the region include: the Roman orator Asinius Pollio; Latin poets Sallust and Ovid, who were born in L'Aquila and Sulmona respectively, Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman senator and leading instigator of the plot to kill Julius Caesar. Pontius Pilate is said to have been native to the region. Abruzzo's religious personalities include Saint Berardo; John of Capistrano; Thomas of Celano, author of three hagiographies of Saint Francis of Assisi; and Alessandro Valignano, who introduced Catholicism to the Far East and Japan. The Polish Pope John Paul II loved the mountains of Abruzzo, where he would retire often and pray in the church of San Pietro della Ienca. Local personalities in the humanities include: poet Ignazio Silone, movie director Ennio Flaiano who co-wrote La dolce vita, philosopher Benedetto Croce, poet Gabriele D'Annunzio, composer Paolo Tosti, sculptor Venanzo Crocetti and artist LorenzoArs.
American artists and celebrities such as: Dean Martin, Perry Como, Henry Mancini, Nancy Pelosi, Rocky Marciano, Rocky Mattioli, Bruno Sammartino, Mario Batali, John and Dan Fante, Tommy Lasorda, Dan Marino, Mario Lanza, Garry Marshall, Penny Marshall, Ariana Grande, and Al Martino trace part of their family roots to Abruzzo.
Some international movies shot in Abruzzo include The American, Jean-Jacques Annaud's The Name of the Rose, Fellini's La Strada and I Vitelloni, Schwarzenegger's Red Sonja, Ladyhawke, King David, Francesco, Keoma, The Barbarians, The Fox and the Child and Krull.
Medieval and Renaissance hill towns
Before the 2009 earthquake, Abruzzo was the region with the highest number of castles and hill towns in Italy. It still holds many of Italy's best-preserved medieval and Renaissance hill towns, twenty-three of which are among I Borghi più belli d'Italia. This listing recognises their scenic beauty, arts and culture, their historical importance and quality of life.
The abrupt decline of Abruzzo's agricultural economy in the early to mid-20th-century spared some of the region's historic hill towns from modern development. Many lie entirely within regional and national parks. Among the most well preserved are Castel del Monte and Santo Stefano di Sessanio, within the Gran Sasso National Park on the edge of the high plain of Campo Imperatore and nestled beneath the Apennines' highest peaks. Both hill towns, which were ruled by the Medicis for over a century-and-a-half, see relatively little tourism. Between the two towns sits Rocca Calascio, the ruin of an ancient fortress popular with filmmakers. Both Monteferrante and Roccascalegna are two of the most representative Abruzzo villages in the province of Chieti. Within the Gran Sasso National Park is also found Castelli, an ancient pottery center whose artisans produced ceramics for most of the royal houses of Europe.
Civitella del Tronto played a crucial role in the history of the unification of Italy. The fortress of Civitella is the most visited monument in the Abruzzo region today. Other medieval hill towns located within Abruzzo's park system are Pacentro in the Maiella National Park and Pescasseroli in the Abruzzo National Park. Pacentro, which features a 14th-century castle with two intact towers, has been little touched by modernisation. The Shrine of Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows, in the province of Teramo, which attracts some two million visitors per year, is one of the 15 most-visited sanctuaries in the world. Capestrano, a small town in the province of L'Aquila, is the hometown of Saint John of Capistrano, Franciscan friar and Catholic priest, as well as the namesake of the Franciscan missions San Juan Capistrano in Southern California, the mission Mission San Juan Capistrano in Texas and the city of San Juan Capistrano in Orange County, California. Giulianova is a notable example of a Renaissance "ideal city".
The proximity to Rome, the protected areas and scenic landscapes making the region one of the greenest in Europe, the presence of quaint villages, its rich and varied culinary traditions are important tourist attractions. In 2010, visitors included 6,381,067 Italians and 925,884 foreign tourists.
In 2015, the American organization Live and Invest Overseas included Abruzzo on its list of World's Top 21 Overseas Retirement Havens. The study was based on such factors as climate, infrastructure, health care, safety, taxes, cost of living and more. In 2017 the Chamber of Commerce of Pescara presented Abruzzo region to the Annual conference of Live and Invest Overseas in the U.S. city of Orlando, Florida. One year later, in October 2018, Live and Invest Overseas held its first conference in Abruzzo.
Universities
There are three universities in the Abruzzo region:
University of L'Aquila
D'Annunzio University of Chieti–Pescara
University of Teramo
Harvard University bases an intensive summer Italian language and culture program in Vasto, a resort town on Abruzzo's southern coast.
Science
Between the province of Teramo and L'Aquila, under the Gran Sasso Tunnel, is the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS) of the INFN, one of the three underground astroparticle laboratories in Europe.
The Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise "Giuseppe Caporale", which conducts research in veterinary and environmental public health, is located in Teramo.
The Gran Sasso Science Institute, located in L'Aquila, is an advanced research institute which offers doctorates in astroparticle physics, computer science, and mathematics as well as urban studies and regional science, and which also conducts scientific research.
Sports
Interamnia World Cup, the largest international youth handball competition worldwide, takes place yearly in Teramo.
There are several football clubs in Abruzzo. Delfino Pescara 1936 is a Serie C club; based in Pescara, its home stadium is Stadio Adriatico – Giovanni Cornacchia.
Dialects
The regional dialects of Abruzzo include Teramano, Abruzzese Orientale Adriatico and Abruzzese Occidentale. The first two forms are a dialect of the Southern Italian language also known simply as Neapolitan since the region has been part of the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, while Aquilano is related to the Central Italian dialects including Romanesco.
The dialects spoken in the Abruzzo region can be divided into three main groups:
Sabine dialect, in the province of L'Aquila, a central Italian dialect
Abruzzo Adriatic dialect, in the province of Teramo, Pescara and Chieti, that is virtually abandoned in the province of Ascoli Piceno, a southern Italian dialect
Abruzzo western dialect, in the province of L'Aquila, a southern Italian dialect
Cuisine
Abruzzo's cuisine is renowned for its variety and richness. Both the agricultural and coastal areas of Abruzzo have contributed to its cuisine. Due to the mountains, much of Abruzzo was relatively isolated until the 20th century. This has contributed to preservIng local culinary traditions.
Ingredients
In terms of common ingredients, cuisine in Abruzzo often includes:
Lamb and mutton, primarily in the mountains. Sheep's milk (or ricotta) is an important source of Abruzzese cheese, and lamb intestines are used as sausage casing or for stuffed meat rolls. Mountain goat meat is also common in Abruzzo.
Truffles and mushrooms, particularly wild mushrooms from the forests and hills
Garlic, especially red garlic
Rosemary
Hot chili pepper or peperoncini, regionally known as diavolilli or diavoletti, is common in Abruzzese cuisine and often used to add spice to dishes. Abruzzo residents are well known for frequently adding peperoncini, or hot peppers, to their meals.
Vegetables such as lentils, grasspeas and other legumes, artichoke, eggplant, and cauliflower
Starter dishes
Spaghetti alla chitarra which is made by pressing or cutting pasta through a chitarra, an implement to form long thin noodles similar to spaghetti. The pasta is served with a tomato-based sauce, often flavored with peppers, pork, goose, or lamb. This dish is complemented by regional side dishes, such as the bean and noodle soup, sagne e fagioli. This soup is traditionally flavored with tomatoes, garlic, oil, and peperoncini.
, flavored with bacon, eggs and pecorino cheese
Scrippelle, a rustic French-style crêpe served either (a type of soup) or used to form a sort of soufflé with some ragù and stuffed with chicken liver, meatballs, hard-boiled eggs, and cheese
Pastuccia, a polenta stew with sausage, eggs, and cheese
Meat
Across the region, roast lamb is enjoyed in several variations. Some of these variations include:
Arrosticini, a skewered lamb dish
Pecora al cotturo, lamb stuffed with a variety of mountain herbs and cooked in a copper pot
Lamb cooked whole in a bread oven
Agnello cacio e ovo, a lamb-based fricassee
Mazzarella: lamb intestines stuffed with lamb, garlic, marjoram, lettuce, and spices
Le virtù: a soup from Teramo filled with legumes, vegetables and pork, made only on 1 May.
Timballo abruzzese: lasagna-like dish with pasta sheets (scrippelle) layered with meat, vegetables and rice; often served for Christmas and Easter
Porchetta abruzzese: moist boneless-pork roast, slow-roasted with rosemary, garlic, and pepper
Seafood
Seafood is also popular, especially in coastal areas. The variety of fish available locally resulted in several fish-based brodetti ("broths"), coming from such places as Vasto, Giulianova, and Pescara. These broths are often made by cooking fish, flavored with tomatoes, herbs, and peperoncino, in an earthenware pot. Other fish products are scapece alla vastese, baccalà all'abruzzese, and coregone di Campotosto, typical lake fish.
Pizzas
Rustic pizzas are also very common. Some of these are:
Easter pizza, a rustic cake with cheese and pepper from the Teramo area
Fiadoni from Chieti, a dough of eggs and cheese well risen, cooked in the oven in a thin casing of pastry
A rustic tart pastry filled with everything imaginable: eggs, fresh cheeses, ricotta, vegetables, and all sorts of flavorings and spices.
Also from Teramo are the spreadable sausages flavored with nutmeg, and liver sausages tasting of garlic and spices. Atri and Rivisondoli are famous for cheeses. Mozzarella, either fresh or seasoned, is made from ewe's milk, although a great number of lesser known varieties of these cheeses can be found all over Abruzzo and Molise.
Salumi
Salumi (singular: salume) is an Italian term describing the preparation of cured meat products made predominantly from pork.
Spreadable sausage flavored with nutmeg and liver sausage with garlic and spices are hallmarks of Teramo cuisine. Ventricina from the Vasto area is made with large pieces of fat and lean pork, pressed and seasoned with powdered sweet peppers and fennel and encased in dried pig stomach. Mortadella di Campotosto (well known in Abruzzo) is an oval, dark-red mortadella with a white column of fat. They are generally sold in pairs, tied together. Another name for the mortadella is coglioni di mulo (donkey's balls). It is made from shoulder and loin meat, prosciutto trimmings and fat. It is 80 percent lean meat; 25 percent is prosciutto (ham), and 20 percent is pancetta. The meat is minced and mixed with salt, pepper and white wine.
Cheeses
The region's principal cheeses are:
White cow cheese, a soft cheese made from cow's milk
Caciocavallo abruzzese, a soft, slightly elastic dairy product made from raw, whole cow's milk with rennet and salt
Caciofiore Aquilano, made from raw whole sheep's milk, rennet, artichokes and saffron (which gives it its characteristic yellow color)
Caciotta vaccination frentana, a half-cooked, semi-hard cheese made from raw whole cow's milk, rennet and salt
Canestrato of Castel del Monte, a hard cheese made from raw whole sheep's milk, with rennet and salt
Caprino abruzzese, made from raw whole goat milk (sometimes with sheep's milk), curd, and salt
Cheese and curd stazzo, cheese and byproducts obtained from the processing of raw milk from sheep, cattle and goats
Junket vaccination or Abruzzo sprisciocca, a soft fresh cheese made from raw whole cow's milk, rennet, and salt
Pecorino d'Abruzzo: one of Abruzzo's flagship products—a mild, semi-hard (or hard) cheese with holes, made from raw whole sheep's milk, rennet, and salt
Pecorino di Atri, a compact, semi-cooked cheese made from sheep's milk, rennet and salt
Pecorino di Farindola, cheese made from sheep's milk and pork rennet (a special type of rennet, made by filling a dried pork stomach with vinegar and white wine for forty days)
Ricotta, made from the remnants of the coagulation of raw whole sheep's milk, heated after filtration
Scamorza d'Abruzzo, a stretched curd cheese made from cow's milk, rennet (liquid or powder) and salt
Atri and Rivisondoli are known for their cheeses. Mozzarella (fresh or seasoned) is typically made from ewe's milk; many lesser-known cheeses are found throughout Abruzzo and Molise.
Desserts and sweets
Abruzzo's sweets are well-known:
Dragée (also known as confetti): sugar-coated almonds from Sulmona
Torrone Nurzia: chocolate nougat from L'Aquila
Parrozzo: a cake-like treat made from crushed almonds and coated in chocolate
Pizzelle (also known as ferratelle): a waffle cookie, often flavored with anise
Croccante, a type of nougat made from almonds and caramelized sugar, often flavored with lemon
Calgionetti, cagionetti, caggiunitti, caviciunette: Christmas fritters, sometimes filled with chestnuts or chickpeas and flavored with chocolate or cocoa
Bocconotti: stuffed sweets often served for Christmas
Zeppole di San Giuseppe: fried or baked pastries made for Saint Joseph's Day
, two layers of sponge cake filled with custard, produced in the town of Guardiagrele in the province of Chieti
Fruits
The region's principal fruits are:
: coastal citrus (particularly oranges), used for jam and Limoncello
and : types of chestnut
: a local cherry
: almonds from the town of Navelli
: apples from the region
: table grapes, also used for jam
Olive oil
The use of oil in regional mountain and sea dishes is important; among the most common oil products are the Aprutino Pescarese, the Pretuziano delle Colline Teramane, l'Olio extra vergine di oliva delle Valli Aquilane and Colline Teatine.
The list of Abruzzo olive cultivars:
Castiglionese
Dritta
Gentile di Chieti
Intosso
Monicella
Carpinetana
Morella
Nebbio di Chieti
Raja
Toccolana
Tortiglione
Crognalegna
Gentile del L'Aquila (Rusticana del L'Aquila)
The extra-virgin olive oil produced in Colline Teramane (Teramo hills) is marked by the DOP.
The region has several cultivars that includes Carboncella, Dritta (Dritta Francavillese and Dritta di Moscufo), Gentile del Chieti, Nostrana (Nostrana di Brisighella), and Sargano olive cultivars.
Wines and liquors
Renowned wines like Montepulciano DOCG, Trebbiano d'Abruzzo DOC and Controguerra DOC are judged to be amongst the world's finest. In 2012, a bottle of Trebbiano d'Abruzzo ranked No. 1 in the top 50 Italian wine awards.
In recent decades these wines have been joined, particularly, by wines from lesser known (heritage) white grapes, such as, Pecorino, Cococciola, Passerina, Montonico bianco and Fiano.
IGT wines are Alto Tirino, Colli Aprutini, Colli del Sangro, Colline Frentane, Colline Pescaresi, Colline Teatine, Del Vastese (or Histonium), Terre di Chieti, and Valle Peligna. The region is also well known for the production of liqueurs such as Centerbe, Limoncello, Ratafia and Genziana.
Gallery
See also
List of museums in Abruzzo
2009 L'Aquila earthquake
References
External links
Official site of the regional administration
Official Abruzzo tourist board website
Travel Guide to Abruzzo: all you need to know to plan your visit
Map of Abruzzo
In the land of bears and castles, Financial Times, 29 June 2007
Italy as it used to be The Guardian, 16 April 2005
Life in Abruzzo, a chronicle of Abruzzo life written from a hill village in the Gran Sasso Mountains
Things to do in Abruzzo
Regions of Italy
NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
States and territories established in 1963
Wine regions of Italy
Samnium
Picenum |
43513621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Shmurda | Bobby Shmurda | Ackquille Jean Pollard (born August 4, 1994), known professionally as Bobby Shmurda, is an American rapper. Along with Rowdy Rebel, Shmurda is considered a pioneer of Brooklyn drill music. He rose to international fame in 2014 when his song "Hot Nigga" peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100. The success of the single led to Shmurda signing a deal with Epic Records. His debut EP, Shmurda She Wrote, was released in November 2014.
In December 2014, New York City Police arrested Shmurda and charged him, along with several other members of GS9, with conspiracy to murder, weapons possession, and reckless endangerment. In 2016, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to seven years in prison, which was reduced to five years after receiving credit for the two years he already served awaiting trial. After over six years in prison, Shmurda was released from Clinton Correctional Facility in February 2021. His release was widely celebrated across the hip-hop community.
Early life
Ackquille Pollard was born in Miami, Florida. His mother is African-American and his father is Jamaican. His mother moved to East Flatbush from Florida after his father's incarceration.
Pollard had run-ins with the law while living in Brooklyn, including fifteen months spent in detention for probation violation and being arrested on gun charges that were later dropped. According to his 2014 indictment, Pollard was the ringleader of a criminal enterprise called "GS9" that regularly entered into disputes with criminal gangs, was responsible for murders and non-fatal shootings, and engaged in drug trafficking along Kings Highway to East Flatbush.
Career
The first song that he remixed was Crime Mob's "Knuck If You Buck"; however, he did not receive any attention until 2014, with the release of his song "Hot Nigga". The song uses the instrumental from Lloyd Banks' 2012 song "Jackpot". The song and its accompanying music video went viral shortly after being uploaded to YouTube in the spring of 2014. Shmurda's signature "Shmoney dance", which he performs in the video, soon became an internet meme and was featured in numerous popular Vines from the latter half of 2014; it was also replicated by Beyoncé and Jay-Z during their On the Run Tour and by Canadian rapper Drake while hosting the 2014 ESPY Awards, among other celebrities. Freestyles over the instrumental were made by a number of rappers after its release, including Juicy J, French Montana, Lil' Kim, Gunplay, and T.I. Following the song's viral success, Shmurda was signed to Epic Records, and the song was officially released as his debut single under Epic. The song topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop songs chart, and peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100, eventually being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The music video received over 649 million views on YouTube as of July 2020. The song's official remix—featuring guest vocals from Fabolous, Chris Brown, Jadakiss, Rowdy Rebel, Busta Rhymes, and Yo Gotti—was released on September 4, 2014. A reggae remix of the song was also released in August 2014 that featured Junior Reid, Mavado, Popcaan, and Jah X. Shmurda also became known for his song "Bobby Bitch" which peaked at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. His debut EP, Shmurda She Wrote, was released on November 10, 2014.
Shmurda's debut studio album with Epic Records was scheduled for release in 2016 and was going to be produced by Jahlil Beats. It was postponed, however, due to his imprisonment. In February 2017, Shmurda freestyled for rapper Meek Mill and claimed that he was still writing music while in prison. The following year, Shmurda featured on fellow rapper 6ix9ine's single "Stoopid", phoning in his verses over the prison telephone. The single peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Shmurda made his first concert performance appearance since being released from prison at Rolling Loud Festival in Miami, Florida on Friday, July 23, 2021.
On September 3, 2021, Shmurda released his first single since his release from jail, "No Time for Sleep (Freestyle)". On March 27, 2022, after years of conflict with Epic Records, Bobby Shmurda's request for release was approved and finalized.
Criminal conviction
On June 3, 2014, Shmurda was arrested and charged with felony criminal possession of a weapon. Police say they saw him flashing the gun in an apartment, and when they went to investigate he tried to hide it in a couch. He was set free on US$10,000 bail. On December 17, 2014, police arrested Shmurda and charged him with conspiracy, reckless endangerment, and drug and gun possession; charges against the others included murder, attempted murder, assault, and drug dealing. Shmurda pleaded not guilty and was held on $2 million bail. Police said they had been investigating the gang for murder and shooting indiscriminately at crowds in public places long before Shmurda rose to fame. Police said Shmurda was "the driving force" in a gang also known as GS9 (standing for "Grimey Shooters," "Gun Squad" or "G Stone Crips."), the name of his label, as they dealt crack cocaine and waged deadly battles with rival gangs for territory. He faced a maximum sentence of 8–25 years.
James Essig, head of the NYPD unit that made the arrests, said Shmurda's songs and videos were "almost like a real-life document of what they were doing on the street." In his song "Hot Nigga", Shmurda rapped that "I been selling crack since like the fifth grade" because "Jaja taught me"; Shmurda also rapped about his crew's past and future murders. Shmurda has asserted that the lyrics represent his real life in several interviews, though the Supreme Court of New Jersey recently ruled that lyrics cannot be read at trial as evidence unless they have a "strong nexus" to a specific crime. During his jail time, Shmurda was involved in a fight suspected to be related to the Bloods vs. Crips rivalry.
Between late June and early July 2015, the rapper and his ex-girlfriend were caught by officials after smuggling a knife into Rikers Island jail. Both were charged with two counts of promoting contraband, in addition to one count of criminal possession of a weapon in the fourth degree, which could result in an additional seven-year sentence. Shmurda appeared in the Bronx Supreme Court to face his charges of prison contraband plus 25 years for his previous charge in late 2014. He and his ex-girlfriend pleaded not guilty to the contraband charge, but Shmurda was still facing a maximum sentence of 25 years for the drug and gun charges.
Conviction
On September 9, 2016, as part of a plea deal, Shmurda pleaded guilty to one count of third-degree conspiracy and one count of weapons possession, and was sentenced to seven years in prison. Under the deal, Shmurda could not appeal the sentence, but was to be given credit for two years served, leaving five years left on his sentence, followed by five years of probation. His lawyer, Alex Spiro, expected that with good behavior Shmurda would only serve approximately three and a half years. In early 2017, Shmurda was given a four-year sentence for sneaking a makeshift knife (shiv) into his cell. The sentence was to run concurrently to his ongoing seven-year sentence, so that he would not face any additional prison time.
Incarceration
Shmurda was first imprisoned in Rikers Island. He was involved in numerous incidents while incarcerated. In May 2015, Shmurda took part in a brawl that included members from the Bloods and Crips street gangs. In November 2016, Shmurda was involved in a brawl between several inmates that led to him losing phone privileges for an unnamed period of time and being subject to solitary confinement for a month. In 2017, he was moved to Clinton Correctional Facility in upstate New York, to finish his sentence in protective custody.
Images of Shmurda while incarcerated surfaced online after three years served of the five-year sentence.
Release
A hearing in the week of August 18, 2020 denied Shmurda parole.
Shmurda's conditional release date was set to December 11, 2020, after serving his full sentence, by his parole board. However, after a review by the Department of Corrections, Shmurda's credit for good institutional behavior was restored, qualifying him for conditional release on February 23, 2021, with the rest of his sentence to be served on parole.
Shmurda was released on February 23, 2021 under supervision by fellow community members in Kings County, New York. He will be under parole until the end of his full sentence on February 23, 2026. Rapper Quavo picked up Shmurda from prison on February 23, 2021, after stating in an interview with Billboard that he was "...personally (gonna go) pick up Bobby Shmurda."
Discography
Mixtapes
Extended plays
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Guest appearances
Notes
References
1994 births
Living people
21st-century African-American musicians
21st-century criminals
21st-century American rappers
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
American male criminals
American musicians of Jamaican descent
American prisoners and detainees
American rappers of Jamaican descent
Criminals from Brooklyn
Criminals from New York City
Crips
East Coast hip hop musicians
Epic Records artists
Drill musicians
Gangsta rappers
People from Flatbush, Brooklyn
Prisoners and detainees of New York (state)
Rappers from Brooklyn |
4907323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi%20Sang | Yi Sang | Kim Hae-Gyeong (, September 23, 1910 – April 17, 1937), also known as his art name Yi Sang (이상, 李箱) was a writer and poet who lived in Korea under Japanese rule. He is well-known for his poems and novels, such as Crow's-Eye View and Wings. He is considered as one of the most important and revolutionary writers of modern Korean literature.
Timeline
Life
Kim Hae-Gyeong was born in Seoul, Korea on September 23, 1910 (August 20, 1910 in lunar calendar), in Seoul. His father Kim Young-Chang worked in the letterpress printing service in a palace before his birth, but after an accident that cut off his finger, he opened a barbershop and made their living. He was raised by his uncle Kim Yeon-Pil (hangul: 김연필, hanja: 金演弼) since 1913, because Yeon-Pil and his wife had no children at that point. Later, however, Yeon-Pil takes Kim Young-Sook (hangul: 김영숙, hanja: 金英淑) as his concubine and the son she already had, Kim Moon-Kyung (hangul: 김문경, hanja: 金汶卿), became a legal son of Yeon-Pil.
His primary and secondary education were through Sinmyeong School (hangul: 신명학교, hanja: 新明學校. 1917–1921), Donggwang School (hangul: 동광학교, hanja: 東光學校. 1921–1922) and (hangul: 보성고등보통학교, hanja: 普成高等普通學校.1922–1926. Donggwang School was merged into Posung School at 1922.). He met his friend Koo Bon-Woong (hangul: 구본웅, hanja: 具本雄) at Sinmyeong School. The Posung School record shows that he wanted to become an artist.
In 1926, he entered (hangul: 경성고등공업학교, hanja: 京城高等工業學校), which was the most prominent tertiary education institution at that time, majoring architecture. In 1928, he graduated the college with 1st place honor. In the graduation photobook, he used his writing name Yi Sang (hangul: 이상, hanja: 李箱) for the first time, as far as known. In April 1929, with the recommendation through the college, he was employed as a public official (hangul: 기수, hanja: 技手) in the architecture team in the department of domestic affairs (hangul: 내무국 건축과, hanja: 內務局 建築課) of the Government-General of Korea (hangul: 조선총독부, hanja: 朝鮮總督府). At November, he moved his position to the building maintenance team of the department of secretariat and accounting (hangul: 관방회계과 영선계, hanja: 官房會計課 營繕係).
In December 1929, he became a member of Joseon Architecture Society (Joseon Geonchukhoe, hangul: 조선건축회, hanja: 朝鮮建築會), of which the members were mainly Japanese architects in Korea, and he won first and third prizes in a design contest for the cover of Joseon and Architecture (Joseongwa Geonchuk, Japanese: 朝鮮と建築, hangul: 조선과건축), a journal issued by the Joseon Architecture Society. Most of his works were produced during the 1930s.
In 1933, he coughed up blood as he had tuberculosis, which had him quit his job as a public official of architecture. Then he opened a coffee house, Jebi, where he had related with other writers and artists.
In 1934 he joined the Circle of Nine (Guinhoe, hangul: 구인회, hanja: 九人會), of which core members included Kim Kirim, Lee Taejun, and Jung Jiyong. In 1936 Yi Sang edited Siwa soseol (hangul: 시와 소설), the Circle of Nine magazine, published by Changmunsa under the aegis of Koo Bonung. His “Street exterior, street passage” (Gaoe gajeon, hangul: 가외가전, hanja: 街外街傳) was published in this journal. His short story “Diary Before Death” (Jongsaenggi, hangul: 종생기, hanja: 終生記) and his personal memoir “Monotony” (Gwontae, hangul: 권태, hanja: 倦怠) were published posthumously in Tokyo. In 1935, the coffee shop Jebi was closed due to financial difficulties and broke up with Geumhong. Cafe Tsuru and Coffee Shop 69 in Insa-dong were opened and transferred, and after managing Coffee Shop Mugi in Myeong-dong, and right after he closed it he healed in Seongcheon and Incheon.
In November 1936 he went to Japan.
In February 1937, he was investigated by the Nishi-Ganda Police Station in Tokyo on ideological charges, and after being investigated for about a month, he was bailed for worsening tuberculosis and released from prison. He was hospitalized to the Tokyo Imperial University Hospital, and died on April 17 at the age of 28 at the Tokyo Imperial University Hospital. His wife, Byun Dong-rim, moved to Japan directly after hearing that Yi Sang was in critical condition, and after Yi Sang died, She cremated his ashes and buried them in Miari Cemetery. Later, according to Byun Dong-rim, Byun Dong-rim asked him what he wanted to eat, and he died soon after leaving the words, "Sembikiya's melon."
Park Tae-won, a fellow literary man and friend, mentions the following, "He loved girl so much, loved alcohol, loved his friends, and loved literature, but not half of it loved his body." And "His death is named as death from illness, but isn't the essence of death suicide? Such suspicions become intense," he said.
Literary Relationship
Jung Ji-yong
Jung Ji-yong is a founding member of the Guinhoe which Lee Sang belongs. In 1933, he was an editorial advisor to <Catholic Youth> and played a major role in promoting Yi sang's poems to the world. With the help of Jeong Ji-yong, Yi sang published works such as "꽃나무" and "이런시" in Korean in <Catholic Youth>.
Park Tae-won
Park Tae-won and Yi Sang were members of Guinhoe(九人會), which means the Circle of Nine people. And they joined the club in 1934. They first met at Dabang Jebi, which is coffee house opened by Yi Sang in Jong-no 1(il)-ga. The time when they first met is supposed June or July 1933, because, Kim Ki-rim, one of members of Guinhoe, and Ko Un wrote Jebi was held in July 1933 and Kim Ok-hee, sister of Yi Sang, wrote June of same year. The story of their first met is written in Park Tae-won’s memoir for Yi sang, “Yi sang-ui Pyeonmo (이상의 편모)” after Yi sang’s death. Park Tae-won has interest in that Yi Sang is a poet and the poem of first met poet, “Movement (운동, 運動)” . Maintaining their relationship, Park Tae-won and Yi Sang consulted with worker of newspaper “Joseon-Jungang-ilbo” to post series of Yi Sang’s poetries, “Ogam-do(오감도, 烏瞰圖)” and Park’s novel “소설가 구보씨의 일일 (小說家仇甫氏─一日)” on the newspaper. They could put their literature in the newspapers, and Yi Sang also composed illustrations for his friend Park Tae-won’s novel, “소설가 구보씨의 일일(小說家仇甫氏─一日)". Even if, they encountered harsh criticism because of abstrusities of their literatures, after Yi Sang’s admission to “Guinhoe(九人會)” in fall of 1934, they focused on publication of bulletin “시와 소설 (Poet and Novel)” . They also have literary relationship with Yi Sang’s poet “Movement (운동, 運動)” and Park Tae-won’s short novel “Bangranjang Juin (芳蘭莊 主人)” . Both are written in only one sentence. However, their relation is halted by Yi Sang’s death in Tokyo.
Kim Ki-rim
Kim Ki-rim, a poet and a newspaper reporter at the Chosun Ilbo, played as one of the founding members of Guinhoe. Initially, Yi was introduced to Kim by Park Tae-won. In their first encounter, they talked about Jules Renard, Salvador Dalí, and René Clair. Kim got interested in Yi because there was a common aesthetic affinity about surrealism between them.
Kim's 7 letters with Yi Sang remains today with the name "To Kim Ki-rim (김기림에게)". The letters were written in 1936 to 1937. In that period, Yi moved to Mainland Japan, and was about to die due to chronic lung disease. In those letters, Yi's everyday thoughts and experiences are represented. For example, in the fourth letter, Yi refers to René Clair, a French filmmaker, and criticize his movie, The Ghost Goes West. On the other hand, he comments about paper of Choi Jae-seo, a Korean literature critic, that criticizes works of Yi such as "The Wings (날개)".
After the death of Yi Sang, Kim Kirim wrote a tribute named 'Memories of the late Yi Sang (고 이상의 추억)'. In the tribute, he recognizes the death of Yi Sang as a "tragedy of a reduce-printed era", contextualizing Yi's death within a historical framework.
Koo Bon-Woong
Koo Bon-Woong is a painter and art critic who graduated from the Taiheiyo Art School(太平洋美術 學校). He first met Yi Sang at Sinmyeong School. Koo Bon-Woong, who had had a hunchback, attended school intermittently because of health problems and ended up graduating alongside Yi Sang, who was four years younger. Koo Bon-Woong, teased because of his hunchback, had a keen interest in art. Similarly, Yi Sang, who also had a strong interest in art, became friends with Koo Bon-Woong, supporting and respecting him. This marked the beginning of their relationship, which continued into adulthood.
In 1933, to care for Yi Sang, who had quit his job as a public official of due to illness, Koo Bon-Woong took him to Baechon Hot Springs in Hwanghae Province. Baechon Hot Springs is also known as the place where Yi Sang first met Geum-Hong. After Yi Sang's health slightly improved, Yi Sang and Geum-Hong returned to Seoul (Koo Bon-Woong came back to Seoul before them) and they opened a coffee shop called "Jebi". It is said that Koo Bon-Woong's painting, "Still Object with a Doll(인형이 있는 정물)" (71.4 cm*89.4 cm), was displayed in this café.
After Jebi closed down, Yi Sang had no means of livelihood. He eventually found work as a proofreader at Koo Bon-Woong's printing press. There, with Koo Bon-Woong's assistance, Yi Sang founded a literary magazine called "Poetry and Novel(시와 소설)" featuring works from members of Guinhoe. Although only the inaugural issue was produced due to a lack of active participation from the members, looking at Yi Sang's postscript in the magazine, it is evident that Koo Bon-Woong was a fervent supporter of Yi Sang's artistic activities.
Furthermore, Yi Sang's last lover Byun Dong-Rim was the younger sister of Koo Bon-Woong's stepmother. This somewhat unusual relationship was due to the fact that Koo Bon-Woong's stepmother was not significantly older than Koo Bon-Woong.
Yi Sang's Lovers
Geum-Hong
In 1933, 23-years-old Yi Sang first encountered Keum Hong, who was Kisaeng, when he was on a trip to Baecheon Oncheon (hangul: 배천온천, Hanja: 白川温泉) for recuperation of his tuberculosis. They developed their romantic relationship, thus they managed a coffee house, Jebi, in Jong-no 1st Street, Gyeongseong. He designated her as the manager of the coffee house and lived together estimate for two years. Their relationship was rough since they had suffered from financial degradation. She frequently stayed outside then, and accordingly, Yi sang lashed out her mind by mentioning her prior routine as a Kisaeng. In consequence, she beat him physically and often ran away from their home, and eventually, they broke up. Accordingly, in September 1935, the coffee house Jebi was closed. The love story about them is illustrated in his novel, Bongbyeolgi, which means "a story of meet and separate." Moreover, Keum Hong is implicitly appeared in his short story, The Wings (novel), as Yeon-shim-i (Hangul: 연심이) is her real name.
Gwon Sun-ok
After the failure of the coffeehouse Jebi, he took over the cafe 'Tsuru'(Hangul: 쓰루, Kanji: 鶴) by being mortgaged the house held by Yi Sang's parents. He scouted Kwon Soon-ok had worked in the other cafe, 'Angel', as a waitress. Since she was highly educated, she had broad interaction with other writers like Jeong In-taek. While he fell over to her, their romantic relationship was not completely established. Jeong In-taek had a secret crush on her, which led to a romantic triangle. Even Jeong In-taek attempted suicide to be in her favor, and after the incident, Kwon Soon-ok and Jeong In-taek married. Ironically, Yi sang and presided over their wedding ceremony. Following Jeong In-taek's death, Gwon Sun-ok remarried to Park Tae-won.
Byeon Dong-rim
Byeon Dong-rim (hangul: 변동림), a writer introduced to Yi Sang through Gu Bon-woong, became his wife. Yi Sang and Byeon Dong-rim met in 1936, through a set-up by Gu Bon-woong. Only three months into their marriage, Yi Sang left for Tokyo alone, where his health sharply deteriorated, resulting in his transfer to the attached hospital of Tokyo Imperial University. His condition further worsened due to a sudden arrest, and he was already in a severe state by the time he arrived at the hospital. Upon receiving the news, Byeon Dong-rim immediately traveled to Tokyo in two days. After just four months of marriage, Yi Sang passed away in her presence. Their feelings towards each other can be traced through Yi Sang's "Tokyo" (Donggyeong, hangul: 동경, hanja: 東京) and Byeon Dong-rim's "The Mind Under the Moon" (hangul: 월하의 마음, hanja:月下의 마음). In later years, Byeon Dong-rim reflected on Yi Sang's death, stating, "He lived a most brilliant, enchanted life. The 27 years he spent on this earth were enough time for a genius to fully blossom and then fade away."
Work
Yi was perhaps the most famous avant-garde writer of the colonial era. In his work he experimented with language, interiority, separation from inside one's self as well as the outer world. His poems, particularly, were influenced by Western literary concepts including Dadaism and Surrealism. Yi's history in architecture influenced his work, which often included the languages of mathematics and architecture including, lines, dots, number systems, equations and diagrams.
His literary legacy is punctuated by his modernist tendencies evinced throughout his oeuvre. His poems reveal the desolate internal landscape of modern humanity and, as in “Crow's eye view poem No. 1” (Ogamdo si je1ho), utilize an anti-realist technique to condense the themes of anxiety and fear. His stories disjoint the form of traditional fiction to show the conditions of the lives of modern people. “Wings” (Nalgae), for example, utilizes a stream-of-consciousness technique to express these conditions in terms of the alienation of modern people, who are fragmented commodities unable to relate to quotidian (daily) realities.
Yi Sang never received much recognition for his writing during his lifetime, but his works began to be reprinted in the 1950s. In the 1970s his reputation soared, and in 1977 the Yi Sang Literary Award was established. In 2007, he was listed by the Korean Poets' Association among the ten most important modern Korean poets. His most famous short story is "The Wings" ("Nalgae", ), and his poem "Crow's-Eye View" is also well-known.
Work Timeline
In 1930, he serialized his first literature work (a medium-length novel) "December 12th (hanja: 十二月 十二日, hangul: 십이월십이일)" on the Korean version of the magazine Joseon (hanja: 朝鮮, hangul: 조선), which was a magazine issued by the Government-General of Korea (hangul: 조선총독부, hanja: 朝鮮總督府) to promote their colony policies.
In 1931, he released several Japanese poems. On July 1931, he released six Japanese poems together on Joseon and Architecture; A Strange Reversible Reaction (Japanese: 異常ナ可逆反應, hangul: 이상한가역반응), The Scenery of Broken Parts (Japanese: 破片ノ景色, hangul: 파편의경치), The Amusement of ▽ (Japanese: ▽ノ遊戯, hangul: ▽의 유희), The Beard (Japanese: ひげ, hangul: 수염), BOITEUX · BOITEUSE, and The Empty Stomach (Japanese: 空腹, hangul: 공복).
On August 1931, he released a set of eight Japanese poems under the name "Bird's-Eye View" (Japanese: 鳥瞰圖, hangul: 조감도) on Joseon and Architecture. The title of each poem is "Two People ····1····" (Japanese: 二人····1····, hangul: 이인····1····), "Two People ····2····" (Japanese: 二人····2····, hangul: 이인····2····), "A Nervously Obese Triangle" (Japanese: 神経質に肥満した三角形, hangul: 신경질적으로비만한삼각형), "LE URINE", "Face" (Japanese: 顔, hangul: 안 or 얼굴), "Movement" (Japanese: 運動, hangul: 운동), "Confession of A Crazy Woman" (Japanese: 狂女の告白, hangul: 광녀의고백), "Entertainment Angel" (Japanese: 興行物天使, hangul: 흥행물천사).
On October 1931, he released a set of seven Japanese poems under the name "Three-Dimensional Angle Blueprint" (Japanese: 三次角設計圖, hangul: 삼차각설계도). The title of each poem is "Memorandum on the Line 1" (Japanese: 線に関する覚書１, hangul: 선에관한각서1), ···, and "Memorandum on the Line 7". This set of poems has many scientific terms and concepts, such as spectrum, speed of light, and time travelling.
On March and April 1932, he released two Korean novels "Darkroom of a Map" (hanja: 地圖의暗室, hangul: 지도의암실) and "Suspension of Business and Circumstances" (hanja: 休業과事情, hangul: 휴업과사정) on the magazine Joseon. He used different pen names on these two pieces; Bigu (hanja: 比久, hangul: 비구) for the former and Bosan (hanja: 甫山, hangul: 보산) for the latter.
On July 1932, he released a set of seven Japanese poems under the name "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies" (Japanese: 建築無限六面角體, hangul: 건축무한육면각체). The title of each poem is "AU MAGASIN DE NOUVEAUTES", "Rough Map Under Heat No.2" (Japanese: 熱下略圖 No.2, hangul: 열하약도 No. 2), "Diagnosis 0:1" (Japanese: 診断 0:1, hangul: 진단 0:1), "Twenty-two years" (Japanese:二十二年, hangul: 이십이년), "The Publication Law" (Japanese: 出版法, hangul: 출판법), "Departure of Mr. Cha 8" (Japanese:且８氏の出発, hangul: 차8씨의출발), "Midday―Some ESQUISSE―" (Japanese: 真昼―或るESQUISSE―, hangul: 대낮―어떤ESQUISSE―).
In 1933, he released following Korean poems: "A Flower Tree" (hangul: 꽃나무), "This Kind of Poem" (hangul: 이런시), "Mirror" (hangul: 거울).
In 1934, he released following Korean poems and essays: "보통기념", "Three states of blood calligraphy"(hanja:血書三態, hangul:혈서삼태), "Crow's-Eye View" (hanja: 烏瞰圖, hangul: 오감도), "지팡이 역사", "소영위제", "산책의 가을". "혈서삼태" is a set of five essays. The title of each essay of "혈서삼태" is "오스카 와일드", "관능 위조", "하이드 씨", "악령의 감상", "혈서기삼". "오감도" is a set of 15 poems (originally designed to be 30, but was quit in the middle because of a massive complaint from readers). The title of each poem of "오감도" is "The 1st Poem" (詩第一號, 시제일호), ···, "The 15th Poem" (詩第十五號, 시제십오호) and three of them have additional title; "The 8th Poem Dissection" (詩第八號 解剖, 시제팔호 해부), "The 9th Poem Gun Muzzle" (詩第八號 銃口, 시제팔호 총구), "The 10th Poem Butterfly" (詩第十號 나비, 시제십호 나비). Some of "Crow's-Eye View" poems parodied his early Japanese works "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies".
From 1935 to his death in 1937, he released more than 20 literature pieces, including poems and essays. After his death, from 1937 to 1939, 16 of his posthumous works were released, including poems, essays, and novels. In 1956, nine more Japanese poems were found and their Korean translations were released. In following years, more draft notes in Japanese, which are almost certainly thought to be Yi Sang's for several reasons, were found, and they were translated into Korean and introduced from 1960 to 1976.
Work Timeline Table
Critical Nonfiction
Letter
Works in translation
Yi Sang: Selected Works (translated by Don Mee Choi, Jack Jung, Joyelle McSweeney, and Sawako Nakayasu), Seattle and New York: Wave Books, 2020. .
The Wings, Seoul: Jimoondang Publishing, 2001. .
Three Poets of Modern Korea: Yi Sang, Hahm Dong-seon, and Choi Young-mi, Louisville: Sarabande Books, 2002.
Meetings and farewells : Modern Korean stories, Chong-wha Chung St Lucia QLD: University of Queensland Press, 1980.
The Wings : eBook I-AHN CREATIVE, 2015. .
Works in Korean
Short stories
Wings (1936) First published in literary magazine Jogwang, Sep. 1936 (issue 11)
Essays
Lingering Impressions of a aMountain Village - a Few Paragraphs from a Journal of Travels to Seongcheon (1976) In Azalea, issue 2, p .331.
《Ennui》
《The First Wander》
Poems
<Mirror>
〈BOITEUX·BOITEUSE〉(《朝鮮と建築 (Joseon and Architecture)》1931.07)
〈Architectural infinite hexahedron(Subtitle: French: AU MAGASIN DE NOUVEAUTES)〉
<Movement (운동, (運動)> (Poem included in series poetries "Aerial views (조감도, 鳥瞰圖)")
Fairy Tales
<The Bull and the Goblin> (March 8, 1937)
Collections
Collected Works of Yi Sang (1956, 1977, 1991)
Study of Yi Sang
Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology(GIST) 'Yi Sang's Literature and Science' course, which is opened annually for undergraduate students by Division of liberal arts and sciences of the Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology(GIST), aims to analyze the Yi Sang's literary works from the perspective of science. In this class, in addition to Korean, the Yi Sang text is created in old Korean, Chinese characters, Japanese, English, German, French, modified characters, coined words, and homonymy language play, and these parts are interpreted modernly. As many scientific elements have appeared in the Yi Sang's literary works, students analyze and discuss what those elements mean from a scientific perspective. They also investigates and presents the Yi Sang's biographical facts, the level of science education in Joseon in the 1920s and 30s, and contemporary writers and works mentioned in the Yi Sang text, and closely analyzes and discusses prose, novels, and poems left by Yi Sang. Through this class, a student at the Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology wrote a paper that logically interpreted the Yi Sang's "Building Infinite Hexahedral Bodies" and "Triple Angle blueprint" from the perspective of space-time design and architecture in four dimensions, causing a great stir in the literary world.
See also
Yi Sang Literary Award
References
External links
Review of Wings at KTLIT
(korean)
1910 births
1937 deaths
20th-century Korean writers
Literature of Korea under Japanese rule
Korean male writers |
21334173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Demi-Gods%20and%20Semi-Devils%20characters | List of Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils characters | The following is a list of characters from the wuxia novel Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils by Jin Yong. There are over 230 characters in the novel, including those who are only mentioned by name. Some characters such as Duan Yu, Duan Zhengchun, Duan Zhengming, Gao Shengtai, Yelü Hongji and Wanyan Aguda are fictionalised personas of historical figures, while the rest are fictional characters.
Main characters
Qiao Feng (), birth name Xiao Feng (). See Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils#Qiao Feng's story.
Duan Yu (). See Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils#Duan Yu's story.
Xuzhu (). See Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils#Xuzhu's story.
Wang Yuyan () is Duan Zhengchun and Li Qingluo's daughter who is described as a beautiful, intelligent and flawless young maiden independent of all worldly traits. As she has a crush on her cousin, Murong Fu, she memorises martial arts manuals in the hope of providing him guidance on perfecting his skills and hence win his affection. However, he neither appreciates her help nor reciprocates her feelings towards him. Although she does not practise martial arts herself, she is able to identify many forms of martial arts simply by observation. Duan Yu falls in love with her at first sight due to her resemblance to "Fairy Sister", a statue of her maternal grandaunt he once chanced upon, and starts following her wherever she goes. Although she is initially impassive towards Duan Yu, she warms up to him after he saves her on a few occasions. Towards the end of the novel, Murong Fu tells her that he wants to fight for the hand-in-marriage of the Western Xia princess so that he can form an alliance with Western Xia to help him restore the Yan kingdom. She feels so dejected upon hearing that and attempts suicide but survives. Duan Yu confronts Murong Fu and tells him he will also fight for the princess's hand-in-marriage, so as to force Murong Fu to choose Wang Yuyan. Murong Fu turns furious and knocks Duan Yu into a well. By then, Wang Yuyan realises that Murong Fu has no feelings for her so she throws herself into the well in despair to join Duan Yu. Both of them survive the fall, pledge their love to each other, and eventually leave safely. Wang Yuyan discovers later that she is Duan Zhengchun's daughter – effectively making her Duan Yu's half-sister – and feels heartbroken because she cannot be with Duan Yu anymore. Duan Yu later tells her that they can still be together because they are ultimately distant cousins since his biological father turns out to be Duan Yanqing instead of Duan Zhengchun.
Azhu () is Duan Zhengchun and Ruan Xingzhu's elder daughter who is highly skilled in the art of disguise. First appearing as a servant of the Murong family, she and Abi help Duan Yu escape from Jiumozhi. She once disguised Duan Yu and herself as Murong Fu and Qiao Feng respectively as part of a plan to save the Beggars' Gang members who had been captured by Western Xia soldiers. She later disguises herself as a monk and infiltrates Shaolin Monastery to steal the Yijin Jing for Murong Fu. Qiao Feng witnesses the act and forces her to hide with him behind a giant statue, but they are discovered by the monks. In the ensuing fight, she is injured by Xuanci, but Qiao Feng saves her and they escape. When inspecting her wounds, he finds out that she is a woman and uses his inner energy to preserve her life and cares for her while she is wounded. During this time, Azhu develops romantic feelings for Qiao Feng. Qiao Feng brings her to Xue Muhua and manages to convince the physician to heal her. After recovering, Azhu waits for Qiao Feng for five days and five nights at Yanmen Pass and tells him she wishes to accompany him forever. Qiao Feng, thereafter renamed to Xiao Feng, is touched by her dedication and reciprocates her feelings for him. Although they enjoy a happy and peaceful time together, Xiao Feng insists on finding out the identity of "Leading Big Brother" so Azhu offers to help him trick Kang Min into revealing who "Leading Big Brother" is by disguising herself as Bai Shijing. However, Kang Min, who had a secret affair with Bai Shijing, quickly sees through Azhu's disguise and lies to her that "Leading Big Brother" is Duan Zhengchun. Xiao Feng challenges Duan Zhengchun to a duel. Before the duel, Azhu finds out that Duan Zhengchun is her father and Azi is her sister. She disguises herself as Duan Zhengchun to prevent a conflict between her lover and her father, and allows Xiao Feng to kill her. It is too late when Xiao Feng realises his mistake. Before dying, Azhu reveals the truth to Xiao Feng and makes him promise to take good care of Azi. She then dies in Xiao Feng's arms and is buried in the backyard of Ruan Xingzhu's home.
Azi () is Azhu's younger sister and one of Ding Chunqiu's apprentices. Like many in the Xingxiu School, she is sadistic and cruel, taking pleasure in torturing anyone who offends her. As she had stolen the Divine Wood Royal Cauldron (), a prized treasure of the Xingxiu School, and fled with it, she is considered a traitor of the school. In the latest edition of the novel, her reason for doing so was because Ding Chunqiu noticed her growing beauty and started making sexual advances on her even though she was around 16 years old and he was at least 60. You Tanzhi, who is also attracted by her beauty, willingly succumbs to her sadistic "games" to amuse her. At one point, after Ding Chunqiu blinds Azi, You Tanzhi saves her and later even offers his eyes for an eye transplant operation to help her regain her sense of sight. Yet, she does not care about him and despises him even more. She has a crush on Xiao Feng, even after he makes it clear to her that he will love no other woman except Azhu. She often taunts Xiao Feng with her sister's dying words whenever he refuses to do anything for her. When Xiao Feng refuses to help the Liao Empire attack the Song Empire, the Liao emperor sends his concubine to trick Azi into spiking Xiao Feng's wine with a "love potion". While escaping from Liao territory with Azi, Xiao Feng is suddenly seized with pain because the "love potion" is a poison that will temporarily weaken him. While Xiao Feng is captured and imprisoned by Liao forces, Azi manages to escape and seek help from Duan Yu, Xuzhu and others to save him. Although Xiao Feng is rescued, he takes the Liao emperor hostage and commits suicide after forcing the emperor to make an oath. Azi realises with despair that she cannot live without Xiao Feng and follows suit after he takes his own life.
Mu Wanqing () is Duan Zhengchun and Qin Hongmian's daughter. Her mother single-handedly raised her and forced her to make a vow: if any man sees her face, she must either marry or kill him. As such, she normally wears a mask or veil. She is pursued by Yue Laosan, who is angry that she killed his apprentice Sun Sanba, and meets Duan Yu by chance. Despite her harsh treatment towards him, he tries to help her and she falls in love with him. When Yue Laosan catches up with them, she reveals her face to Duan Yu and forces him to either marry her or die with her. He chooses the former option. She leaves him in anguish after they are revealed to be actually half-siblings. She encounters Duan Yanqing, who tricks her and Duan Yu into consuming aphrodisiac because he wants them to commit incest and disgrace the Duan family. However, Duan Zhengchun's men dig a tunnel leading to the room where she is held captive, rescue her, and replace her with Zhong Ling. She appears again in a later chapter and disguises herself as Duan Yu to temporarily take his place during the contest for the Western Xia princess's hand-in-marriage.
Zhong Ling () is Duan Zhengchun and Gan Baobao's daughter. She first meets Duan Yu while he is attempting to dissuade the Limitless Sword School and Shennong Gang from fighting. Later, she is captured and held hostage by the Shennong Gang after her pet, the Lightning Mink (), bites many of them. She is ultimately rescued by Duan Yu and Mu Wanqing in disguise as messengers from Lingjiu Palace. Although she is also in love with Duan Yu, she gives up after learning that he is her half-brother. She appears again in a later chapter to take care of Duan Yu after he is wounded by Jiumozhi.
Dali Kingdom
The Duan family of Dali () is the royal family of the Dali Kingdom and a reputable martial arts clan in their own right. They are known for using the "Yiyang Finger" (), which allows them to project streams of energy from their fingers. Some of its members are fictionalised personas of historical figures.
Duan Zhengming () is the benevolent and highly respected king of Dali. When Jiumozhi shows up at Heavenly Dragon Monastery to force the monks to give him the "Six Meridians Divine Sword" manual, Duan Zhengming abdicates and becomes a monk at the monastery to help them deal with Jiumozhi. He is thereafter known as Benchen ().
Duan Zhengchun () is Duan Zhengming's younger brother. Notorious for his philandering ways, he conceives several illegitimate daughters with different women in his younger days. Ironically, three of his daughters become romantically involved with Duan Yu, whom he raises as his son. Duan Yu was actually conceived out of a past illicit affair between his wife, Dao Baifeng, and Duan Yanqing, his distant cousin and future nemesis. He succeeds his brother as the king of Dali after the latter abdicates and becomes a monk. While travelling around, he is confronted on different occasions by Duan Yanqing, who attempts to force him to hand over his throne. He commits suicide to join his lovers after they are killed by Murong Fu.
Gao Shengtai () is a marquis of Dali. He rules Dali as a regent after Duan Zhengchun's death before passing the reins of power to Duan Yu.
Fan Hua (), Ba Tianshi () and Hua Hegen () are the Three Ducal Ministers in the Dali government who are also highly skilled in martial arts.
The Four Bodyguards () are four highly skilled martial artists who are sworn to protect Duan Zhengchun and his family. They usually disguise themselves and accompany Duan Zhengchun when he travels around. Duan Zhengchun regards them as his friends rather than subordinates.
Chu Wanli () disguises himself as a fisherman. He is killed by Duan Yanqing.
Gu Ducheng () disguises himself as a woodcutter.
Fu Sigui () disguises himself as a farmer.
Zhu Danchen () disguises himself as a scholar. Duan Yu regards him as a close friend because both of them have common interests in literature and poetry.
Murong family
The Murong family of Gusu () descended from the royal families of the Yan kingdoms (Southern Yan, Former Yan, Later Yan, etc.) of the Sixteen Kingdoms era. They are known for their fighting style best described as "returning you with your own way" () because they like to use their opponents' own signature moves against them. Having attempted to master every known form of martial art in the jianghu, they have amassed a wide collection of martial arts manuals over the years.
Murong Fu (), nicknamed "Southern Murong", is the current head of the Murong family. His father named him "Fu" (literally "restore") to remind him to restore the Yan kingdom. An egoistic, scheming and ruthless man, he attempts all sorts of methods, including unscrupulous means, to revive his family's legacy. He is even willing to sever ties with his cousin Wang Yuyan, who has a crush on him, in order to realise his dream of becoming an emperor. He fails in his grand plan and becomes insane eventually. Although he has mastered numerous forms of martial arts like his father before him, he specialises in none and does not quite grasp the nuances in some of them.
Murong Bo (), alias Yan Longyuan (), is Murong Fu's father. Like his son, he has the same dream of restoring the Yan kingdom. 30 years ago, he lied to Xuanci and other prominent wulin figures that the Khitans were planning to send a spy to infiltrate Shaolin Monastery and steal martial arts manuals from its library. They believed him and ambushed Xiao Yuanshan and his family at Yanmen Pass, resulting in the death of Xiao Yuanshan's wife. After this tragedy, Murong Bo faked his death and hid in Shaolin Monastery for many years, secretly learning martial arts from the manuals in the library. Eventually, he is forced to come out of hiding during the wulin gathering at Shaolin Monastery. Eventually, he realises how delusional he has been, and feels so grateful to the Sweeper Monk for saving him that he decides to be a monk for the rest of his life.
Murong Fu has four followers who have loyally served his family for years. Towards the end of the novel, he kills Bao Butong after the latter expressly disapproves of him becoming Duan Yanqing's godson in order to win over Duan Yanqing as an ally. The other three abandon him after witnessing how he would willingly kill his own followers to fulfil his dream.
Deng Baichuan ()
Gongye Gan () is nicknamed "Number Two in Jiangnan" ().
Bao Butong () is nicknamed "No, No" () after his favourite catchphrase. He is notorious for disagreeing with people and making blunt criticisms, usually starting the conversation with "No, no".
Feng Bo'e () is nicknamed "Gust of Wind" (). He is always ready to pick a fight with others even when his chances of winning are low.
Abi () is a servant of the Murong family and Kang Guangling's apprentice. She and Azhu helped Duan Yu escape from Jiumozhi. She is very loyal to Murong Fu and continues serving him even after he becomes insane.
Bao Buliang (), who is only mentioned by name in the novel, is Bao Butong's daughter.
Duan Zhengchun's lovers
Dao Baifeng () is Duan Zhengchun's wife. She left her husband after discovering his extramarital relations and decided to take revenge by cheating on him. She had a one-night stand with a filthy beggar, who was actually a critically wounded Duan Yanqing, and gave birth to Duan Yu later. She only reveals the truth to her son towards the end of the novel. In the latest edition of the novel, she points out to Duan Yu that he can marry all his cousins since the relations between him and them are so distant. She commits suicide soon after to join her dead husband.
Qin Hongmian () is nicknamed "Sura Dagger" (). She left Duan Zhengchun after learning of his multiple affairs with other women and single-handedly raised their daughter, Mu Wanqing, whom she also trained in martial arts. Towards the end of the novel, Murong Fu tries to use her and Duan Zhengchun's other mistresses as hostages to force Duan Zhengchun to pass the throne to Duan Yanqing. When Duan Zhengchun refuses, Murong Fu kills Qin Hongmian, Gan Baobao, Ruan Xingzhu and Li Qingluo.
Gan Baobao () is Zhong Wanchou's wife. Her daughter, Zhong Ling, was conceived from a secret affair she had with Duan Zhengchun, and has been raised as Zhong Wanchou's daughter over the years. She first appears when Duan Yu comes to Wanjie Valley to seek help in rescuing Zhong Ling, who had been captured and held hostage by the Shennong Gang.
Ruan Xingzhu () is the mother of Azhu and Azi. As she bore her daughters out of wedlock, she abandoned them to protect Duan Zhengchun's reputation. Later, by chance, she is reunited with her daughters but only manages to identify Azi; Azhu is killed by Xiao Feng by mistake before she can acknowledge her parents.
Kang Min (), also known as Mrs Ma (), is Ma Dayuan's wife and one of Duan Zhengchun's mistresses. She was attracted to Qiao Feng and had attempted to vie for his attention but he did not take notice of her. Feeling scorned, she plots his downfall after discovering the sealed letter about his Khitan heritage by chance. She seduces Bai Shijing and gets him to help her murder her husband while concurrently having another affair with Quan Guanqing, whom she instigates to incite the Beggars' Gang elders to rebel against Qiao Feng. Later, she tricks Qiao Feng and Azhu into believing that "Leading Big Brother" is Duan Zhengchun, indirectly causing Azhu's tragic death. When Duan Zhengchun visits her later to find out why she directed Qiao Feng to kill him, she uses the opportunity to take revenge on him for betraying her love. She tricks him into consuming a potion that temporarily weakens him and tortures him until Bai Shijing shows up. When Bai Shijing wants to kill Duan Zhengchun to silence him, he ends up being killed by a masked Xiao Yuanshan. Kang Min ultimately finds herself at the mercy of Azi, who tortures and disfigures her in the name of avenging Azhu. She dies of shock after seeing her reflection in a mirror because she had prided herself on her beauty.
Mantuo Manor
Li Qingluo (), also known as Mrs Wang (), is the owner of Mantuo Manor () on an island in Lake Tai. Her parents are Wuyazi and Li Qiushui; she is also Wang Yuyan's mother and Murong Fu's maternal aunt. After learning that Duan Zhengchun has cheated her feelings by having secret affairs with other women, she develops a hatred of men and sends her servants to kill every man who crosses her path. She prides herself on her island's camellia flowers, and makes an exception to her intolerance of men by allowing Duan Yu to stay in her manor as a caretaker for her flowers. She collaborates with Murong Fu and Duan Yanqing in an attempt to scare Duan Zhengchun and take revenge on him for betraying her love. However, she soon realises how far Murong Fu is willing to go in order to force Duan Zhengchun to give up his throne when her nephew starts killing Duan's mistresses one by one. Murong Fu soon points his sword at her after Duan expresses his love for her. In an attempt to save her, Duan lies to her that he hates her and will never love her because she caused his other lovers to die. Feeling despair, she throws herself on Murong Fu's sword to end her life. Just before she dies, Duan regrets and tells her that he still loves her.
Li Qingluo has numerous servants, some of whom are also highly skilled martial artists.
Granny Rui () and Granny Ping () are sent to hunt down and kill Qin Hongmian and Mu Wanqing after they attempted to assassinate Li Qingluo.
Yan Mama () is in charge of the fertiliser room in the manor.
Four Evils
The "Four Evils" () are a group of four eccentric martial artists notorious for committing heinous crimes. Their nicknames are Chinese idioms used to describe evil persons. The four are ranked in order of seniority:
Duan Yanqing (), nicknamed "Overflowing with Evil" (), is a distant cousin of Duan Zhengming and Duan Zhengchun, and a former crown prince of Dali. Duan Yanqing's father, the former king, was overthrown and killed in a rebellion. During the chaos, Duan Yanqing was critically wounded and became so crippled and disfigured that no one could recognise him. After the rebellion was suppressed, Duan Yanqing was presumed dead, so Duan Zhengming was crowned the new king. Feeling resentful that his right to become king had been taken from him, Duan Yanqing plots his revenge and attempts to seize the throne by threatening and harming Duan Zhengchun and Duan Yu on different occasions. Although he appears to be a crippled old man on crutches, his mastery of the "Yiyang Finger" is extremely powerful. He has the ability to channel his inner energy to his abdomen and speak without using his vocal cords. He gives up on his quest to reclaim the throne and becomes a recluse when he realises that his biological son, Duan Yu, will eventually become the king of Dali, thereby returning the royal lineage to his bloodline.
Ye Erniang () is nicknamed "No Evil Left Undone" (). She had a secret romance with Xuanci and they had a son, who was taken away from her by a masked attacker. She suffers from depression and resorts to kidnapping other people's babies and treating them as her own before killing them. (In the latest edition of the novel, she leaves the babies at strangers' homes after playing with them.) At the wulin gathering at Shaolin, she recognises Xuzhu as her son after seeing the joss stick burn marks on his back and reunites with him. She dies together with Xuanci after he publicly confesses his affair with her.
Yue Laosan (), nicknamed "Malevolent Deity and Evil Devil" (), is also known as the "Crocodile Deity of the Southern Sea" (). He is the most comical character in the novel because of his repeated (but unsuccessful) attempts to make Duan Yu his apprentice, which concluded with him being outsmarted by Duan Yu and becoming Duan's apprentice (in name) instead. He often bickers with Ye Erniang and claims that he should be ranked second among the Four Evils, but concedes to her upon her death. Armed with a pair of giant scissors, he often threatens to kill people by breaking their necks. He is killed by Duan Yanqing while trying to save Duan Yu.
Yun Zhonghe (), nicknamed "Thoroughly Cruel, Utterly Evil" (), is a lecherous fiend who preys on young women. He is armed with an iron staff and relies on his formidable prowess in qinggong to pursue his targets and flee from danger. He is viciously killed by Duan Yu when he attempts to make sexual advances on Wang Yuyan after the deaths of Duan Zhengchun and his lovers.
Tan Qing (), nicknamed "Soul Chasing Staff" (), is Duan Yanqing's apprentice. He is killed by Qiao Feng while attempting to disrupt the gathering at Heroes' Gathering Manor.
Sun Sanba (), nicknamed "Little Devil" (), was Yue Laosan's apprentice who is only mentioned by name in the novel. He was killed by Mu Wanqing after he saw her face.
Shaolin School
The Shaolin School, based in Shaolin Monastery on Mount Song, is headed by senior monks of the Xuan () generation with the abbot at the helm. The Xuan generation is preceded by the Ling () generation and followed by the Hui (), Xu () and Kong () generations.
Xuanci () is the current abbot. In his younger days, he violated the Shaolin code of conduct by having a secret romance with Ye Erniang, and she bore him a son, Xuzhu, without his knowledge. Shortly after Xuzhu was born, Xiao Yuanshan kidnapped the baby from Ye Erniang and left him in the garden of Shaolin, where the monks found the baby and decided to raise him as one of them. Xuanci is actually the mysterious "Leading Big Brother" () who had led the attack on Xiao Yuanshan's family at Yanmen Pass several years ago after receiving misleading information from Murong Bo. He expressed remorse for his sins but could not find the courage to acknowledge that he was wrong. Towards the end of the novel, he publicly confesses his relationship with Ye Erniang and dies in peace after accepting punishment for his misconduct.
The Sweeper Monk () is a nameless monk in charge of maintaining the library of Shaolin. Over the years, he has seen Murong Bo and Xiao Yuanshan hiding in the library and secretly learning Shaolin skills from the manuals, but they have never noticed him. During the final confrontation between Murong Bo and Xiao Yuanshan, the Sweeper Monk appears and points out how they have suffered grievous internal injuries over the years from attempting to master Shaolin skills without using Buddhist teachings as a guiding philosophy. He overpowers them, temporarily puts them to sleep and heals them physically and mentally. When they regain consciousness, they realise how delusional they have been, and feel so grateful to be saved that they decide to become monks for the rest of their lives and practise Buddhism under the Sweeper Monk's guidance.
Xuancheng () was obsessed with trying to master all of Shaolin's 72 most powerful skills and he ended up sustaining grievous internal injuries and becoming permanently disabled. After this experience, he realised his past folly and dedicated the rest of his life to practising Buddhism. He is only mentioned by name in the novel when the Sweeper Monk used him as an example to warn Murong Bo, Xiao Yuanshan and Jiumozhi against attempting to master all the 72 skills without using Buddhist teachings as a guiding philosophy.
Xuanbei () travelled to Dali to help the Duan family when he heard that they were under attack by the "Four Evils". On the way, he was ambushed and murdered by Murong Bo in Luliangzhou.
Xuanku () trained Qiao Feng in martial arts before he joined the Beggars' Gang. He is mortally wounded by Xiao Yuanshan. When Qiao Feng comes to visit him later, he mistakes Qiao Feng for Xiao Yuanshan because of the similarities in their appearances, and wrongly accuses Qiao Feng of attacking him before succumbing to his injuries.
Xuannan () is the head of the Bodhidharma Hall, which oversees martial arts training in Shaolin. He is poisoned to death by Ding Chunqiu.
Xuandu () is defeated and injured by Jiumozhi when the latter comes to challenge Shaolin.
Xuanji () is the head of the Discipline Hall, which is in charge of maintaining order in Shaolin. He ultimately succeeds Xuanci as the abbot.
Xuanyin (), Xuansheng () and Xuanzhi () once joined Xuanci and Xuandu in disguising themselves to spar with Qiao Feng to find out if he was the one who killed Xuanku.
Xuanshi () secretly followed Xiao Feng to find out if he was really the one who murdered Xu Chongxiao and the others. He is killed by Liao warriors while saving Xiao Feng from captivity.
Xuanming () is killed by Liao warriors while saving Xiao Feng from captivity.
Xuantong () is injured by You Tanzhi's icy venom skill. While recovering, he suddenly attains enlightenment and dies.
Lingmen () was the former abbot who is only mentioned by name in the novel.
Other members of the Xuan generation include: Xuancan (), Xuankui (), Xuannian (), Xuanjing () and Xuanmie ().
Huilun () is Xuzhu's master.
Huijing () is a monk who catches the Ice Silkworm.
Huizhen () and Huiguan () are Xuanbei's apprentices who accompanied him to Dali to assist the Duan family. After their master was murdered in Luliangzhou, they continued their journey to Dali and reported their master's death to the Duan family.
Huifang () and Huijing () accompanied Xuannan to meet Su Xinghe.
Xuqing (), Xuzhan () and Xuyuan () are in charge of maintaining the Bodhi Hall, where the Yijin Jing is kept. Azhu disguised herself as Xuqing when she sneaked into Shaolin to steal the Yijin Jing.
Beggars' Gang
Ma Dayuan () is the deputy chief of the gang. A righteous and humble man, he was entrusted with safekeeping a sealed letter containing information about Qiao Feng's origin, but has never opened it. His wife, Kang Min, seduces Bai Shijing and instigates him to murder her husband. Bai Shijing uses Ma Dayuan's signature move to kill him and attempts to push the blame to Murong Fu.
Wang Jiantong (), nicknamed "Sword Beard" (), was the former chief of the gang and one of those involved in the attack on Xiao Yuanshan's family at Yanmen Pass. He had died of natural causes before the events of the novel took place. However, before his death, he had passed a sealed letter containing information about Qiao Feng's origins to Ma Dayuan for safekeeping, and had given instructions that the letter can only be opened in the presence of the gang's elders if Ma dies under suspicious circumstances.
The Four Senior Elders are incited by Quan Guanqing to rebel against Qiao Feng and remove him from his position as chief. Their plan fails and they have to take their own lives for rebelling against the chief. However, Qiao Feng pardons them on account of their past contributions to the gang.
Wu Changfeng ()
Chen Guyan ()
Xi Shanhe () is regarded by Qiao Feng as both a friend and a mentor. At Heroes' Gathering Manor, they drink to sever ties with each other; Qiao Feng kills him in the ensuing battle.
Elder Song ()
Bai Shijing () is the elder in charge of maintaining discipline in the gang. He is seduced by Kang Min and instigated by her to murder Ma Dayuan. Later, just as he is about to kill Duan Zhengchun (who has been poisoned by Kang Min), a masked Xiao Yuanshan suddenly shows up and uses Ma Dayuan's signature move to kills him.
Quan Guanqing (), nicknamed "All Rounded Scholar" (), is the leader of the Dazhi Branch. He was seduced by Kang Min and instigated by her to incite the Four Senior Elders to rebel against Qiao Feng. Later, he meets You Tanzhi by chance and helps You become the new chief of the Beggars' Gang with the intention of turning You into a puppet chief under his control. He also manipulates You Tanzhi into helping him get rid of his rivals within the Beggars' Gang, and instigates You Tanzhi to issue a challenge to the Shaolin School for the position of leader of the wulin. After You Tanzhi meets his downfall at the wulin gathering at Shaolin, Quan Guanqing attempts to escape but the Beggars' Gang elders track him down and kill him.
Xu Chongxiao () is a retired elder of the gang who appears at the meeting in Apricot Forest to affirm that the contents of the letter about Qiao Feng's origin are genuine. Later, he was murdered by Xiao Yuanshan just before Qiao Feng comes to ask him about the identity of the "Leading Big Brother".
Lü Zhang () is an elder in charge of supervising martial arts training.
Elder Xiang () is an elder in charge of supervising martial arts training.
Branch Leader Jiang () is the leader of the Dayi Branch.
Deputy Branch Leader Xie () is Branch Leader Jiang's deputy. He is killed by Western Xia mercenaries.
Branch Leader Fang ()
Zhang Quanxiang ()
Li Chunlai () and Liu Zhuzhuang () are two low-ranking members of the gang who passed a false message to Bai Shijing during the plot to overthrow Qiao Feng. They committed suicide later.
Carefree School
Wuyazi () is the leader of the Carefree School (). He was ambushed and thrown off a cliff by his apprentice, Ding Chunqiu, who betrayed him. He has incredible inner energy but is unable to take revenge because he was crippled by the fall. When Xuzhu meets him after breaking his weiqi formation by luck, he is already in his 90s and has been waiting all these years for a potential successor. Before dying, he transfers his 70 years' worth of inner energy to Xuzhu and names him the new leader of the Carefree School. He also gives Xuzhu a painting of a woman (Li Qiushui's sister) who looks like Wang Yuyan and tells Xuzhu to find her and ask her to guide him in martial arts.
Li Qiushui () is Wuyazi's junior and Tianshan Tonglao's rival. Wuyazi cohabited with her for some time in a cave at Limitless Mountain and conceived a daughter, Li Qingluo, with her. However, his true love was Li Qiushui's younger sister, so he neglects Li Qiushui. Li Qiushui eventually became a consort of the Western Xia emperor and rose to the position of imperial consort dowager after her husband's death. She is already in her late 80s when the events of the novel take place. She dies together with Tianshan Tonglao in the aftermath of their final showdown when they finally realise that Wuyazi loves neither of them.
Su Xinghe (), nicknamed "Deaf Mute Old Man" () and "Intelligent Gentleman" (), is Wuyazi's first apprentice and a master of various arts. As he indulged in his hobbies, he gradually neglected his martial arts practice and became weaker compared to his junior, Ding Chunqiu. After Ding Chunqiu betrayed their master, Su Xinghe saved Wuyazi and pretended to be mute and deaf to put Ding Chunqiu off guard. All these years, he secretly took care of Wuyazi while helping him find a potential heir. He eventually dies after being poisoned by Ding Chunqiu.
The "Eight Friends of Hangu" () are Su Xinghe's apprentices who each specialises in a particular art or hobby as indicated by their nicknames:
Kang Guangling (), nicknamed "Qin Craze" ().
Fan Bailing (), nicknamed "Qi Devil" ().
Gou Du (), nicknamed "Bookworm" ().
Wu Lingjun (), nicknamed "Painting Enthusiast" ().
Xue Muhua (), nicknamed "Divine Physician" (). He hosts the wulin meeting at Heroes' Gathering Manor along with the You brothers to discuss plans to deal with Qiao Feng. Although he is initially reluctant to heal an injured Azhu, he agrees after Bai Shijing offers to teach him a skill in exchange for healing Azhu. Azhu disguises herself as him when she escapes from the manor to reunite with Qiao Feng.
Feng Asan (), nicknamed "Marvellous Craftsman" ().
Shi Qingfeng (), nicknamed "Flower Zealot" ().
Li Kuilei (), nicknamed "Opera Fan" ().
Lingjiu Palace
Tianshan Tonglao (), literally Child Old Woman of Mount Heaven, is the ruler of Lingjiu Palace () on the Ethereal Peak () of Mount Heaven. Formerly from the Carefree School, she was Wuyazi and Li Qiushui's senior, and had been fighting with Li Qiushui all these years for Wuyazi's love. She has started practising "The World and Six Harmonies Egocentric Skill" () since she was six and it has increased her powers tremendously. However, the side effect is that every 30 years, she will lose her powers and revert back to being a little girl, and then take the corresponding number of days (one day for each year) to "grow" back to her current age and cumulatively regain her powers. As she was once interrupted by Li Qiushui during a training session, her body size had since been stuck at that of a little girl's, hence her name. She is already 96 when the events of the novel take place. Over the years, she has used the "Life and Death Talisman" () to poison many martial artists and force them to submit to her. If they follow her orders, she periodically gives them an antidote to temporarily ease their suffering; if they do not, they will suffer painful deaths. The martial artists under her rule cannot tolerate her cruelty and eventually rebel against her. When the rebellion occurred, she had just lost her powers and would take 90 days to recover. Wu Laoda, the rebel leader, mistook her for a servant girl and kidnapped her from the palace. Xuzhu saves her and protects her from the rebels and Li Qiushui. In return, Tianshan Tonglao tricks or forces Xuzhu into learning martial arts from her despite his reluctance because he still sees himself as a Shaolin monk. In order to force Xuzhu to break the Buddhist code of conduct so that he can no longer be a monk, she captures Princess Yinchuan, tricks her and Xuzhu into consuming aphrodisiac, and lets them make love. Xuzhu is unable to restrain himself and eventually accepts his fate. Tianshan Tonglao dies from exhaustion after her final fight with Li Qiushui; both of them realise that Wuyazi never truly loved either of them.
Plum Sword (), Orchid Sword (), Chrysanthemum Sword () and Bamboo Sword () are the Four Attendants to the ruler of Lingjiu Palace. They are named after the Four Gentlemen.
Yu Po () is the leader of the Haotian Section.
Shi Sao () is the leader of the Zhutian Section.
Fu Minyi () is the leader of the Yangtian Section.
Cheng Qingshuang () is the deputy leader of the Juntian Section.
Xingxiu School
Ding Chunqiu (), nicknamed "Old Freak of Xingxiu" (), is Wuyazi's former apprentice. He attempted to murder his master by ambushing him and throwing him off a cliff, but did not know that his master had actually survived. He moved to the area near Xingxiu Lake and founded the Xingxiu School (), surrounding himself with "apprentices" who are mostly sycophants. When the events of the novel take place, the Xingxiu School is already notorious in the jianghu for its use of poison-based martial arts and the "Energy Absorbing Skill" () which allows the user to drain another martial artist's inner energy. Ding Chunqiu is ultimately defeated by Wuyazi's successor, Xuzhu, and implanted with the "Life and Death Talisman". Although Xuzhu had promised Wuyazi to kill Ding Chunqiu to avenge him, he spares Ding Chunqiu's life and suggests to the Shaolin monks to imprison Ding Chunqiu and try to reform him. If Ding Chunqiu behaves well, Xuzhu will give him the antidote to temporarily ease the agony caused by the "Life and Death Talisman".
Zhaixingzi () is Ding Chunqiu's eldest apprentice. He is defeated by Azi, who has received secret assistance from Xiao Feng.
Shihouzi (), Moyunzi (), Zhuifengzi (), Chuchenzi () and Tianlangzi () are among Ding Chunqiu's apprentices.
Liao Empire
Yelü Hongji () is the ambitious emperor of the Liao Empire. He once led a raid on the Jurchen tribes but was defeated and captured by Xiao Feng, who spared his life and became sworn brothers with him. After Xiao Feng helps him suppress the rebellion by Yelü Nielugu and Yelü Chongyuan, in return he gives Yelü Nielugu's princely title and estate to Xiao Feng. Towards the end of the novel, he plans to attack the Song Empire and wants Xiao Feng to lead his army, but the latter refuses. In the last chapter, Xiao Feng takes him hostage and forces him to promise that there will be no war between the Liao and Song Empires for as long as he lives.
Yelü Nielugu () is Yelü Chongyuan's son and a prince of the Liao Empire. He rebels against Yelü Hongji to help his father seize the throne but is defeated and slain by Xiao Feng. Yelü Hongji then gives Nielugu's title and estate to Xiao Feng.
Yelü Chongyuan () is an uncle of Yelü Hongji and a Liao prince. He is instigated by his son, Yelü Nielugu, to rebel against Yelü Hongji but the revolt is suppressed. He commits suicide after his defeat.
Yelü Moge () is a minister in the Liao government.
Noble Consort Mu () is Yelü Hongji's favourite concubine. She tricks Azi into spiking Xiao Feng's drink with a "love potion", which is actually a drug that will cause him to be temporarily weakened.
Western Xia Empire
Princess Yinchuan () is a Western Xia princess. Her personal name is not mentioned in the earlier versions of the novel; in the latest revision, her name is Li Qinglu (). The princess is Li Qiushui's granddaughter; thus, she is Li Qingluo's niece and Wang Yuyan's cousin, but they are not aware of their relations. She is abducted by Tianshan Tonglao, who makes her consume aphrodisiac and brings her to the ice cellar every night to make love with Xuzhu. This is all part of Tianshan Tonglao's attempt to force Xuzhu to break the Buddhist code of conduct and make him agree to learn martial arts from her; in the process, Xuzhu and the princess fall in love. Princess Yinchuan has never seen Xuzhu's appearance because they had sex in the dark and they only know each other as "dream lovers". In a later chapter, she asks her father to invite martial artists from throughout the jianghu to participate in a contest to win her hand-in-marriage in the hope that her "dream lover" will show up. Her wish is fulfilled when Xuzhu joins the contest and provides the correct answers to her questions. She recognises him as her "dream lover" and happily marries him.
Helian Tieshu () is a Western Xia general. He is in charge of First Class Hall (), an organisation established by the Western Xia government to recruit martial artists from all over the jianghu to serve as mercenaries.
Tibet
Jiumozhi (), nicknamed "Mahā-cakra-vajra" () after a Buddhist wisdom king, is a reputable Tibetan monk from a Nyingma monastery in the Daxue Mountains. He is well-versed in Buddhism and martial arts; his most powerful skill is "Flaming Saber" (), which allows him to project a flaming, blade-like wave of energy from his bare hands. Although he appears to be kind and approachable, he is ruthless in his ways and extremely obsessed with becoming the most powerful martial artist in the jianghu. After failing in his attempt to seize the "Six Meridians Divine Sword" manual from Heavenly Dragon Monastery, he kidnaps Duan Yu upon learning that the latter has memorised the book. He tries to con and intimidate Duan Yu to write the manual from memory, but Duan Yu escapes with the help of Azhu and Abi. At one point, he challenges the Shaolin School, claiming to have mastered all of Shaolin's 72 most powerful skills. He fights with Xuzhu, who recognises that he is actually using non-Shaolin skills in a way that makes them look like Shaolin skills. Xuzhu manages to counter Jiumozhi's every move and the challenge comes to an inconclusive end when Xuzhu's bodyguards show up to protect their master after Jiumozhi tries to stab him with a dagger. Towards the end of the novel, he sustains grievous internal injuries due to his attempts to master Shaolin skills by taking "shortcuts" and not using Buddhist teachings as a guiding philosophy, and nearly dies due to an imbalance of inner energy. However, Duan Yu saves his life by draining away all his inner energy. Despite losing everything he had built up through years of practice, he feels grateful to Duan Yu and repents after seeing how his obsession had caused him to stray so far from Buddhist teachings.
Zongzan () is a Tibetan prince who goes to Western Xia to participate in the contest for Princess Yinchuan's hand-in-marriage.
Jurchens
Wanyan Aguda () is a Jurchen warrior who encounters Xiao Feng by chance and witnesses him slaying a ferocious bear with his bare hands. He is so impressed with Xiao Feng's skill that he invites him to live together with his tribe.
Helibu () is Wanyan Aguda's father and the chief of a Jurchen tribe.
Sidalin () is the deputy chief of the Jurchen tribe.
Xu Zhuocheng () is a Han Chinese trader who is fluent in the Jurchen language. He serves as Xiao Feng's translator when he is living with the Jurchens.
Heroes' Gathering Manor
You Tanzhi () is the heir to the Heroes' Gathering Manor () run by the You brothers. After the brothers lose to Qiao Feng, they commit suicide in shame and leave behind You Tanzhi, who blames Qiao Feng for his plight. You Tanzhi is later captured by Liao soldiers at the border and sold into slavery. He meets Qiao Feng again after the latter has been renamed Xiao Feng and become a Liao prince, and attempts to kill him. Xiao Feng lets him go, but Azi captures him after he is released. While Azi tortures him for her sadistic amusement, he is so entranced by her beauty that he develops a crush on her and willingly succumbs to her and becomes her source of entertainment. Azi forces You Tanzhi to have an iron mask welded onto his head to conceal his identity, resulting in his face becoming disfigured, and she nicknames him "Iron Clown" (). Later, she forces him to let poisonous creatures bite him as part of her plan to learn the Xingxiu's School's "Energy Absorbing Skill" (). She leaves him to die after he is paralyzed by the bites but he finds the Yijin Jing by chance and uses the techniques in the manual to purge the poison from his body. He returns to Azi and repeats the bizarre ritual with her numerous times. He is eventually bitten by the Icy Worm, an extremely rare and poisonous insect, and ends up mastering a powerful skill that allows him to project streams of energy containing icy venom. After Azi is blinded by Ding Chunqiu, You Tanzhi saves her and promises her he will always take care of her. She does not recognise him, and he lies to her that his name is Zhuang Juxian (), a new name he thought of by rearranging the three characters that make up the name of his old home. Later, he meets Quan Guanqing, who helps him remove the iron mask and manipulates him into becoming the puppet chief of the Beggars' Gang under his control. At Quan Guanqing's instigation, You Tanzhi challenges the Shaolin School for supremacy in a wulin gathering at Shaolin Monastery. At Shaolin, You Tanzhi sees Azi being held hostage by Ding Chunqiu, who threatens to kill her if he does not bow to him and call him "Master". You Tanzhi, ignoring the fact that he is the Beggars' Gang's chief, agrees to Ding Chunqiu's demands in front of the wulin. After Ding Chunqiu's defeat, You Tanzhi is denounced as a traitor of the Beggars' Gang and becomes an outcast of the wulin. In spite of these setbacks, he is unwilling to give up his crush on Azi and follows her everywhere. He even offers his eyes to her to help her regain her sense of sight after she is blinded by Ding Chunqiu, in the hope of winning some love and sympathy from her, but she despises him even more. He follows suit after Azi commits suicide to join Xiao Feng.
You Ji () and You Ju () are the brothers who own the Heroes' Gathering Manor. You Ju is You Tanzhi's father while You Ji is You Tanzhi's uncle. Along with Xue Muhua, they host a wulin gathering for Han Chinese martial artists at their manor to discuss how to deal with Qiao Feng, who is seen as a threat to the wulin after he is wrongly accused of committing several murders. Qiao Feng shows up at the manor to find Xue Muhua to heal Azhu. The martial artists confront him and the situation escalates into a one-against-several battle after Qiao Feng toasts to sever ties with some of his old friends and acquaintances. The You brothers lose to Qiao Feng and commit suicide in shame after their weapons (which are also their family heirlooms) are shattered.
Shan Zheng (), nicknamed "Stern Faced Judge" (), is a reputable martial artist from Mount Tai. He appears at the Beggars' Gang meeting in Apricot Forest and is one of the few who know the "Leading Big Brother"'s true identity. He dies in a fire set by Xiao Yuanshan.
Shan Boshan (), Shan Zhongshan (), Shan Shushan (), Shan Jishan () and Shan Xiaoshan () are Shan Zheng's five sons. The first two are killed by Xiao Feng at Heroes' Gathering Manor while the rest die in the fire set by Xiao Yuanshan.
Tan Gong () and Tan Po () are a reputable elderly couple from Chongxiao Cave () in the Taihang Mountains known for their prowess in martial arts and medical skills. They are present at the Beggars' Gang meeting in Apricot Forest, and are among the few who know the "Leading Big Brother"'s true identity. Tan Po is killed by Xiao Yuanshan while Tan Gong commits suicide to join his wife.
Zhao Qiansun () is a cowardly martial artist who was involved in the attack on Xiao Yuanshan's family. He is Tan Po's senior and has always fancied her, so he often secretly meets her to chat and reminisce their good old days. The three Chinese characters that make up his name are incidentally the first three surnames in the Hundred Family Surnames. He is killed by Xiao Yuanshan.
Qi Laoliu (), nicknamed "Swift Saber Qi Liu" (), is a martial artist and former acquaintance of Qiao Feng. He is killed by Qiao Feng at Heroes' Gathering Manor after they toast to sever ties with each other.
Xiang Wanghai () is a martial artist from the east of the Xiang River. When Qiao Feng is toasting his old friends and acquaintances at Heroes' Gathering Manor to sever ties with them, he tries to have a drink with Qiao Feng too even though he has no past ties with him. Qiao Feng bluntly refuses, grabs him and knocks him out by tossing him aside.
Bao Qianling (), nicknamed "Penniless" (), is a martial artist known for stealing from the rich and helping the poor.
Wanjie Valley
Zhong Wanchou (), nicknamed "Horse Deity" (), is Gan Baobao's husband and the master of an estate in Wanjie Valley (). He is extremely protective of his wife and he hates Duan Zhengchun because he thinks that the latter seduced his wife. However, he does not have the courage to confront Duan Zhengchun, so he places a sign at the valley's entrance which reads: "Any person with the family name Duan who enters this valley shall be killed without exception." () At one point, he invites the "Four Evils" to help him kidnap Duan Yu and Mu Wanqing and make them to commit incest, with the intention of disgracing the Duan family. His plan backfires when Mu Wanqing is saved and replaced with Zhong Ling.
Jinxi'er () and Laifu'er () are servants of the Zhong family. They are killed by Yue Laosan and Li Qingluo's servants respectively.
Limitless Sword School
The Limitless Sword School () is based on Limitless Mountain. It is renamed "Limitless Cave" () after it becomes a subject of Lingjiu Palace.
Zuo Zimu () is the leader of the eastern branch of the school.
Xin Shuangqing () is Zuo Zimu's junior and the leader of the western branch.
Gong Guangjie () dies after opening a letter smeared with poison from the Shennong Gang.
Gan Guanghao () and Ge Guangpei () attempt to elope and they try to kill Duan Yu when he overhears their plan. Mu Wanqing shows up and kills them to save Duan Yu.
Rong Ziju ()
Yu Guangbiao ()
Wu Guangsheng ()
Tang Guangxiong ()
Heavenly Dragon Monastery
The Heavenly Dragon Monastery () is a Buddhist monastery located in Dali. Some of the monks are former members of Dali's royal family. Like the royal family, they are trained in martial arts and their most powerful skill is the "Six Meridians Divine Sword" (), which allows the practitioner to project blade-like streams of energy from his fingers.
Kurong () is the most senior monk in the monastery. He lets Duan Yu read the "Six Meridians Divine Sword" manual and memorise it before destroying the manual to prevent Jiumozhi from obtaining it.
Benyin () is the abbot of the monastery.
Benguan (), Benxiang () and Bencan () combine forces with Benyin, Kurong and Benchen (Duan Zhengming) to counter Jiumozhi when he tries to seize the "Six Meridians Divine Sword" manual from the monastery.
Lords of the 36 Caves and 72 Islands
The Lords of the 36 Caves and 72 Islands () are a loose assembly of martial artists who were implanted with the "Life and Death Talisman", a deadly poison, and forced into submission by Tianshan Tonglao. If they followed her orders, she would periodically give them an antidote to temporarily ease their suffering. They eventually decide to rebel against Lingjiu Palace when they could no longer stand Tianshan Tonglao's cruelty. Some of the lords are:
Wu Laoda () is the de facto leader of the lords. He chanced upon Tianshan Tonglao, who was in a temporary state of weakness, and mistook her for a servant girl and kidnapped her. Later, when he is meeting with the other lords to discuss their plan to rebel against Lingjiu Palace, he suggests that everyone kills the girl to pledge their loyalty to their cause. However, Xuzhu intervenes and saves Tianshan Tonglao before they could harm her.
Sangtugong () is the lord of Green Phosphorus Cave () in Sichuan who is known for his ability to burrow underground to escape from enemies or launch surprise attacks. When Sangtugong tries to kill Xuzhu and Tianshan Tonglao, Xuzhu uses a technique (taught to him by Tianshan Tonglao) to flick conifer cones at Sangtugong, seemingly to disable him. However, Xuzhu does not realise that it is actually a lethal technique and unintentionally kills Sangtugong.
Taoist Buping () is nicknamed "Dragon King" (). He is unintentionally killed by Xuzhu along with Sangtugong.
Sikong Xuan () is the leader of the Shennong Gang (). Early in the story, he holds Zhong Ling hostage after he is bitten by her pet, the Lightning Mink, whose bite is venomous because it hunts venomous snakes. He then forces Duan Yu to go to Zhong Ling's home to fetch him the antidote in exchange for her release. Later, he is fooled by Duan Yu and Mu Wanqing, who have disguised themselves as messengers from Lingjiu Palace, and releases Zhong Ling. He commits suicide eventually.
Xuanhuangzi () is the lord of Hornless Dragon Cave () in Tibet.
Zhang Dafu () is the lord of Mysterious Island () in the northern sea.
Duanmu Yuan () is the lord of Red Flame Cave () on Wuzhi Mountain in Hainan.
Madam Li () is the lord of Palm Flower Island () in the southern sea.
Cui Lühua () is nicknamed "Hibiscus Fairy" ().
Zhuo Bufan (), nicknamed "God of the Sword" (), is a formidable swordsman from the Yizihui Sword School ().
Island Lord Qin () is the lord of Seahorse Island ().
Taoist Jiuyi () is from the Thunder and Lightning School ().
Island Lord Ou () is the lord of Swordfish Island (). He is killed by Zhuo Bufan.
Cave Lord Huo () is the lord of Purple Rock Cave ().
Island Lord Yun ()
Hadaba () is the lord of Iron Turtle Island ().
Island Lord Sima ()
Cave Lord Yu ()
Cave Lord An ()
Funiu School
The Funiu School () is based in the Funiu Mountains.
Cui Baiquan (), nicknamed "Golden Abacus" (), is Ke Baisui's junior. In the past, he offended the Murong family and was forced to take shelter in Dali, where he assumes a new identity as an accountant in Duan Zhengchun's residence. He spends most of his time drinking and gambling. Duan Yu befriends him through their common interest in weiqi.
Guo Yanzhi (), nicknamed "Soul Chasing Whip" (), is Ke Baisui's apprentice. He travels to Dali to seek Cui Baiquan's help in hunting down the person who murdered his master.
Ke Baisui () was the chief of the Funiu School who was murdered by Murong Bo, who had used his own signature move against him.
Nianhua Monastery
Reverend Huangmei () is the abbot of Nianhua Monastery () who specialises in using the "Vajra Finger" (). He plays an important role in rescuing Duan Yu from Wanjie Valley by distracting Duan Yanqing in a game of weiqi while Duan Zhengchun's men dig a tunnel to the room where Duan Yu is held captive. He once met Murong Bo when the latter was still a boy, and had been nearly killed when the boy used the "Vajra Finger" to strike him in the chest, narrowly missing his heart.
Pochen () and Pochi () are Reverend Huangmei's apprentices.
Penglai and Qingcheng Schools
The Penglai School () is based in Penglai, Shandong while the Qingcheng School () is based on Mount Qingcheng in Sichuan. The two schools have an ongoing rivalry.
Dulingzi () is the leader of the Penglai School.
Sima Lin () is the leader of the Qingcheng School. After his father, Sima Wei (), was murdered by someone who used his own signature move against him, he thinks that Murong Fu is responsible so he goes to Gusu to confront Murong Fu.
Zhu Baokun () is a spy sent by the Penglai School to infiltrate the Qingcheng School.
Shenshan Shangren and associates
Shenshan Shangren () is the abbot of Qingliang Monastery () on Mount Wutai. When he was younger, he wanted to join the Shaolin School, but was turned away because he was seen as too pretentious and arrogant. Although he subsequently joined Qingliang Monastery and eventually became the abbot, he still bore a grudge against the Shaolin School for rejecting him. Later, he finds an excuse to challenge Shaolin for the "ownership" of three of Shaolin's 72 most powerful skills, and brings along several reputable monks as witnesses to put pressure on Shaolin. He gives up and leaves after seeing how Jiumozhi apparently seems to have single-handedly mastered all the 72 skills.
Boluoxing () is a monk from India who was detained in Shaolin for years after he was caught stealing martial arts manuals.
Zheluoxing () is Boluoxing's senior. He accompanies Shenshan Shangren to Shaolin and demands the release of his junior.
Reverend Guanxin () is from Daxiangguo Monastery in Kaifeng.
Reverend Daoqing () is from Pudu Monastery () in Jiangnan.
Reverend Juexian () is from Donglin Monastery in Jiujiang.
Reverend Rongzhi () is from Jingying Monastery () in Chang'an.
Reverend Shenyin () is from Qingliang Monastery on Mount Wutai.
Others
Xiao Yuanshan () is Xiao Feng's father. 30 years ago, he and his family were attacked by a group of masked assailants at Yanmen Pass and his wife was killed. He attempted suicide by jumping off a cliff but survived and devoted himself to seeking vengeance on the attackers, whose leader he has identified to be Xuanci. Over the years, he has been hiding in Shaolin Monastery and secretly learning martial arts from the manuals in the library, while plotting to expose Xuanci's secret affair with Ye Erniang and publicly disgrace him one day. In the end, he realises how blinded he has been by his desire for revenge, and feels so grateful to the Sweeper Monk for saving him that he becomes a monk for the rest of his life.
Reverend Zhiguang () is a reputable monk from Zhiguan Monastery () on Mount Tiantai. Before he became a monk, he was involved in the attack on Xiao Yuanshan's family at Yanmen Pass 30 years ago. He regretted his actions and has since turned to Buddhism and done many good deeds to atone for his past sins. He appears at the Beggars' Gang meeting in Apricot Forest to narrate the events of the Yanmen Pass incident. Later, he commits suicide after declining to tell Xiao Feng the identity of the "Leading Big Brother".
Qiao Sanhuai () is Xiao Feng's adoptive father. He is killed along with his wife by Xiao Yuanshan for not telling their adoptive son about his true parentage.
Yao Bodang () is the master of the Qin Family Fort () in Yunzhou. After his junior, Qin Boqi (), was murdered by somebody who used his own signature move against him, he thinks that Murong Fu is responsible so he goes to Gusu to confront Murong Fu.
Wang Tongzhi () is a physician who fails to heal Azi of her internal injuries.
References
段正淳：分段忠实的爱情 - extract about Duan Zhengchun from Rankings of Characters in Jin Yong's Works (金庸人物排行榜) by Tan Xianmao (覃贤茂)
Lists of Jin Yong characters
Fictional Song dynasty people |
23592200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Edinburgh | University of Edinburgh | The University of Edinburgh (, ; abbreviated as Edin. in post-nominals) is a public research university based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Founded by the town council under the authority of a royal charter of King James VI in 1582 and officially opened in 1583, it is one of Scotland's four ancient universities and the sixth-oldest university in continuous operation in the English-speaking world. The university played an important role in Edinburgh becoming a chief intellectual centre during the Scottish Enlightenment and contributed to the city being nicknamed the "Athens of the North."
Edinburgh is ranked 22nd in the world by the QS World University Rankings, 30th by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and 38th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. It is a member of several associations of research-intensive universities, including the Coimbra Group, League of European Research Universities, Russell Group, Una Europa, and Universitas 21. In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2022, it had a total income of £1.262 billion, of which £331.6 million was from research grants and contracts. It has the third-largest endowment in the UK, behind only Cambridge and Oxford. The university occupies five main campuses in the city of Edinburgh, which include many buildings of historical and architectural significance such as those in the Old Town.
Edinburgh is the seventh-largest university in the UK by enrolment and receives over 75,000 undergraduate applications per year, making it the second-most popular university in the UK by volume of applications. Edinburgh had the eighth-highest average UCAS points amongst British universities for new entrants in 2020. The university continues to have links to the royal family, having had Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh as its chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Anne, Princess Royal since March 2011.
Alumni of the university include inventor Alexander Graham Bell, naturalist Charles Darwin, philosopher David Hume, physicist James Clerk Maxwell, and writers such as Sir J. M. Barrie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, J. K. Rowling, Sir Walter Scott, and Robert Louis Stevenson. The university counts several heads of state and government amongst its graduates, including three British Prime Ministers. Three Supreme Court Justices of the UK were educated at Edinburgh. , 19 Nobel Prize laureates, four Pulitzer Prize winners, three Turing Award winners, and an Abel Prize laureate and Fields Medalist have been affiliated with Edinburgh as alumni or academic staff. Edinburgh alumni have won a total of ten Olympic gold medals.
History
Early history
In 1557, Bishop Robert Reid of St Magnus Cathedral on Orkney made a will containing an endowment of 8,000 merks to build a college in Edinburgh. Unusually for his time, Reid's vision included the teaching of rhetoric and poetry, alongside more traditional subjects such as philosophy. However, the bequest was delayed by more than 25 years due to the religious revolution that led to the Reformation Parliament of 1560. The plans were revived in the late 1570s through efforts by the Edinburgh Town Council, first minister of Edinburgh James Lawson, and Lord Provost William Little. When Reid's descendants were unwilling to pay out the sum, the town council petitioned King James VI and his Privy Council. The King brokered a monetary compromise and granted a royal charter on 14 April 1582, empowering the town council to create a college of higher education. A college established by secular authorities was unprecedented in newly Presbyterian Scotland, as all previous Scottish universities had been founded through papal bulls. Notably, Edinburgh was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the richer and more populous England had only two.
Named Tounis College (Town's College), the university opened its doors to students on 14 October 1583, with an attendance of 80–90. At the time, the college mainly covered liberal arts and divinity. Instruction began under the charge of a graduate from the University of St Andrews, theologian Robert Rollock, who first served as Regent, and from 1586 as principal of the college. Initially Rollock was the sole instructor for first-year students, and he was expected to tutor the 1583 intake for all four years of their degree in every subject. The first cohort finished their studies in 1587, and 47 students graduated (or 'laureated') with an M.A. degree. When King James VI visited Scotland in 1617, he held a disputation with the college's professors, after which he decreed that it should henceforth be called the "Colledge [sic] of King James". The university was known as both Tounis College and King James' College until it gradually assumed the name of the University of Edinburgh during the 17th century.
After the deposition of King James II and VII during the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the Parliament of Scotland passed legislation designed to root out Jacobite sympathisers amongst university staff. In Edinburgh, this led to the dismissal of Principal Alexander Monro and several professors and regents after a government visitation in 1690. The university was subsequently led by Principal Gilbert Rule, one of the inquisitors on the visitation committee.
18th and 19th century
The late 17th and early 18th centuries were marked by a power struggle between the university and town council, which had ultimate authority over staff appointments, curricula, and examinations. After a series of challenges by the university, the conflict culminated in the council seizing the college records in 1704. Relations were only gradually repaired over the next 150 years and suffered repeated setbacks.
The university expanded by founding a Faculty of Law in 1707, a Faculty of Arts in 1708, and a Faculty of Medicine in 1726. In 1762, Reverend Hugh Blair was appointed by King George III as the first Regius Professor of Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres. This formalised literature as a subject and marks the foundation of the English Literature department, making Edinburgh the oldest centre of literary education in Britain.
During the 18th century, the university was at the centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment fell on especially fertile ground in Edinburgh because of the university's democratic and secular origin; its organization as a single entity instead of loosely connected colleges, which encouraged academic exchange; its adoption of the more flexible Dutch model of professorship, rather than having student cohorts taught by a single regent; and the lack of land endowments as its source of income, which meant its faculty operated in a more competitive environment. Between 1750 and 1800, this system produced and attracted key Enlightenment figures such as chemist Joseph Black, economist Adam Smith, historian William Robertson, philosophers David Hume and Dugald Stewart, physician William Cullen, and early sociologist Adam Ferguson, many of which taught concurrently. By the time the Royal Society of Edinburgh was founded in 1783, the university was regarded as one of the world's preeminent scientific institutions, and Voltaire called Edinburgh a "hotbed of genius" as a result. Benjamin Franklin believed that the university possessed "a set of as truly great men, Professors of the Several Branches of Knowledge, as have ever appeared in any Age or Country". Thomas Jefferson felt that as far as science was concerned, "no place in the world can pretend to a competition with Edinburgh".
In 1785, Henry Dundas introduced the South Bridge Act in the House of Commons; one of the bill's goals was to use South Bridge as a location for the university, which had existed in a hotchpotch of buildings since its establishment. The site was used to construct Old College, the university's first custom-built building, by architect William Henry Playfair to plans by Robert Adam. During the 18th century, the university developed a particular forte in teaching anatomy and the developing science of surgery, and it was considered one of the best medical schools in the English-speaking world. Bodies to be used for dissection were brought to the university's Anatomy Theatre through a secret tunnel from a nearby house (today's College Wynd student accommodation), which was also used by murderers Burke and Hare to deliver the corpses of their victims during the 1820s.
After 275 years of governance by the town council, the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858 gave the university full authority over its own affairs. The act established governing bodies including a university court and a general council, and redefined the roles of key officials like the chancellor, rector, and principal.
The Edinburgh Seven were the first group of matriculated undergraduate female students at any British university. Led by Sophia Jex-Blake, they began studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1869. Although the university blocked them from graduating and qualifying as doctors, their campaign gained national attention and won them many supporters, including Charles Darwin. Their efforts put the rights of women to higher education on the national political agenda, which eventually resulted in legislation allowing women to study at all Scottish universities in 1889. The university admitted women to graduate in medicine in 1893. In 2015, the Edinburgh Seven were commemorated with a plaque at the university, and in 2019 they were posthumously awarded with medical degrees.
Towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded. After a bequest from Sir David Baxter, the university started planning new buildings in earnest. Sir Robert Rowand Anderson won the public architectural competition and was commissioned to design new premises for the Medical School in 1877. Initially, the design incorporated a campanile and a hall for examination and graduation, but this was seen as too ambitious. The new Medical School opened in 1884, but the building was not completed until 1888. After funds were donated by politician and brewer William McEwan in 1894, a separate graduation building was constructed after all, also designed by Anderson. The resulting McEwan Hall on Bristo Square was presented to the university in 1897.
The Students' Representative Council (SRC) was founded in 1884 by student Robert Fitzroy Bell. In 1889, the SRC voted to establish Edinburgh University Union (EUU), to be housed in Teviot Row House on Bristo Square. Edinburgh University Sports Union (EUSU) was founded in 1866, and Edinburgh University Women's Union (renamed the Chambers Street Union in 1964) in October 1905. The SRC, EUU and Chambers Street Union merged to form Edinburgh University Students' Association (EUSA) on 1 July 1973.
20th century
During World War I, the Science and Medicine buildings had suffered from a lack of repairs or upgrades, which was exacerbated by an influx of students after the end of the war. In 1919, the university bought the land of West Mains Farm in the south of the city for the development of a new satellite campus specialising in the sciences. On 6 July 1920, King George V laid the foundation of the first new building (now called the Joseph Black Building), housing the Department of Chemistry. The campus was named King's Buildings in honour of George V.
New College on The Mound was originally opened in 1846 as a Free Church of Scotland college, later of the United Free Church of Scotland. Since the 1930s it has been the home of the School of Divinity. Prior to the 1929 reunion of the Church of Scotland, candidates for the ministry in the United Free Church studied at New College, whilst candidates for the Church of Scotland studied in the university's Faculty of Divinity. In 1935 the two institutions merged, with all operations moved to the New College site in Old Town. This freed up Old College for Edinburgh Law School.
The Polish School of Medicine was established in 1941 as a wartime academic initiative. While it was originally intended for students and doctors in the Polish Armed Forces in the West, civilians were also allowed to take the courses, which were taught in Polish and awarded Polish medical degrees. When the school was closed in 1949, 336 students had matriculated, of which 227 students graduated with the equivalent of an MBChB and a total of 19 doctors obtained a doctorate or MD. A bronze plaque commemorating the Polish School of Medicine is located in the Quadrangle of the old Medical School in Teviot Place.
On 10 May 1951, the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, founded in 1823 by William Dick, was reconstituted as the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and officially became part of the university. It achieved full faculty status as Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in 1964.
By the end of the 1950s, there were around 7,000 students matriculating annually, more than doubling the numbers from the turn of the century. The university addressed this partially through the redevelopment of George Square, demolishing much of the area's historic houses and erecting modern buildings such as 40 George Square, Appleton Tower and the Main Library.
On 1 August 1998, the Moray House Institute of Education, founded in 1848, merged with the University of Edinburgh, becoming its Faculty of Education. Following the internal restructuring of the university in 2002, Moray House became known as the Moray House School of Education. It was renamed the Moray House School of Education and Sport in August 2019.
21st century
In the 1990s it became apparent that the old Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh buildings in Lauriston Place were no longer adequate for a modern teaching hospital. Donald Dewar, the Scottish Secretary at the time, authorized a joint project between private finance, local authorities, and the university to create a modern hospital and medical campus in the Little France area of Edinburgh. The new campus was named the BioQuarter. The Chancellor's Building was opened on 12 August 2002 by Prince Philip, housing the new Edinburgh Medical School alongside the new Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. In 2007, the campus saw the addition of the Euan MacDonald Centre as a research centre for motor neuron diseases, which was part-funded by Scottish entrepreneur Euan MacDonald and his father Donald. In August 2010, author J. K. Rowling provided £10 million in funding to create the Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, which was officially opened in October 2013. The Centre for Regenerative Medicine (CRM) is a stem cell research centre dedicated to the development of regenerative treatments, which was opened in 2012. CRM is also home to applied scientists working with the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service (SNBTS) and Roslin Cells.
In December 2002, the Edinburgh Cowgate Fire destroyed a number of university buildings, including some of the School of Informatics at 80 South Bridge. This was replaced with the Informatics Forum on Bristo Square, completed in July 2008. Also in 2002, the Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre (ECRC) was opened on the Western General Hospital site. In 2007, the MRC Human Genetics Unit formed a partnership with the Centre for Genomic & Experimental Medicine and the ECRC to create the Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine (renamed the Institute of Genetics and Cancer in 2021) on the same site.
In April 2008, the Roslin Institute – an animal sciences research centre known for cloning Dolly the sheep – became part of the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. In 2011, the school moved into a new £60 million building on the Easter Bush campus, which now houses research and teaching facilities, and a hospital for small and farm animals.
Edinburgh College of Art, founded in 1760, formally merged with the university's School of Arts, Culture and Environment on 1 August 2011. In 2014, the Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute (ZJE) was founded as an international joint institute offering degrees in biomedical sciences, taught in English. The campus, located in Haining, Zhejiang Province, China, was established on 15 March 2016.
The university began hosting a Wikimedian in Residence in 2016. The residency was made into a full-time position in 2019, with the Wikimedian involved in teaching and learning activities within the scope of the University of Edinburgh WikiProject.
In 2018, the University of Edinburgh was a signatory to the £1.3 billion Edinburgh and South East Scotland City Region Deal, in partnership with the UK and Scottish governments, six local authorities and all universities and colleges in the region. The university committed to delivering a range of economic benefits to the region through the Data-Driven Innovation initiative. In conjunction with Heriot-Watt University, the deal created five innovation hubs: the Bayes Centre, Edinburgh Futures Institute (EFI), Usher Institute, Easter Bush, and one further hub based at Heriot-Watt, the National Robotarium. The deal also included creation of the Edinburgh International Data Facility, which performs high-speed data processing in a secure environment.
In September 2020, the university completed work on the Richard Verney Health Centre at its central area campus on Bristo Square. The facility houses a health centre and pharmacy, and the university's disability and counselling services. The university's largest current expansion project is the conversion of some of the historic Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh buildings in Lauriston Place, which had been vacated in 2003 and partially developed into the Quartermile. The £120 million renovations and extension will provide space for the Edinburgh Futures Institute, an interdisciplinary hub linking arts, humanities, and social sciences with other disciplines in the research and teaching of 'complex futures'.
Historical links
Edinburgh has a number of historical links to other universities, chiefly through its influential Medical School and its graduates, who established and developed institutions elsewhere in the world.
College of William & Mary: the second-oldest college in the US was founded in 1693 by Edinburgh graduate James Blair, who served as the college's founding president for fifty years.
Columbia University: had its Medical School founded by Samuel Bard, an Edinburgh medical graduate.
Dalhousie University: Edinburgh alumnus George Ramsay, the 22nd Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia, wanted to establish a non-denominational college in Halifax open to all. The school was modelled after the University of Edinburgh, which students could attend regardless of religion or nationality.
Dartmouth College: had its School of Medicine founded by Nathan Smith, an alumnus of Edinburgh Medical School.
Harvard University: had its Medical School founded by three surgeons, one of whom was Benjamin Waterhouse, an alumnus of Edinburgh Medical School.
McGill University: had its Faculty of Medicine founded by four physicians, which included Edinburgh alumni Andrew Fernando Holmes and John Stephenson.
University of Pennsylvania: had its School of Medicine founded by Edinburgh graduate John Morgan, who modelled it after Edinburgh Medical School.
Princeton University: had its academic syllabus and structure reformed along the lines of the University of Edinburgh and other Scottish universities by its sixth president John Witherspoon, an Edinburgh theology graduate.
University of Sydney: founded in 1850 by Sir Charles Nicholson, a graduate of Edinburgh Medical School.
Yale University: had its School of Medicine co-founded by Nathan Smith, an alumnus of Edinburgh Medical School.
Campuses and buildings
The university has five main sites in Edinburgh:
Central Area
King's Buildings
BioQuarter
Easter Bush
Western General
The university is responsible for several significant historic and modern buildings across the city, including St Cecilia's Hall, Scotland's oldest purpose-built concert hall and the second oldest in use in the British Isles; Teviot Row House, the oldest purpose-built students' union building in the world; and the restored 17th-century Mylne's Court student residence at the head of the Royal Mile.
Central Area
The Central Area is spread around numerous squares and streets in Edinburgh's Southside, with some buildings in Old Town. It is the university's oldest area, occupied primarily by the College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences and the School of Informatics. The highest concentration of university buildings is around George Square, which includes 40 George Square (formerly David Hume Tower), Appleton Tower, Main Library, and Gordon Aikman Lecture Theatre, the area's largest lecture hall. Around nearby Bristo Square lie the Dugald Stewart Building, Informatics Forum, McEwan Hall, Potterrow Student Centre, Teviot Row House, and old Medical School, which still houses pre-clinical medical courses and biomedical sciences. The Pleasance, one of Edinburgh University Students' Association's main buildings, is located nearby, as is Edinburgh College of Art in Lauriston. North of George Square lies the university's Old College housing Edinburgh Law School, New College on The Mound housing the School of Divinity, and St Cecilia's Hall. Some of these buildings are used to host events during the Edinburgh International Festival and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe every summer.
Pollock Halls
Pollock Halls, adjoining Holyrood Park to the east, is the university's largest residence hall for undergraduate students in their first year. The complex houses over 2,000 students during term time and consists of ten named buildings with communal green spaces between them. The two original buildings, St Leonard's Hall and Salisbury Green, were built in the 19th century, while the majority of Pollock Halls dates from the 1960s and early 2000s. Two of the older houses in Pollock Halls were demolished in 2002, and a new building, Chancellor's Court, was built in their place and opened in 2003. Self-catered flats elsewhere account for the majority of university-provided accommodation. The area also includes the John McIntyre Conference Centre opened in 2009, which is the university's premier conference space.
Holyrood
The Holyrood campus, just off the Royal Mile, used to be the site for Moray House Institute for Education until it merged with the university on 1 August 1998. The university has since extended this campus. The buildings include redeveloped and extended Sports Science, Physical Education and Leisure Management facilities at St Leonard's Land linked to the Sports Institute in the Pleasance. The £80 million O'Shea Hall at Holyrood was named after the former principal of the university Sir Timothy O'Shea and was opened by Princess Anne in 2017, providing a living and social environment for postgraduate students. The Outreach Centre, Institute for Academic Development (University Services Group), and Edinburgh Centre for Professional Legal Studies are also located at Holyrood.
King's Buildings
The King's Buildings campus is located in the south of the city. Most of the Science and Engineering College's research and teaching activities take place at the campus, which occupies a 35-hectare site. It includes the Alexander Graham Bell Building (for mobile phones and digital communications systems), James Clerk Maxwell Building (the administrative and teaching centre of the School of Physics and Astronomy and School of Mathematics), Joseph Black Building (home to the School of Chemistry), Royal Observatory, Swann Building (the Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology), Waddington Building (the Centre for Systems Biology at Edinburgh), William Rankine Building (School of Engineering's Institute for Infrastructure and Environment), and others. Until 2012, the KB campus was served by three libraries: Darwin Library, James Clerk Maxwell Library, and Robertson Engineering and Science Library. These were replaced by the Noreen and Kenneth Murray Library opened for the academic year 2012/13. The campus also hosts the National e-Science Centre (NeSC), Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Scottish Institute for Enterprise (SIE), Scottish Microelectronics Centre (SMC), and Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC).
BioQuarter
The BioQuarter campus, based in the Little France area, is home to the majority of medical facilities of the university, alongside the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. The campus houses the Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Chancellor's Building, Euan MacDonald Centre, and Queen's Medical Research Institute, which opened in 2005. The Chancellor's Building has two large lecture theatres and a medical library connected to the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh by a series of corridors.
Easter Bush
The Easter Bush campus, located seven miles south of the city, houses the Jeanne Marchig International Centre for Animal Welfare Education, Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, and Veterinary Oncology and Imaging Centre.
The Roslin Institute is an animal sciences research institute which is sponsored by BBSRC. The Institute won international fame in 1996, when its researchers Sir Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and their colleagues created Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. A year later Polly and Molly were cloned, both sheep contained a human gene.
Western General
The Western General campus, in proximity to the Western General Hospital, contains the Biomedical Research Facility, Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, and Institute of Genetics and Cancer (formerly the Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine).
Organisation and administration
Governance
In common with the other ancient universities of Scotland, and in contrast to nearly all other pre-1992 universities which are established by royal charters, the University of Edinburgh is constituted by the Universities (Scotland) Acts 1858 to 1966. These acts provide for three major bodies in the governance of the university: the University Court, the General Council, and the Senatus Academicus.
University Court
The University Court is the university's governing body and the legal person of the university, chaired by the rector and consisting of the principal, Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and of Assessors appointed by the rector, chancellor, Edinburgh Town Council, General Council, and Senatus Academicus. By the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889, it is a body corporate, with perpetual succession and a common seal. All property belonging to the university at the passing of the Act was vested in the Court. The present powers of the Court are further defined in the Universities (Scotland) Act 1966, including the administration and management of the university's revenue and property, the regulation of staff salaries, and the establishment and composition of committees of its own members or others.
General Council
The General Council consists of graduates, academic staff, current and former University Court members. It was established to ensure that graduates have a continuing voice in the management of the university. The Council is required to meet twice per year to consider matters affecting the wellbeing and prosperity of the university. The Universities (Scotland) Act 1966 gave the Council the power to consider draft ordinances and resolutions, to be presented with an annual report of the work and activities of the university, and to receive an audited financial statement. The Council elects the chancellor of the university and three Assessors on the University Court.
Senatus Academicus
The Senatus Academicus is the university's supreme academic body, chaired by the principal and consisting of the professors, heads of departments, and a number of readers, lecturers and other teaching and research staff. The core function of the Senatus is to regulate and supervise the teaching and discipline of the university and to promote research. The Senatus elects four Assessors on the University Court. The Senatus meets three times per year, hosting a presentation and discussion session which is open to all members of staff at each meeting.
University officials
The university's three most significant officials are its chancellor, rector, and principal, whose rights and responsibilities are largely derived from the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858.
The office of chancellor serves as the titular head and highest office of the university. Their duties include conferring degrees and enhancing the profile and reputation of the university on national and global levels. The chancellor is elected by the university's General Council, and a person generally remains in the office for life. Previous chancellors include former prime minister Arthur Balfour and novelist Sir J. M. Barrie. Princess Anne has held the position since March 2011 succeeding Prince Philip. She is also Patron of the university's Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies.
The office of rector is elected every three years by the staff and matriculated students. The primary role of the rector is to preside at the University Court. The rector also chairs meetings of the General Council in absence of the chancellor. They work closely with students and Edinburgh University Students' Association. Previous rectors include microbiologist Sir Alexander Fleming, and former Prime Ministers Sir Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George. The current rector is human rights lawyer Debora Kayembe, who has held the position since March 2021.
The principal is responsible for the overall operation of the university in a chief executive role. The principal is formally nominated by the Curators of Patronage and appointed by the University Court. They are the President of the Senatus Academicus and a member of the University Court ex officio. The principal is also automatically appointed vice-chancellor, in which role they confer degrees on behalf of the chancellor. Previous principals include physicist Sir Edward Appleton and religious philosopher Stewart Sutherland. The current principal is nephrologist Sir Peter Mathieson, who has held the position since February 2018.
Colleges and schools
In 2002, the university was reorganised from its nine faculties into three 'Colleges'. While technically not a collegiate university, it comprises the Colleges of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (CAHSS), Science & Engineering (CSE) and Medicine & Vet Medicine (CMVM). Within these colleges are 'Schools', which either represent one academic discipline such as Informatics or assemble adjacent academic disciplines such as the School of History, Classics and Archaeology. While bound by College-level policies, individual Schools can differ in their organisation and governance. As of 2021, the university has 21 schools in total.
Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences
The College took on its current name of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences in 2016 after absorbing the Edinburgh College of Art in 2011. CAHSS offers more than 280 undergraduate degree programmes, 230 taught postgraduate programmes, and 200 research postgraduate programmes. Twenty subjects offered by the college were ranked within the top 10 nationally in the 2022 Complete University Guide. It includes the oldest English Literature department in Britain, which was ranked 7th globally in the 2021 QS Rankings by Subject in English Language & Literature. The college hosts Scotland's ESRC Doctoral Training Centre (DTC), the Scottish Graduate School of Social Science. The college is the largest of the three colleges by enrolment, with 26,130 students and 3,089 academic staff.
Medicine and Veterinary Medicine
Edinburgh Medical School was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century and contributed significantly to the university's international reputation. Its graduates founded medical schools all over the world, including at five of the seven Ivy League universities (Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, Pennsylvania, and Yale); those in McGill, Montréal, Sydney, and Vermont; the Royal Postgraduate Medical School (now part of Imperial College London), Middlesex Hospital, and the London School of Medicine for Women (both now part of UCL).
In the 21st century, the medical school has continued to excel, and it is associated with 13 Nobel Prize recipients: seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and six of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 2021, it was ranked third in the UK by The Times University Guide, and the Complete University Guide. In 2022, it was ranked the UK's best medical school by the Guardian University Guide, It also ranked 21st in the world by both the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and the QS World University Rankings in 2021.
The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies is a world leader in veterinary education, research and practice. The eight original faculties formed four Faculty Groups in August 1992. Medicine and Veterinary Medicine became one of these, and in 2002 became the smallest of the three colleges, with 7,740 students and 1,896 academic staff. The university's teaching hospitals include the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, St John's Hospital, Livingston, Roodlands Hospital, and Royal Hospital for Children and Young People.
Science and Engineering
In the 16th century, science was taught as "natural philosophy" in the university. The 17th century saw the institution of the University Chairs of Mathematics and Botany, followed the next century by Chairs of Natural History, Astronomy, Chemistry and Agriculture. It was Edinburgh's professors who took a leading part in the formation of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783. Joseph Black, Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the time, founded the world's first Chemical Society in 1785. The first named degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science was instituted in 1864, and a separate Faculty of Science was created in 1893 after three centuries of scientific advances at Edinburgh. The Regius Chair in Engineering was established in 1868, and the Regius Chair in Geology in 1871. In 1991 the Faculty of Science was renamed the Faculty of Science and Engineering, and in 2002 it became the College of Science and Engineering. The college has 11,745 students and 2,937 academic staff.
Sub-units, centres and institutes
Some subunits, centres and institutes within the university are listed as follows:
Staff, Community and Networking
In June 2023, the University employed over 11,800 full time equivalent staff:
As part of the university's support for researchers, each College has Research Staff Societies that include postdoc societies, and organisations specific to each school. Cross-curricula Research Networks bring together researchers working on similar topics.
Independently of the College hierarchy, aligned with the university's EDI policy, seven Staff Networks bring together and represent diverse staff groups:
Disabled Staff Network
Staff BAME Network
Edinburgh Race Equality Network
Staff Pride Network
University & College Unions incorporating the national academic union and the in-house Edinburgh University Union
Long-term Research Staff Network
Support for Technicians and Steering Committee
Industrial action
Staff at the university have been engaged in the sector-wide 2018–2023 UK higher education strikes called by the University and College Union over disputes regarding USS pensions, pay, and working conditions. A Marking and Assessment Boycott that commenced on 20 April 2023 was called off on 6 September 2023. However, the UCU voted to continue strike action throughout the rest of September.
Academic profile
The university is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, and the Sutton 13 group of top-ranked universities in the UK. It is the only British university to be a member of both the Coimbra Group and the League of European Research Universities, and it is a founding member of Una Europa and Universitas 21, both international associations of research-intensive universities. The university maintains historically strong ties with the neighbouring Heriot-Watt University for teaching and research. Edinburgh also offers a wide range of free online MOOC courses on three global platforms Coursera, Edx and FutureLearn.
Admissions
In 2021, the University of Edinburgh had the seventh-highest average entry standards amongst universities in the UK, with new undergraduates averaging 197 UCAS points, equivalent to just above AAAA in A-level grades. It gave offers of admission to 33% of its 18 year old applicants in 2022, the fourth-lowest amongst the Russell Group.
In 2022, excluding courses within Edinburgh College of Art, the most competitive courses for Scottish applicants were Oral Health Science (9%), Business (11%), Philosophy & Psychology (14%), Social Work (15%), and International Business (15%). For students from the rest of the UK, the most competitive courses were Nursing (5%), Medicine (6%), Veterinary Medicine (6%), Psychology (8%), and Politics, Philosophy and Economics (10%). For international students, the most competitive courses were Medicine (5%), Nursing (7%), Business (11%), Politics, Philosophy and
Economics (12%), and Sociology (13%).
For the academic year 2019/20, 36.8% of Edinburgh's new undergraduates were privately educated, the second-highest proportion among mainstream British universities, behind only Oxford. As of August 2021, it has a higher proportion of female than male students with a male to female ratio of 38:62 in the undergraduate population, and the undergraduate student body is composed of 30% Scottish students, 32% from the rest of the UK, 10% from the EU, and 28% from outside the EU.
Graduation
At graduation ceremonies, graduates are being 'capped' with the Geneva bonnet, which involves the university's principal tapping them on the head with the cap while they receive their graduation certificate. The velvet-and-silk hat has been used for over 150 years, and legend says that it was originally made from cloth taken from the breeches of 16th-century scholars John Knox or George Buchanan. However, when the hat was last restored in the early 2000s, a label dated 1849 was discovered bearing the name of Edinburgh tailor Henry Banks, although some doubt remains whether he manufactured or restored the hat. In 2006, a university emblem that had been taken into space by astronaut and Edinburgh graduate Piers Sellers was incorporated into the Geneva bonnet.
Library system
Pre-dating the university by three years, Edinburgh University Library was founded in 1580 through the donation of a large collection by Clement Litill, and today is the largest academic library collection in Scotland. The Brutalist style eight-storey Main Library building in George Square was designed by Sir Basil Spence. At the time of its completion in 1967, it was the largest building of its type in the UK, and today is a category A listed building. The library system also includes many specialised libraries at the college and school level.
Exchange programmes
The university offers students the opportunity to study in Europe and beyond via the European Union's Erasmus+ programme and a variety of international exchange agreements with around 300 partners institutions in nearly 40 countries worldwide.
University-wide exchanges are open to almost any student whose degree permits a year abroad and who can find a suitable course combination. The list of partner institutions is shown as follows (part of):
Asia-Pacific: Fudan University, University of Hong Kong, University of Melbourne, Seoul National University, University of Sydney, National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University
Europe: University of Amsterdam, University of Copenhagen, University of Helsinki, Lund University, Sciences Po, University College Dublin, Uppsala University
Latin America: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, University of São Paulo
Northern America: Boston College, Barnard College of Columbia University, University of California (except for Merced and San Francisco), Caltech, University of Chicago, Cornell University, Georgetown University, McGill University, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of Pennsylvania, University of Texas at Austin, University of Toronto, University of Virginia, Washington University in St. Louis
Subject-specific exchanges are open to students studying in particular schools or subject areas, including exchange programmes with Carnegie Mellon University, Emory University, Ecole du Louvre, EPFL, ETH Zurich, ESSEC Business School, ENS Paris, HEC Paris, Humboldt University of Berlin, Karolinska Institute, Kyoto University, LMU Munich, University of Michigan, Peking University, Rhode Island School of Design, Sorbonne University, TU München, Waseda University, Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and others.
Rankings and reputation
In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework (REF), which evaluated work produced between 2014 and 2021, Edinburgh ranked 4th by research power and 15th by GPA amongst British universities. The university fell four places in GPA when compared to the 2014 REF, but retained its place in research power. 90 per cent of the university's research activity was judged to be 'world leading' (4*) or 'internationally excellent' (3*), and five departments – Computer Science, Informatics, Sociology, Anthropology, and Development Studies – were ranked as the best in the UK.
In the 2015 THE Global Employability University Ranking, Edinburgh ranked 23rd in the world and 4th in the UK for graduate employability as voted by international recruiters. A 2015 government report found that Edinburgh was one of only two Scottish universities (along with St Andrews) that some London-based elite recruitment firms considered applicants from, especially in the field of financial services and investment banking. When The New York Times ranked universities based on the employability of graduates as evaluated by recruiters from top companies in 20 countries in 2012, Edinburgh was placed at 42nd in the world and 7th in Britain.
Edinburgh was ranked 24th in the world and 5th in the UK by the 2021 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a league table based on the three major world university rankings, ARWU, QS and THE. In the 2022 U.S. News & World Report, Edinburgh ranked 32nd globally and 5th nationally. The 2022 World Reputation Rankings placed Edinburgh at 32nd worldwide and 5th nationwide. In 2023, it ranked 73rd amongst the universities around the world by the SCImago Institutions Rankings.
The disparity between Edinburgh's research capacity, endowment and international status on the one hand, and its ranking in national league tables on the other, is largely due to the impact of measures of 'student satisfaction'. Edinburgh was ranked last in the UK for teaching quality in the 2012 National Student Survey, with the 2015 Good University Guide stating that this stemmed from "questions to do with the promptness, usefulness and extent of academic feedback", and that the university "still has a long way to go to turn around a poor position". Edinburgh improved only marginally over the next years, with the 2021 Good University Guide still ranking it in the bottom 10 domestically in both teaching quality and student experience. Edinburgh was ranked 122nd out of 128 universities for student satisfaction in the 2022 Complete University Guide, although it was ranked 12th overall. The 2024 Guardian University Guide ranked Edinburgh 14th overall, but 50th out of 120 universities in teaching satisfaction, and lowest among all universities in satisfaction with feedback.
In the 2022 Complete University Guide, 32 out of the 49 subjects offered by Edinburgh were ranked within the top 10 in the UK, with Asian Studies (4th), Chemical Engineering (4th), Education (2nd), Geology (5th), Linguistics (5th), Mechanical Engineering (5th), Medicine (5th), Music (5th), Nursing (1st), Physics & Astronomy (5th), Social Policy (5th), Theology & Religious Studies (4th), and Veterinary Medicine (2nd) within the top 5. The 2021 THE World University Rankings by Subject ranked Edinburgh 10th worldwide in Arts and Humanities, 15th in Law, 16th in Psychology, 21st in Clinical, Pre-clinical & Health, 22nd in Computer Science, 28th in Education, 28th in Life Science, 43rd in Business & Economics, 44th in Social Sciences, 45th in Physical Sciences, and 86th in Engineering & Technology. The 2023 QS World University Rankings by Subject placed Edinburgh at 10th globally in Arts & Humanities, 23rd in Life Sciences & Medicine, 36th in Natural Sciences, 50th in Social Sciences & Management, and 59th in Engineering & Technology. According to CSRankings, computer science at Edinburgh was ranked 1st in the UK and 36th globally, and Edinburgh was the best in natural language processing (NLP) in the world.
Student life
Students' Association
Edinburgh University Students' Association (EUSA) consists of the students' union and the students' representative council. EUSA's buildings include Teviot Row House, The Pleasance, Potterrow Student Centre, Kings Buildings House, as well as shops, cafés and refectories across the various campuses. Teviot Row House is considered the oldest purpose-built student union building in the world. Most of these buildings are operated as Edinburgh Festival Fringe venues during August. EUSA represents students to the university and the wider world, and is responsible for over 250 student societies at the university. The association has five sabbatical office bearers – a president and four vice presidents. EUSA is affiliated with the National Union of Students (NUS).
Performing arts
Amateur dramatic societies benefit from Edinburgh being an important cultural hub for comedy, amateur and fringe theatre throughout the UK, most prominently through the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.
The Edinburgh University Music Society (EUMS) is a student-run musical organisation, which is Scotland's oldest student's musical society; it can be traced back to a concert in February 1867. It performs three concert series throughout the year whilst also undertaking a programme of charity events and education projects.
The Edinburgh University Theatre Company (EUTC), founded in 1890 as the Edinburgh University Drama Society, is known for running Bedlam Theatre, the oldest student-run theatre in Britain and venue for the Fringe. EUTC also funds acclaimed improvisational comedy troupe The Improverts during term time and the Fringe. Alumni include Sir Michael Boyd, Ian Charleson, Kevin McKidd, and Greg Wise.
The Edinburgh Studio Opera (formerly Edinburgh University Opera Club) is a student opera company in Edinburgh. It performs at least one fully staged opera each year. The Edinburgh University Savoy Opera Group (EUSOG) is an opera and musical theatre company founded by students in 1961 to promote and perform the comic operettas of Sir William Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan, collectively known as Savoy Operas after the theatre in which they were originally staged.
The Edinburgh University Footlights are a musical theatre company founded in 1989 and produce two large scale shows a year. One of the founders is the Theatre Producer Colin Ingram. Theatre Parodok, founded in 2004, is a student theatre company that aims to produce shows that are "experimental without being exclusive". They stage one large show each semester and one for the festival.
Media
The Student is a fortnightly student newspaper. Founded in 1887 by writer Robert Louis Stevenson, it is the oldest student newspaper in the United Kingdom. Former writers of the newspaper include politicians Gordon Brown, Robin Cook, and Lord Steel of Aikwood. It has been independent of the university since 1992, but was forced to temporarily fold in 2002 due to increasing debts. The newspaper won a number of student newspaper awards in the years following its relaunch.
The Journal was an independent publication, established in 2007 by three students and former writers for The Student. It was also distributed to other higher education institutions in the city, such as Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh Napier University, and Telford College. It was the largest such publication in Scotland, with a print run of 10,000 copies. Despite winning a number of awards for its journalism, the magazine folded in 2015 due to financial difficulties.
FreshAir, launched on 3 October 1992, is an alternative music student radio station. The station is one of the oldest surviving student radio stations in the UK, and won the "Student Radio Station of the Year" award at the annual Student Radio Awards in 2004.
In September 2015, the Edinburgh University Student Television (EUTV) became the newest addition to the student media scene at the university, producing a regular magazine-style programme, documentaries and other special events.
Sport
Student sport at Edinburgh consists of clubs covering the more traditional rugby, football, rowing and judo, to the more unconventional korfball, gliding and mountaineering. In 2021, the university had over 65 sports clubs run by Edinburgh University Sports Union (EUSU).
The Scottish Varsity, known as the "world's oldest varsity match", is a rugby match played annually against the University of St Andrews dating back over 150 years. Discontinued in the 1950s, the match was resurrected in 2011 and was staged in London at the home of London Scottish RFC. It is played at the beginning of the academic year, and since 2015 has been staged at Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh.
The Scottish Boat Race is an annual rowing race between the Glasgow University Boat Club and the Edinburgh University Boat Club, rowed between competing eights on the River Clyde in Glasgow, Scotland. Started in 1877, it is believed to be the third-oldest university boat race in the world, predated by the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race and the Harvard–Yale Regatta.
Edinburgh athletes have repeatedly been successful at the Olympic Games: Sprinter Eric Liddell won gold and bronze at the 1924 Summer Olympics. At the 1948 Summer Olympics, alumnus Jackie Robinson won a gold medal with the American Basketball team. Trap shooter Bob Braithwaite secured a gold medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics. Cyclist Sir Chris Hoy won six gold and one silver medal between 2000 and 2012. Rower Dame Katherine Grainger won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, and four further silver medals between 2000 and 2016. Edinburgh was the most successful UK university at the 2012 Games with two gold medals from Hoy and one from Grainger.
Student activism
There are a number of campaigning societies at the university. The largest of these include the environment and poverty campaigning group People & Planet and Amnesty International Society. International development organisations include Edinburgh Global Partnerships, which was established as a student-led charity in 1990. There is also a significant left-wing presence on campus, including an anti-austerity group, Edinburgh University Anarchist Society, Edinburgh University Socialist Society, Edinburgh Young Greens, Feminist Society, LGBT+ Pride, Marxist Society, and Students for Justice in Palestine.
Protests, demonstrations and occupations are regular occurrences at the university. The activist group People & Planet took over Charles Stewart House in 2015 and again in 2016 in protest over the university's investment in companies active in arms manufacturing or fossil fuel extraction. In May 2015, a security guard was charged in relation to the occupations.
Student co-operatives
There are three student-run co-operatives on campus: Edinburgh Student Housing Co-operative, providing affordable housing for 106 students; The Hearty Squirrel Food Cooperative, providing 'local, organic and affordable food to students and staff'; and The SHRUB Coop, a 'swap and re-use hub' aimed at reducing waste and promoting sustainability. The co-operatives form part of the Students for Cooperation network.
Notable people
The university is associated with some of the most significant intellectual and scientific contributions in human history, which include: the foundation of Antiseptic surgery (Joseph Lister), Bayesian statistics (Thomas Bayes), Economics (Adam Smith), Electromagnetism (James Clerk Maxwell), Evolution (Charles Darwin), Knot theory (Peter Guthrie Tait), modern Geology (James Hutton), Nephrology (Richard Bright), Endocrinology (Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer), Hematology (William Hewson), Dermatology (Robert Willan), Epigenetics (C. H. Waddington), Gestalt psychology (Kurt Koffka), Thermodynamics (William Rankine),
Colloid chemistry (Thomas Graham), and Wave theory (Thomas Young); the discovery of Brownian motion (Robert Brown), Magnesium, carbon dioxide, latent heat and specific heat (Joseph Black), chloroform anaesthesia (Sir James Young Simpson), Hepatitis B vaccine (Sir Kenneth Murray), Cygnus X-1 black hole (Paul Murdin), Higgs mechanism (Sir Tom Kibble), structure of DNA (Sir John Randall), HPV vaccine (Ian Frazer), Iridium and Osmium (Smithson Tennant), Nitrogen (Daniel Rutherford), Strontium (Thomas Charles Hope), and SARS coronavirus (Zhong Nanshan); and the invention of the Stirling engine (Robert Stirling), Cavity magnetron (Sir John Randall), ATM (John Shepherd-Barron), refrigerator (William Cullen), diving chamber (John Scott Haldane), reflecting telescope (James Gregory), hypodermic syringe (Alexander Wood), kaleidoscope (Sir David Brewster), pneumatic tyre (John Boyd Dunlop), telephone (Alexander Graham Bell), telpherage (Fleeming Jenkin), and vacuum flask (Sir James Dewar).
Other notable alumni and academic staff of the university have included signatories to the US Declaration of Independence Benjamin Rush, James Wilson and John Witherspoon, actors Ian Charleson, Robbie Coltrane and Kevin McKidd, architects Robert Adam, William Thornton, William Henry Playfair, Sir Basil Spence and Sir Nicholas Grimshaw, astronaut Piers Sellers, biologists Sir Adrian Bird, Sir Richard Owen and Sir Ian Wilmut, business executives Tony Hayward, Alan Jope, Lars Rasmussen and Susie Wolff, composer Max Richter, economists Kenneth E. Boulding and Thomas Chalmers, historians Thomas Carlyle and Neil MacGregor, journalists Laura Kuenssberg and Peter Pomerantsev, judges Lord Reed and Lord Hodge, mathematicians Sir W. V. D. Hodge, Colin Maclaurin and Sir E. T. Whittaker, philosophers Benjamin Constant, Adam Ferguson, Ernest Gellner and David Hume, physicians Thomas Addison, William Cullen, Valentín Fuster, Thomas Hodgkin and James Lind, pilot Eric Brown, surgeons James Barry, Joseph Bell, Robert Liston and B. K. Misra, sociologists Sir Patrick Geddes and David Bloor, writers Sir J. M. Barrie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, John Fowles, Oliver Goldsmith, J. K. Rowling, Sir Walter Scott and Robert Louis Stevenson, Chancellors of the Exchequer John Anderson and Lord Henry Petty, former Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand Sir Michael Cullen, current Vice President of Syria Najah al-Attar, former Director General of MI5 Stella Rimington, First Lords of the Admiralty Lord Melville, Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville, Lord Minto and Lord Selkirk, Foreign Secretaries Robin Cook and Sir Malcolm Rifkind, former acting First Minister of Scotland Jim Wallace, and Olympic gold medallists Bob Braithwaite, Katherine Grainger, Sir Chris Hoy and Eric Liddell.
Nobel and Nobel equivalent prizes
, 19 Nobel Prize laureates have been affiliated with the university as alumni, faculty members or researchers (three additional laureates acted as administrative staff), including one of the fathers of quantum mechanics Max Born, theoretical physicist Peter Higgs, chemist Sir Fraser Stoddart, immunologist Peter C. Doherty, economist Sir James Mirrlees, discoverer of Characteristic X-ray (Charles Glover Barkla) and the mechanism of ATP synthesis (Peter D. Mitchell), and pioneer in cryo-electron microscopy (Richard Henderson) and in-vitro fertilisation (Sir Robert Edwards). Turing Award winners Geoffrey Hinton, Robin Milner Leslie Valiant, and mathematician Sir Michael Atiyah, Fields Medalist and Abel Prize laureate, are associated with the university.
In the following table, the number following a person's name is the year they received the Nobel prize. In particular, a number with an asterisk (*) means the person received the award while they were working at the university (including emeritus staff). A name underlined implies that this person has been listed previously (i.e., multiple affiliations).
Heads of state and government
In popular culture
The University of Edinburgh has featured prominently in a number of works of popular culture.
The events of the Burke and Hare murders, involving Edinburgh lecturer Robert Knox and the anatomical department, have made a wide range of appearances in popular culture. They became the basis for Robert Louis Stevenson's short story The Body Snatcher (1884), and most recently in 2010 for Burke & Hare, a black comedy film starring Simon Pegg and Andy Serkis. Scenes were filmed at the old School of Anatomy.
Many of Arthur Conan Doyle's works drew inspiration from his mentors at the university. Joseph Bell, a lecturer and surgeon famous for drawing conclusions from minute observations, became the archetype for Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes. William Rutherford, Conan Doyle's physiology professor provided the template for Professor Challenger, the protagonist of his science fiction work The Lost World (1912). Edinburgh is also Challenger's alma mater in the books.
Dr. Fu Manchu, a fictional supervillain created by Sax Rohmer in 1912, stated that "I am a doctor of philosophy from Edinburgh, a doctor of law from Christ's College, a doctor of medicine from Harvard. My friends, out of courtesy, call me 'Doctor'." In 2010, Fu Manchu's connections with the University where he supposedly obtained a doctorate were investigated in a mockumentary by Miles Jupp (also an Edinburgh alumnus) for BBC Radio 4.
In the movie Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959), an adaptation of Jules Verne's novel of the same name, the protagonist Sir Oliver Lindenbrook is a Professor of Geology at the university. An early scene where Lindenbrook addresses the students is filmed at the central quadrangle of Old College.
The historical film Chariots of Fire (1981) is based on the story of Olympic runner and Edinburgh graduate Eric Liddell, and includes scenes filmed outside of Assembly Hall, New College. Liddell is played by Ian Charleson, who is also an Edinburgh alumnus.
In the novel The Last King of Scotland (1998) by Giles Foden, the fictional protagonist Dr. Nicholas Garrigan is a medical doctor recently graduated from Edinburgh. The 2006 film of the same name stars James McAvoy in the role of Dr. Garrigan with the same background.
In the American television show NCIS (2003–present), the chief medical examiner, Dr. Donald "Ducky" Mallard studied medicine at Edinburgh. Ari Haswari, the show's main antagonist for the first two seasons, also studied medicine at Edinburgh.
In the novel One Day (2009), the lead characters Dexter and Emma both graduated from Edinburgh. A feature film based on the book, also titled One Day and starring Anne Hathaway and Jim Sturgess was released in August 2011, with some scenes filmed at the university. A Netflix adaptation of the movie started production in 2021, with filming occurring in the grounds of Old College in 2022.
The BBC legal drama Garrow's Law (2009–2011) was largely filmed in Edinburgh, despite being set in London. Old College and the Playfair Library are prominently featured.
The thriller television series Clique (2017–2019) produced by BBC Three focuses on two students at the university. The series was shot largely on location in Edinburgh, including The Meadows, Old College, and Potterrow.
Fast & Furious 9 (2021), partly set in Edinburgh, featured scenes in and around Old College filmed in September 2019.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Edinburgh University Press website
Edinburgh University Students' Association website
Edinburgh University Sports Union website
University of Edinburgh
Russell Group
Universities in Scotland
Universities in the United Kingdom
University of Edinburgh
Educational institutions established in the 1580s
University of Edinburgh |
41612950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fascism | Anti-fascism | Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were opposed by many countries forming the Allies of World War II and dozens of resistance movements worldwide. Anti-fascism has been an element of movements across the political spectrum and holding many different political positions such as anarchism, communism, pacifism, republicanism, social democracy, socialism and syndicalism as well as centrist, conservative, liberal and nationalist viewpoints.
Fascism, a far-right ultra-nationalistic ideology best known for its use by the Italian Fascists and the Nazis, became prominent beginning in the 1910s. Organization against fascism began around 1920. Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922 and of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement. Anti-fascism was a major aspect of the Spanish Civil War, which foreshadowed World War II.
Prior to World War II, the West had not taken seriously the threat of fascism, and anti-fascism was sometimes associated with communism. However, the outbreak of World War II greatly changed Western perceptions, and fascism was seen as an existential threat by not only the communist Soviet Union but also by the liberal-democratic United States and United Kingdom. The Axis Powers of World War II were generally fascist, and the fight against them was characterized in anti-fascist terms. Resistance during World War II to fascism occurred in every occupied country, and came from across the ideological spectrum. The defeat of the Axis powers generally ended fascism as a state ideology.
After World War II, the anti-fascist movement continued to be active in places where organized fascism continued or re-emerged. There was a resurgence of antifa in Germany in the 1980s, as a response to the invasion of the punk scene by neo-Nazis. This influenced the antifa movement in the United States in the late 1980s and 1990s, which was similarly carried by punks. In the 21st century, this greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the radical right, especially after the election of Donald Trump.
Origins
With the development and spread of Italian Fascism, i.e. the original fascism, the National Fascist Party's ideology was met with increasingly militant opposition by Italian communists and socialists. Organizations such as Arditi del Popolo and the Italian Anarchist Union emerged between 1919 and 1921, to combat the nationalist and fascist surge of the post-World War I period.
In the words of historian Eric Hobsbawm, as fascism developed and spread, a "nationalism of the left" developed in those nations threatened by Italian irredentism (e.g. in the Balkans, and Albania in particular). After the outbreak of World War II, the Albanian and Yugoslav resistances were instrumental in antifascist action and underground resistance. This combination of irreconcilable nationalisms and leftist partisans constitute the earliest roots of European anti-fascism. Less militant forms of anti-fascism arose later. During the 1930s in Britain, "Christians – especially the Church of England – provided both a language of opposition to fascism and inspired anti-fascist action". French philosopher Georges Bataille believed that Friedrich Nietzche was a forerunner of anti-fascism due to his derision for nationalism and racism.
Michael Seidman argues that traditionally anti-fascism was seen as the purview of the political left but that in recent years this has been questioned. Seidman identifies two types of anti-fascism, namely revolutionary and counterrevolutionary:
Revolutionary anti-fascism was expressed amongst communists and anarchists, where it identified fascism and capitalism as its enemies and made little distinction between fascism and other forms of authoritarianism. It did not disappear after the Second World War but was used as an official ideology of the Soviet bloc, with the "fascist" West as the new enemy.
Counterrevolutionary anti-fascism was much more conservative in nature, with Seidman arguing that Charles de Gaulle and Winston Churchill represented examples of it and that they tried to win the masses to their cause. Counterrevolutionary antifascists desired to ensure the restoration or continuation of the prewar old regime and conservative antifascists disliked fascism's erasure of the distinction between the public and private spheres. Like its revolutionary counterpart, it would outlast fascism once the Second World War ended.
Seidman argues that despite the differences between these two strands of anti-fascism, there were similarities. They would both come to regard violent expansion as intrinsic to the fascist project. They both rejected any claim that the Versailles Treaty was responsible for the rise of Nazism and instead viewed fascist dynamism as the cause of conflict. Unlike fascism, these two types of anti-fascism did not promise a quick victory but an extended struggle against a powerful enemy. During World War II, both anti-fascisms responded to fascist aggression by creating a cult of heroism which relegated victims to a secondary position. However, after the war, conflict arose between the revolutionary and counterrevolutionary anti-fascisms; the victory of the Western Allies allowed them to restore the old regimes of liberal democracy in Western Europe, while Soviet victory in Eastern Europe allowed for the establishment of new revolutionary anti-fascist regimes there.
History
Anti-fascist movements emerged first in Italy during the rise of Benito Mussolini, but they soon spread to other European countries and then globally. In the early period, Communist, socialist, anarchist and Christian workers and intellectuals were involved. Until 1928, the period of the United front, there was significant collaboration between the Communists and non-Communist anti-fascists.
In 1928, the Comintern instituted its ultra-left Third Period policies, ending co-operation with other left groups, and denouncing social democrats as "social fascists". From 1934 until the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Communists pursued a Popular Front approach, of building broad-based coalitions with liberal and even conservative anti-fascists. As fascism consolidated its power, and especially during World War II, anti-fascism largely took the form of partisan or resistance movements.
Italy: against Fascism and Mussolini
In Italy, Mussolini's Fascist regime used the term anti-fascist to describe its opponents. Mussolini's secret police was officially known as the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism. During the 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy, anti-fascists, many of them from the labor movement, fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) signed a pacification pact with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed Arditi del Popolo.
The Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor. The Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. The Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote his Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals, which was published in 1925. Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were Piero Gobetti and Carlo Rosselli.
Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled La Libertà.
Giustizia e Libertà () was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945. The movement was cofounded by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, who later became Prime Minister of Italy, and Sandro Pertini, who became President of Italy, were among the movement's leaders. The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. Giustizia e Libertà also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of Gaetano Salvemini.
Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the Spanish Civil War with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to Franco's dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".
Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the Slovenes and Croats in the territories annexed to Italy after World War I, known as the Julian March. The most influential was the militant insurgent organization TIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military. Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941, and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the Slovene Partisans.
During World War II, many members of the Italian resistance left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and German Nazi soldiers during the Italian Civil War. Many cities in Italy, including Turin, Naples and Milan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.
Slovenians and Croats under Italianization
The anti-fascist resistance emerged within the Slovene minority in Italy (1920–1947), whom the Fascists meant to deprive of their culture, language and ethnicity. The 1920 burning of the National Hall in Trieste, the Slovene center in the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic Trieste by the Blackshirts, was praised by Benito Mussolini (yet to become Il Duce) as a "masterpiece of the Triestine fascism" (). The use of Slovene in public places, including churches, was forbidden, not only in multi-ethnic areas, but also in the areas where the population was exclusively Slovene. Children, if they spoke Slovene, were punished by Italian teachers who were brought by the Fascist State from Southern Italy. Slovene teachers, writers, and clergy were sent to the other side of Italy.
The first anti-fascist organization, called TIGR, was formed by Slovenes and Croats in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence. Its guerrilla fight continued into the late 1920s and 1930s. By the mid-1930s, 70,000 Slovenes had fled Italy, mostly to Slovenia (then part of Yugoslavia) and South America.
The Slovene anti-fascist resistance in Yugoslavia during World War II was led by Liberation Front of the Slovenian People. The Province of Ljubljana, occupied by Italian Fascists, saw the deportation of 25,000 people, representing 7.5% of the total population, filling up the Rab concentration camp and Gonars concentration camp as well as other Italian concentration camps.
Germany: against the NSDAP and Hitlerism
The specific term anti-fascism was primarily used by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), which held the view that it was the only anti-fascist party in Germany. The KPD formed several explicitly anti-fascist groups such as Roter Frontkämpferbund (formed in 1924 and banned by the Social Democrats in 1929) and Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus (a de facto successor to the latter). At its height, Roter Frontkämpferbund had over 100,000 members. In 1932, the KPD established the Antifaschistische Aktion as a "red united front under the leadership of the only anti-fascist party, the KPD". Under the leadership of the committed Stalinist Ernst Thälmann, the KPD primarily viewed fascism as the final stage of capitalism rather than as a specific movement or group, and therefore applied the term broadly to its opponents, and in the name of anti-fascism the KPD focused in large part on attacking its main adversary, the centre-left Social Democratic Party of Germany, whom they referred to as social fascists and regarded as the "main pillar of the dictatorship of Capital."
The movement of Nazism, which grew ever more influential in the last years of the Weimar Republic, was opposed for different ideological reasons by a wide variety of groups, including groups which also opposed each other, such as social democrats, centrists, conservatives and communists. The SPD and centrists formed Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold in 1924 to defend liberal democracy against both the Nazi Party and the KPD, and their affiliated organizations. Later, mainly SPD members formed the Iron Front which opposed the same groups.
The name and logo of Antifaschistische Aktion remain influential. Its two-flag logo, designed by and , is still widely used as a symbol of militant anti-fascists in Germany and globally, as is the Iron Front's Three Arrows logo.
Spain: Civil War against the Nationalists
The historian Eric Hobsbawm wrote: "The Spanish civil war was both at the centre and on the margin of the era of anti-fascism. It was central, since it was immediately seen as a European war between fascism and anti-fascism, almost as the first battle in the coming world war, some of the characteristic aspects of which – for example, air raids against civilian populations – it anticipated."
In Spain, there were histories of popular uprisings in the late 19th century through to the 1930s against the deep-seated military dictatorships. of General Prim and the Primo de la Rivieras These movements further coalesced into large-scale anti-fascist movements in the 1930s, many in the Basque Country, before and during the Spanish Civil War. The republican government and army, the Antifascist Worker and Peasant Militias (MAOC) linked to the Communist Party (PCE), the International Brigades, the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), Spanish anarchist militias, such as the Iron Column and the autonomous governments of Catalonia and the Basque Country, fought the rise of Francisco Franco with military force.
The Friends of Durruti, associated with the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI), were a particularly militant group. Thousands of people from many countries went to Spain in support of the anti-fascist cause, joining units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, the British Battalion, the Dabrowski Battalion, the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion, the Naftali Botwin Company and the Thälmann Battalion, including Winston Churchill's nephew, Esmond Romilly. Notable anti-fascists who worked internationally against Franco included: George Orwell (who fought in the POUM militia and wrote Homage to Catalonia about his experience), Ernest Hemingway (a supporter of the International Brigades who wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls about his experience), and the radical journalist Martha Gellhorn.
The Spanish anarchist guerrilla Francesc Sabaté Llopart fought against Franco's regime until the 1960s, from a base in France. The Spanish Maquis, linked to the PCE, also fought the Franco regime long after the Spanish Civil war had ended.
France: against Action Française and Vichy
In the 1920s and 1930s in the French Third Republic, anti-fascists confronted aggressive far-right groups such as the Action Française movement in France, which dominated the Latin Quarter students' neighborhood. After fascism triumphed via invasion, the French Resistance () or, more accurately, resistance movements fought against the Nazi German occupation and against the collaborationist Vichy régime. Resistance cells were small groups of armed men and women (called the maquis in rural areas), who, in addition to their guerrilla warfare activities, were also publishers of underground newspapers and magazines such as Arbeiter und Soldat (Worker and Soldier) during World War Two, providers of first-hand intelligence information, and maintainers of escape networks.
United Kingdom: against Mosley's BUF
The rise of Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists (BUF) in the 1930s was challenged by the Communist Party of Great Britain, socialists in the Labour Party and Independent Labour Party, anarchists, Irish Catholic dockmen and working class Jews in London's East End. A high point in the struggle was the Battle of Cable Street, when thousands of eastenders and others turned out to stop the BUF from marching. Initially, the national Communist Party leadership wanted a mass demonstration at Hyde Park in solidarity with Republican Spain, instead of a mobilization against the BUF, but local party activists argued against this. Activists rallied support with the slogan They shall not pass, adopted from Republican Spain.
There were debates within the anti-fascist movement over tactics. While many East End ex-servicemen participated in violence against fascists, Communist Party leader Phil Piratin denounced these tactics and instead called for large demonstrations. In addition to the militant anti-fascist movement, there was a smaller current of liberal anti-fascism in Britain; Sir Ernest Barker, for example, was a notable English liberal anti-fascist in the 1930s.
United States, World War II
Anti-fascist Italian expatriates in the United States founded the Mazzini Society in Northampton, Massachusetts in September 1939 to work toward ending Fascist rule in Italy. As political refugees from Mussolini's regime, they disagreed among themselves whether to ally with Communists and anarchists or to exclude them. The Mazzini Society joined with other anti-Fascist Italian expatriates in the Americas at a conference in Montevideo, Uruguay in 1942. They unsuccessfully promoted one of their members, Carlo Sforza, to become the post-Fascist leader of a republican Italy. The Mazzini Society dispersed after the overthrow of Mussolini as most of its members returned to Italy.
During the Second Red Scare which occurred in the United States in the years that immediately followed the end of World War II, the term "premature anti-fascist" came into currency and it was used to describe Americans who had strongly agitated or worked against fascism, such as Americans who had fought for the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War, before fascism was seen as a proximate and existential threat to the United States (which only occurred generally after the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and only occurred universally after the attack on Pearl Harbor). The implication was that such persons were either Communists or Communist sympathizers whose loyalty to the United States was suspect. However, the historians John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr have written that no documentary evidence has been found of the US government referring to American members of the International Brigades as "premature antifascists": the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Office of Strategic Services, and United States Army records used terms such as "Communist", "Red", "subversive", and "radical" instead. Indeed, Haynes and Klehr indicate that they have found many examples of members of the XV International Brigade and their supporters referring to themselves sardonically as "premature antifascists".
Burma, World War II
The Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO) was a resistance movement which advocated the independence of Burma and fought against the Japanese occupation of Burma during World War II. It was the forerunner of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. The AFO was formed during a meeting which was held in Pegu in August 1944, the meeting was held by the leaders of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), the Burma National Army (BNA) led by General Aung San, and the People's Revolutionary Party (PRP), later renamed the Burma Socialist Party. Whilst in Insein prison in July 1941, CPB leaders Thakin Than Tun and Thakin Soe had co-authored the Insein Manifesto, which, against the prevailing opinion in the Burmese nationalist movement led by the Dobama Asiayone, identified world fascism as the main enemy in the coming war and called for temporary cooperation with the British in a broad allied coalition that included the Soviet Union. Soe had already gone underground to organise resistance against the Japanese occupation, and Than Tun as Minister of Land and Agriculture was able to pass on Japanese intelligence to Soe, while other Communist leaders Thakin Thein Pe and Thakin Tin Shwe made contact with the exiled colonial government in Simla, India. Aung San was War Minister in the puppet administration which was set up on 1 August 1943 and included the Socialist leaders Thakin Nu and Thakin Mya. During a meeting which was held between 1 and 3 March 1945, the AFO was reorganized as a multi-party front which was named the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League.
Poland, World War II
The Anti-Fascist Bloc was an organization of Polish Jews formed in the March 1942 in the Warsaw Ghetto. It was created after an alliance between leftist-Zionist, communist and socialist Jewish parties was agreed upon. The initiators of the bloc were Mordechai Anielewicz, Józef Lewartowski (Aron Finkelstein) from the Polish Workers' Party, Josef Kaplan from Hashomer Hatzair, Szachno Sagan from Poale Zion-Left, Jozef Sak as a representative of socialist-Zionists and Izaak Cukierman with his wife Cywia Lubetkin from Dror. The Jewish Bund did not join the bloc though they were represented at its first conference by Abraham Blum and Maurycy Orzech.
After World War II
The anti-fascist movements which emerged during the period of classical fascism, both liberal and militant, continued to operate after the defeat of the Axis powers in response to the resilience and mutation of fascism both in Europe and elsewhere. In Germany, as Nazi rule crumbled in 1944, veterans of the 1930s anti-fascist struggles formed Antifaschistische Ausschüsse, Antifaschistische Kommittees, or Antifaschistische Aktion groups, all typically abbreviated to "antifa". The socialist government of East Germany built the Berlin Wall in 1961, and the Eastern Bloc referred to it officially as the "Anti-fascist Protection Rampart". Resistance to fascists dictatorships in Spain and Portugal continued, including the activities of the Spanish Maquis and others, leading up to the Spanish transition to democracy and the Carnation Revolution, respectively, as well as to similar dictatorships in Chile and elsewhere. Other notable anti-fascist mobilisations in the first decades of the post-war period include the 43 Group in Britain.
With the start of the Cold War between the former World War II allies of the United States and the Soviet Union, the concept of totalitarianism became prominent in Western anti-communist political discourse as a tool to convert pre-war anti-fascism into post-war anti-communism.
Modern antifa politics can be traced to opposition to the infiltration of Britain's punk scene by white power skinheads in the 1970s and 1980s, and the emergence of neo-Nazism in Germany following the fall of the Berlin Wall. In Germany, young leftists, including anarchists and punk fans, renewed the practice of street-level anti-fascism. Columnist Peter Beinart writes that "in the late '80s, left-wing punk fans in the United States began following suit, though they initially called their groups Anti-Racist Action (ARA) on the theory that Americans would be more familiar with fighting racism than they would be with fighting fascism".
Germany
The contemporary antifa movement in Germany comprises different anti-fascist groups which usually use the abbreviation antifa and regard the historical Antifaschistische Aktion (Antifa) of the early 1930s as an inspiration, drawing on the historic group for its aesthetics and some of its tactics, in addition to the name. Many new antifa groups formed from the late 1980s onward. According to Loren Balhorn, contemporary antifa in Germany "has no practical historical connection to the movement from which it takes its name but is instead a product of West Germany's squatter scene and autonomist movement in the 1980s".
One of the biggest antifascist campaigns in Germany in recent years was the ultimately successful effort to block the annual Nazi-rallies in the east German city of Dresden in Saxony which had grown into "Europe's biggest gathering of Nazis". Unlike the original Antifa which had links to the Communist Party of Germany and which was concerned with industrial working-class politics, the late 1980s and early 1990s, autonomists were independent anti-authoritarian libertarian Marxists and anarcho-communists not associated with any particular party. The publication Antifaschistisches Infoblatt, in operation since 1987, sought to expose radical nationalists publicly.
German government institutions such as the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and the Federal Agency for Civic Education describe the contemporary antifa movement as part of the extreme left and as partially violent. Antifa groups are monitored by the federal office in the context of its legal mandate to combat extremism. The federal office states that the underlying goal of the antifa movement is "the struggle against the liberal democratic basic order" and capitalism. In the 1980s, the movement was accused by German authorities of engaging in terrorist acts of violence.
Greece
In Greece anti-fascism is a popular part of leftist and anarchist culture, September 2013 anti-fascist hip-hop artist Pavlos 'Killah P' Fyssas was accosted and attacked with bats and knives by a large group of Golden Dawn affiliated people leaving Pavlos to be pronounced dead at the hospital. The attack lead international protests and riots, the retaliatory shooting of three Golden Dawn members outside of their Neo Irakleio as well as condemnations against the party by politicians and other public figures, including Prime Minister Antonis Samaras. This episode led to Golden Dawn to being criminally investigated, with the result in sixty-eight members of Golden Dawn being declared part of a criminal organization whilst fifteen out of the seventeen members accused in Pavlos's murder were convicted, "Effectively banning" the party.
Italy
Today's Italian constitution is the result of the work of the Constituent Assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War.
Liberation Day is a national holiday in Italy that commemorates the victory of the Italian resistance movement against Nazi Germany and the Italian Social Republic, puppet state of the Nazis and rump state of the fascists, in the Italian Civil War, a civil war in Italy fought during World War II, which takes place on 25 April. The date was chosen by convention, as it was the day of the year 1945 when the National Liberation Committee of Upper Italy (CLNAI) officially proclaimed the insurgency in a radio announcement, propounding the seizure of power by the CLNAI and proclaiming the death sentence for all fascist leaders (including Benito Mussolini, who was shot three days later).
Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia (ANPI; "National Association of Italian Partisans") is an association founded by participants of the Italian resistance against the Italian Fascist regime and the subsequent Nazi occupation during World War II. ANPI was founded in Rome in 1944 while the war continued in northern Italy. It was constituted as a charitable foundation on 5 April 1945. It persists due to the activity of its antifascist members. ANPI's objectives are the maintenance of the historical role of the partisan war by means of research and the collection of personal stories. Its goals are a continued defense against historical revisionism and the ideal and ethical support of the high values of freedom and democracy expressed in the 1948 constitution, in which the ideals of the Italian resistance were collected. Since 2008, every two years ANPI organizes its national festival. During the event, meetings, debates, and musical concerts that focus on antifascism, peace, and democracy are organized.
Bella ciao (; "Goodbye beautiful") is an Italian folk song modified and adopted as an anthem of the Italian resistance movement by the partisans who opposed nazism and fascism, and fought against the occupying forces of Nazi Germany, who were allied with the fascist and collaborationist Italian Social Republic between 1943 and 1945 during the Italian Civil War. Versions of this Italian anti-fascist song continue to be sung worldwide as a hymn of freedom and resistance. As an internationally known hymn of freedom, it was intoned at many historic and revolutionary events. The song originally aligned itself with Italian partisans fighting against Nazi German occupation troops, but has since become to merely stand for the inherent rights of all people to be liberated from tyranny.
United States
Dartmouth College historian Mark Bray, author of Antifa: The Anti-Fascist Handbook, credits the ARA as the precursor of modern antifa groups in the United States. In the late 1980s and 1990s, ARA activists toured with popular punk rock and skinhead bands in order to prevent Klansmen, neo-Nazis and other assorted white supremacists from recruiting. Their motto was "We go where they go" by which they meant that they would confront far-right activists in concerts and actively remove their materials from public places. In 2002, the ARA disrupted a speech in Pennsylvania by Matthew F. Hale, the head of the white supremacist group World Church of the Creator, resulting in a fight and twenty-five arrests. In 2007, Rose City Antifa, likely the first group to utilize the name antifa, was formed in Portland, Oregon. Other antifa groups in the United States have other genealogies. In Minneapolis, Minnesota, a group called the Baldies was formed in 1987 with the intent to fight neo-Nazi groups directly. In 2013, the "most radical" chapters of the ARA formed the Torch Antifa Network which has chapters throughout the United States. Other antifa groups are a part of different associations such as NYC Antifa or operate independently.
Modern antifa in the United States is a highly decentralized movement. Antifa political activists are anti-racists who engage in protest tactics, seeking to combat fascists and racists such as neo-Nazis, white supremacists, and other far-right extremists. This may involve digital activism, harassment, physical violence, and property damage against those whom they identify as belonging to the far-right. Much antifa activity is nonviolent, involving poster and flyer campaigns, delivering speeches, marching in protest, and community organizing on behalf of anti-racist and anti-white nationalist causes.
A June 2020 study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies of 893 terrorism incidents in the United States since 1994 found one attack staged by an anti-fascist that led to a fatality (the 2019 Tacoma attack, in which the attacker, who identified as an anti-fascist, was killed by police), while attacks by white supremacists or other right-wing extremists resulted in 329 deaths. Since the study was published, one homicide has been connected to anti-fascism. A DHS draft report from August 2020 similarly did not include "antifa" as a considerable threat, while noting white supremacists as the top domestic terror threat.
There have been multiple efforts to discredit antifa groups via hoaxes on social media, many of them false flag attacks originating from alt-right and 4chan users posing as antifa backers on Twitter. Some hoaxes have been picked up and reported as fact by right-leaning media. During the George Floyd protests in May and June 2020, the Trump administration blamed antifa for orchestrating the mass protests. Analysis of federal arrests did not find links to antifa. There had been repeated calls by the Trump administration to designate antifa as a terrorist organization, a move that academics, legal experts and others argued would both exceed the authority of the presidency and violate the First Amendment.
Elsewhere
Some post-war anti-fascist action took place in Romania under the Anti-Fascist Committee of German Workers in Romania, founded in March 1949. A Swedish group, Antifascistisk Aktion, was formed in 1993.
Use of the term
The Christian Democratic Union of Germany politician Tim Peters notes that the term is one of the most controversial terms in political discourse. Michael Richter, a researcher at the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research on Totalitarianism, highlights the ideological use of the term in the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, in which the term fascism was applied to Eastern bloc dissidents regardless of any connection to historical fascism, and where the term anti-fascism served to legitimize the ruling government.
See also
Anti anti-communism
Anti-authoritarianism
Anti-capitalism
Anti-Chinilpa (Korea)
Anti-Germans (political current)
Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia
Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Serbia
Anti-Fascist Committee of Cham Immigrants
Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia
Antifascist Front of Slavs in Hungary
Anti-racism
Anti-Stalinist left
Denazification
Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee
All-Slavic Anti-Fascist Committee
Laws against Holocaust denial
Resistance during World War II
Redskin (subculture)
Slovak National Uprising
Squadism
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
David Berry "'Fascism or Revolution!' Anarchism and Antifascism in France, 1933–39" Contemporary European History Volume 8, Issue 1 March 1999, pp. 51–71
Brasken, Kasper. "Making Anti-Fascism Transnational: The Origins of Communist and Socialist Articulations of Resistance in Europe, 1923–1924." Contemporary European History 25.4 (2016): 573–596.
Class War/3WayFight/Kate Sharpley Library Interview from Beating Fascism: Anarchist Anti-Fascism in Theory and Practice, anarkismo.net
Copsey, N. (2011) "From direct action to community action: The changing dynamics of anti-fascist opposition", in
Nigel Copsey & Andrzej Olechnowicz (eds.), Varieties of Anti-fascism. Britain in the Inter-war Period, Palgrave Macmillan
Gilles Dauvé "Fascism/Antifascism ", libcom.org
David Featherstone "Black Internationalism, Subaltern Cosmopolitanism, and the Spatial Politics of Antifascism" Annals of the Association of American Geographers Volume 103, 2013, Issue 6, pp. 1406–1420
Joseph Fronczak "Local People's Global Politics: A Transnational History of the Hands Off Ethiopia Movement of 1935" Diplomatic History, Volume 39, Issue 2, 1 April 2015, pp. 245–274
Hugo Garcia, ed, Transnational Anti-Fascism: Agents, Networks, Circulations Contemporary European History Volume 25, Issue 4 November 2016, pp. 563–572
Renton, Dave. Fascism, Anti-fascism and Britain in the 1940s. Springer, 2016.
Enzo Traverso "Intellectuals and Anti-Fascism: For a Critical Historization" New Politics, vol. 9, no. 4 (new series), whole no. 36, Winter 2004
External links
Centre for fascist, anti-fascist and post-fascist studies, Teesside University
Remembering the Anarchist Resistance to fascism
Political movements |
57580435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20King%20of%20Mask%20Singer%20episodes%20%282018%29 | List of King of Mask Singer episodes (2018) | This is a list of episodes of the South Korean variety-music show King of Mask Singer in 2018. The show airs on MBC as part of their Sunday Night lineup. The names listed below are in performance order.
– Contestant is instantly eliminated by the live audience and judging panel
– After being eliminated, contestant performs a prepared song for the next round and takes off their mask during the instrumental break
– After being eliminated and revealing their identity, contestant has another special performance.
– Contestant advances to the next round.
– Contestant becomes the challenger.
– Mask King.
Episodes
68th Generation Mask King
Contestants: , Ahn Young-mi, Solbin (Laboum), Seungkwan (Seventeen), , (Click-B), ,
Episode 135
Episode 135 was broadcast on January 7, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Sixty-eighth Generation.
Episode 136
Episode 136 was broadcast on January 14, 2018.
69th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Shownu (Monsta X), , Kang Sung-jin, Kim Min-seok (MeloMance), Eunjung (T-ara), Kyulkyung (Pristin), Jo Kwon (2AM),
Episode 137
Episode 137 was broadcast on January 21, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Sixty-ninth Generation.
Episode 138
Episode 138 was broadcast on January 28, 2018.
70th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Juniel, Kim Ji-soo, Shin Hyun-soo, Yoo Seul-gi (Duetto), Ju-ne (iKON), JooE (Momoland), Ivy, Park Joon-hyung
Episode 139
Episode 139 was broadcast on February 4, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventieth Generation.
Episode 140
Episode 140 was broadcast on February 11, 2018. Due to broadcast of 2018 Winter Olympics before, this episode was late aired starting 18:15 (KST) by using the timeframe of Wizard of Nowhere.
71st Generation Mask King
Contestants: Gilgu (), , Lee Soo-min, Hui (Pentagon), , Oh Seung-yoon, Son Seung-yeon,
Episode 141
Episode 141 was broadcast on February 18, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-first Generation.
Episode 142
Episode 142 was broadcast on February 25, 2018.
72nd Generation Mask King
Contestants: , Han Hyun-min, Seo Ji-seok, (), Hwang Min-hyun (Wanna One/NU'EST), YooA (Oh My Girl), The Ray, Lee Chang-min (2AM/Homme)
Episode 143
Episode 143 was broadcast on March 4, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-second Generation.
Episode 144
Episode 144 was broadcast on March 11, 2018.
73rd Generation Mask King
Contestants: Kim Kyu-jong (SS501/Double S 301), Cheeze, , Jundoy (), Dongwoo (INFINITE), , , Jinsol (April)
Episode 145
Episode 145 was broadcast on March 18, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-third Generation.
Episode 146
Episode 146 was broadcast on March 25, 2018.
74th Generation Mask King
Contestants: , , JeA (Brown Eyed Girls), Park Sang-myun, Namoo (Bye Bye Sea), Yoo Hwe-seung (N.Flying), Shin Youngsook, Yang Ji-won (SPICA)
Episode 147
Episode 147 was broadcast on April 1, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-fourth Generation.
Episode 148
Episode 148 was broadcast on April 8, 2018.
75th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Babylon, Michelle Lee, Hoya, , , Lim Na-young of Pristin, , Kim Jae-hwan (singer) of Wanna One
Episode 149
Episode 149 was broadcast on April 15, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-fifth Generation.
Episode 150
Episode 150 was broadcast on April 22, 2018.
76th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Jeonghwa (EXID), Paul Kim, Hwang Seok-jeong, High.D (Sonamoo), Lee Jun-young (entertainer) (U-KISS/UNB), , Kim Chang-yeol (DJ Doc),
Episode 151
Episode 151 was broadcast on April 29, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-sixth Generation.
Episode 152
Episode 152 was broadcast on May 6, 2018.
77th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Joochan (Golden Child), Ji Se-hee , Hoshi (South Korean singer) of Seventeen (South Korean band), Hanhae, Park Seung-il (Ulala Session), , Kim Ye-won (Jewelry),
Episode 153
Episode 153 was broadcast on May 13, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-seventh Generation.
Episode 154
Episode 154 was broadcast on May 20, 2018.
78th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Kim So-hee, Go Eun-sung , , , Kisum, , Eunkwang (BtoB),
Episode 155
Episode 155 was broadcast on May 27, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-eighth Generation.
Episode 156
Episode 156 was broadcast on June 3, 2018.
79th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Shin Hyun-hee (Seenroot), Jin (Lovelyz), Ha Sung-woon (Wanna One/Hotshot), Kang Doo, Park Kyung (Block B), , Kim Gyu-ri, Han Dong-geun
Episode 157
Episode 157 was broadcast on June 10, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Seventy-ninth Generation.
Episode 158
Episode 158 was broadcast on June 17, 2018.
80th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Cho Jun-ho, Kangnam, , Baekho (NU'EST), Kim Jun-hyun, Killagramz, Kim Soo-yeon , Hyejeong (AOA)
Episode 159
Episode 159 was broadcast on June 24, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eightieth Generation.
Episode 160
Episode 160 was broadcast on July 1, 2018.
81st Generation Mask King
Contestants: , Lee Sang-gon (Noel), Jessi, Euna Kim, Hyomin (T-ara), Lee Yong-jin, Woohyun (INFINITE), Sung Hyuk
Episode 161
Episode 161 was broadcast on July 8, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-first Generation.
Episode 162
Episode 162 was broadcast on July 15, 2018.
82nd Generation Mask King
Contestants: Binnie (Oh My Girl), David Oh, , , Seungri (Big Bang), Rowoon (SF9), Solji (EXID), Park Kyung-lim
Episode 163
Episode 163 was broadcast on July 22, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-second Generation.
Episode 164
Episode 164 was broadcast on July 29, 2018.
83rd Generation Mask King
Contestants: Ji Sang-ryeol, Yoon Hee-seok, , Skull, Lee Tae-ri, Kim Tae-hyung (Click-B), Sunye (Wonder Girls), Kim Do-yeon (singer) (Weki Meki)
Episode 165
Episode 165 was broadcast on August 5, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-third Generation.
Episode 166
Episode 166 was broadcast on August 12, 2018.
84th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Jinhwan (iKON), , , Kriesha Chu, MC Gree, Jooyoung, Im Hyung-joon,
Episode 167
Episode 167 was broadcast on September 2, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-fourth Generation.
Episode 168
Episode 168 was broadcast on September 9, 2018.
King of Mask Singer – "The Winners"
Former Mask Kings/Queens: Johan Kim, , Sohyang, Jung Dong-ha, Hwanhee (Fly to the Sky), Sunwoo Jung-a, Kim Yeon-ji
Special guests: , , Park Jin-joo
This special program was a part of 2018 DMC Festival which was taken place at Sangam Culture Square on September 7, 2018, featured few former Mask Kings/Queens and other special guests' performances. It was re-aired on television with subtitles on September 16, 2018 in one episode.
85th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Ha Joon-seok (Ulala Session), Jung Tae-woo, Paul Potts, Nicole Jung, , , Lyn, Nayoung (Gugudan)
Episode 169
Episode 169 was broadcast on September 16, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-fifth Generation.
Episode 170
Episode 170 was broadcast on September 23, 2018.
86th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Sunnie Lee Kyeong (The Barberettes), Yoon San-ha (Astro), SinB (GFriend), Kang Hong-seok, Kim Ga-yeon, Baby Soul (Lovelyz), , Yang Chi-seung
Episode 171
Episode 171 was broadcast on September 30, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-sixth Generation.
Episode 172
Episode 172 was broadcast on October 7, 2018.
87th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Song Yuvin (Myteen), Seola (Cosmic Girls), Go Se-won, , Kang Sung-yeon, , , Christian Burgos
Episode 173
Episode 173 was broadcast on October 14, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-seventh Generation.
Episode 174
Episode 174 was broadcast on October 21, 2018.
88th Generation Mask King
Contestants: (Rainbow), , Lee Dae-hwi (Wanna One), Shorry J (Mighty Mouth), Lee Ki-chan, , Ravi (VIXX), Ra.D
Episode 175
Episode 175 was broadcast on October 28, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-eighth Generation.
Episode 176
Episode 176 was broadcast on November 4, 2018.
89th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Chun Myung-hoon (NRG), Jiyoung (), Kwon Soon-il (Urban Zakapa), Kim Young-hee, Yuna (AOA), Donghyuk (iKon), Song Jae-hee,
Episode 177
Episode 177 was broadcast on November 11, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Eighty-ninth Generation.
Episode 178
Episode 178 was broadcast on November 18, 2018.
90th Generation Mask King
Contestants: Lee So-jeong, , Kim Ji-min, Jinyoung (Got7), , Daegwang (Voisper), Lee Hyun, Moonbyul (Mamamoo)
Episode 179
Episode 179 was broadcast on November 25, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Ninetieth Generation.
Episode 180
Episode 180 was broadcast on December 2, 2018.
91st Generation Mask King
Contestants: Kim Kyung-ran, , Shaun (The Koxx), Lee Jae-jin (F.T. Island), Ahn Da-eun (The Ade), Ahn Yu-jin (Iz One), Lim Ju-eun, Lim Han-byul
Episode 181
Episode 181 was broadcast on December 9, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Ninety-first Generation.
Episode 182
Episode 182 was broadcast on December 16, 2018.
92nd Generation Mask King
Contestants: Na Sung-ho (Noel), Sangyeon (The Boyz), , Choi Jung-hoon (Jannabi), Stella Jang, Jo Jung-chi, Lisa,
Episode 183
Episode 183 was broadcast on December 23, 2018. This marks the beginning of the Ninety-second Generation.
Episode 184
Episode 184 was broadcast on December 30, 2018.
References
Lists of King of Mask Singer episodes
Lists of variety television series episodes
Lists of South Korean television series episodes
2018 in South Korean television |
41608961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus%20ZenFone | Asus ZenFone | Asus ZenFone is a series of Android smartphones designed, marketed and produced by Asus. The first-generation ZenFones were announced at the 2014 Consumer Electronic Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. Various models are powered by a series of Intel Atom, Qualcomm Snapdragon, and MediaTek processors. Some ZenFone also features the Zen UI, a user interface from Asus.
First generation (2014)
ZenFone 4
The ZenFone 4 is the 4-inch WVGA (800×480) TFT display model. The ZenFone 4 features a 1.2 GHz dual-core Intel Atom Z2520 saltwell processor, a 5 MP rear & 0.3 MP front camera and 1 GB RAM. However, ZenFone 4 does not have an LED flash unlike the rest of the models in the ZenFone series.
ZenFone 4.5
The ZenFone 4.5 is the 4.5-inch WVGA (854×480) TFT display model. Using the same processor as the ZenFone 4 and having 8GB of internal storage, 1GB of RAM and a MicroSD Card Slot supporting up to 64GB Storage, it does have a better rear camera than the ZenFone 4. The phone carries an 8 MP rear camera, and uses the same 0.3MP front camera as the ZenFone 4 does.
ZenFone 5
The ZenFone 5 is the mid range of the series and includes a 5-inch 1280×720 HD IPS display protected with Corning Gorilla Glass 3. This Zenfone features either a dual-core hyper-threaded (dubbed Multicore) Intel Atom or a quad-core Qualcomm Snapdragon processor, an 8 MP rear and 2 MP front camera.
This phone comes with 2 GB of RAM in comparison to other models and features at a competitive price. However, some of the earlier productions and certain variants of this phone came with 1 GB of RAM.
ZenFone 6
The ZenFone 6 features a 6-inch 1280×720 IPS display. The ZenFone 6 features a 2 GHz dual-core Intel Atom Z2580 processor, a 13 megapixel rear camera and 2 megapixel front-facing camera. The ZenFone 6 is equipped with 8 GB, 16 GB or 32 GB of internal memory, depending upon the version, external memory of up to 64 GB, and 2 GB of RAM.
Variants
Second generation (2015)
ZenFone 2
The ZenFone 2 was announced at CES 2015. The flagship phablet model (ZE551ML) launched with Android 5.0 Lollipop running Asus's custom Zen UI and has a 5.5" Full HD (1920×1080) IPS display. The phone is powered by Intel Atom Moorefield SoCs with up to 4 GB of RAM, a first for smartphones. The phone also includes dual MicroSIM card slots, 13/5 MP rear and front cameras, a non-removable 3000 mAh Lithium polymer battery, up to 16/32/64/128 GB of internal storage, and a MicroSD Card slot.
Additionally, Asus announced two other models of the Zenfone 2. The ZE550ML comes with a 5.5" HD (1280×720) IPS display, but otherwise features similar specifications to the ZE551ML. The ZE500CL, the low cost variant, comes with a 5" HD display, an Intel Atom Cloverview CPU, 2 GB of RAM, a single MicroSIM slot, 8/2 MP rear and front cameras, and a 2500 mAh battery.
The ZenFone 2 was launched in Taiwan on March 9, 2015 - followed by India, Japan, Indonesia and Thailand
In July 2015, the ZenFone 2E was released in the United States as an exclusive prepaid AT&T GoPhone.
Deluxe editions was released in September 2015. It is basically a ZE551ML with extended memory and a special back cover dubbed "Illusion Case", which has a 3D polygonal pattern that gives it a more premium look and feel than the original ZE551ML. Other markets offered the Deluxe Special Edition with red bezels, extended 256 GB of memory and Intel Atom Z3590 2.5 GHz processor. Colors offered are white and blue with purple shade, while the special edition available in silver or carbon fiber pattern. It is priced at around $299 for the deluxe edition and $469 for the special edition.
The ZenFone 2 won the 2015 iF product design award for top design in innovation, ergonomics, and functionality.
ZenFone Zoom
The ZenFone Zoom was announced at CES 2015 and along with the ZenFone 2, is one of the first phones to offer 4 GB of RAM. The specifications are largely the same as the Zenfone 2, with the exception of the camera. It has a 13 MP at the rear along with 3× optical zoom and 12× digital zoom, Real Tone Flash, optical image stabilization and laser auto-focus. It is priced at around US$399 for the 2 GB version.
Variants
Third generation (2016)
ZenFone 3
Asus unveiled the third generation ZenFone series at Computex Taipei on May 30, 2016. Some devices in the ZenFone 3 series (ZenFone 3 Max, ZenFone 3 Laser, ZenFone 3 Deluxe, and ZenFone 3 Ultra) use an aluminum frame body with no visible antenna lines and feature fingerprint sensors for easy unlocking. Each ZenFone 3 model has its own defining features. The ZenFone 3 uses 2.5D Corning Gorilla Glass on its front and rear panels. The ZenFone 3 Deluxe uses a Super AMOLED display and a Sony rear camera. The ZenFone 3 Ultra features a 4600mAh battery that can double as a powerbank for other devices with a 1.5A output. The ZenFone 3 Laser is notable for its low price, and the ZenFone 3 Max is notable for its large battery. The ZenFone 3, ZenFone 3 Deluxe, and ZenFone 3 Ultra use the USB Type-C connector. The third generation ZenFone series drops Intel while retaining Qualcomm and MediaTek as CPU suppliers.
ZenFone AR
First unveiled at CES 2017, the ZenFone AR is the first smartphone to support the Tango augmented reality and Google Daydream VR platforms and to be offered with 6 or 8 GB of RAM. The ZenFone AR is equipped with a 23 megapixel camera with optical hardware that takes advantage of Tango applications and extreme performance for gaming and data. The camera module is similar with Nokia N8, C7 and X7.
Variants
Fourth generation (2017)
Asus announced the fourth generation ZenFone on August 17 , 2017.( August 18 , 2005 in RD ). The line will go under the name "ZenFone 4", which was previously used for the 4" and 4.5" variants of the first generation line. The main feature of the flagship ZenFone 4 is its dual lens camera, which enables wide-angle photography.
Variants
Fifth generation (2018)
Asus unveiled the fifth generation ZenFone at the 2018 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona. The ZenFone 5 has a screen size of 6.2" with a 19:9 aspect ratio and bears a resemblance to the iPhone X. According to Asus, the new phone will have 10 new AI features.
Variants
Sixth generation (2019)
In May 2019, Asus unveiled the ZenFone 6 (Asus 6Z) at a press event in Spain. The ZenFone 6 features a rotating camera in an attempt to reduce bezels and provide an all-screen front. There is a dual camera setup on the phone, which normally resides on the back, but rotates when needed to become a selfie shooter. Asus allows for the rotation of the Liquidmetal camera module to be controlled using a stepper motor. This allows users to stop the rotation midway to take photos at interesting angles and can take automatic panoramas. The company has also added fall-protection for the camera module, which will automatically retract the camera to its base position if the phone detects sudden movement.
The Asus ZenFone 6 prices starts at EUR 499 for the 6 GB + 64 GB variant, going up to 6 GB + 128 GB version will retail at EUR 559, and finally, the top-end 8 GB + 256 GB variant is priced at EUR 599. It was immediately available via the Asus eShop on that day and would start shipping from May 25. Asus has revealed that the phone will be offered in two colours – Midnight Black and Twilight Silver.
The ZenFone 6 was announced to be released in India on 19 June 2019 under the name Asus 6Z, due to a trademark ruling by the Delhi High Court against the sale of products branded "Zen" or "ZenFone" in conflict with Telecare Network India's Zen Mobile.
Variants
Seventh generation (2020)
Asus revealed the ZenFone 7 and 7 Pro in August 2020 as the first ZenFone devices to support 5G while omitting the audio jack. The 7 is primarily differentiated from the 7 Pro by chipsets and memory options. Both phones retain the previous generation's rotating camera benefiting from a new motor. The module is larger and now houses a triple camera setup with the addition of a 3x zoom telephoto lens. The main sensor has been upgraded to 64 MP and can record video at 8K resolution. The ZenFone 7's display increases to 6.67 inches and switches to an AMOLED panel with a 90 Hz refresh rate. The fingerprint sensor has been repositioned from the back panel to the right edge, and is integrated with the power button. The battery capacity remains the same at 5000 mAh, but has faster 30 W charging. Both run on Android 10 using ZenUI 7.
Variants
Eighth generation (2021)
On 12 May 2021, ASUS has announced ZenFone 8 (ZenFone 8 Compact) and ZenFone 8 Flip under the slogan "Big on Performance. Compact in Size." They are released later on 13 May 2021, features a Qualcomm Snapdragon 888 5G chipset, with Corning Gorilla Glass 6 (Victus in Compact ver.) protection and they support 5G. Their display design Samsung Super AMOLED screen with 120 Hz (90 Hz in Flip ver.) of refresh rate. ZenFone 8 Flip (also known as ZenFone 8 Pro) retains the current previous generation's camera but with improved performance, similar to ZenFone 8 compact. ZenFone 8 (also known as ZenFone 8 compact, ZenFone 8 mini) returns the cameras back to the same as ZenFone 5 (2018), but has Infinity-O display with 64 MP + 12 MP rear cameras similar to ZenFone 5. It has a 4000 mAh battery and includes IP68 water resistance and a fingerprint sensor on display.
Variants
Ninth generation (2022)
Tenth generation (2023)
References
External links
Asus Zenfone 8 Flip Complete Specs
Asus ZenFone
Mobile phones introduced in 2014
Phablets
Android cameras with optical zoom
Mobile phones with mechanical zoom lens |
7106075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Hunter%20%28actor%29 | Ian Hunter (actor) | Ian Hunter (13 June 1900 – 22 September 1975) was a Cape Colony-born British actor of stage, film and television.
Acting career
On his return from military service Hunter studied under Elsie Fogerty at the Central School of Speech and Drama, then based in the Royal Albert Hall, London.
Within two years he made his stage debut. He decided to work in British silent films taking a part in Not for Sale (1924) directed by W.P. Kellino for Stoll Pictures.
Hunter made his first trip to the United States because Basil Dean, the British actor and director, was producing Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The School for Scandal at the Knickerbocker Theater. However, the production folded after one performance. He met the director Alfred Hitchcock in 1927 and was featured in Hitchcock's The Ring (1927) and stayed for Downhill (US: When Boys Leave Home, 1927) and Easy Virtue (1928), based on the Noël Coward play. By late 1928, he returned to Broadway for only a months run in the original comedy Olympia and stayed in America to work in Hollywood on Syncopation (1929) for RKO, his first sound film.
Hunter returned to London for Dean's thriller Escape (1930). In The Girl from 10th Avenue (1935) with Bette Davis, Hunter made his connection with Warner Bros. But before settling in with them through much of the 1930s, he did three pictures in succession with British director Michael Powell. He then appeared as the Duke in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935) for Warner Bros. It marked the start of a string of nearly 30 films for the studio. Among the best remembered was his jovial King Richard the Lionheart in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). Hunter was also paired in seven movies with Kay Francis between 1935 and 1938.
Hunter appeared in The Little Princess (1939) as Captain Reginald Crewe. And he was the benign guardian angel-like Cambreau in Loew's Strange Cargo (1940) with Clark Gable. He was staying regularly busy in Hollywood until into 1942 when he returned to Britain to serve in the war effort.
Hunter appeared once more on Broadway in 1948 and made Edward, My Son (1949) for MGM-British with George Cukor directing and Spencer Tracy and Deborah Kerr in the lead roles. Hunter worked once more for Michael Powell (The Queen's Guards, 1961) and then retired in the middle of that decade after nearly 100 films.
Among dozens of film roles, his best-remembered appearances include That Certain Woman (1937) with Bette Davis, Tower of London (1939, as King Edward IV), and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941, as Dr. Lanyon). Hunter returned to the Robin Hood legend in the TV series The Adventures of Robin Hood from 1955 in the recurring role of Sir Richard of the Lea.
His numerous West End roles included appearances in London Life (1924), The High Road (1927), A Song of Sixpence (1930), Good Losers (1931), Can the Leopard...? (1931), Take a Chance (1931), Touch Wood (1934) and South Sea Bubble (1956).
Marriage and children
Hunter married Catharine "Casha" Pringle in 1917. They had two sons, including the actor Robin Hunter.
Filmography
Not for Sale (1924) as Martin Bering
Confessions (1925) as Charles Oddy
A Girl of London (1925) as Peter Horniman
The Ring (1927) as Bob Corby
Downhill aka When Boys Leave Home (1927) as Archie
His House in Order (1928) as Hilary Jesson
Easy Virtue (1928) as The Plaintiff's Counsel
The Physician (1928) as Dr. Carey
The Valley of Ghosts (1928) as Andrew McLeod
The Thoroughbred (1928) as Allen Stockbridge
Syncopation (1929) as Alexander Winston
Escape (1930) as Detective
Cape Forlorn aka The Love Storm (1931) as Gordon Kingsley
Sally in Our Alley (1931) as George Miles
The Water Gipsies (1932) as Fred Green
The Sign of Four aka The Sign of Four: Sherlock Holmes' Greatest Case (1932) as Dr. John H. Watson
Marry Me (1932) as Robert Hart
The Man from Toronto (1933) as Fergus Wimbush
The Silver Spoon (1934) as Captain Watts-Winyard
Orders Is Orders (1934) as Capt. Harper
The Church Mouse (1934) as Johnathan Steele
No Escape (1934) as Jim Brandon
Something Always Happens (1934) as Peter Middleton
Death at Broadcasting House aka Death at a Broadcast (1934) as Detective Inspector Gregory
Lazybones (1935) as Sir Reginald Ford
The Girl from 10th Avenue (1935) as Geoffrey D. 'Geoff' Sherwood
The Night of the Party aka The Murder Party (1935) as Guy Kennington
The Phantom Light (1935) as Jim Pearce
Jalna (1935) as Renny Whiteoaks
The Crusades (1935) as Second Knight Pleading to King Richard for Food (uncredited)
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935) as Theseus - Duke of Athens
I Found Stella Parish (1935) as Keith Lockridge
The Morals of Marcus (1935) as Sir Marcus Ordeyne
The White Angel (1936) as Reporter Fuller of the London Times
To Mary - with Love (1936) as Bill Hallam
The Devil Is a Sissy (1936) as Jay Pierce
Stolen Holiday (1937) as Anthony Wayne
Call It a Day (1937) as Roger Hilton
Another Dawn (1937) as Colonel John Wister
Confession (1937) as Leonide Kirow
That Certain Woman (1937) as Lloyd Rogers
52nd Street (1937) as Rufus Rondell
The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) as King Richard the Lion-Heart
Always Goodbye (1938) as Phillip Marshall
Secrets of an Actress (1938) as Peter Snowden
The Sisters (1938) as William Benson
Comet Over Broadway (1938) as Bert Ballin
Yes, My Darling Daughter (1939) as Lewis Murray
The Little Princess (1939) as Captain Crewe
Broadway Serenade (1939) as Larry Bryant
Tarzan Finds a Son! (1939) as August Lancing
Maisie (1939) as Clifford Ames
Bad Little Angel (1939) as Jm Creighton (Sentinel editor)
Tower of London (1939) as King Edward IV
Broadway Melody of 1940 (1940) as Bert C. Matthews
Strange Cargo (1940) as Cambreau
Dulcy (1940) as Gordon Daly
The Long Voyage Home (1940) as Smitty
Bitter Sweet (1940) as Lord Shayne
Gallant Sons (1940) as 'Natural' Davis
Come Live with Me (1941) as Barton Kendrick
Andy Hardy's Private Secretary (1941) as Steven V. Land
Ziegfeld Girl (1941) as Geoffrey Collis
Billy the Kid (1941) as Eric Keating
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941) as Dr. John Lanyon
Smilin' Through (1941) as Reverend Owen Harding
A Yank at Eton (1942) as Roger Carlton
It Comes Up Love (1943) as Tom Peabody
Forever and a Day (1943) as Dexter Pomfret
Bedelia (1946) as Charlie Carrington
White Cradle Inn aka High Fury (1947) as Anton
The White Unicorn aka Milkwhite Unicorn and Bad Sister (1947) as Philip Templar
Edward, My Son (1949) as Doctor Larry Woodhope
It Started in Paradise (1952) as Arthur Turner
Appointment in London aka Raiders in the Sky (1952) as Logan
The Divine Creatures (1952, TV Movie) as Florent
Don't Blame the Stork (1954) as Sir George Redway
Eight O'Clock Walk (1954) as Geoffrey Tanner, Q.C.
Fire One (1954, TV Movie) as Mr. Dennison
It's Never Too Late (1954, TV Movie) as Charles Hammond
The Battle of the River Plate aka Pursuit of the Graf Spee (1956) as Captain Charles Woodhouse - HMS Ajax
South Sea Bubble (BBC TV 1956) as Sir George Shotter
Fortune Is a Woman aka She Played with Fire (1957) as Clive Fisher
Rockets Galore aka Mad Little Island (1958) as Air Commodore Watchorn
North West Frontier (1959) as Sir John Windham
The Bulldog Breed (1960) as Adm. Sir Bryanston Blyth
Doctor Blood's Coffin (1961) as Dr. Robert Blood, Peter's Father
The Treasure of Monte Cristo (1961) as Colonel Jackson
The Queen's Guards (1961) as Mr. George Dobbie
Guns of Darkness (1962) as Dr. Swann
Kali Yug: Goddess of Vengeance (1963) as Robert Talbot
Kali-Yug, The Bárbaros's Fury (1963) as Robert Talbot (final film role)
References
External links
Photos of Ian Hunter from The Long Voyage Home by Ned Scott
1900 births
1975 deaths
English male film actors
20th-century English male actors
Male actors from Cape Town
British expatriate male actors in the United States
South African emigrants to the United Kingdom |
1922489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Redmond | Mike Redmond | Michael Patrick Redmond (born May 5, 1971) is an American former professional baseball catcher and manager. He is currently the bench coach for the Colorado Rockies. He played for 13 seasons in Major League Baseball with the Florida Marlins, Minnesota Twins, and Cleveland Indians. In 864 career games, Redmond recorded a batting average of .287 and accumulated 13 home runs, and 243 runs batted in (RBI).
Redmond batted and threw right-handed. He made his major league debut on May 31, 1998, and played his final game on July 2, 2010. He was also part of the Florida Marlins team that won the 2003 World Series. Redmond was named the manager of the Marlins on November 1, 2012. After two and a half years, he was fired on May 17, 2015. In 2017, he was then hired by the Colorado Rockies as a coach.
Early life
Redmond was born on May 5, 1971, in Seattle, five minutes after his fraternal twin brother, Patrick Michael. His father, Pat Sr., was a grocery store buyer.
Redmond grew up in Kirkland, Washington, where he played Little League baseball. His family moved to Spokane, Washington, where Mike and his brother attended Gonzaga Preparatory School, graduating in 1989. Mike, a catcher, and Patrick, a shortstop, both played baseball for the Gonzaga Prep baseball team. In his senior season at Gonzaga Prep, Mike had a .300 batting average with three home runs and 21 runs batted in. He set a single-game record for putouts by a catcher with 15, the single-season record for assists with 114.
Both Redmond brothers committed to attend Gonzaga University, where they played college baseball for the Gonzaga Bulldogs baseball team, when it competed in the Pacific-10 Conference (Pac-10), from 1990 through 1993. Redmond was named a first team Pac-10 all-conference selection in 1991 and 1992. Redmond was invited to Homestead, Florida, where he participated in the United States national baseball team trials for the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Professional career
Minor league baseball (1993–1998)
Undrafted in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft, Redmond signed with the Florida Marlins as an undrafted free agent on August 18, 1992. He made his professional debut in minor league baseball with the Kane County Cougars of the Class A Midwest League in 1993, and also played for the Cougars in 1994. He was promoted to the Brevard County Manatees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League in 1994, and the Portland Sea Dogs of the Class AA Eastern League in 1995. After playing with Portland in 1996, he was promoted to the Charlotte Knights of the Class AAA International League in 1997. Redmond had shoulder surgery in 1997, and was presented the option of playing for Portland or remaining with the organization as a coach. Redmond opted to continue playing, returning to Portland in 1998.
Florida Marlins (1998–2004)
Redmond made his Major League debut with Florida on May 31, 1998, against the Milwaukee Brewers, receiving the opportunity after the Marlins traded Charles Johnson and Mike Piazza. In his first career game, Redmond went 3-for-3, and hit his first major league home run in the sixth inning off Brewers pitcher Scott Karl. Despite his efforts, the Marlins lost 7–6. Redmond hit .331 with two home runs and 12 RBI in 37 games that year for the Marlins. He played with the Marlins as a backup catcher, often sharing time with Johnson, Jorge Fábregas, and Paul Bako. In 2002, Redmond posted career-highs in both batting average (.305) and games played (89). In the following season, he served as the backup to Iván Rodríguez, as the Marlins won the 2003 World Series. When the Marlins fell into a slump in 2003, he would take batting practice wearing only batting gloves, socks, and shoes.
In 2004, with Rodríguez signing with the Detroit Tigers, Redmond split catching duties with Ramón Castro. However, he got injured early into the season when, while running the bases, his left pinky finger was spiked by Marcus Giles, resulting in a chipped fracture. Redmond finished the 2004 season batting .256 with two home runs and 25 RBI in 81 games.
Minnesota Twins (2005–2009)
On November 24, 2004, Redmond signed a two-year, $1.8 million contract with the Minnesota Twins to backup starting catcher Joe Mauer. His 2005 season ended prematurely due to a torn plantar fascia in his right foot. During the 2006 season, Redmond signed a two-year contract extension with a club option for the 2009 season. He played in 82 games during the 2007 season due to an injury to Mauer, though he continued to play through his own injuries, including a broken finger, bruised shoulder, and stitches in his head. During the 2008 season, Redmond frequently joined Dan Gladden on the Twins Radio Network live broadcasts prior to the game to give his insight from the dugout. After the 2008 season, the Twins exercised an option on Redmond's contract, paying him $950,000 for the 2009 season. He suffered injury in the beginning of the 2009 season in a game against the Seattle Mariners; after escaping unscathed from a hit to the shoulder by a broken bat, Redmond aggravated a groin muscle while attempting to run out a ground ball.
On May 28, 2009, Redmond was ejected from a game for the first time in his career after a furious reaction to a safe call at home plate. The call occurred in a game against the Boston Red Sox that saw both teams have their managers and catchers ejected in the same inning. Redmond successfully relayed an outfield assist from Jason Kubel and tagged Jeff Bailey out just before he reached home plate—which subsequent replays confirmed—but home plate umpire Todd Tichenor ruled that Bailey was safe. Redmond then got into a face-to-face argument with Tichenor, which led to his ejection. Tichenor also ejected Twins manager Ron Gardenhire for defending Redmond, before subsequently throwing both Terry Francona and Jason Varitek out for an unrelated matter.
Cleveland Indians (2010)
The Twins let Redmond leave after the 2009 season, opting to use Drew Butera and José Morales as their backup catchers. On January 15, 2010, Redmond signed a one-year contract with a guaranteed salary of $850,000 to play for the Cleveland Indians. The Indians credited Redmond with helping Fausto Carmona have a strong start to the 2010 season. He committed an error on May 23, 2010, which was his first error since July 22, 2004. The 253-game streak without an error set a new MLB record, besting Mike Matheny's 252 consecutive errorless games from 2002 to 2004. However, Redmond batted .206 with 5 RBI in 22 games, and was designated for assignment on July 10, 2010, to make room on the 40-man roster for catcher/outfielder Chris Gimenez. Redmond had only played in three games since June 8, and the Indians wanted to develop their younger players. On July 16, 2010, Redmond was released by the Indians.
Coaching and managing career
Redmond retired on October 4, 2010. In 2011, Redmond managed the Lansing Lugnuts of the Midwest League, the Class A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays. The Lugnuts had their best record in team history under Redmond, and reached the league finals. He was named Midwest League Manager of the Year. In 2012, he managed the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Florida State League, the Blue Jays' Class A-Advanced affiliate.
On November 1, 2012, Redmond was named manager of the Miami Marlins, and given a three-year deal. After the conclusion of the 2014 season, Redmond got a contract extension until 2017.
After struggling to start the 2015 season, rumors indicated that Marlins' owner Jeffrey Loria, was considering firing Redmond. The Marlins fired Redmond on May 17, just under an hour after the Marlins lost to the Braves, leaving the team at 16–22 on the season.
On November 16, 2016, Redmond was hired as the bench coach for the Colorado Rockies.
Managerial record
Playing and managing style
As a catcher, Redmond was known for his skill in calling the right pitches for the pitcher to throw. He was also noted for his veteran leadership and clubhouse presence. He was also known for his defensive ability. He caught R. A. Dickey and Dennis Springer, who all threw a knuckleball, considered a difficult pitch to catch. Redmond is tied for fourth in career fielding percentage as a catcher, finishing with 99.6%.
Honors
In 1999, Redmond won the Charlie Hough Good Guy Award. He was inducted into the Unum Portland Sea Dogs Hall of Fame in 2010, primarily because of the stellar defensive skills he exemplified during his tenure with the team and in the major leagues. However, Redmond could not attend the induction ceremony due to his family commitments.
Personal
Mike and his wife Michele (née Rowe) have two sons, Ryan and Michael. They live in Spokane, Washington.
References
External links
<be>
1971 births
Living people
Baseball coaches from Washington (state)
Baseball players from Seattle
Baseball players from Spokane, Washington
Brevard County Manatees players
Charlotte Knights players
Cleveland Indians players
Colorado Rockies (baseball) coaches
Florida Marlins players
Gonzaga Bulldogs baseball players
Gonzaga Preparatory School alumni
Gulf Coast Marlins players
Kane County Cougars players
Major League Baseball catchers
Major League Baseball bench coaches
Miami Marlins managers
Minnesota Twins players
Minor league baseball managers
Portland Sea Dogs players |
65748721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20state%20of%20S%C3%A3o%20Paulo | History of the state of São Paulo | São Paulo is one of 26 states of the Federative Republic of Brazil. It has been inhabited since 12000 BC, when the first indigenous people came to the area. Portuguese and Spanish navigators arrived in the 15th century. In 1532, Portuguese explorer Martim Afonso de Sousa officially founded the first Portuguese settlement in the Americas, the village of São Vicente.
In the 17th century, the bandeirantes accelerated exploration of the interior, expanding Portugal's territories in South America beyond the agreed borders set by the Treaty of Tordesilhas.
After the Captaincy of São Paulo was established in the 18th century, the region increased in political importance, although it achieved more significant economic and population growth after the independence of Brazil.
Under the Empire of Brazil, São Paulo's economy was based on coffee plantations. In the second half of the 19th century, European immigrants increasingly replaced slave labor on plantations, mainly Italians attracted by the imperial government's offer of land. Increased coffee cultivation and the construction of railroads drove the growth of the state's economy. In the 20th century, especially in the Vargas Era, state economic development primarily centered on the industrial sector, which fueled production for all of Brazil.
São Paulo's population greatly increased in the modern era. It has one of the country's most urbanized populations, and today is one of the most diverse in the country, mainly descended from Italians, Portuguese, indigenous peoples, Afro-Brazilians, and migrants from other regions of the country. Other populations such as Arabs, Germans, Spaniards, Japanese and Chinese also have a significant presence in the state.
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples have lived in São Paulo since approximately 12000 BC. Around 1000, its coast was invaded by Tupi speakers from the Amazon rainforest. When Europeans arrived in the 16th century, the indigenous people on the coast were mostly Tupinambás, Tupiniquins and Carijós, with Macro-Jê speakers in the interior.
European colonization
The first European settlements in São Paulo were unofficial. , a Portuguese exile and castaway known as "the Bachelor of Cananéia", is considered the original founder of the São Vicente settlement by many historians. Pessoa governed São Vicente and controlled the region's trade. A document dated April 23, 1499, found by historian Jaime Cortesão suggests that Pessoa lived in Brazil before Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived in 1500: the document reports an unofficial trip by Bartolomeu Dias to Brazil. Another document, from 1526, describes São Vicente as a village of a dozen houses, only one of them built of stone, and one tower for defense. This initial nucleus was probably begun by castaways.
On January 22, 1502, Amerigo Vespucci named São Vicente Island, the location of the settlement of the same name, after one of the patron saints of Portugal, Saint Vincent of Saragossa, while mapping the coast of Brazil.
In 1530, Martim Afonso de Sousa left Portugal for Brazil, assigned by King John III to establish a colony to confirm the power of Portugal's monarchy. De Sousa was instructed to remove Pessoa from power in São Vicente. Having warning of De Sousa's intentions, Pessoa had the settlement burned and its people fled to the settlement of Cananéia. On the ruins of the old city, de Sousa founded São Vicente officially on January 20, 1532, making it the first legal Portuguese settlement in Brazil. De Sousa distributed land grants and constructed several buildings, leaving São Vicente populated and organized. São Vicente hosted the Americas' first parliament and held the continents' first elections. In 1536, a group led by Pessoa attacked, looted and burned São Vicente, where they hanged Henrique Montes, a former friend of Pessoa who had criticized him to the king to receive land. De Sousa was granted a hereditary captaincy, the Captaincy of São Vicente, in 1534.
When de Sousa sailed from Brazil on May 22, 1533, he left his wife Ana Pimentel the first grantee in Brazil. She in turn appointed Brás Cubas as governor of the captaincy.
The port of São Vicente suffered the first major ecological disaster in Brazil: land near the sea had been cleared and farmed. Since the soil was sandy and had lost its protective layer, rains took the sand out to sea, silting the port of São Vicente, the only access to the Portuguese mainland. Given the loss of the port and the attack by the Bachelor of Cananeia on São Vicente, Cubas decided to set up a more sheltered port in the Enguaguaçu region. The fact that the name of this place was indigenous, not Portuguese, shows that the initiative was not official. The port was transferred in 1536, and a settlement established there which was later called Santos. Cubas attracted settlers there from the surrounding area and built the first Catholic mission in Brazil, Santa Casa (Holy House). The village of São Vicente went into decline.
Despite the difficulties of crossing the Serra do Mar, the fields of the plateau attracted settlers and made São Paulo an exception in early Portuguese colonization, which usually concentrated on the coasts. Looking for precious metals, the Portuguese crossed the Serra do Mar by an old indigenous route through Peabiru. In 1553, Portuguese settlers founded the Vila de Santo André da Borda do Campo.
The Jesuits, led by Manuel da Nóbrega in 1554 founded a college for Indians on a hill in Piratininga, which became the village of São Paulo de Piratininga, on the plateau beyond. The Portuguese also founded other villages on the plateau such as Santana de Parnaíba, thus guaranteeing the security and livelihood of São Paulo.
By 1560, Vila de Santo André was extinct and its residents moved to São Paulo de Piratininga.
The coastal strip, narrow due to the barrier of the Serra do Mar, lacked the necessary conditions for large-scale farming. In turn, the plateau faced the serious obstacle of the Caminho do Mar, which, instead of connecting, isolated the Piratininga region, denying it access to the ocean and, therefore, transportation. As a result, the captaincy was prevented from successfully cultivating the main agricultural product of colonial Brazil, sugarcane, and from competing with the main sugar cultivation zones of the time, Pernambuco and Bahia.
Piratininga established a subsistence polyculture was based on the forced labor of indigenous people. The inventories of the first paulista settlers show few imports and a complete absence of luxury. Isolation created a peculiar society in the plateau. Arriving in São Paulo required particular strength to cross the mountains and withstand attacks by Indians, hunger, and disease. These living conditions determined the structure of their society in a more democratic way than in those established further north.
Although there were reports of Portuguese women in De Sousa's fleet, no records of this have yet been found. The first known written record of Portuguese women in Brazil dates from 1550. Thus, the first wives were generally mamelucas (mestizo) or Indias (indigenous). The proliferation of , resulting from marriages to the indigenous Tupi peoples that dominated the Brazilian coast, contributed to a cultural hybridism that attenuated less quickly than in other regions, where an influx of blacks and easier contact with the metropolis diluted it. More than anywhere else, the Portuguese in Sãp Paulo integrated certain cultural traits of the Tupis that allowed them to survive — and more, to take advantage of — the hostile backlands.
The "Bandeiras"
Economic difficulties and a spirit of adventure were important factors in the rush into the hinterland. This was the century of Bandeirantes, one in which the offensive began, largely motivated by the profits to be made hunting indigenous peoples for slaves. From the village of São Paulo, the bandeirantes headed by Antônio Raposo Tavares, Manuel Preto, and , among others, departed.
Due to their isolation, the paulistas, as the residents of São Paulo are known, enjoyed considerable autonomy for the first two centuries in areas such as defense, indigenous relations, ecclesiastical administration, public works and municipal services, price controls and goods. The local governments, composed of "good men" of the land, were rarely limited to their legitimate attributions. São Paulo's independence especially almost made the Portuguese government forget it.
The slaver , became the mining when Borba Gato, , and others discovered gold veins in Minas Gerais and Mato Grosso. A hard ordeal was the effect of the discovery of gold on São Paulo and other villages on the plateau: all sought the immediate enrichment represented by the precious metal. As said, "there were no Paulista who, more or less, stopped stroking the thought of discovering mines".
Thus, the population of the Brazilian backlands was made at the sacrifice of the inhabitants of São Paulo and at the expense of the population density of the captaincy. This demographic rupture, combined with the geographical factors already mentioned (the Serra do Mar), caused a fall in agricultural productivity, as well as a decline in other activities, which accentuated the people's poverty during the 18th century. The captaincy, which then covered the entire region of the gold discoveries, was transferred to the crown and got its own government in 1709, separate from the government of Rio de Janeiro, and with headquarters in town of São Paulo, elevated to city in 1711.
Gold rush and decline
At the end of the 17th century, from São Paulo discovered gold in the region of Rio das Mortes, close to the current São João del-Rei. The discovery of immense gold deposits provoked a race to Minas Gerais, as the numerous gold deposits were called at the time.
As discoverers of the mines, the wanted exclusive rights to prospect for gold. They were defeated in 1710 with the end of the War of the Emboabas (War of the Newcomers) however, and lost control of Minas Gerais, which became an autonomous captaincy in 1721. The gold extracted from Minas Gerais was exported through Rio de Janeiro. As compensation, São Paulo was elevated to the status of city in 1711.
The exodus towards Minas Gerais caused the economic decline in the captaincy, and throughout the 18th century it lost territory and economic dynamism until it was simply annexed in 1748 to the captaincy of Rio de Janeiro. Thus, shortly before being annexed to Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo lost territory for the creation of
and . These two captaincies today correspond to the states of Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Rondônia, Goiás, Tocantins, Federal District and the Triângulo Mineiro.
Some authors have contested this version of the captaincy's decay. The main argument that leads historians to defend this thesis is the stabilization of the number of villages that arose in the period. However, the number of inhabitants would not have decreased, only concentrated in the existing villages, and its population, despite not directly profiting from the mines, dominated the supply of food, mainly linked to livestock. The main justification for the annexation to Grosso was the security of the mines, since São Paulo would be their natural shield against invasions from Argentina or other Spanish colonies.
Return of the captaincy and Province of São Paulo
The governor of Minas Gerais, , on September 24, 1764, annexed the left bank of the Sapucaí River, extending the borders of Minas Gerais to roughly the current border with São Paulo, which never recovered the annexed territory, even after the captaincy was re-created. The region annexed by Minas Gerais continued to belong to Archdiocese of São Paulo however.
In 1765, through the efforts of the , São Paulo again became a captaincy. Sugar production was incentivized, to provide revenue. However, the captaincy retained only about a third of its original territory — the current states of São Paulo and Paraná, and part of Santa Catarina.
The created the villages of Lages and Campo Mourão to defend the captaincy, as well as several other villages, which had not occurred since the beginning of the 18th century in São Paulo.
The villages of Campinas and Piracicaba were founded in eastern São Paulo, a favorable region for farming, where sugar cane grew quickly. Sugar was exported through the port of Santos, peaking at the beginning of the 19th century.
The captaincy of São Paulo gained political weight during the time of Independence of Brazil through José Bonifácio de Andrada. On September 7, 1822, Dom Pedro I proclaimed Brazilian independence on the banks of the Ipiranga Brook in São Paulo. In 1821 the captaincy became a province.
In 1820, John VI of Portugal annexed Lages to Santa Catarina, costing São Paulo a little more of its territory.
In 1853, the province of Paraná was created, and São Paulo lost territory for a final time, and has maintained its current territory from that date.
The current territorial boundaries of the state of São Paulo weren't definitively fixed until the 1930s.
The Coffee in history of the State of São Paulo
In 1817 the first coffee farm in São Paulo was founded in the Paraíba do Sul River valley. After independence, coffee cultivation became more prevalent in the Paraíba, rapidly enriching cities such as Guaratinguetá, Bananal, Lorena and Pindamonhangaba.
The coffee plantations of the Paraíba Valley used slave labor on a large scale, and sold the beans through Rio de Janeiro. As a result, the valley quickly enriched itself, creating a rural oligarchy. However, the rest of the province remained dependent on sugar cane and on the commerce in the city of São Paulo, driven by the establishment of a law school in 1827. São Paulo also began grow as a city, opening its first establishments for travelers, students and merchants who wanted to learn about the area or to establish projects. Pensions, hotels and inns began to be regulated and grew in number, providing options for accommodation, comfort and leisure.
However, soil exhaustion in the Paraíba Valley and the increasing restrictions imposed on the slavery regime led to a decline in the region's coffee cultivation in 1860. The valley emptied itself economically and coffee cultivation moved towards the west of the province, beginning with the Campinas and Itu areas, where it replaced the sugar cane cultivated there until then.
The migration of coffee to the west caused major economic and social changes in the province. The 1850 ban on the Atlantic slave trade led to a need for a fresh source of labor for the new crops. The Imperial and provincial governments began to encourage European immigration. The flow of exports went through the port of Santos, which led to the establishment of the first railroad, the São Paulo Railway. Inaugurated in 1867, it was built by English financial capital and the Visconde de Mauá, and linked Santos to Jundiaí through São Paulo. It became an important trading post between the coast and the coffee-growing interior.
Coffee-growing gradually spread into western São Paulo, passing through Campinas, Rio Claro and Porto Ferreira. In 1870, it found its most fertile fields: Terra Roxa in northeastern São Paulo state, near Ribeirão Preto, São Carlos and Jaú, where the largest and most productive coffee farms in the world arose.
Behind new lands for coffee, explorers entered the previously unexplored area between the and the Paraná, Tietê and Paranapanema rivers, where they founded cities such as Bauru, Marília, Garça, Araçatuba and Presidente Prudente at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.
São Paulo's borders were defined with the emancipation of Paraná Province in 1853. The south of São Paulo (Vale do Ribeira and the region of Itapeva) did not attract coffee cultivation and suffered from border disputes between São Paulo and Paraná. This led to less development in the area compared to the rest of the province, making it yet one of the poorest regions of São Paulo.
The wealth created by coffee and the constant arrival of immigrants to the province, including Italians, Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese and Arabs, in addition to the development of a large network railroad, brought prosperity to São Paulo.
Old Republic and the "Coffee with Milk politics"
When the republic was installed, the new state's economic predominance was clearly affirmed. If Brazil was coffee, coffee was São Paulo. This reality had repercussions in the national sphere, hence the homogeneity of 1894 to 1902, in three consecutive quadrenniums, under presidents Prudente de Morais, Campos Sales and Rodrigues Alves.
At the beginning of the 20th century, with the advance of the railroads towards the Paraná River, dozens of municipalities were created along the railroads: Estrada de Ferro Sorocabana, NOB and Companhia Paulista de Estradas de Ferro. Western São Paulo was populated for the first time. Because it was populated along the railroads, western São Paulo was divided into regions called , , and . The railways were built in the highest regions, most suitable for coffee, the so-called spikes, which were less subject to frost.
São Paulo entered the republican era with two trump cards: the wealth brought in by coffee and the free labor system, which had been introduced before the abolition of slavery and had already adapted and integrated into São Paulo's agricultural production. On the other hand, the local autonomy conferred by the new federative regime, in view of the broad rights conferred on the states, resulted in practice in real sovereignty. It came to politically and administratively reinforce the advantages conferred by the two factors above.
Thus equipped, benefiting from the institutional weakness resulting from the Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil, São Paulo combined its economic power with the electoral strength of Minas Gerais and established coffee with milk politics, a reference to São Paola coffee and Minas Gerais’ dairy production. This alliance resulted in a change in federalism in Brazil, whose results are still visible today. For this, the business vision of his businessmen, who were mainly coffee growers and even in the empire had learned to use political power in defense of their economic interests, also competed. They immediately perceived the opportunity to introduce
foreign immigrants and subsidize them with resources from the province, since the imperial government paid more attention to the establishment of colonial nuclei than to salaried immigration. With the institution of the republican regime, they were able to expand their means of action. From then on, until the 1929 crash, they did not lose sight of the expansion and defense of the product that sustained the region's economy.
Despite internal dissension and several dissidents, the Partido Republicano Paulista (PRP) managed to maintain great cohesion in the face of the Union, which allowed it to carry forward a policy that generally satisfied dominant interests and undeniably contributed to the prestige of São Paulo within the federation.
However, the first republican moments in São Paulo were not peaceful. They reflected the agitations and mistakes that occurred at the federal level. As in the other states, a provisional governing board was established. Then governor Prudente de Morais was appointed, but soon resigned. The state government then passed to Jorge Tibiriçá, appointed by Deodoro da Fonseca.
In 1890 the era of political dissension was inaugurated within the PRP, with the opposition exerted by the Centro Republicano de Santos, which in an August 24, 1890 manifesto launched the candidacy of Américo Brasiliense de Almeida Melo. The faculty of law was agitated, while the main republican figures of São Paulo, such as Prudente de Morais, Manuel Ferraz de Campos Sales, Bernardino de Campos and Francisco Glicério de Cerqueira Leite, among others, were concerned about the authoritarianism of marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. He removed Jorge Tibiriçá and delegated power to Américo Brasiliense in 1891, who Deodoro da Fonseca considered the only one capable of organizing São Paulo.
Discontent worsened. Bitter polemics were fought between Campos Sales, through the newspaper , and Francisco Rangel Pestana, with the newspaper O Estado de S. Paulo as a mouthpiece. In this environment, on June 8, 1891, the Constituent Assembly was installed and, in July, Américo Brasiliense, already chosen president of the state, promulgated the first constitution in São Paulo.
Spirits seemed to calm when Deodoro da Fonseca's blow brought the excitement back to life. The capital and the countryside lived in apprehension under the threat of subversion of public order, which was spreading throughout the country. To avoid civil war, Deodoro resigned and the vice president, Floriano Peixoto, took over the presidency of the republic, and then received political and financial support from São Paulo against the uprisings that were spreading across the nation. In return, São Paulo assumed the hegemony of the federation with the election of Prudente de Morais in 1894, which started the series of civilian presidents.
Meanwhile, in the state, Américo Brasiliense handed over the government to Major Sérgio Tertuliano Castelo Branco, who soon passed it on to whoever was entitled: vice president José Alves de Cerqueira César. This, in the face of the spirit of riot and monarchical reaction that reigned, dissolved the Legislative Assembly, immediately called another Congress and deposed all the city councils of the state. Elections were held for deputies and senators for the second state legislature, which took place on April 7, 1892. Always showing determination and firmness, Cerqueira César called on the electorate to choose a new president of the state: Bernardino de Campos, the first São Paulo governor elected by direct suffrage.
After 1904, the mandates of the presidents of the state of São Paulo stabilized, every four years. Jorge Tibiriçá Piratininga reformed the police in São Paulo. In 1910, in a failed campaign, the supported the candidacy of Rui Barbosa to the presidency of the republic, with the president of São Paulo Albuquerque Lins as their vice. Defeated Rui Barbosa and assuming the presidency Hermes da Fonseca, São Paulo took the risk of federal intervention in Salvations Policy, however, with the election of the Counselor Rodrigues Alves, president of São Paulo from 1912 to 1916, thanks to his prestige throughout Brazil, São Paulo escaped federal intervention.
The president of São Paulo from 1916 to 1920, Dr. Altino Arantes Marques, faced the Five Greats: the Great War, the great frost of 1918, the strikes of 1917, the Spanish flu and the invasion of locusts in the interior of São Paulo.
Dr. Washington Luís, who governed São Paulo from 1920 to 1924, revolutionized São Paulo with his motto "Governing is opening roads", and currently, 19 of the 20 best Brazilian highways are from São Paulo.
In 1924, during the Carlos de Campos presidency, the 1924 Revolution took place in São Paulo, which forced Carlos de Campos to withdraw from the capital. Destruction and depredation and bombing happened on the part of the federal government. The rebels were defeated and headed for the interior of Brazil.
Dr. Washington Luís came to the presidency of the republic in 1926; however, he was deposed on October 24, 1930.
Revolutions of 1930 and 1932 (Brazilian Civil War of 1932)
On March 1, 1930, the president of São Paulo, Júlio Prestes, was elected president of the republic, obtaining 91% of the valid votes in São Paulo. The Brazilian Revolution of 1930 however prevented him from taking office, and also overthrew the sitting president, Washington Luís, who had been president of São Paulo from 1920 to 1924. São Paulo was then governed by the winners of the Revolution of 1930, and soon afterwards revolted, leading the Revolution of 1932. Júlio Prestes and Washington Luís were exiled. Newspapers that had supported the Progressive Republican Party (PRP) were shut down.
The 1930s in São Paulo were characterized, from an economic point of view, by efforts to adjust to the conditions created by the world crisis of 1929 and by the collapse of the price of coffee. From a political point of view, the period was marked by a struggle to recover São Paulo's hegemony in the federation, reached by
and finally annihilated by the revolution of 1930. This submitted the state to the action of federal interventionists, who, at first, were not even from São Paulo.
Demands for a São Paulo government soon appeared, which, in the version of the winners of the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, was seen as an attempt to restore the hegemonic groups in São Paulo, whose economic and political interests were being harmed by the new situation. However, even some stakeholders, such as sought to reconcile coffee growing with the new federal government guidance.
Accustomed to leading their own destiny, the ruling classes rose up under the leadership of the Democratic Party, then chaired by Professor Francisco Morato, precisely the party allied with Getulist revolution of 1930. The political organization however broke with the federal government and constituted, with the conservative classes and the old PRP, the (United Front of São Paulo). The latter sought alliance with other states, particularly with the opposition gaúcha, but in the end the rebelled, with the support only of troops from the State de Maracaju (now Mato Grosso do Sul).
On July 9, 1932, the constitutional revolution of São Paulo broke out. Pedro de Toledo of São Paulo was proclaimed governor and governed the state. Battalions of volunteers were formed, and some army units, a strong contingent from Mato Grosso and almost all of the state public force joined the movement. Fifty thousand men initially mobilized, whose command fell to General Bertolo Klingler, and later to Colonel Euclides de Oliveira Figueiredo.
Industry participated in the revolution with enthusiasm. Under the direction of , the entire industrial park in São Paulo was placed at the service of the rebellion, dedicated to war production. Internal supply lines were also organized. The fight lasted, however, only three months and ended with the defeat of the paulistas and the loss of hundreds of lives.
A few months after the surrender, the federal government, in order to pacify the country, decided to call elections for a Constituent assembly, responding to the main objective of the revolutionaries in São Paulo: the restoration of constitutional order. Meanwhile, São Paulo was under military occupation from October 1932 to August 1933. Former governor Pedro de Toledo, his secretariat, and other politicians who took an active part in the revolution were exiled.
Economy
Industrialization and metropolization
After World War I, coffee cultivation faced crises of oversupply and competition from other countries. The government began to regulate by coffee production to avoid these crises. Farms shut down, sending immigrant workers towards São Paulo.
Political pressures arose demanding an end to the predominance of the São Paulo coffee elite, and artistic movements, such as the 1922 Modern Art Week considered the beginning of Brazilian Modernism, propagated new social and economic ideas. External immigration decreased and strikes by anarchists and communists broke out in São Paulo as industrial empires formed, such as that of the Matarazzo family.
In 1930 coffee entered its last crisis, the Crisis of 1929, and the crash of the New York Stock Exchange the previous year, the collapse of overseas grain prices and the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, removed Paulistas from power.
Two years later, in 1932, São Paulo fought Getúlio Vargas in the Constitutionalist revolution in an attempt to retake the lost power, but was defeated militarily. The coffee crisis worsened and a rural exodus to the city of São Paulo emptied the interior of the state.
During the period of Estado Novo with Ademar de Barros as governor of the state and Francisco Prestes Maia mayor of the city of São Paulo, the state entered a new phase of development, with the construction of major highways and hydroelectric plants.
World War II interrupted imports and São Paulo industry began a process of import substitution, producing previously imported products. This process intensified under the Juscelino Kubitschek government, which laid the foundations of the automotive industry in the greater ABC Region.
To supply the necessary manpower, the state now receives millions of northeasterners, from the states of Bahia, Ceará, Pernambuco and Paraíba, who replace the earlier immigrants and now compose the São Paulo middle class as workers. These workers mainly live on the outskirts of São Paulo and in neighboring cities. This rapid population increase caused a process of metropolization, where São Paulo agglomerated with neighboring cities, forming the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo.
In 1960, the city of São Paulo became the largest Brazilian city and primary economic center in the country, surpassing Rio de Janeiro, due to the larger number of migrants to São Paulo.
In this period, São Paulo's policy was dominated by the rivalry between and , the two greatest political leaders in São Paulo, Ademar de Barros and Jânio Quadros.
Industrialization of the interior
In the 1960s and 1970s, the state government promoted several projects to stimulate the economy of the interior, depopulated since the coffee crash in 1930.
The Via Dutra (BR-116) supported the recovery and industrialization of the Vale do Paraíba, concentrated around the aviation industry of São José dos Campos. To the west, Viracopos International Airport, the State University of Campinas (Unicamp), the opening of highways such as Rodovia Anhanguera, Rodovia dos Bandeirantes and Rodovia Washington Luís, and the implementation of modern production techniques, especially for sugarcane and its by-product, fuel alcohol, brought progress back to the Campinas, Sorocaba, Central Administrative Region, Ribeirão Preto and Franca regions.
This economic recovery in the interior accelerated in the 1980s, when countless urban problems, such as violence, pollution and disorderly occupation, afflicted the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo. Between 1980 and 2000 the vast majority of investments made in the state were made outside the capital, which changed from an industrial metropolis to a center of services and finance. The interior, especially the axes between Campinas – Piracicaba – São Carlos – Ribeirão Preto – Franca and Sorocaba – São José dos Campos – Taubaté, became industrialized and prosperous.
However, even with the enrichment and industrialization of the interior, other states have an even higher rate of economic growth than São Paulo, especially the South and Central-West regions.
Currently, although growth is lower and it faces competition from other states, São Paulo is the main economic and industrial hub of South America, the largest consumer market in Brazil.
See also
State of São Paulo
City of São Paulo
List of people from São Paulo
References
Bibliography
Environmental history
JORDÃO, S. A contribuição da geomorfologia para o conhecimento da fitogeografia nativa do estado de São Paulo e da representatividade das Unidades de Conservação de Proteção Integral. Doctoral Thesis in Sciences, University of São Paulo, 2011. link.
ENVIRONMENT SECRETARIAT (SECRETARIA DE MEIO AMBIENTE (SMA)). Nos Caminhos da Biodiversidade Paulista (Org. Marcelo Leite). São Paulo: Official Press, 2007.
USTERI, A. Flora der umgebung der stadt São Paulo in Brasilien. Jena: G. Fischer, 1911. link.
VICTOR, M. A. M. et al. Cem anos de devastação: revisitada 30 anos depois. Brasília: Ministry of the Environment, 2005. link.
WANDERLEY, M.G.L. et al., coords. Flora Fanerogâmica do Estado de São Paulo. Botany Institute, São Paulo. 2001 – present. 8 vol. link.
Archeology and indigenous peoples
AFONSO, Marisa Coutinho. Um painel da arqueologia pré-histórica no Estado de São Paulo: os sítios cerâmicos. Especiaria: Cadernos de Ciências Humanas, v. 11–12, n. 20–21, 2008–2009, p. 127-155, .
DORNELLES, Soraia Sales. A questão indígena e o Império: índios, terra, trabalho e violência na província paulista, 1845-1891. Thesis (doctorate) - State University of Campinas, Institute of Philosophy and Human Sciences, Campinas, 2016, link.
MONTEIRO, John et al. Índios no Estado de São Paulo: resistência e transfiguração. São Paulo: Yankatu, 1984, link.
SCHADEN, Egon. Os primitivos habitantes do território paulista. Revista de História, v. 8, n. 18, p. 385-406, 1954.
WICHERS, Camila Azevedo de Moraes. Mosaico Paulista: guia do patrimônio arqueológico do estado de São Paulo. São Paulo: Zanettini Arqueologia, 2010, .
Slavery
QUEIROZ, Suely Robles Reis de. Escravidão negra em São Paulo: um estudo das tensões provocadas pelo escravismo no século XIX. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria J. Olympio Editora, 1977.
Coffee and industrialization
DEAN, Warren. A industrialização de São Paulo (1880-1945). São Paulo: Difel, Edusp, 1971. [1a ed., 1969, link.]
MILLIET, Sérgio. Roteiro do Café. São Paulo: Ed. Bipa, 1946.
Others
BASSANEZI, Maria Silvia C. Beozzo; SCOTT, Ana Silvia Volpi; BACELLAR, Carlos de Almeida Prado; TRUZZI, O. M. S. Roteiro de fontes sobre a imigração em São Paulo 1850-1950. São Paulo: UNESP, 2008. 314p .
GODOY, J. M. T. Identidade e regionalismo paulista: trajetória e mutações. Anais do XXVI Simpósio Nacional de História - ANPUH, São Paulo, July 2011, link.
SOUZA, Ricardo Luiz de. História regional e identidade: o caso de São Paulo. História & Perspectivas, Uberlândia, 36–37, 2007, pp. 389–411, .
External links
Full edition of the book History of the Captaincy of São Vicente Pedro Taques de Almeida Paes Leme (in PDF format)
Memories for the history of the captaincy of S. Vicente, author Frei Gaspar da Madre de Deus
São Paulo (state)
History of São Paulo (state) |
10518745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capetian%20House%20of%20Anjou | Capetian House of Anjou | The Capetian House of Anjou, or House of Anjou-Sicily, was a royal house and cadet branch of the direct French House of Capet, part of the Capetian dynasty. It is one of three separate royal houses referred to as Angevin, meaning "from Anjou" in France. Founded by Charles I of Anjou, the youngest son of Louis VIII of France, the Capetian king first ruled the Kingdom of Sicily during the 13th century. The War of the Sicilian Vespers later forced him out of the island of Sicily, which left him with the southern half of the Italian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Naples. The house and its various branches would go on to influence much of the history of Southern and Central Europe during the Middle Ages until it became extinct in 1435.
Historically, the house ruled the Counties of Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Provence and Forcalquier; the Principalities of Achaea and Taranto; and the Kingdoms of Sicily, Naples, Hungary, Croatia, Albania and Poland.
Rise of Charles I and his sons
A younger son of House of Capet king Louis VIII of France the Lion, Charles was first given a noble title by his brother Louis IX of France who succeeded to the French throne in 1226. Charles was named Count of Anjou and Maine; the feudal County of Anjou was a western vassal state of the Kingdom of France, which the Capetians had wrested from the House of Plantagenet only a few decades earlier. Charles married the heiress of the County of Provence named Beatrice of Provence, she was a member of the House of Barcelona; this meant Charles' holdings were growing as Count of Provence. After fighting in the Seventh Crusade, Charles was offered by Pope Clement IV the Kingdom of Sicily — which at the time included not only the island of Sicily but also the southern half of the Italian Peninsula. The reason for Charles being offered the kingdom was because of a conflict between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, the latter of whom were represented by the ruling House of Hohenstaufen.
It was at the Battle of Benevento that the Guelph Capetians gained the Sicilian kingdom from the Ghibelline Swabians, this was cemented after victory at Tagliacozzo. In keeping with the political landscape of the period, Charles is described by scholars as shrewd, energetic and highly ambitious. He signed the Treaty of Viterbo in 1267 with Baldwin II of Courtenay and William II of Villehardouin, the political alliance gave many of the rights of the Latin Empire to Charles and a marriage alliance for his daughter Beatrice of Sicily. The Byzantines had taken back the city of Constantinople in 1261 and this was a plan to take it back from Michael VIII Palaiologos. It also recognised Charles' possession of Corfu and cities in the Balkans such as Durazzo, as well as giving him suzerainty over the Principality of Achaea and sovereignty of the Aegean islands aside from those already held by the Republic of Venice. For a while Charles was preoccupied helping his French brother in the unsuccessful Eighth Crusade on Tunis. After this he once again focused on Constantinople, but his fleet was wrecked in a freak storm off the coast of Trapani. With the elevation of Pope Gregory X, there was a truce between Charles and Michael in the form of the Council of Lyons, as Christians focused on improving ecumenical relations, with hopes of regaining the Kingdom of Jerusalem back from the Muslims.
Charles had fully solidified his rule over Durazzo by 1272, creating a small Kingdom of Albania for himself, out of previously Despotate of Epirus territory; he was well received by local chiefs.
Charles was driven out of Sicily in 1282, but his successors ruled Naples until 1435.
Charles II and division of the inheritance
This House of Anjou included the branches of Anjou-Hungary, which ruled Hungary (1308–1385, 1386–1395) and Poland (1370–1399), Anjou-Taranto, which ruled the remnants of the Latin Empire (1313–1374) and Anjou-Durazzo, which ruled Naples (1382–1435) and Hungary (1385–1386).
The senior line of the House of Anjou-Durazzo became extinct in the male line with the death of King Ladislaus of Naples in 1414, and totally extinct with the death of his sister Joanna II in 1435.
Cadet branches
Hungary
During the Middle Ages, there were several marriages between the Árpád dynasty and the House of Capet. Charles I, founder of the House of Anjou-Sicily, with his first wife, Beatrice of Provence fathered his eldest son, Charles II of Naples. (Their youngest daughter, Elizabeth was given in marriage to the future Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1269, but Ladislaus preferred his mistresses to her, and the marriage remained childless). In 1270, Charles II married Mary of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman. They had fourteen children which provided the House of Anjou-Sicily with a secure position in Naples.
The childless Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1262–1290), was succeeded by Andrew III as King of Hungary. He was the son of Stephen the Posthumous, considered by Stephen's much older half-brothers (Béla IV of Hungary, Coloman of Halych, Andrew II of Halych) a bastard son of infidelity. For this reason, after the death of Ladislaus IV. some of the Árpád dynasty's cognates sought the family as extinct. In Naples, Charles Martel of Anjou, the eldest son of Mary of Hungary announced his claim to the Hungarian crown, backed by his mother, and the Pope. He started to style himself King of Hungary, but he never managed to gain enough support from the Hungarian magnates to realize his claim.
With Andrew III's childless death (1301), the "last golden branch" of the tree of King Saint Stephen's family ended. The Hungarian diet was determined to keep the blood of Saint Stephen (first king of Hungary) on the throne in the maternal line at least. In the upcoming years, a civil war followed between various claimants to the throne. After the short period of rule of Wenceslaus of Bohemia (1301–1305), and Otto of Bavaria (1305–1307) the civil war ended with Charles Robert's (1308–1342) victory, the son of Charles Martel of Anjou, but he was forced to continue fighting against the powerful Hungarian lords up to the early 1320s.
I. Charles I of Anjou 1226/7–1285 king of Sicily(-Naples) = Beatrice of Provence
II. Blanche (died 1269) = Robert lord of Béthune
II. Beatrice 1252–1275 = Philip titular Latin Emperor of Constantinople
II. Elisabeth 1261–1303 = Ladislaus IV of Hungary
II. Charles II of Naples the Lame 1254–1309 = Mary of Hungary
III. Charles Martel (1271–1295), titular King of Hungary = Clemence of Austria
IV. Charles I (1288–1342), King of Hungary = 1. Maria of Galicia (?), 2. Mary of Bytom, 3. Beatrice of Luxembourg, 4. Elisabeth of Poland
V. (1.) Catherine (died 1355) = Henry II, Duke of Świdnica
V. (4.) Charles (1321–1321/3)
V. (4.) Ladislaus (1324–1329)
V. (4.) Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382) = 1. Margaret of Bohemia, 2. Elizabeth of Bosnia
VI. (2.) Catherine (1370–1378)
VI. (2.) Mary of Hungary 1371–1395 = Sigismund of Luxembourg
VI. (2.) Jadwiga of Poland 1373/4–1399 = Władysław II Jagiełło
V. (4.) Andrew, Duke of Calabria (1327–1345) = Joanna I of Naples
VI. Charles Martel, Duke of Calabria (1345–1348)
V. (4.) Elizabeth (?) (b. 1327/1332) = Boleslaus II of Troppau
V. (4.) Stephen (1332–1354) duke of Slavonia = Margaret of Bavaria
VI. Elizabeth 1352–1380 = Philip II, Prince of Taranto, titular Emperor of Constantinople
VI. John (1354–1360), duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia
V. Coloman (1317–1375), Bishop of Győr - illegitimate son with daughter of Gurke Csák
IV. Beatrice (1290–1354) = Jean II de La Tour du Pin, Dauphin du Viennois
IV. Clementia of Hungary (1293–1328) = Louis X of France
III. Margaret (1273–1299) = Charles of Valois
III. Saint Louis of Toulouse (1274–1298), Bishop of Toulouse
III. Robert the Wise (1275–1343), King of Naples = 1. Yolanda of Aragon, 2. Sancia of Majorca
IV. (1.) Charles (1298–1328), Duke of Calabria, Viceroy of Naples = 1. Catherine of Habsburg (1295–1323), 2. Marie of Valois (1309–1332)
V. (2.) Eloisa (1325–1325)
V. (2.) Joanna I of Naples (1326–1382) = Andrew, Duke of Calabria (1327–1345)
V. (2.) Charles Martel (1327–1327)
V. (2.) Maria of Calabria (1329–1366) = 1. Charles, Duke of Durazzo 2. Robert of Baux, Count of Avellino 3. Philip II, Prince of Taranto
IV. (1.) Louis (1301–1310)
IV. (i.) Charles d'Artois , grand chamberlain for Queen Joanna I - illegitimate with Cantelma Cantelmo
IV. (i.) Maria d'Aquino (Boccaccio's Fiammetta) - illegitimate
IV. (i.) Helene - illegitimate = Andrea Thopia, Lord of Matija.
III. Philip I 1278–1331, Prince of Taranto and Achaea = 1. Thamar Angelina Komnene 2. Catherine of Valois–Courtenay
IV. (1.) Charles of Taranto 1296–1315, vicar of Romania
IV. (1.) Joan of Anjou 1297–1323 = 1.Oshin of Armenia 2. Oshin of Korikos
IV. (1) Margarete 1298–1340 = Walter VI, Count of Brienne titular duke of Athens
IV. (1.) Philip, Despot of Romania 1300–1330 = Violante (daughter of James II of Aragon)
IV. (1.) Maria 1301/4–1368, abbess in Conversano
IV. (1.) Blanche 1309–1337 = Ramon Berenguer infante of Aragon, count of Prades (son of James II of Aragon)
IV. (1.) Beatrice = Walter II of Brienne.
IV. (2.) Margaret = Francis de Baux duke of Adria
IV. (2.) Robert, Prince of Taranto 1326–1365, titular Latin emperor of Constantinople
IV. (2.) Louis, Prince of Taranto 1327/8–1362, king of Naples as husband of Joanna I of Naples
IV. (2.) Philip, Prince of Taranto 1329–1374, prince of Achaea, titular Latin emperor of Constantinople = 1. Maria of Calabria 2. Elisabeth of Slavonia
III. Blanche of Anjou (1280–1310) = James II of Aragon
III. Raymond Berengar (1281–1307), Count of Provence, Prince of Piedmont and Andria = Margaret of Clermont
III. John (1283–1308), a priest
III. Tristan (1284–bef. 1288)
III. Eleanor of Anjou, (1289–1341) = Frederick III of Sicily
III. Maria of Naples (1290–c. 1346) = 1. Sancho I of Majorca, 2. Jaime de Ejerica
III. Peter Tempesta (1291–1315), Count of Gravina
III. John (1276–1335), Duke of Durazzo, Prince of Achaea, and Count of Gravina = 1. Matilda of Hainaut (1293–1336), 2. Agnes of Périgord (d. 1345)
IV. (2.) Charles, Duke of Durazzo (1323–1348) = Maria of Calabria
V. Joanna, Duchess of Durazzo 1344–1387 = 1. Louis, Count of Beaumont 2. Robert IV of Artois, Count of Eu
V. Agnes of Durazzo 1345–138 = Cansignorio della Scala lord of Verona 2. James of Baux
V. Margaret of Durazzo 1347–1412 = Charles III of Naples
IV. (2.) Louis, Count of Gravina (1324–1362) = Margaret of Sanseverino
V. Louis (1344–d. young)
V. Charles III (1345–1386), king of Naples (1382–1386) and Hungary (1385–1386) = Margaret of Durazzo
VI. Joanna II of Naples 1371–1435 = 1. William, Duke of Austria 2. James II, Count of La Marche
VI. Ladislaus of Naples 1377–1414 = 1. Costanza Chiaramonte, 2. Mary of Lusignan, 3. Mary of Enghien
V. Agnes (1347–d. young)
IV. (2.) Robert of Durazzo (1326–1356)
III. Beatrice (1295–c. 1321) = 1. Azzo VIII d'Este, marchese of Ferrara, 2. Bertrand III of Baux, Count of Andria (d. 1351)
II. Philip 1256–1277, elected king of Sardinia - died childless
II. Robert 1258–1265 - died childless
The three surviving sons of Charles Robert (Charles I of Hungary) were Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), Andrew, Duke of Calabria (1327-1345), and Stephen, Duke of Slavonia (1332-1354). Louis I had only two surviving daughters, Mary of Hungary (1371-1395), who married the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg, and Hedwig of Poland (1373/74-1399), who was given in marriage to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Władysław II Jagiełło, the future King of Poland. (See the section of Poland.) After Louis I's death without male heirs, Mary's husband, Sigismund of Luxembourg (1368-1437) managed to be accepted as Mary's co-ruler, by the Hungarian lords. When the queen died (1395) the Hungarian crown passed over to the House of Luxembourg.
In 1333, the six years old second son of Charles Robert, Andrew (1327–1345) was taken to the court of Naples by his father for dynastic purposes, who put him under guardianship of Robert the Wise. Andrew was betrothed in 1334 to his cousin Joanna, granddaughter and heiress apparent of King Robert of Naples; Andrew's father was a fraternal nephew of King Robert. At the age of 15 he married Joanna I of Naples. After the death of Robert (1343), the King of Naples, Andrew became a victim of power clashes in the court of Naples.
Robert's claim to the throne was rather tenuous and did not follow primogeniture. Andrew's grandfather, Charles Martel of Anjou, had died young; therefore, the throne should have passed to Andrew's father. However, due to fears of impending invasion from Sicily, it was felt that a seven-year-old heir was too risky and would not be able to hold off invasions. The throne was offered to the next son of Charles II of Naples, Louis, but he refused on religious grounds, and it thus passed to Robert. To recompensate Andrew's father, Charles II decided to assign him the claim to Hungary.
When King Robert died in 1343, in his last will and testament, he formally bequeathed his kingdom to his granddaughter Joanna, making no mention of Andrew and thus denying him the right to reign along with Joanna. With the approval of Pope Clement VI, Joanna was crowned sole monarch of Naples in August 1344. Fearing for his life, Andrew wrote to his mother Elizabeth that he would soon flee the kingdom. She intervened, and made a state visit, before she returned to Hungary allegedly bribing Pope Clement to reverse himself and permit the coronation of Andrew.
Hearing of the Pope's reversal, a group of noble conspirators (the involvement of Queen Joanna is unproved) determined to forestall Andrew's coronation. During a hunting trip at Aversa, Andrew left his room in the middle of the night and was set upon by the conspirators. A treacherous servant barred the door behind him, and, as Joanna cowered in their bed, a terrible struggle ensued, Andrew defending himself furiously and shrieking for aid. He was finally overpowered, strangled with a cord, and flung from a window. Isolde, Andrew's Hungarian nurse took the Prince's corpse to the church of the monks, and remained with it until next morning mourning it. When the Hungarian knights arrived she told them everything in their mother tongue so no one else would learn about the truth, and soon they left Naples reporting everything to the Hungarian King.
The deed would taint the rest of Joanna's reign, although she was twice acquitted of any charge in the trials that followed. Andrew's elder brother Louis I of Hungary several times invaded the Kingdom of Naples and drove out Joanna, only to meet with reverses.
In November 1347, Louis set out for Naples with some 1,000 soldiers (Hungarians and Germans), mostly mercenaries. When he reached the border of Joanna's kingdom, he had 2,000 Hungarian knights, 2,000 mercenary heavy cavalry, 2,000 Cuman horse archers and 6000 mercenary heavy infantry. Joanna in the meantime had married her cousin Louis of Taranto and had signed a peace with Naples' traditional enemy, the Kingdom of Sicily. The army of Naples, 2,700 knights and 5,000 infantrymen, was led by Louis of Taranto. On January 11, 1348, in the Battle of Capua, the king of Hungary defeated the army of Louis of Taranto. Four days later the queen repaired to Provence, while her husband followed soon afterwards. All the kingdom's barons swore loyalty to the new ruler as he marched to Naples from Benevento. While visiting Aversa, where his brother had been murdered, Louis had Charles of Durazzo assassinated in revenge by his condottiero. The Neapolitans, who had quickly grown unhappy with the severe Hungarian rule, called back Joan, who paid for her return expedition by selling her rights on Avignon to the popes. She landed near Naples and easily captured it, but the Hungarian commander Ulrich von Wolfart commanded a strong resistance in Apulia. Joanna and Louis would await a new trial on Andrew's assassination, to be held in Avignon. The verdict was Joanna's acquittal from any charge in January 1352, and a peace was signed with Hungary on March 23, 1352. Ultimately, 37 years later, Louis' kinsman Charles III of Naples conquered Naples with Hungarian aid and put Joanna to death.
Stephen of Anjou (1332–1354), Duke of Slavonia, the third surviving son of Charles Robert, died before his older brother. For this reason, he (and his son) had no chance to take over the rule neither in Hungary, nor in Poland. In 1350, he married Margaret of Bavaria. His marriage with a German princess made him unpopular in Poland. The Polish noblemen acknowledged Louis as Casimir III's sole heir in July 1351 only after he had promised that he would not allow Stephen to participate in the government of Poland. Margaret gave birth to a daughter Elizabeth (in 1370 she married Philip of Taranto), and a son John, who inherited Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia from his father, but he was still a child when he died in 1360.
On the death of Louis I of Hungary, Charles III of Naples, son of Louis of Durazzo (1324–1362), the great-grandson of Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, claimed the Hungarian throne as the senior Angevin male, and ousted Louis' daughter Mary of Hungary in December 1385. It was not difficult for him to reach the power, as he counted with the support of several Croatian lords, and many contacts which he made during his period as Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Elizabeth of Bosnia, widow of Louis and mother of Mary, arranged to have Charles assassinated on 7 February 1386. He died of wounds at Visegrád on 24 February. His son, Ladislaus of Naples would try to obtain the crown of Hungary in the future, but never reached his goal.
Poland
In 1355, the last Piast king of Poland, Casimir III, designated his sororal nephew, the Angevin king Louis I of Hungary, as his heir presumptive by the Privilege of Buda. Upon the death of Casimir (5 November 1370), who left no legitimate sons, Louis ascended the Polish throne virtually unopposed. The Polish nobility welcomed his accession, rightly believing that Louis would be an absentee king who would not take much interest in Polish affairs. He sent his mother Elizabeth, sister of Casimir III, to govern Poland as regent. Louis probably considered himself first and foremost king of Hungary; he visited his northern kingdom three times and spent there a couple of months altogether. Negotiations with the Polish nobility frequently took place in Hungary. Hungarians themselves were unpopular in Poland, as was the king's Polish mother who governed the kingdom. In 1376, circa 160 Hungarians in her retinue were massacred in Kraków and the queen returned to Hungary disgraced. Louis replaced her with their relative, Vladislaus II of Opole.
The Hungarian-Polish union fell apart after Louis died in 1382. The dissatisfied Polish nobles demanded that his successor in Hungary, Mary, move to Kraków and reign over Hungary and Poland from there. Mary's mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia (widow of Louis and grandniece of Casimir III's father, Vladislaus I), knew that the lack of supporters would render her influence at least as restricted as that of her mother-in-law and refused to move. She abandoned the idea of attempting to subdue the Polish nobility by force and agreed to send her younger surviving daughter, Hedwig, to be crowned as Louis' successor in Poland.
Hedvig (known as Jadwiga in Poland) was crowned "king" in Poland's capital, Kraków, on 16 October 1384. Her coronation either reflected the Polish nobility's opposition to her intended husband, William, becoming king without further negotiation, or simply emphasized her status as queen regnant. With her mother's consent, Jadwiga's advisors opened negotiations with Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was still a pagan, concerning his potential marriage to Jadwiga. Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo, pledging to convert to Roman Catholicism and to promote his pagan subjects' conversion. Jogaila, who took the baptismal name Władysław, married Jadwiga on 15 February 1386. Jogaila, now in Polish styled Władysław Jagiełło, was crowned King of Poland on 4 March 1386. As Jadwiga's co-ruler, Jagiełło worked closely with his wife. Hedvig (or Jadwiga) was childless for over a decade. She became pregnant in late 1398 or early 1399. A newborn princess named Elizabeth Bonifacia was delivered on 22 June 1399 at Wawel Castle. However, the infant died after only three weeks, on 13 July 1399.[153] Jadwiga, too, was on her deathbed. She died on 17 July 1399, four days after her newborn daughter. Thus, the Polish throne went over to the Jagiellonian dynasty of Lithuanian origin. The union of Poland and Lithuania was a decisive moment in the histories of both countries; it marked a beginning of the four centuries of shared history. By 1569, the Polish–Lithuanian union grew into a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and lasted until the Third Partition in 1795.
Naples
Taranto
Albania
The Kingdom of Albania, or Regnum Albaniae, was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territory he acquired from the Despotate of Epirus in the year 1271. He took the title of "King of Albania" in February 1272. The kingdom briefly extended from the region of Dyrrhachium (present-day Durrës in Albania) south along the coast to Butrint. A major attempt to advance further in direction of Constantinople, failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive soon ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1282. The Sicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the kingdom was soon reduced by the Epirotes to a small area centered around Durrës. The Angevins held Durrës until 1368, when Karl Thopia captured the city.
Genealogy of Capetian-Anjou
Titles
Designation and details
List of monarchs
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Poland
References
Sources
External links
Anjou
Hungarian royal houses
Hungarian nobility
Neapolitan royal houses
Italian nobility
Neapolitan nobility
Polish royal houses |
30948483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source%20of%20the%20Amazon%20River | Source of the Amazon River | The main source of the largest river in the world has been a subject of exploring and speculations for centuries and continues to cause arguments even today. Determining the origin of the Amazon River has evoked broad debates among scholars, explorers, and travelers all over the world. Different definitions of a river's source have been used and continue to be used. Generally, four main criteria can be applied to determine the main source of a river: source flow rate, source length, watershed area of the source, and an altitude of its spring. At present, the Amazon River is not considered to have one unique source but a number of headstream areas. These are headwaters of three different Peruvian rivers that can be found in the high Andes: the Marañón, the Apurímac, and the Mantaro.
Background
The Amazon River is the largest river in the world in terms of its flow rate. In addition, it is the second longest river, measuring 6,575 km (4,086 mi) from its source to the mouth of the Atlantic Ocean after the Nile River which is considered to be the longest river in the world (see Source of the Nile River), although there is some dispute. About halfway through its length, upstream from the city of Iquitos, Peru, the Amazon divides into the Marañón and Ucayali Rivers. Both of these rivers have been considered the main sources of the Amazon so far. The Marañón has the higher flow rate, while the Ucayali is longer. In the Ucayali basin are the two farthest sources of the Amazon, the Apurímac and Mantaro Rivers.
The Marañón, Mantaro and Apurímac Rivers originate in the high mountain area of the Peruvian Andes at altitudes over . All three sources are considered to be the source of the Amazon, but from different points of view. The Marañón can be considered as the main source of the Amazon based on its discharge, but the Ucayali and its tributaries are longer compared to of the Marañón. The main source of the Amazon River is therefore difficult to determine, so it is correct to talk about several of its source areas.
The Marañón River headwaters
The source of the Marañón River had been considered the main source of the Amazon River for a number of centuries. This source was determined by a Czech Jesuit priest named Father Samuel Fritz who sailed the Amazon River from its mouth upstream and drew the first map of the Amazon River basin. His map from 1707 shows the Marañón River as larger than the Ucayali River, and thus the main source of the Amazon River. Fritz believed that the Marañón contributed the most water of all the Amazon's tributaries, making it the most important headstream. He pinpointed the source of the Marañón River as Lake Lauricocha in the high Western Andes. This lake () is located at an altitude of . The Lauricocha River issuing from Lake Lauricocha joins the Nupe River north of the lake near the town of Rondos and the union of the two small rivers forms what is afterwards known as the Marañón River.
Fritz's claim about the main source of the Amazon River was unchallenged for nearly 200 years. In the late 19th century, an Italian-born Peruvian geographer and scientist Antonio Raimondi proposed that the Nupe River, which he said was a longer and more voluminous river than the Lauricocha River, is the main head stream. The Nupe River has its origin in a system of small lakes near one of the highest peaks of the Huayhuash Range called Siula Grande. The uppermost lake is called Quesillococha ().
Half a century later, in 1952, two Englishmen, Sebastian Snow and John Brown, identified a small glacial lake called Niñococha, as the source of the Amazon River. The stream from this lake, located in the Raura mountain range, flows down through the Raura silver mine to Lake Lauricocha. Afterwards, Snow went down the Amazon River all the way to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Niñococha () is located at an altitude of .
The Apurímac River headwaters
In the 1930s attention turned to the headwaters of the Apurímac River. In 1935, Lake Vilafro (), located at an altitude of was identified as the main source of the Amazon River. In 1969, Carlos Peñaherrera del Aguila, a prominent Peruvian geographer, was the first to label the Carhuasanta River (and the Lloqueta River) flowing down the Mismi Mountain in southern Peru as a possible ultimate source. Two years later the eleven million dollar "Cousteau Amazon Expedition" examined the question, culminating in a six-hour television documentary entitled "Cousteau's Amazon", which was released in 1983. This expedition was broken into three separate groups and the upper Amazon section was covered by "The Flying Expedition" tasked with exploring the upper third from the river's origin on Mt. Mismi. The expedition utilised newly developed satellite imagery, measured by an American cartographic organization to determine the furthest point of flowing water to its meeting the Atlantic Ocean. The Upper Amazon expedition included an Eastern European multi-axled articulated Land Rover, a float plane Papagaiu, for aerial reconnaissance, and the Peruvian Air Force who offered a high elevation helicopter to examine the upper levels of the Chila mountain range and Mt. Mismi.
Cousteau dispatched a team of German alpinists to summit the 18,000 feet (5,486 m) volcano and during their descent they found melt water dropping into a fissure. This deep cleft in the southern slope of Mismi varied in size from two meters to half a meter wide, angling down the slope. The stream within flowed nearly fifty meters before disappearing, becoming ground water, then emerging lower downstream to continue its course. Within this fissure, the water was deep enough to float a small craft presenting the expedition with an opportunity to navigate the highest and furthest origin of the Amazon. Cousteau brought American, Olympic trained kayaker Caril Ridley to the mountain, who with expedition support ascended the mountain from a small pampas lake, using a Llama train bearing ropes, kayak and equipment, and in June, 1982 became the first person to run the origins of the Amazon.
Later expeditions have refined our understanding of the river's many tributaries and meandering flow with its many-disputed origins. The definition of a "rivers origin" remains subject of debate by communities, organizations, expeditions and adventurers seeking to claim the prize. But this small lake at the northern foot of Mismi with its high elevation crevasse remains the most likely candidate.
A National Geographic Society expedition led by Loren McIntyre identified a small lake , on the northern slope of the Mismi Mountain as the main source. This lake, named Lake McIntyre, later incorrectly appeared on some maps as "Laguna Bohemia". The real Laguna Bohemia , was later identified by a Czech-Peruvian expedition led by Bohumír Janský as one of the main sources of the Amazon.
Other expeditions were led to this area. In 1996, Polish-born Jacek Palkiewicz and Peruvian Zaniel I. Novoa Goicochea refuted Lake McIntyre and identified a small spring beneath a cliff in the catchment of the Apacheta River near Nevado Choquecorao , as the main source. Their argument was that the Apacheta is larger and longer than the Carhuasanta. However, this argument was later refuted. After the confluence of the Carhuasanta and Apacheta Rivers, the Lloqueta River originates.
In 1999–2000, a Czech scientific team led by Bohumír Janský from the Charles University in Prague, linked to the opinion of Carlos Peñaherrera del Aguila, cooperated with him and named the Carhuasanta River the main source of the Amazon. In 2011 Janský and his team published the results of a years-long project documenting their claim. They described four streams (Carhuasanta, Apacheta, Sillanque and Ccaccansa) forming the Lloqueta River in great detail. Based on these outcomes, the Carhuasanta River is the longest and has the largest drainage area. They identified two sources of the Carhuasanta River, Laguna Bohemia (or Lake Bohemia) and so-called Rocky Spring. In order to monitor the hydrological conditions and have further evidence to support the claim, Janský's team has since installed a number of hydrological and climatic stations in this area. Present research confirms their claim of the Carhuasanta River as the main source of the Amazon in the sense of the highest uninterrupted flow rate. By 2007, all glaciers in the area of Lloqueta River headwaters disappeared as a consequence of ongoing climate change. This fact resulted in a change of local hydrological conditions but the two identified sources remain uninterrupted.
The Mantaro River headwaters
In 2014, James Contos and Nicholas Tripcevich came up with a finding that the most distant source of the Amazon is called the Mantaro River. They located the most distant spring in the headwaters of Lake Junin in the Rumi Cruz mountains , at an elevation of . Contos and Tripcevich calculated and compared the length of the Apurímac and Mantaro Rivers and found that the Mantaro River is about longer. Nevertheless, Contos and Tripcevich acknowledge that the flow of the Mantaro River source is interrupted several months a year and thus a drop of water at its source may not complete the journey to the mouth of the Amazon.
Headstream areas of the Amazon River
Traditionally, many geographers and explorers have defined a source as the most distant point upstream that provides the largest volume of water to a river. However, this criterion is not easy to employ in the case of most of the world's largest rivers. Depending on which definition or interpretation is preferred, there can certainly be a couple of different answers for the source of a given river.
Thus, a number of headstream areas of the Amazon River should be considered:
the Marañon River (the Lauricocha and Nupe Rivers) in a historical context;
the Mantaro River with the most distant but semi-permanent spring;
the Apurímac River (the Carhuasanta River) with the most distant source of uninterrupted flow.
Notes
References
Amazon River
Upper Amazon
Rivers of Peru
River morphology |
1280808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Pinchuk | Victor Pinchuk | Victor Mykhailovych Pinchuk (, Viktor Mykhailovych Pinchuk; born 14 December 1960) is a Ukrainian businessman and oligarch. As of January 2016, Forbes ranked him as 1,250th on the list of wealthiest people in the world, with a fortune of US$1.44 billion.
Pinchuk is the founder of EastOne Group LLC, an international investing, project funding and financial advisory company based in London, and of Interpipe Group, one of Ukraine's leading pipe, wheel and steel producers. Pinchuk is the owner of four TV channels and a popular tabloid, Fakty i Kommentarii. He has been a member of the Ukrainian parliament, the Verkhovna Rada, for two consecutive terms from 1998 to 2006. He is married to Olena Pinchuk, the daughter of former Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma.
Early life and career
Pinchuk was born in 1960 in Kyiv to Jewish parents who moved to the industrial city of Dnipropetrovsk. He graduated from Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute with a doctorate in industrial engineering in 1987. Three years later, he founded the Interpipe Company on the basis of his patented innovations, which were adopted by leading metallurgical factories in the USSR.
Interpipe is a major producer of seamless pipes and railway wheels. In 2004, Pinchuk and Rinat Akhmetov, two of Ukraine's richest men, acquired the Kryvorizhstal steel factory for about $800 million. Then-President Leonid Kuchma, who is Pinchuk's father-in-law, authorized the state asset sale, which competitors complained was far below market rate. Later, the first Tymoshenko government reversed this sale, and held a nationally televised repeat auction that netted $4.8 billion. In 2006, Pinchuk founded an investment advisory company, EastOne. Its portfolio includes industrial assets such as production of pipes and tubes, rail car wheels, specialty steels and alloys, machinery, as well as media.
Pinchuk was a member of the Ukrainian Parliament between 1998 and 2006 for Labour Ukraine. He left politics after he came to the conclusion that Ukraine had reached a level of development when business and politics should be separated.
Pinchuk is a member of the Board of the Peterson Institute for International Economics, of the International Advisory Council of Brookings Institution and of the Corporate Advisory Board of the Global Business Coalition against HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria. Pinchuk holds a share of VS Energy International Ukraine together with Mikhail Spektor and Igor Kolomoisky.
In 2013, American steel makers filed a case with the United States Department of Commerce alleging that Interpipe Group was illegally dumping steel tubes into the American natural gas market. In November 2013, Fitch Ratings downgraded Interpipe because of the dumping accusations and a missed $106 million debt payment.
In 2015, Pinchuk brought a $2 billion civil action against fellow Ukrainian oligarchs Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Gennadiy Bogolyubov in the High Court of Justice in London over the 2004 purchase of a Ukrainian mining company. Allegations made include murder and bribery. In January 2016, an undisclosed out of court settlement was reached just before the trial was due to start.
In December 2016, Viktor Pinchuk published an article in the Wall Street Journal "Ukraine Must Make Painful Compromises for Peace With Russia", in which he suggested that Ukraine temporarily abandon the prospect of EU membership, exclude NATO membership and make a compromise with Russia on the Crimea peninsula on purpose the achieving peace in Eastern Ukraine.
The article drew criticism from the political authorities of Ukraine. After its publication, then-President Petro Poroshenko canceled a visit to the Davos Ukrainian Lunch, which took place on January 19, 2017.
Former Vice-Prime-Minister for European and Euro-Atlantic Integration of Ukraine Ivanna Klimpush-Tsintsadze said that the theses of Pinchuk's "peace plan" had already been used by Russian propaganda.
Philanthropy
Pinchuk has supported philanthropic projects in Ukraine. In 2006, he consolidated these activities under the Victor Pinchuk Foundation, which is now considered the largest private Ukrainian philanthropic foundation. The foundation is active in the fields of health, education, culture, international affairs, human rights and local communities.
The foundation's projects include the largest private scholarship program in Ukraine "Zavtra.UA", the scholarship program for Ukrainian students studying abroad "WorldWideStudies", and the annual "Ukrainian Lunch" and "Philanthropic Roundtable" on the occasion of the World Economic Forum in Davos. The foundation supports and works with a variety of partners, including the network "Yalta European Strategy" created to promote Ukraine's European integration, the Clinton Global Initiative, the Kyiv School of Economics, Tony Blair Faith Foundation, the Brookings Institution, the Peterson Institute for International Economics, the Israeli Presidential Conference "Facing Tomorrow", and the legal clinics/legal aid projects of the Renaissance Foundation.
Its projects include giving $150,000 to the Trump Foundation as speaking fee in 2015, the creation of a network of modern neonatal centres throughout Ukraine ("Cradles of Hope"), cooperation programs with the Clinton Global Initiative, the Elton John AIDS Foundation and the ANTIAIDS Foundation of his wife Olena Pinchuk, the creation of the Kyiv School of Economics, a cooperation with the Aspen Institute, the opening of the first large scale contemporary art centre in Ukraine PinchukArtCentre, the production and promotion of a film with Steven Spielberg on the Holocaust in Ukraine, and support of local Jewish communities.
In June 2009, Pinchuk organized the Paul McCartney free concert on Independence Square in Kyiv in front of 500,000 people. As an initiative of the Pinchuk Art Center, in December 2009, Pinchuk announced a new $100,000 prize for artists under the age of 35. The Future Generation Art Prize is awarded every two years and is open to any young artist who applies online. Damien Hirst, Takashi Murakami, Andreas Gursky and Jeff Koons, artists whose work Pinchuk collects, serve as mentors to the finalists and the winner.
In February 2013, Pinchuk committed to giving half or more of his fortune during his lifetime and beyond to philanthropic causes, joining the Giving Pledge, a philanthropic initiative founded in 2010 by Bill Gates and Warren Buffett.
Pinchuk has donated from $10 to $25 million to the Clinton Foundation between 1994 and 2005. In 2000, Pinchuk hired former Clinton pollster Douglas Schoen on a $40,000 per month retainer. In 2004, Schoen introduced Pinchuk to Hillary Clinton. Between September 2011 and November 2012, Schoen arranged nearly a dozen meetings between Pinchuk and senior State Department officials, including Melanne Verveer. Emails released by Judicial Watch and obtained through FOIA requests showed that Pinchuk had been invited to dine at Hillary Clinton's home during her tenure at the State department, despite her spokesman's previous denial that they had met during that time. In March 2017, former Trump aid Monica Crowley registered as a foreign agent for Pinchuk.
In November 2014 in Kyiv, Pinchuk was presented with the 2014 Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky Award for his work in fostering Ukrainian-Jewish relations.
In June 2022 Pinchuk and his wife donated over £10 million to charity to support Ukrainian soldiers and civilians needing prosthetics, medical treatment, rehabilitation and other humanitarian aid for Ukrainians in the Russo-Ukrainian War. This was through the sale of a Jeff Koons sculpture.
Yalta European Strategy
In 2004, Pinchuk created Yalta European Strategy (YES) – an international independent organization that is promoting Ukraine joining the European Union. Its annual summer meeting in Yalta is a Ukraine-EU forum for debate and policy recommendations development. Since the Crimean Crisis of 2014 these meetings have been taking place in Kyiv. In September 2013, Pinchuk and Tony Blair introduced Hillary Clinton's keynote address to the conference at Livadia Palace, with Bill Clinton in attendance. Stefan Fule, Paul Krugman, Alexei Kudrin, Shimon Peres, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, Larry Summers and other political and business leaders have attended. In September 2015, Pinchuk donated $150,000 to the Donald J. Trump Foundation in exchange for a 20-minute video appearance by Donald Trump shown at the conference that year in Kyiv. Michael Cohen solicited Douglas Schoen for the donation from Pinchuk, which was the largest outside donation the Trump Foundation received that year.
In 2015, Pinchuk promoted closer ties between Ukraine and the EU. He was an active participant in the World Economic Forum at Davos.
Russia's War Crimes House, formerly Russia House, is building 68, Promenade in Davos rented by Pinchuk, who informs there about Ukrainian civilian war deaths.
Personal life
Victor Pinchuk is married to Olena Pinchuk, the daughter of the second president of Ukraine, Leonid Kuchma. Olena Pinchuk runs the ANTIAIDS Foundation, which focuses on prevention and retroviral distribution and AIDS care in Ukraine. She and Pinchuk are friends of singer Elton John and former US President Bill Clinton, whose 65th birthday party Pinchuk attended in Los Angeles. Victor Pinchuk has three daughters and a son.
Pinchuk spent more than $6 million on his 50th birthday party in Courchevel, flying in Cirque du Soleil and chef Alain Ducasse.
Rankings
Forbes ranked him No. 1,250 on the list of the wealthiest people in the world in 2016, with a fortune of US$1.44 billion. Pinchuk was listed as one of the "2010 Time 100 – The World's Most Influential People" in Time Magazine. He was ranked No. 38 on ArtReview magazine's 2013 Power 100 ranking of people in contemporary art.
Accusations of corruption
On 4 March 2015, at the hearing on Special Control Commission of Privatization in the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, oligarch Igor Kolomoisky accused Viktor Pinchuk of receiving a bribe of $5 million a month for the rights to manage Ukrnafta, 50 + 1% of which is owned by the state-owned company Naftogaz of Ukraine. According to Kolomoisky, the money was transferred to offshore companies, the "ultimate owners of which were identified" as Victor Pinchuk and Leonid Kuchma.
"We paid this money, and besides that, we paid dividends to the state, all taxes and everything else. But for the right to receive our dividends, we were forced to pay another 5 million from our dividends to Pinchuk", - said Kolomoisky.
On 18 March 2015, National Anti-Corruption Bureau opened criminal proceedings on the basis of Kolomoisky's statements. According to the investigation, the amount of the bribe to Viktor Pinchuk from 2003 to 2006 was allegedly $110 million.
See also
Victor Pinchuk Foundation
ICTV
Interpipe
PinchukArtCentre
References
External links
2010 Pinchuk's profile at Forbes
Victor Pinchuk Foundation
Biography of Victor Pinchuk
Pinchuk Art Centre
Yalta European Strategy
Companies owned by Victor Pinchuk
1960 births
21st-century philanthropists
Labour Ukraine politicians
Third convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada
Fourth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada
Living people
National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine alumni
Ukrainian oligarchs
Businesspeople from Kyiv
Kuchma family
Ukrainian billionaires
21st-century Ukrainian businesspeople
Ukrainian Jews
Ukrainian newspaper publishers (people)
Ukrainian mass media owners
Ukrainian businesspeople in the United Kingdom
Laureates of the State Prize of Ukraine in Science and Technology |
45204021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Finnish%20women%20writers | List of Finnish women writers | This is a list of women writers who were born in Finland or whose writings are closely associated with the country.
A
Uma Aaltonen (1940–2009), author, journalist, politician
Umayya Abu-Hanna (born 1961), Palestinian-born novelist, journalist
Susanna Alakoski (born 1962), novelist, author of Svinalängorna, filmed as Beyond
Outi Alanne (born 1967), novelist using the pen name NeitiNaru
Marianne Alopaeus (1918–2014), novelist, published in Swedish
Tuuve Aro (born 1973), novelist, short story writer, children's writer, several English translations
Isa Asp (1853–1872), poet
B
Kersti Bergroth (1886–1975), novelist, poet, playwright, children's story writer, wrote in both Swedish and Finnish
Christina Regina von Birchenbaum, Finland's earliest female poet writing her autobiographical Een Annor Ny wijsa in 1651
Anni Blomqvist (1909–1990), Swedish-language novelist, several autobiographical works
C
Minna Canth (1844–1897), important figure in Finnish literature, playwright, novelist, short story writer, addressed women's rights
Kristina Carlson (born 1949), novelist, poet, journalist
Fredrika Wilhelmina Carstens (1808–1888), writer, the author of the first novel published in Finland
Inga-Brita Castrén (1919–2003), theologian
E
Anna Edelheim (1845–1902), journalist
Adelaïde Ehrnrooth (1826–1905), novelist, poet, short story writer, feminist
Elsa Enäjärvi-Haavio (1901–1951), folklorist and educator
F
Tua Forsström (born 1947), Swedish-language poet, translated into English
Maikki Friberg (1861–1927), educator, writer, journal editor, suffragist and peace activist
G
Kaarina Goldberg (born 1956), children's writer, also comic strips
H
Hilja Haapala, pen name of Hilja Dagmar Janhonen (1877–1958), novelist
Lucina Hagman (1853–1946), feminist, biographer
Helinä Häkkänen-Nyholm (born 1971), forensic psychologist
Helvi Hämäläinen (1907–1998), prolific novelist, short story writer, poet
Virpi Hämeen-Anttila (born 1958), best-selling novelist, translator, non-fiction writer, educator
Anne Hänninen (born 1958), poet, essayist
Anna-Leena Härkönen (born 1965), novelist, actress, works adapted for the theatre and television
Saima Harmaja (1913–1937), poet, known for her tragic life and early death
Satu Hassi (born 1951), politician, environmentalist, novelist, poet, essayist
Pirjo Hassinen (born 1957), novelist, works translated into several languages
Anna-Liisa Hirviluoto (1929–2000), archaeologist, non-fiction writer
Laila Hirvisaari, also Laila Hietamies (1938–2021), best-selling novelist, short story writer, playwright
Elina Hirvonen (born 1975), novelist, journalist, author of Että hän muistaisi saman, translated as When I Forgot
Sofia Hjärne (1780–1860), early Swedish-language novelist, held literary salons
Johanna Holmström (born 1981), short story writer, novelist, writes in Swedish
I
Lempi Ikävalko (1901–1994), poet, journalist, latterly in the United States
J
Tove Jansson (1914–2001), versatile Swedish-language novelist, comic strip writer, children's writer, painter
Eeva Joenpelto (1921–2004), productive novelist, educator
Maria Jotuni (1880–1943), novelist, playwright, short-story writer
K
Sirpa Kähkönen (born 1964), novelist, author of the Kuopio series of historical novels
Elina Kahla (born 1960), philologist, essayist, non-fiction writer
Hilda Käkikoski (1864–1912), politician, children's writer, historian
Aino Kallas (1878–1956), novelist, short story writer, revered contributor to Finnish literature, some works translated into English
Tuula Kallioniemi (born 1951), prolific writer of novels and short stories for children and young adults
Irma Karvikko (1909–1994), journalist, politician
Eeva Kilpi (born 1928), novelist, poet, known for feminist humour, poetry translated into English
Ella Kivikoski (1901–1990), archaeologist, non-fiction writer
Leena Krohn (born 1947), novelist, works translated into several languages including English
Kirsi Kunnas (1924–2021), poet, children's writer, playwright, translator, some works translated into English
L
Sinikka Laine (born 1945), novelist, short story writer, writer of young adult fiction
Leena Lander (born 1955), successful novelist, works translated into several languages including English
Tuija Lehtinen (born 1954), journalist, novelist, works translated into several languages
Leena Lehtolainen (born 1964), widely translated crime fiction writer
Anne Leinonen (born 1973), novelist, science fiction and fantasy
Rosa Liksom (born 1958), novelist, short story writer, children's writer, artist
Irmelin Sandman Lilius (born 1936), writer of picture books and novels for children as well as books for adults and poetry
Minna Lindgren (born 1963), journalist, since 2013 a successful crime-fiction novelist
Marita Lindquist (1918–2016), children's writer, novelist, songwriter, poet
Fredrika Lovisa Lindqvist (1786–1841), writer
Katri Lipson (born 1965), novelist
Kiba Lumberg (born 1956), novelist, screenwriter for television
Ulla-Lena Lundberg (born 1947), Swedish-language writer, non-fiction, travel, often autobiographical novels
M
Eeva-Liisa Manner (1921–1995), modernist poet, playwright, translator, poems translated into English
Marja-Leena Mikkola (born 1939), novelist, short story writer, poet, songwriter, satirist, translator
Barbara Catharina Mjödh (1738–1776), poet
Eva Moltesen (1871–1934), Finnish-Danish writer and peace activist
Agatha Lovisa de la Myle (1724–1787), poet, wrote in German and Latvian
N
Mikaela Nyman (born 1966), novelist, poet, journalist and editor published in Swedish and English
Carita Nyström (1940–2019), Swedish-speaking writer and feminist
O
Sofi Oksanen (born 1977), best-selling novelist, playwright, internationally recognized through her play Puhdistus, translated as PurgeHagar Olsson (1893–1978), expressionist novelist, playwright, critic, translator
P
Kirsti Paltto (born 1947), Sámi author, children's writer, poet, short story writer, playwright, works translated into several languages
Eila Pennanen (1916–1994), novelist, critic, translator
Kira Poutanen (born 1974), novelist, translator, actress
Helvi Poutasuo (1943–2017), Finnish Sami teacher, translator and newspaper editor
Riikka Pulkkinen (born 1980), widely translated, novelist, columnist
R
Elsa Rautee (1897–1987), poet, songwriter
Mirkka Rekola (1931–2014), highly acclaimed poet, writer of aphorisms
Susanne Ringell (born 1955), short story writer
Hanna Rönnberg (1862–1946), painter and writer
Fredrika Runeberg (1807–1879), novelist, pioneer of Finnish historical fiction, wife of national poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg
Kaisu-Mirjami Rydberg (1905–1959), journalist, newspaper editor, poet, non-fiction writer, politician
S
Pirkko Saisio (born 1949), prolific versatile writer, playwright, novelist, screenwriter
Sally Salminen (1906–1976), Swedish-language novelist, author of KatrinaSolveig von Schoultz (1907–1996), Swedish-language poet, novelist, dramatist
Raija Siekkinen (1953–2004), short story writer, novelist, children's writer
Maria Simointytär, first Finnish-language poet, published Orpolapsen vaikerrus in 1683
Salla Simukka (born 1981), successful young adults author, name a name with The Snow White TrilogyHelena Sinervo (born 1961), poet, poetry translator, novelist, songwriter
Johanna Sinisalo (born 1958), science-fiction writer, author of Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi translated as Not Before SundownAnja Snellman (born 1954), widely translated novelist, poet, journalist, her Pet Shop Girls appeared in English in 2013
Edith Södergran (1892–1923), widely acclaimed Swedish-language modernist poet, translated into English
Katariina Souri (born 1968), novelist
Eira Stenberg (born 1943), poet, children's writer, novelist
Anni Swan (1875–1958), children's writer for girls, journalist and translator
Catharina Charlotta Swedenmarck (1744–1813), Swedish-language poet, playwright, remembered for her pioneering play Dianas festT
Maila Talvio (1871–1951), playwright, short story writer, novelist
Eeva Tikka (born 1939), novelist
Märta Tikkanen (born 1935), Swedish-language novelist, journalist, author of ManrapeAale Tynni (1913–1997), poet, translator, editor
U
Kaari Utrio (born 1942), historical novelist, historian
Arja Uusitalo (born 1951), poet, journalist
V
Katri Vala (1901–1944), poet, critic, attacked war and Fascism
Anja Vammelvuo (1921–1988), poet and writer
Marja-Liisa Vartio (1924–1966), poet and prose writer
Monica Vikström-Jokela (born 1960), children's writer, television script writer
Kerttu Vuolab (born 1951), Sami-language novelist, songwriter, translator
W
Sara Wacklin (1790–1846), Swedish-language writer, author of the successful novel Hundrade minnen från Österbotten'' (A Hundred Memories of Ostrobothnia)
Helena Westermarck (1857–1938), artist, Swedish-language women's historian, biographer, novelist
Sara Wesslin (born 1991), Finnish Sami journalist, supporter of the Skolt Sami language
Hella Wuolijoki (1886–1954), Estonian-born Finnish-language novelist, politician, used the pen name Juhani Tervapää
See also
List of Finnish authors
List of women writers
References
-
Finnish women writers, List of
Writers
Writers, women |
1791116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Cullen%20%28cardinal%29 | Paul Cullen (cardinal) | Paul Cardinal Cullen (29 April 1803 – 24 October 1878) was Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and previously of Armagh, and the first Irish cardinal. His Ultramontanism spearheaded the Romanisation of the Catholic Church in Ireland and ushered in the devotional revolution experienced in Ireland through the second half of the 19th century and much of the 20th century. A trained biblical theologian and scholar of ancient languages, Cullen crafted the formula for papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council.
Early life
Cullen was born at Prospect, Narraghmore, Athy, County Kildare, one of 16 children of Hugh and Judith (Maher) Cullen, six of whom were from Hugh's first marriage. His first school was the Quaker Shackleton School in nearby Ballitore.
Following the relaxation of some of the Penal Laws, his father purchased some , giving him the status of a Catholic "strong farmer", a class that greatly influenced 19th-century Irish society. They were fervent in their Catholicism and fearful of the sort of social unrest that had led to the failed 1798 Rising. His great-nieces, Mary and Elizabeth Cullen became nuns, and two great-nephews entered the priesthood.
Cullen entered St Patrick's College, Carlow, in 1816, and, in 1820, he proceeded to the Pontifical Urban College in Rome, where his name is registered on the roll of students of 29 November 1820. At the close of a distinguished course of studies, he was selected to hold a public disputation in the halls of the Propaganda on 11 September 1828, in 224 theses from all theology and ecclesiastical history. The theological tournament was privileged in many ways, for Pope Leo XII, attended by his court, presided on the occasion, while no fewer than ten cardinals assisted at it, together with all the élite of ecclesiastical Rome. Vincenzo Pecci, the future Pope Leo XIII, was present at the disputation. Cullen graduated a doctor of divinity.
He was ordained in 1829. During his studies, Cullen acquired knowledge of classical and Oriental languages. He was later appointed to the chairs of Hebrew and Sacred Scripture in the schools of the Propaganda, and receiving at the same time the charge of the famed printing establishment of the Congregation of Propaganda Fidei. This later charge he resigned in 1832, after being appointed Rector of the Pontifical Irish College in Rome, but during the short term of his administration, he published a standard edition of the Greek and Latin Lexicon of Benjamin Hedericus, which still holds its place in the Italian colleges; he also edited the Acts of the congregation in seven quarto volumes, as well as other important works.
Rector of Pontifical Irish College
In late 1831, Cullen was appointed rector of a fledgling and struggling Irish College. He successfully secured the future of the college by increasing the student population and thereby strengthening the finances of the college. He astutely fostered relationships with the Irish hierarchy, on whom he relied for students, often becoming their official Roman agent. This role yielded income and influence and was to remain a key function of future rectors. He endeavoured to chart a middle ground between conflicting parties of Irish bishops. He was active in his opposition to the establishment of the secular Queen's Colleges.
During the revolution that saw the authority of the Papal States violently displaced for the short lived Roman Republic, he accepted the position of rector of the College of Propaganda while retaining charge of the Irish College. As all the rectors of Colleges in Rome, who were not foreigners, had to leave the city, Cullen was left in charge, temporally, of their interests. Soon after his appointment the Revolutionary Trimuvirate issued orders that the College of Propaganda was to be dissolved and the buildings appropriated. The rector appealed to Lewis Cass Jr., the chargé d'affaires of the United States diplomatic mission, to protect the citizens of the United States who were students of the college. Within an hour, the American flag was floating over the Propaganda College. The order of confiscation was withdrawn. Cass was subsequently criticised for his actions.
Armagh and Dublin
Cullen was appointed Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh on 19 December 1849 and consecrated by the Cardinal Prefect of Propaganda at the Irish College in Rome on 24 February 1850. He was also named Apostolic Delegate. His first major act as Archbishop of Armagh was to convene the Synod of Thurles (1850), the first Roman Catholic national synod held in Ireland since the Reformation. It occurred during the period of the debilitating Irish Famine which reduced the population of the country by over 2 million people through starvation, disease and emigration. The purpose of the synod was to establish a new ecclesiastical discipline in Ireland. This included rules relating to the celebration of Mass, the administration of the sacraments and the maintenance of registers and archives.
Cullen was transferred to the See of Dublin on 1 May 1852 and 14 years later, in 1866, was made a cardinal as Cardinal Priest of San Pietro in Montorio, the first Irish cardinal.
Cullen was sent to Ireland to bring the Irish church into conformity with Roman canon law and usage and to that end he recruited new clergy and orders of religious brothers and sisters. After a series of disastrous harvest in the 1860s, he founded, with the Lord Mayor of Dublin, the Mansion House Relief Committee in 1862. Cullen also started the practice of Irish priests wearing Roman collars and being called "Father" (instead of "Mister") by their parishioners.
Cullen was particularly intent on promoting Roman Catholic religious education in Ireland. From the first days of his episcopate Cullen had planned and pursued a Roman Catholic university for Ireland. The university project was welcomed generally by the Irish at home and abroad and the beginnings of the institution in Dublin gave some promise. In 1862, the cornerstone of the new University building was laid with Archbishop Hughes of New York preaching on the occasion. John Henry Newman, whom he had invited to be Rector of the Catholic University, complained that the Archbishop treated him and the laity not as equals but as his subjects.
Cullen paid frequent visits to Rome. He took part in the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1854 and with the 18th centenary of the martyrdom of Saints Peter and Paul in 1867, when he stayed at the Irish College.
He attended all the sessions of Vatican I, taking an active part in its deliberations. Towards the close of the council, at the express wish of the Central Commission, he proposed a formula for the definition of papal infallibility. It was a matter of great delicacy, as promoters of the definition were split in various factions, some anxious to assign a wide range to the pope's decisions, and others would set forth in a somewhat indefinite way the papal prerogative. In 1864, he founded the Irish Ecclesiastical Record. He arrived late to the conclave of 1878 that elected Pope Leo XIII.
Politics
He was the most important Irish political figure in the 30 years between Daniel O'Connell and Charles Stuart Parnell. In political matters, Cullen made it a rule to support every measure, whatever its provenance, conducive to the interests of his vision for the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland. Desmond Bowen considers Cardinal Cullen "a cautious, suspicious, and usually shrewd product of the Roman school of diplomacy". He had a strong distrust of secret societies and waged a public campaign against the Young Irelanders and the Fenians. He supported redress by constitutional means. The Gladstone government disestablished the Church of Ireland during his episcopacy.
Cullen was a frequent visitor at the Viceregal Lodge, where he would lobby the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and the government. In 1867, the Fenian leader, Thomas F. Burke, had been sentenced to death, and efforts to obtain a reprieve had been in vain. He had fought in the American Civil War on the side of the Confederacy, and the British government was determined to deter other skilled military leaders from enlisting with revolutionaries. The orders of execution from London were peremptory. The scaffold was already erected, and the next morning Burke was to be hanged. Through mediation from Archbishop Hughes of New York and others, Cullen became convinced of the character of the accused and was able to obtain a grant of reprieve for Burke.
Death
He died at the Archiepiscopal Residence (59 Eccles Street, Dublin) of heart failure on October 24, 1878. He was buried at Holy Cross College (Clonliffe College) in Drumcondra beneath the High Altar. On June 25, 2021, his remains were transferred to St. Mary’s Pro-Cathedral, Dublin 1. The sale of Holy Cross College required that his body be reinterred.
Addressing a small gathering in the Crypt of the Pro-Cathedral at the reinterment, Archbishop Dermot Farrell prayed: “We come together to bring the body of Cardinal Paul Cullen, my predecessor, to its new resting place. Together let us pray some Psalms that here, his body - together with all those interred in this crypt - will rest in God’s safety”.
Legacy
Cullen is most notable today for being the first Irish cardinal. With his experience and friendships in Rome he was able to influence the choice of appointments to episcopal sees in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada. His relatives, friends, and students, referred to as "Cullenites", exerted great influence overseas, with his nephew, Patrick Francis Moran, archbishop of Sydney, one notable example. The term also refers to a style of leadership resembling that of Cullen, characterised as "authoritative" and "intransigent".
Father Thomas N. Burke, O.P., in a sermon at a solemn Requiem mass, the "Month's Mind" of 27 November 1878, said: "The guiding spirit animating, encouraging and directing the wonderful work of the Irish Catholic Church for the last twenty eight years was Paul, Cardinal Cullen."
Cullen has been credited with the revival of regular Catholic devotion in Ireland. An extreme Ultramontanist, he vigorously opposed secret societies with revolutionary aims, as well as the system of mixed education then in force. His opposition was largely responsible for the failure of Gladstone's Irish Universities Bill in 1873.
In James Joyce's Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the protagonist's father mentions Cullen: "Mr Dedalus uttered a guffaw of coarse scorn. O, by God, he cried, I forgot little old Paul Cullen! Another apple of God's eye!"
Although a devout Catholic herself, Mary Jane, wife of Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, wrote a blistering response in her poem, "Tis for the Glory of the Faith", to what she saw as Cullen's suggestion that Irish emigrants had the role of spreading Catholicism abroad.
Who said 'twas willed our race should be
Live monuments of misery?
To spread the faith throughout the world?
Who spoke such blasphemy, and why?
Who dared the generous God belie?
And yet thy bishops-Cullen-saith,
'Tis for the glory of Thy Faith.
And yet the Lord Chief Bishop Cullen saith'Tis for the glory of our holy faith!
See also
St. Vincent's Industrial School, Goldenbridge
References
Further reading
Bowen, Desmond. Paul Cardinal Cullen and the Shaping of Modern Irish Catholicism (1983) excerpt
O'Connor, Anne. "Translating the Vatican: Paul Cullen, power and language in nineteenth-century Ireland." Irish Studies Review 22.4 (2014): 450-465.
Rafferty, Oliver P. "Cardinal Cullen, early fenianism, and the Macmanus funeral affair." British Catholic History 22.4 (1995): 549-563.
External links
Translating the Vatican: Paul Cullen, power and language in nineteenth-century Ireland
Paul Cullen – Catholic Encyclopedia article
1803 births
1878 deaths
People from Athy
Alumni of Carlow College
Pontifical Urban University alumni
Greek–Latin translators
Roman Catholic biblical scholars
Roman Catholic archbishops of Armagh
Roman Catholic archbishops of Dublin
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Ireland
Irish cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Pius IX
19th-century Irish translators
Christian clergy from County Kildare |
25127057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Thing%20Around%20Your%20Neck | The Thing Around Your Neck | The Thing Around Your Neck is a short-story collection by Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, first published in April 2009 by Fourth Estate in the UK and by Knopf in the US. It received many positive reviews, including:
"She makes storytelling seem as easy as birdsong" (Daily Telegraph);
"Stunning. Like all fine storytellers, she leaves us wanting more" (The Times).
Contents
"Cell One" (first published in The New Yorker); in which a spoilt brother and son of a professor is sent to a Nigerian prison and ends up in the infamous Cell One.
"Imitation" (first published in Other Voices) is set in Philadelphia and concerns Nkem, a young mother whose art-dealer husband visits only two months a year. She finds out that his lover has moved into their Lagos home.
"A Private Experience" (first published in Virginia Quarterly Review), in which two women caught up in a riot between Christians and Muslims take refuge in an abandoned shop. This story highlighted the friendliness and peace between two women with different religions. It also makes the point that regardless of what religious beliefs someone holds, or their ethnic background, we are all ultimately human. It is told in a third person's narrative so that the readers are put in an omniscient position to understand this idea.
"Ghosts" (first published in Zoetrope: All-Story), in which a retired university professor looks back on his life.
"On Monday of Last Week" (first published in Granta 98: The Deep End), in which Kamara, a Nigerian woman who has joined her husband in America takes a job as a nanny to an upper-class family and becomes obsessed with the mother.
"Jumping Monkey Hill" (first published in Granta 95: Loved Ones) is the most autobiographical story. It is set in Cape Town at a writers' retreat where authors from all over Africa gather, and tells of the conflicts experienced by the young Nigerian narrator.
"The Thing Around Your Neck" (first published in Prospect 99) a woman named Akunna gains a sought-after American visa and goes to live with her uncle; but he molests her and she ends up working as a waitress in Connecticut. She ends up meeting a man whom she falls in love with, but along the way experiences cultural difficulties with him.
"The American Embassy" (first published in PRISM international), in which a woman applies for asylum but ends up walking away, unwilling to describe her son's murder for the sake of a visa.
"The Shivering", set on the campus of Princeton University it concerns a Catholic Nigerian woman whose boyfriend has left her, finding solace in the earnest prayers of a stranger who knocks at her door.
"The Arrangers of Marriage" (first published as "New Husband" in Iowa Review), in which a newly married wife arrives in New York City with her husband; and finds she is unable to accept his rejection of their Nigerian identity.
"Tomorrow Is Too Far" (first published in Prospect 118) a young woman reveals the devastating secret of her brother's death.
"The Headstrong Historian" (first published in The New Yorker) covers the life-story of a woman called Nwangba, who believes her husband was killed by his cousins and is determined to regain the inheritance for her son through his education by missionaries. Though her son didn't realise what she hoped, her granddaughter managed to retrieve it, highlighting the significance of holding one's past and one's origin in order to thrive in the future.
Theme
Feminist analyses of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's "The Headstrong Historian" read the short story as a revisioning of Chinua Achebe's 1958 novel Things Fall Apart, offering a feminist perspective on the Southern Nigerian Igbo community and its experience with Western colonialism. Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi criticises Nigerian literature for its exclusion of women. Adichie's contemporary Elleke Boehmer commends "The Headstrong Historian" for its feminist agenda, which is identified as extending Achebe's Things Fall Apart and challenging its account of Igbo history.
Contemporary feminist scholar Anene Ejikeme notes that, since its publication in Western publishing outlets, Things Fall Apart has been celebrated as the authentic account of the late nineteenth-century Igbo experience during the colonial era. Neil ten Kortenaar defines Achebe as a ‘historian of Igboland’. While this has been argued, Achebe maintains that "the world's stories should be told from many different perspectives". Ejikeme says that Adichie "forces us to acknowledge that there is not a "single story"of the Igbo past" by revising Achebe's account and claiming a space for Igbo women. "The Danger of a Single Story" is one of Adichie's TED Talks.
Adichie says that "The Headstrong Historian" was written in an effort to "imagine the life of [her] great-grandmother" after first reading Things Fall Apart, which she saw as a representation of her "great-grandfather’s life". In response to this gendered revisioning, Anene Ejikeme says that while ""The Headstrong Historian" writes with Achebe's canonical work, to say that "The Headstrong Historian" completes Things Fall Apart is to foreclose the possibility of Africans telling multiple stories about the Igbo past". While Ejikeme argues that Adichie challenges Achebe’s canonical authority, Brian Doherty maintains that Adichie's feminising of the Igbo colonial experience is not exclusively critical. Doherty says that Adichie’s feminist revision does not reimagine misrepresented perspectives in Achebe's text, but underrepresented perspectives, which acts as "a corrective lens to a venerated elder's myopic vision" of Igbo history.
Kamene Okonjo presents a feminist reading of ‘The Headstrong Historian,’ which says that Adichie establishes the historicity of her narrative by invoking Achebe’s colonial context and representing the Igbo dual-sex system. In Women in Africa, Okonjo details how dual-sex systems in pre-colonial Igboland gave women greater authority than the Western single-sex system. Research works by Nkiru Nzegwu and Ifi Amadiume also discuss Igbo women’s collective agency. In "The Headstrong Historian", Nwamgba receives support from the Women's Council when her late husband's cousins steal his property and, as a result, several women "sit on" the cousins. One criticism of Achebe's Things Fall Apart focuses on the representation of women as powerless in the Igbo tribal system, beyond conducting marriage ceremonies. Judith Van Allen notes that early ethnographic studies of Igbo communities comment on the 1929 Women's War in southeastern Nigeria, a protest that saw Igbo women challenge the policies of the colonial government. Rhonda Cobham's feminist reading says that while Achebe mentions the Women's Council, he does not establish its civic agency, which saw women intervene in community disputes by "sitting on" men, thereby publicly shaming them. Cobhman says that Adichie locates Nwamgba's protests to the Women's Council in a historical context that counters Achebe's representation of oppressed Igbo women.
In her youth, Nwamgba defeats her brother in a wrestling match. This is considered by Daria Tunca to be an inversion of Okonkwo’s masculinity, which was earned as a result of his own wrestling victory. Tunca says that Adichie further remaps the ideal of masculinity in Things Fall Apart by presenting Obierika as a flute player, which is described in Achebe's text as an "unmanly" characteristic. Tunca also says that Achebe's Okonkwo is placed in the margins of Adichie's narrative: his name is mentioned twice, both in reference to his daughter. Conversely, Tunca also maintains that although Nwamgba "wrestled her brother to the ground", her father warns "everyone not to let the news leave the compound", in compliance with normative gender hierarchies.
Adichie comments on the marginalisation of women in Things Fall Apart, stating that it is "impossible, especially for the contemporary reader, not to be struck by the portrayal of gender in Things Fall Apart, and the equating of weakness and inability with femaleness". Adichie also defends the text and identifies Achebe's depiction of Okonkwo's headstrong daughter as an interrogation of the patriarchy. Susan Z. Andrade identifies Adichie as writing with Achebe, but from a gendered angle: Andrade notes that "The Headstrong Historian" tells the same historical narrative, detailing Igbo life through the protagonist's perspective and Igboland's experience under colonial rule. However, within this same cultural context, a different story is told; Adichie's account brings a woman from the periphery of Achebe's text into the centre.
The chronology of "The Headstrong Historian" extends beyond Nwamgba's death and imagines the future of a third-generation Igbo woman. On her deathbed, Nwamgba is visited by her granddaughter Grace. At Nwangba's bedside, Grace puts "down her schoolbag, inside of which was her textbook with a chapter called "The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of Southern Nigeria", by an administrator from Worcestershire who had lived among them". Susan VanZanten identifies this as a direct intertextual allusion to Achebe's Things Fall Apart, which sees the local District Commissioner contemplate narrating Okonkwo's life in a chapter of his book on The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger. VanZanten says that this single chapter recalls the District Commissioner's reductive view of Africa. VanZanten considers this notion subverted in "The Headstrong Historian", in which it is the coloniser's book that has become a single chapter in Grace's textbook. Decades later, Grace becomes a historian herself and publishes a book called Pacifying with Bullets: A Reclaimed History of Southern Nigeria. Tunca says that Grace, and by extension Adichie, revises a Nigerian history as imagined by Western writers: the indefinite article in A Reclaimed History "suggests that her vision is only one among others". Tunca's analysis says that Grace acknowledges what Adichie herself refers to in her 2009 TED talk, "the danger of a single story" in representing the history of an entire people.
In her Ted Talk, Adichie details how a reader believed that the abusive father in Purple Hibiscus represented all African men: Adichie notes that "The single story creates stereotypes. And the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. They make one story become the only story". The future Grace teaches at an Igbo school and delivers seminars on southern Nigerian history after learning about a Western-educated Nigerian historian who resigned upon hearing that African history was to be added to the university syllabus. In later years, Grace returns to Nigeria and changes her name to Afamefuna, the Igbo name that Nwamgba had given her, meaning "My Name Will Not Be Lost". Michael L. Ross says that this revisionary gesture allows Grace to remap and retrieve her communal Igbo identity. Daria Tunca and Bénédicte Ledent say that, as third generation Igbo historians, both Grace and Adichie supplement Achebe's historical account of Igbo history by highlighting "the danger of a single story" and providing a more authentically recorded womanist perspective of Igbo past.
Bibliography
Achebe, Chinua, Chinua Achebe, The African Trilogy: Things Fall Apart, No Longer at Ease, Arrow of God(New York: Knopf, 2010)
Adewale, Toyin and Omowunmi Segun, eds, Breaking the Silence(Lagos: WRITA, 1996)
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, Half a Yellow Sun(New York: Knopf, 2005)
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, The Headstrong Historian(2009) https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/06/23/the-headstrong-historian [accessed 21 January 2021]
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, "Achebe at 82: We Remember Differently", Premium Times, Nigeria(2012) https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/108378-chinua-achebe-at-82-we-remember-differently-by-chimamanda-ngozi-adichie.html [accessed 20 January 2021]
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, "African "Authenticity" and the Biafran Experience", Transition, 99 (2008) 42–53, JSTOR 20204260
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Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, The Thing Around Your Neck (New York: Knopf, 2009)
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Andrade, Susan Z., "Rioting Women, Writing Women: Gender, Nationalism and the Public Sphere in Africa", Africa after Gender, ed. by Catherine Cole, Takyiwaa Manuh, and Stephan Miescher (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), pp. 85–107.
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Bryce, Jane, "Half and Half Children: Third-Generation Women Writers and the New Nigerian Novel", Research in African Literatures, 39.2 (2008), 49–67, JSTOR 20109578
Carby, Hazel, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989)
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Cooper, Brenda, A New Generation of African Writers: Migration, Material Culture and Language (London: James Currey, 2008)
Davies, Carole Boyce, "Motherhood in the Works of Male and Female Igbo Writers: Achebe, Emecheta, Nwapa and Nzekwu", Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Literature, ed. by Carole Boyce Davies and Anne Adams Graves (Trenton: Africa World, 1986)
Davies, Carole Boyce, Black Women, Writing, and Identity: Migrations of the Subject (New York: Routledge, 1994)
Davies, Carole Boyce, "Migration, African Writing and the Post-Colonial/Diasporic Chimamanda Adichie Moment", Gender and Race Matter: Global Perspectives on Being a Woman, ed. by Marcia Texler Segal and Vasilikie Demos (Somerville, MA: Emerald Group Publishing, 2016), pp.233-248.
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Eisenberg, Eve. ""Real Africa" / "Which Africa?": The Critique of Mimetic Realism in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Short Fiction", Writing Africa in the Short Story, ed. by E. Emenyonu (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2013), pp.8-24.
Ejikeme, Anene, "The Women of Things Fall Apart, Speaking from a Different Perspective: Chimamanda Adichie's Headstrong Storytelling", Meridians, 15.2 (2017), 307-29, JSTOR 15.2.02
Emecheta, Buchi, "Feminism with a small "f"!', Criticism and Ideology: Second African Writer's Conference, ed. by Kirsten Holst Peterson (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1988), pp. 173-185.
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Irele, F. Abiola, The African Imagination: Literature in Africa and the Black Diaspora (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
Isichei, Elizabeth, History of the Igbo People (London: Macmillan, 1975)
Jeyifo, Biodun, "Okonkwo and His Mother: Things Fall Apart and Issues of Gender in the Constitution of Postcolonial Discourse", Callaloo, 16.4 (1993), 847-58, JSTOR 2932213
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Mohanty, Chandra T., Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory and Practicing Solidarity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003)
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Nnaemeka, Obioma, "Feminism, Rebellious Women and Cultural Boundaries: Rereading Flora Nwapa and Her Compatriots", Research in African Literatures, 26.2 (1995), JSTOR 3820273
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Nzegwu, Nkiru, "Hidden Spaces, Silenced Practices and the Concept of Igba N'rira", West Africa Review, 3.2 (2002) doi:1525-4488
Durosimi Jones, Eldred, Eustace Palmer, and Marjorie Jones, eds, African Literature Today: Women in African Literature, vol.15 (London: James Curry, 2003)
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo, Africa Wo/man Palava: The Nigerian Novel by Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo, "Women and Nigerian Literature", Perspectives on Nigerian Literature: 1700 to the Present, ed. by Yami Ogunbiyi (Lagos: Guardian Books Nigeria Limited, 1988), pp.60-67
Ogwude, Sophia O., "History and Ideology in Chimamanda Adichie's Fiction", Tydskrif Vir Letterkunde, 48.1 (2011), 110-123. doi:10.4314/tvl.v48i1.63824
Okonjo, Kamene, "The Dual-Sex Political System in Operation: Igbo Women and Community Politics in Midwestern Nigeria", Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change, ed. by Nancy Hafkin and Edna G. Bay (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976), pp.45-58.
Powell, Andrea, "Problematizing Polygyny in the Historical Novels of Chinua Achebe: The Role of the Western Feminist Scholar", Research in African Literatures, 39.1 (2008), 166–84, JSTOR 20109565
Ross, Michael L., "Ownership of Language: Diglossia in the Fiction of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie", Research in African Literatures, 50.1 (2019), 111-26, JSTOR 50.1.07
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Silva, Meyre Ivone da, "African Feminists Towards the Politics of Empowerment", Revistra de Letras, 44.2 (2004), 129–38, JSTOR 27666802
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Strehle, Susan, "Producing Exile: Diasporic Vision in Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun", Modern Fiction Studies, 57.4 (2011), 650–72, JSTOR 26287223
Sullivan, Joanna, "The Question of a National Literature for Nigeria," Research in African Literatures, 32.3 (2001), 71–85, JSTOR 3820425
ten Kortenaar, Neil, "How the Center is Made to Hold in Things Fall Apart," Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart: A Casebook, ed. By Isidore Okpewho (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp.123-45.
Tunca, Daria, and Bénédicte Ledent, "The Power of a Singular Story: Narrating Africa and Its Diasporas," Research in African Literatures, 46.4 (2015), 1-9, JSTOR 10.2979
Tunca, Daria, "Appropriating Achebe: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Purple Hibiscus and "The Headstrong Historian"", Adaptation and Cultural Appropriation: Literature, Film, and the Arts, ed. by Pascal Nicklas and Oliver Lindner (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012), pp.230-250.
Tunca, Daria, "Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie as Chinua Achebe's (Unruly) Literary Daughter: The Past Present, and Future of "Adichebean" Criticism," Research in African Literatures, 49.4 (2018), 107-26, JSTOR 10.2979
Van Allen, Judith, ""Aba Riots" or Igbo "Women's War"? Ideology, Stratification, and the Invisibility of Women", Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change, ed. by Nancy Hafkin and Edna G. Bay (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976)
VanZanten, Susan, ‘A Conversation with Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie,’ Image, 65 (2010), 86-99, JSTOR 206-281-2988
VanZanten, Susan, ""The Headstrong Historian": Writing with Things Fall Apart", Research in African Literatures, 46.2 (2015), 85-103, JSTOR 10.2979
Wenske, Ruth S, "Adichie in Dialogue with Achebe: Balancing Dualities in Half of a Yellow Sun", Research in African Literatures, 47.3 (2016), 70–87, JSTOR 47.3.05
References
External links
"Cell One" online text
"A Private Experience" online text
"The Headstrong Historian" online text
Short, sweet, with a twist: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie talks stories to Kate Mosse
How Do You Write a Love Story With Teeth? A conversation with novelist Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Reviews
Jane Shilling, "The Thing Around Your Neck by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: Review", Daily Telegraph, 2 April 2009
Review from TimesOnline
Jess Row, "African/American", The New York Times, 27 August 2009
Aminatta Forna, "Endurance tests", The Guardian, 16 May 2009
2009 short story collections
Short story collections by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Alfred A. Knopf books
Fourth Estate books
Nigerian short story collections |
499512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacy%20Keach | Stacy Keach | Walter Stacy Keach Jr. (born June 2, 1941) is an American actor, active in theatre, film and television since the 1960s. Keach first distinguished himself in Off-Broadway productions and remained a prominent figure in American theatre across his career, particularly as a noted Shakespearean. He is the recipient of several theatrical accolades, four Drama Desk Awards, two Helen Hayes Awards and two Obie Awards for Distinguished Performance by an Actor. He was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his performance in Arthur Kopit's 1969 production of Indians.
In film, he garnered critical acclaim for his portrayal of a washed-up boxer in the John Huston film Fat City (1972) and appeared as Sergeant Stedenko in Cheech & Chong's films Up in Smoke (1978) and Nice Dreams (1981). His other notable film credits include Brewster McCloud (1970), Doc (1971), The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean (1972), Luther (1973), The Ninth Configuration (1980), The Long Riders (1980), Escape From L.A. (1996), American History X (1998), The Bourne Legacy (2012) and Nebraska (2013).
Keach is known to television audiences for his portrayal of private detective Mike Hammer on the television series Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer (1984–1987), for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe, as Ken Titus on the sitcom Titus (2000–2002) and as the narrator of the crime documentary series American Greed (2007–present). He also had recurring roles on series such as Prison Break (2005–2007), Two and a Half Men (2010) and Blue Bloods (2016–). He won a Golden Globe and was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for playing Ernest Hemingway on the television miniseries Hemingway (1988).
He is an inductee of the Theatre Hall of Fame and was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2019. He is the son of theatre director Stacy Keach Sr., and the older brother of actor James Keach.
Early life and education
Keach was born in Savannah, Georgia, to Mary Cain (), an actress, and Stacy Keach Sr., a theatre director, drama teacher, and actor with dozens of television and theatrical film credits billed as "Stacy Keach." The younger Keach was born with a cleft lip and a partial cleft of the hard palate, and he underwent numerous operations as a child. Throughout his adult life he has usually worn a mustache to hide the scars. He is now the honorary chairman of the Cleft Palate Foundation and advocates for insurance coverage for surgeries.
He graduated from Van Nuys High School in June 1959, where he was class president, then earned two BA degrees at the University of California, Berkeley (1963): one in English, the other in Dramatic Art. He earned a Master of Fine Arts at the Yale School of Drama in 1966 and was a Fulbright Scholar at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.
While studying in London, Keach met Laurence Olivier, his acting hero.
Career
Theatre
Keach played the title role in MacBird!, an Off-Broadway anti-war satire by Barbara Garson staged at the Village Gate in 1966. In 1967, he was cast, again Off-Broadway, in George Tabori's The Niggerlovers with Morgan Freeman in his acting debut. To this day, Freeman credits Keach with teaching him the most about acting. In 1967, Keach also starred in We Bombed in New Haven, a play by Joseph Heller that premiered in New Haven at the Yale Repertory Theatre and later was produced on Broadway. Keach first appeared on Broadway in 1969 as Buffalo Bill in Indians by Arthur Kopit. Early in his career, he was credited as Stacy Keach Jr. to distinguish himself from his father. He played the lead actor in The Nude Paper Sermon, an avant-garde musical theatre piece for media presentation, commissioned by Nonesuch Records by composer Eric Salzman.
Keach has won numerous awards, including Obie Awards, Drama Desk Awards and Vernon Rice Awards. In the early 1980s, he starred in the title role of the national touring company of the musical Barnum, composed by Cy Coleman. In 1991 and 1996 he won Helen Hayes Awards for Outstanding Actor for his work in Richard III and Macbeth with the Shakespeare Theatre Company. In 1998, he was one of the three characters in a London West End production of 'Art' with David Dukes and George Wendt.
In 2006, Keach performed the lead role in Shakespeare's King Lear at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago. In 2008, he played Merlin in Lerner and Loewe's Camelot, done with the New York Philharmonic. In the summer of 2009, Shakespeare Theatre Company remounted the production of King Lear at Sidney Harman Hall in Washington, D.C., for which Keach won another Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Actor.
He has played the title role in two separate productions of Hamlet.
In 2008 and 2009, Keach portrayed Richard M. Nixon in the U.S. touring company of the play Frost/Nixon.
On December 16, 2010, Keach began performances as patriarch Lyman Wyeth in the off-Broadway premiere of Jon Robin Baitz' acclaimed new play Other Desert Cities. The production transferred to Broadway's Booth Theatre, where it opened November 3, 2011.
Keach is a founding member of L.A. Theatre Works. He has performed leads in many productions with the company, including 'Willy Loman' in Death of a Salesman and 'John Proctor' in The Crucible.
He was scheduled to return to Broadway in December 2014 in the revival of Love Letters at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre alongside Diana Rigg, but the production closed before Keach and Rigg began their runs.
Keach was scheduled to play Ernest Hemingway in Jim McGrath's one-man play Pamplona at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago from May 30 to June 25, 2017. Keach appeared in previews of Pamplona, May 19 through May 28, and was well received by audiences. On opening night, he suffered a mild heart attack on stage and the next day, Keach had bypass surgery. On June 2, the Goodman Theatre announced that the entire run would be canceled after Keach's doctors advised a period of rest and recuperation.
Keach returned to the role at The Goodman one year later, July 10 through August 18, 2018. Keach said it would fulfill an obligation "to the play, to the city and to myself".
Films
Keach played a rookie policeman in The New Centurions (1972), opposite George C. Scott. That year he also starred in Fat City, a boxing film directed by John Huston. He was the first choice for the role of Damien Karras in the 1973 movie The Exorcist, but he did not accept the role. He went on to play Kane in the 1980 movie The Ninth Configuration, written and directed by Exorcist author William Peter Blatty; this role was itself intended for Nicol Williamson.
Keach was narrator of the 1973 Formula One racing documentary Champions Forever, The Quick and the Dead by Claude du Boc. He played Cheech & Chong's police department nemesis Sgt. Stedenko in Up in Smoke and Nice Dreams. He also appeared as Barabbas in Jesus of Nazareth. In 1978, he played a role of explorer and scientist in Slave of the Cannibal God, co-starring former Bond girl Ursula Andress. The film became a cult favorite as a "video nasty". Another one of his screen performances was as Frank James (elder brother of Jesse) in The Long Riders (1980). His brother James played Jesse James. Keach starred in the 1981 Australian thriller Roadgames alongside Jamie Lee Curtis. In 1982, Keach starred in Butterfly with Pia Zadora and Orson Welles. In the 1993 movie, Body Bags he played a man who is obsessed with hair.
He portrayed a white supremacist in American History X, alongside Edward Norton and Edward Furlong. In Oliver Stone's 2008 biographical film W., Keach portrays a Texas preacher whose spiritual guidance begins with George W. Bush's AA experience, but extends long thereafter.
Keach also starred in the TV film Ring of Death playing a sadistic prison warden who runs an underground fight club where prisoners compete for their lives. He had also starred in the movie Planes as Skipper Riley, main character Dusty Crophopper's flight instructor. He reprised the role in Planes: Fire & Rescue.
In 2012, Keach had a supporting role in The Bourne Legacy, and in the 2013 Alexander Payne film Nebraska. In the 2017 film Gotti, Keach played the part of Neil Dellacroce, the underboss of the Gambino crime family.
Television
Keach's first-ever experience as a series regular on a television program was playing the lead role of Lieutenant Ben Logan in Caribe in 1975. He played Barabbas in 1977's Jesus of Nazareth, and portrayed Jonas Steele, a psychic and Scout of the United States Army in the 1982 CBS miniseries, The Blue and the Gray. He later portrayed and is best known as Mike Hammer in the CBS television series Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer and The New Mike Hammer from 1984 to 1987. He returned to the role of Hammer in Mike Hammer, Private Eye, a new syndicated series that aired from 1997 to 1998. In 1988, he starred as Ernest Hemingway in the made-for-TV movie Hemingway. He also hosted segments for the Encore Mystery premium cable network in the late 1990s and 2000s.
In 2000, he played Ken Titus, the sarcastic, chain-smoking, five-times-divorced functional alcoholic father of the title character in Fox's sitcom Titus. Cast members of Titus have commented they enjoyed working with Keach because he would find a way to make even the driest line funny.
Keach lent his voice to The Simpsons episodes "Hungry, Hungry Homer", "Old Yeller-Belly", "Marge and Homer Turn a Couple Play", and "Waiting for Duffman", portraying Duff Brewery President Howard K. Duff VIII, and the Batman Beyond episode "Lost Soul" as Robert Vance, a deceased businessman resurrected as an artificial intelligence. He also guest starred in a 2005 episode of the sitcom Will & Grace, and had a recurring role as Warden Henry Pope in the Fox drama Prison Break. Keach was in an episode of Perry Mason.
In 2006, he acted in the mini-series Blackbeard, made for the Hallmark Channel. It was directed by Kevin Connor, and starred Angus Macfadyen, with Richard Chamberlain, David Winters, and Jessica Chastain. In 2011, Keach co-starred as "Pops", the father of the main character in the short lived boxing drama series Lights Out.
In November 2013, Keach appeared on the Fox comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine, in the episode "Old School". In February 2015, Keach started guest appearing in NCIS: New Orleans as Cassius Pride, father of NCIS Agent Dwayne Pride. He played the elderly father Bob on the 2016 sitcom Crowded. Beginning in 2016, Keach occasionally appears on CBS's drama Blue Bloods as Archbishop Kevin Kearns. In 2017, Keach started guest appearing in Man with a Plan as Joe Burns, father of Adam Burns (played by co-star Matt LeBlanc) and was later promoted to series regular status for season three.
Played the role of Robert Vesco, Raymond Reddington's former mentor and criminal muse, on the tv series Blacklist.
Narrator
Keach narrated several episodes of Nova, National Geographic, and various other informational series. From 1989 to 1992, he was host of the syndicated informational reenactment show, Missing Reward, which had a similar format to the popular Unsolved Mysteries at the time. From 1992 to 1995, he became the voice-over narrator for the paranormal series Haunted Lives: True Ghost Stories.
Beginning in 1999, he served as the narrator for the home video clip show World's Most Amazing Videos, which is now seen on Spike TV. He currently hosts The Twilight Zone radio series. Keach can also be heard narrating the CNBC series American Greed, from its 2007 inception to the 2022-23 season. For the PBS series American Experience, he narrated The Kennedys, among others.
In 2008, Keach once again reprised his famous role as Mike Hammer in a series of full-cast radio dramatizations for Blackstone Audio. (He also arranged and performed the music for the audio dramas. His wife, Malgosia Tomassi, also starred in the dramas, playing Maya Ricci, a yoga instructor.) Keach has also read many of Mickey Spillane's original Mike Hammer novels as Audiobooks.
Keach played the role of John in The Truth & Life Dramatized Audio Bible, a 22-hour audio version of the RSV-CE translation of the New Testament. He also voiced both Job and Paul the Apostle in The Word of Promise, a 2007 dramatic audio presentation based on the New King James Version.
On January 6, 2014, Keach became the official voice of The Opie and Anthony Channel on SiriusXM Satellite Radio (Sirius Channel 206, XM Channel 103). Keach is the voice of CNBC's American Greed, now on their thirteenth season.
Music
Keach is an accomplished pianist and composer. He sang backing vocals on the Judy Collins hit song "Amazing Grace". He is also credited with co-writing a song, "Easy Times", on the Judy Collins live album Living.
He provided music for the film Imbued, directed by Rob Nilssen. He has also completed composing the music for the Mike Hammer audio radio series, "Encore For Murder", written by Max Collins, directed by Carl Amari, and produced by Blackstone Audio.
Personal life
Keach has been married four times: to Kathryn Baker in 1964, to Marilyn Aiken in 1975, to Jill Donahue in 1981, and to Małgorzata Tomassi in 1986. He has two children with Małgorzata: son Shannon Keach and daughter Karolina Keach. In 2015, Keach became a Polish citizen.
His brother James is an actor and television director.
Keach is a Roman Catholic.
Legal issues
In 1984, Customs & Excise officers arrested Keach at Heathrow Airport for importation of cocaine. Keach pleaded guilty, and served six months at Reading Prison. Keach stated that his time in prison, which he described as the lowest point of his life, and the friendship he formed with a priest during that time led to his conversion to Catholicism. Subsequently, he and his wife met Pope John Paul II. His wife, Małgorzata Tomassi, had attended the same school in Warsaw as the pope.
Honors
In 2015, Keach was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 2019, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Partial stage credits
Other stage credits
The Devil's Disciple (1963, Yale Drama School) - Richard Dudgeon
Julius Caesar (1965, London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art) - Brutus
King Lear (1965, London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art) - Earl of Kent
Oh, What a Lovely War! (1969, Long Wharf Theatre) - Master of Ceremonies
Cyrano de Bergerac (1978, Long Beach Theatre Festival) - Cyrano de Bergerac
Hughie (1980, Royal National Theatre) - Erie Smith
Idiot's Delight (1986, American National Theater and Academy) - Harry Van
The Crucible (1988, L.A. Theatre Works) - John Proctor
The King and I (1989, Benedum Center) - Mongkut
Camelot (1991, Benedum Center) - King Arthur
Stieglitz Loves O'Keefe (1995, Morris A. Mechanic Theatre) - Alfred Stieglitz
Macbeth (1995, Folger Shakespeare Festival) - Macbeth
Art (1998, London)
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Critics awards
Film festivals
References
Notes
External links
BroadwayWorld.com interview with Stacy Keach, September 23, 2008
1941 births
Living people
Actors from Savannah, Georgia
Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art
American expatriates in England
American male film actors
American male Shakespearean actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people convicted of drug offenses
American people of English descent
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners
American Roman Catholics
Catholics from Georgia (U.S. state)
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Keach family
Male actors from Georgia (U.S. state)
Obie Award recipients
Polish people of American descent
Naturalized citizens of Poland
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Van Nuys High School alumni
David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Fulbright alumni |
40315379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inno%20delle%20nazioni | Inno delle nazioni | (Hymn of the nations), a cantata in a single movement, is one of only two secular choral works composed by Giuseppe Verdi. This Hymn incorporates "God Save the King", "La Marseillaise", and "Il Canto degli Italiani". It was the first collaboration between the composer and Arrigo Boito, who, much later, would revise the libretto of Simon Boccanegra and write the original libretti of Otello and Falstaff.
Although written for the 1862 International Exhibition in London, it premiered at Her Majesty's Theatre on 24 May 1862. It became the centerpiece of a 1944 propaganda film, Hymn of the Nations, where it was performed by the NBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini with the Westminster Choir and Jan Peerce as tenor soloist.
Background
In December 1858, the Society of Arts in London announced their intention to hold what was to be called the 1862 International Exhibition, seen as a successor to The Great Exhibition of 1851. Wanting to include musical performances (which were excluded from the 1851 exhibition), at the suggestion of the leading music critic Henry Chorley, they solicited new works from Daniel Auber (representing France), William Sterndale Bennett (England), Giacomo Meyerbeer (Germany) and Gioachino Rossini (Italy). Rossini declined the invitation.
Roberta Montemorra Marvin (who edited Inno delle nazioni for The Complete Works of Giuseppe Verdi series) considers that the committee did not initially ask Verdi to compose a piece because of Chorley's antipathy toward the composer's works. Nevertheless, after Rossini's refusal, in 1861 the committee invited Verdi, offering four suggestions as to form: anthem, chorale, triumphal march (for full orchestra), or march (for wind instruments). While honored by the request, Verdi tentatively declined, despite the intervention of fellow Italian and conductor Michael Costa, claiming his duties in preparing La forza del destino left no time available. He promised to consider the question in February 1862, once the preparation of the opera was out of the way.
Although Verdi detested writing occasional works, Marvin surmises that since Verdi was informed of the acceptance of the commission by Auber and Meyerbeer, personal pride and the chance at representing Italy at an international exhibition were the key reasons he took up the commission.
Composition history
When illness of the soprano forced a postponement of La forza del destino, Verdi departed St. Petersburg and arrived in Paris on 24 February 1862. Two encounters influenced his decision to commence work on a composition for the exhibition. The first was with the composer Daniel Auber who apparently conveyed to Verdi that he was composing a march for the occasion. In correspondence recalling this meeting, Verdi indicated that he was also composing a march. But in a subsequent letter to Costa he indicated he was writing an overture. Costa relayed this information to the commissioners who agreed with the form of composition.
Secondly, two up-and-coming Italian writers, Arrigo Boito and Franco Faccio, met with Verdi at the end of February 1862, bearing a letter of introduction from Countess Clara Maffei. Marvin suggests the purpose of the meeting might have been to indirectly prompt Verdi to work on the commission. As a result of this meeting, Boito was charged with writing the text of the proposed work.
On 19 March the commissioners received a letter from the composer "in which he expressed his wish to substitute for the overture a cantata with Italian words, the solo part of which would be executed by Signor Tamberlik." Though the commissioners rejected Verdi's proposal (believing the work would be too large for the exhibition space), Verdi refused their rejection and continued working on the cantata (he called the work Cantica), completing it towards the end of March.
He gave the completed manuscript to his wife Giuseppina, who traveled to London to deliver it in early April. Steadfast in their refusal to accept the work, they would not meet with Giuseppina and wrote to Verdi that they could not accept performance of the cantata, since the necessary preparations would be too large an undertaking. Verdi arrived in London on 20 April, expecting that his work would be performed. Through much wrangling the commissioners remained firm in their refusal, Costa declaring that because it was scored for voices, not just for orchestra, it was against the rules of the Commission, that it had not arrived in time, and that there would not be enough time to rehearse. Verdi wrote to the publisher Léon Escudier on 22 April telling him that his cantata would not be performed.
The press received word of the refusal and wrote that the problem was Verdi's inability to meet a deadline.
In response, Verdi wrote to The Times, published on 24 April, denying the claim: "[The commissioners] let it be known that twenty-five days (enough to learn a new opera) were not enough to learn this short cantata; and they refused it." He continued by stating that he wanted to "correct the error – that I did not send my composition".
Critical opinion sided with Verdi, and the blame fell on the commissioners. The incident proved embarrassing for them and for music director Costa. According to the Musical World, "The whole feeling of the country in this instance is with the Italian Maestro, and against the Commissioners. The cry has gone forth from one end of the kingdom to the other that a grievous wrong has been done, and that restitution is imperatively demanded."
First performance and reception
Verdi was in the audience for the inaugural concert of the International Exhibition on 1 May 1862. The concert received only a lukewarm reception, making Verdi happy that his Cantica had not been programmed. The first performance of the cantata took place at Her Majesty's Theatre (at the time under the leadership of James Henry Mapleson) on 24 May 1862, after a performance of The Barber of Seville. "Every member" of Mapleson's company participated in the performance supplemented by 200 choristers of Jules Benedict's Vocal Association – the entire ensemble conducted by Luigi Arditi.
Verdi wrote to his publisher Giovanni Ricordi "The effect seemed good, and it was encored ... Performance good on the whole, very good on the part of the orchestra. Arditi is a good conductor." Franco Faccio (who had been with Boito at their first meeting with Verdi) wrote to Boito: "The effect of the piece is irresistible."
Marvin feels that the controversy surrounding the genesis of the work makes it difficult to gauge contemporaneous reception. A review in the Revue et gazette musicale (1 June 1862) underscores the difficulty: "[The] unprecedented, incomprehensible conduct [the commissioners showed] to a man of such celebrity as Verdi, refusing a composition which he took the pains to bring himself, excited such astonishment and so turned all sympathies to his side, that his composition became famous even before anyone had heard it."
Most reviews tended to be overly sympathetic to the composer. The report in The Daily Telegraph provides an example of the exaggerated reaction:
At the conclusion of the Cantata Signor Verdi was loudly called for, and, after some delay, was led on by the energetic and enthusiastic Mdlle. Tietjiens, not once nor twice only, but several times, to receive the heartiest tribute of approbation which an appreciative and sympathetic English audience could bestow. Not that the manifestations of good feelings were confined to applause alone, for bouquets and wreaths were showered on the favourite maestro, and favourite vocalists were even roused from their ordinary listlessness to do demonstrative honour to their illustrious countryman. The applause still continuing, the whole Cantata was then repeated. At the conclusion of the second performance Signor Verdi was then led forward by Signor Giuglini, and even after the curtain fell, he was compelled again to bow his acknowledgments.
Chorley's review continued his antagonism toward Verdi: "we must state frankly that the Cantata appears to be no favourable specimen of Signore Verdi's peculiar manner, and beside being of a form entirely different from that in which he was invited to compose, is, in every point of taste and of art, unsuited to the occasion for which it was designed."
Political implications
Reviewers questioned Verdi's decision to include songs representing England ("God Save the Queen"), France ("La Marseillaise") and Italy ("Il Canto degli Italiani", also known as "Inno di Mameli"). At the time, neither "La Marseillaise" nor "Il Canto degli Italiani" were their respective country's national anthem. Some critics, such as the unnamed one writing in the Musical World, incorrectly thought the inclusion of such nationalistic songs or the potential political embarrassment from their inclusion was the reason for the cantata's rejection from the inaugural concert.
Chorley and other critics charged Boito with presenting a biased view of European harmony, one dominated by Italy. Marvin observes the cover art also shows Italy on a par with England and France and she hypothesizes that it was not financial gain that led Verdi to accept the commission but rather a desire to affirm Italy's musical, particularly its operatic, supremacy. This feeling is illustrated in the long letter which Verdi wrote to Arrivabene: Marvin considers that Verdi, well aware of his own importance in the musical world, saw this as a chance to serve as a voice supportive of Italian music in an international context, although the composer expressed to both his publisher and to his friend Count Arrivabene his lack of interest in writing pieces for a given occasion.
Subsequent performances
After the world premiere, Inno delle nazioni was presented six more times in London in 1862; the final occasion was on 16 June, along with all the music written for the 1862 International Exposition.
The Paris premiere took place on 2 May 1863 at the Théatre Italien at a benefit concert for the composer Charles Billema. The solo was performed by a soprano, Rosina Penco.
The first Italian performance took place on 24 June 1864 at the Teatro alla Scala, although, in giving permission, Verdi was skeptical that it would be a success:"It will be a fiasco, as all my works are, when they are first performed in Milan". The first American performance took place on 28 April 1874 at the Academy of Music in New York, conducted by Emanuele Muzio (a long-time assistant of Verdi's), with Christina Nilsson as the soloist.
Some of the 20th-century performances of Inno delle nazioni were for propaganda purposes. Arturo Toscanini conducted it on 25 July 1915 in an outdoor arena in Milan, shortly after Italy entered World War I. During World War II Toscanini performed it on 31 January 1943 with the NBC Symphony Orchestra, Jan Peerce as soloist, and choristers from Westminster Choir College in a highly touted broadcast and the work was also the centerpiece of a 31-minute film for the United States Office of War Information called Hymn of the Nations, directed by Alexander Hammid. It was filmed at the NBC Studios and consists of Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony in a performance of Verdi's Overture to La forza del destino and Inno delle nazioni, which contains the national anthems of England, France, and Italy (the World War I allied nations), to which Toscanini added the Soviet "Internationale" and "The Star-Spangled Banner". The film, which featured a performance by Toscanini and the same forces as the 1943 broadcast, was narrated by Burgess Meredith.
Another rendition was commissioned for the ending of the documentary 16 Days of Glory about the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. With Plácido Domingo as tenor soloist, the new orchestration incorporated the national anthems of Finland, the Netherlands, Italy, United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Germany, and the United States.
Music
The cantata is scored for piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, cimbasso, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, percussion, 2 harps, and strings.
The "characters" in the critical edition are designated as the "Coro di Popolo" (Chorus of People of all nations) and the tenor soloist is "Un Bardo" (a poet) ("A Voice Among Them").
Critical reaction
In modern times, Julian Budden has noted that "Verdi's own experiment in combining national anthems [..] sounds contrived because there has to be a certain amount of harmonic manipulation to make it possible" but he does regard "the bold, not to say reckless, combination of different melodies" as pointing the way forward and actually being accomplished "with greater skill in Aida".
References
Sources
Budden, Julian (1984), The Operas of Verdi, Volume 2: From Il Trovatore to La Forza del Destino. London: Cassell. (hardcover) (paperback).
Budden, Julian (1984), The Operas of Verdi, Volume 3: From Don Carlos to Falstaff. London: Cassell.
Marvin, Roberta Montemorra, (Ed.) (2007), Hymns / Inni (The Works of Giuseppe Verdi, Series IV, Vol. 1: Cantatas and Hymns). (Contains Verdi's Inno popolare, 1848, and Inno delle nazioni, 1862). Chicago: University of Chicago Press & Ricordi, Milan.
Marvin, Roberta Montemorra, The Politics of Verdi's 'Cantica'''. Royal Musical Association Monographs 24. Surrey: Ashgate, 2014.
Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane (1993), Verdi: A Biography'', London & New York: Oxford University Press.
External links
Inno delle nazioni Allmusic
Sheet music on IMSLP
Compositions by Giuseppe Verdi
Cantatas
1862 cantatas |
20903908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod%20Blagojevich%20corruption%20charges | Rod Blagojevich corruption charges | In December 2008, then-Democratic Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich and his Chief of Staff John Harris were charged with corruption by federal prosecutor Patrick Fitzgerald. As a result, Blagojevich was impeached by the Illinois General Assembly and removed from office by the Illinois Senate in January 2009. The federal investigation continued after his removal from office, and he was indicted on corruption charges in April of that year. The jury found Blagojevich guilty of one charge of making false statements with a mistrial being declared on the other 23 counts due to a hung jury after 14 days of jury deliberation. On June 27, 2011, after a retrial, Blagojevich was found guilty of 17 charges (including wire fraud, attempted extortion, and conspiracy to solicit bribes), not guilty on one charge and the jury deadlocked after 10 days of deliberation on the two remaining charges. On December 7, 2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison.
The investigation became public knowledge when a federal judge revealed that Blagojevich was the "Public Official A" in the indictment of Tony Rezko. The case gained widespread attention with the simultaneous arrests of Blagojevich and Harris on the morning of December 9, 2008 at their homes by federal agents. Blagojevich and Harris were each charged with one count of conspiracy to commit mail and wire fraud and one count of soliciting bribes. The case involved sweeping pay to play and influence peddling allegations, including the solicitation of personal benefit in exchange for an appointment to the U.S. Senate as a replacement for Barack Obama, who had resigned after being elected U.S. President. U.S. Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald noted that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing by Obama.
After the arrest, Illinois elected officials began calling on Blagojevich to resign. The 50 members of the U.S. Senate's Democratic caucus called on Blagojevich to not appoint a senator and pledged not to seat anyone he attempted to appoint. Legislators introduced bills in both houses of the Illinois General Assembly to remove the Governor's power to appoint a senator and require a special election; however, no such bill passed. Blagojevich did eventually appoint Roland Burris to the seat. Despite attempts to keep Burris from taking the seat in the U.S. Senate, he was eventually allowed to take the oath of office. Within days of Blagojevich's arrest, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan filed a motion with the Illinois Supreme Court seeking to declare the Governor "unable to serve" and strip him of the powers of his office. The court denied the request. Meanwhile, Illinois House Speaker Mike Madigan (the Attorney General's father) announced that on December 16 he would begin impeachment proceedings. The state House impeached Blagojevich on January 9, 2009, and the state Senate convicted him 20 days later, thereby removing him; they also disqualified him from holding further office in the state.
Background
Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich had been under investigation for corrupt activity for four years, as part of a broader federal investigation by Patrick Fitzgerald, code-named Operation Board Games, that had been going on for three years. To date, 15 people have been charged in connection with the investigation. Blagojevich had long been suspected to be a target of the investigation, but it was confirmed by U.S. District Judge Amy St. Eve that he was the "Public Official A" referred to in the federal indictment of Tony Rezko. Just before the 2008 U.S. general elections, federal investigators were granted authority to tape Blagojevich's conversations. On December 8, 2008, in a press conference, Blagojevich claimed, "whether you tape me privately or publicly, I can tell you that whatever I say is always lawful and the things I'm interested in are always lawful." He further stated that "if anybody wants to tape my conversations, go right ahead, feel free to do it. I appreciate anybody who wants to tape me openly and notoriously; and those who feel like they want to sneakily, and wear taping devices, I would remind them that it kind of smells like Nixon and Watergate." After a meeting between Blagojevich and Jesse Jackson Jr. regarding the Senate seat, when asked his thoughts on being the subject of federal tapings, Blagojevich stated "I don't believe there's any cloud that hangs over me, I think there's nothing but sunshine hanging over me"
At 6:15 a.m. on December 9, 2008, Rod Blagojevich and his chief of staff John Harris were arrested at their homes by deputies of the U.S. Marshals Service on behalf of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Blagojevich and Harris were each charged with one count of conspiracy to commit mail and wire fraud and one count of soliciting bribes. The case involved sweeping pay to play and influence peddling allegations, including the solicitation of personal benefit in exchange for an appointment to the U.S. Senate as a replacement for Barack Obama when the latter resigned after being elected U.S. President. Fitzgerald noted that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing by Obama.
Before the scandal, Blagojevich considered himself as a contender for the 2016 presidential election, but was willing to pursue an interim position as a Cabinet member, a U.S. ambassador, or a high-profile corporate titan instead. The governor viewed his statutory power to appoint a replacement for Obama in the U.S. Senate as convertible currency of the form that could assure this future. Soon after the presidential election, it became very clear to Fitzgerald from his wiretaps that a sale of the Senate seat was imminent; Fitzgerald immediately pressed for Blagojevich's arrest. After the arrest, the prosecution began proceedings to obtain an indictment from a grand jury; this process was granted an extension to April 7, 2009.
A federal grand jury in Illinois returned an indictment against Blagojevich and five other defendants on April 2, 2009. Blagojevich is the seventh Illinois Governor to have been arrested or indicted; and became the fourth, following Dan Walker, who was jailed from 1987 to 1989. As well as the allegations concerning the Senate seat, Blagojevich has also been charged with:
Attempting to extort the owners of the Tribune Company to fire Chicago Tribune editors who criticized the governor's handling of state affairs.
Abuse of power concerning release of US$8 million of state funds to Children's Memorial Hospital expecting to obtain a $50,000 campaign contribution.
Seeking graft in the form of $2.5 million in campaign contributions (through 2008) from companies and individuals who have received state contracts or appointments.
On January 2, 2009, Governor Blagojevich's federal security clearance was revoked by the United States Department of Homeland Security.
In June 2009, it was determined by the judge overseeing the case that the Blagojevich trial would start on June 3, 2010. In the wake of the scandal, reform measures are being proposed. Wisconsin Senator Russell Feingold, who then served as the chairman of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary's Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights, had stated that he would introduce a constitutional amendment requiring vacant Senate seats be filled by special elections, as the House of Representatives requires; however, nothing ever came of it.
Obama Senate replacement
Fraud involving the appointment of a senator to fill the Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama has been the most notable charge against Blagojevich. Blagojevich was overheard on a recorded phone call saying, "I've got this thing, and it's fucking golden. I'm just not giving it up for fucking nothing. It's a fucking valuable thing, you just don't give it away for nothing. If I don't get what I want ... I'll just take the Senate seat myself."
Blagojevich sought the following in exchange for an appointment:
A substantial salary for himself at either a non-profit foundation or an organization affiliated with labor unions.
Placing his wife on paid corporate boards where he speculated she might garner as much as $150,000 a year.
Promises of campaign funds—including cash up front.
A Cabinet post or ambassadorship for himself to Serbia.
Following Blagojevich's arrest, Richard Durbin, the U.S. Senator for Illinois who had served alongside Barack Obama, issued a statement regarding the prospective gubernatorial appointment to replace Obama in the Senate: "No appointment by this governor, under these circumstances, could produce a credible replacement". Durbin urged the Illinois General Assembly to quickly set a special election to replace Obama. Durbin noted that Illinois had a need to call a 2009 House of Representatives special election to replace then-Representative and White House Chief of Staff-designate Rahm Emanuel in Illinois's 5th congressional district. Both Illinois Senate President Emil Jones and Illinois House Speaker Michael Madigan stated that they would call a session of their respective chambers to consider legislation to establish a special election to fill the Obama Senate seat vacancy. Bills were introduced in both houses that would have revoked the Governor's statutory authority to appoint a senator, and would have required a special election instead. Neither house debated the bills, nor were they enacted.
Roland Burris appointment
In the midst of the controversy, on December 31, 2008, Blagojevich appointed Roland Burris, a former Illinois Attorney General and the first African American to be elected to statewide office in Illinois, to the vacated Senate seat. Blagojevich stated that, per the Illinois state constitution, he had sole authority to make such an appointment and that it was his duty to ensure Illinois was fully represented in the Senate. Illinois Secretary of State Jesse White refused to certify Burris' selection for the vacant Senate seat.
Senate leaders argued that Senate Rule 2 requires a senator-designate's credentials to be signed by the state's governor and secretary of state. On January 6, when the 111th United States Congress opened its session, the Secretary of the United States Senate Nancy Erickson rejected Burris's credentials because White had not signed the certificate of appointment. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid ordered that Burris be turned away from the Senate. The lone Democrat to show support for Burris' nomination was chair of the United States Senate Committee on Rules and Administration Dianne Feinstein, who recognized the propriety of the appointment based on the statutory authority of the Illinois Governor. On January 7, Burris met with Reid and Durbin, the two ranking Senate leaders who stated their support was conditional upon Burris both obtaining the signature of the Illinois secretary of state and testifying under oath before Illinois House of Representatives committee investigating impeachment.
On January 8, Burris testified before the Illinois House committee that he had engaged in no wrongdoing in order to procure the nomination by the Governor. The following day, the Illinois Supreme Court ruled that the prevailing statutes do not mandate the signature of the Secretary of State to validate the Governor's appointment. Further, the court ruled that the only necessary act by the Secretary of State was the registration of the appointment in Illinois's official records, which Jesse White had performed on December 31, 2008. The Illinois Supreme Court ruled that the US Senate's recommended certification form are not required to be used by Illinois and its Secretary of State. The court further ruled that the form of certificate contained in Rule 2 of the Standing Rules of the United States Senate was a recommended form and noted that "no explanation has been given as to how any rule of the Senate, whether it be formal or merely a matter of tradition, could supersede the authority to fill vacancies conferred on the states by the federal constitution."
After the court's ruling, White provided Burris with a certified copy, which bears the Seal of the State of Illinois, of the appointment's registration, which Burris delivered to the Secretary of the Senate. On January 12, 2009, after deeming Burris' credentials valid, the Senate decided to seat Burris. Burris was sworn in on January 15, 2009, by President of the Senate Dick Cheney.
Burris filed an affidavit with the Illinois House committee that oversaw Governor Blagojevich's impeachment, dated February 5, to supplement his earlier answer to a question posed by the committee. Burris acknowledged Rob Blagojevich requested "assistance in fund-raising" for the governor three times in the weeks and months before Blagojevich appointed Burris. Burris said he told Blagojevich that he could not donate to him because "it could be viewed as an attempt to curry favor with him regarding his decision to appoint a successor to President Obama." Burris stated that he neither donated to nor raised funds for the Governor after a fund-raiser on June 27, 2008. Saying that this is at odds with Burris' testimony during the impeachment trial, Illinois House Republicans said that they would consider pursuing a perjury investigation. Democratic officials, including Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan, supported that announcement.
On February 16, in comments to reporters, Burris acknowledged he sought to raise campaign funds for Blagojevich at the request of the governor's brother at the same time he was making a pitch to be appointed to the Senate. Burris is accused of lying during his January 8 testimony to the Illinois House of Representatives and the United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics has opened a preliminary investigation into the matter. Illinois Speaker of the House Mike Madigan has forwarded materials for review in the Illinois State Capital and expulsion from the United States Senate is considered a possibility even though only 15 persons have previously been expelled, most recently in 1862. Expulsion would require a simple majority vote by the committee and a two-thirds supermajority vote by the full Senate. In the subsequent days, records came out that showed Burris to have misrepresented a list of his lobbying clients. The series of controversies prompted Durbin to refer to it as the embarrassing "Blagojevich burlesque" and he mentioned that a resignation might relieve the situation. Illinois Governor Quinn called a press conference to request a resignation for the good of the Illinois citizens. Several Democrats called for Burris' resignation; the Obama administration asked that he reconsider his future, and a pair of employees resigned from Burris' staff. On February 21, Burris met with federal authorities regarding his involvement in the matter.
Durbin requested a meeting with Burris on February 24 to discuss the disclosures. Durbin told reporters that during the meeting he advised him to resign: "I told him under the circumstances that I would consider resigning". Burris stated that he would not do so. Durbin also inquired about Burris' plans for the 2010 U.S. Senate elections and relayed to Burris that he would be very unlikely to succeed in the primary or general election. Quinn endorsed a special election to replace Burris, but there was vocal and procedural resistance in the Illinois General Assembly. On February 25, Lisa Madigan confirmed the constitutionality of moving forward a direct election for the seat formerly held by Obama to a targeted May 26 date. The following day, a story unfolded involving Burris' son who obtained a $75,000 job under Rod Blagojevich on September 10 as a senior counsel for the state's housing authority — about six weeks after the Internal Revenue Service placed a $34,163 tax lien on Burris II and three weeks after a mortgage company filed a foreclosure suit on his South Side house.
Obama's involvement
Blagojevich was aware that Barack Obama would have preferred "Senate Candidate #1" (Valerie Jarrett), and he made efforts to obtain favors in exchange for appointing Jarrett for the U.S. Senate seat. Blagojevich said in a conversation with his chief of staff, in reference to what Obama would give him in exchange for Jarrett's appointment, "All they're going to give me in return is gratitude. The Senate seat's a fucking valuable thing. Fuck them." There was public speculation as to whether Obama's Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel, had a role in any discussions with the governor's office. An internal investigation by the Obama team stated that Emanuel had communicated with the Governor's office about who might be appointed to the Obama seat, but nothing unethical or inappropriate had transpired.
On December 10, Obama called for Blagojevich's resignation.
In a December 11 press conference, Obama stated that he and his staff and transition team were not involved in any corrupt activity, and that his staff had been exonerated by the 76-page FBI affidavit. He stated that, not only had he never engaged the governor on the topic of his Senate seat, but he was "confident that no representative of mine would have any part in any deals related to this seat". His administration compiled a summary of who might have known what at various times. Obama stated that he did not think Blagojevich could "effectively serve the people of Illinois" and that his former Senate seat "belongs to the people". He also stated that to his knowledge, no representatives of his had engaged in any dealmaking with the governor.
On December 15, the Obama team confirmed that its internal review found no inappropriate contact between Obama's staff and Blagojevich or his staff, stating "that review affirmed the public statements of the president-elect that he had no contact with the governor or his staff over the selection of his successor as U.S. president-elect's staff was not involved in inappropriate discussions with the governor or his staff over the selection of his successor as U.S. Senator".
In April 2010, Blagojevich moved to subpoena Obama.
Replacing Blagojevich
After his arrest, Blagojevich appeared before U.S. Magistrate Judge Nan R. Nolan, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, and was released on a $4,500 signature bond. He was also ordered to surrender his passport and his firearm owner's identification card. He then returned to work where his office issued a statement saying the "allegations do nothing to impact the services, duties or function of the State".
Had he pleaded guilty to the charges, Blagojevich would have been automatically forced to resign, as the Illinois Constitution does not allow convicted felons to hold office.
On December 11, 2008, Democratic Illinois Representative John Fritchey circulated a letter to the Illinois House Democratic Caucus to outline options for moving beyond the crisis caused by the criminal allegations against Blagojevich. In the letter, Fritchey mentioned the following scenarios to replace Blagojevich:
Voluntary resignation of Blagojevich as Governor of Illinois,
Filing of a Rule 382 motion by Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan with the Illinois Supreme Court to seek a judicial ruling that Blagojevich was unable or unwilling to carry out his gubernatorial duties, and
Introducing a motion in the Illinois House of Representatives to begin impeachment proceedings against Governor Blagojevich.
Between December 13 and December 14, Blagojevich's attorney Ed Genson, at hearings by the Illinois House of Representatives' Special Committee on Impeachment, stated that the Governor would not resign.
Calls for resignation
Blagojevich faced calls from members of both major parties and prominent politicians to resign. On December 9, Lieutenant Governor Pat Quinn said in a news conference that Blagojevich should temporarily step aside from his office. On December 10, he went further and called for Blagojevich to resign, and also raised questions regarding his mental health. The state's other top elected officials—Attorney General Lisa Madigan, Comptroller Dan Hynes, Treasurer Alexi Giannoulias, and Secretary of State Jesse White—also called for Blagojevich to resign.
Outgoing Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean also called for the governor to step down.
On December 10, 2008, the Democratic Caucus of the United States Senate called for Blagojevich to resign and demanded that he not appoint a replacement for Obama. The letter also mentioned that, if Blagojevich appointed a successor to Obama in the U.S. Senate, the U.S. Senate would be "forced to exercise [its] Constitutional authority under Article I, Section 5, to determine whether such a person should be seated". Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid indicated that the Senate might not seat a Blagojevich appointment because such an appointee "would be under a cloud of suspicion".
Illinois' remaining senator, Majority Whip Dick Durbin, urged the state legislature to quickly set a special election to fill Obama's vacant Senate seat, saying that any appointment by Blagojevich would not be legitimate.
Illinois Senate Minority Leader Frank Watson, Illinois Congressman John Shimkus, and many Illinois state legislators from both parties also called for Blagojevich to resign.
House Speaker Madigan thought that it would be inappropriate to make a statement calling for a resignation or a statement supporting an impeachment because he would have to preside over any impeachment debate.
Blagojevich's defense
On December 19, 2008, at the James R. Thompson Center, Blagojevich said that he "ha[d] done nothing wrong" and would not resign as governor in the face of federal corruption charges. He added that he would "answer [all questions] in the appropriate forum: in a court of law", where he believed he would be "vindicated", vowing to fight "false accusations and a political lynch mob". He proceeded to quote from Rudyard Kipling's poem If—. After reading the prepared statement, Blagojevich exited the room and did not take any questions.
Court actions to declare Blagojevich unfit to serve
On December 12, 2008, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan began legal proceedings in the Illinois Supreme Court to have Blagojevich declared "unfit to serve" in case he did not resign.
Madigan filed a motion with the Illinois Supreme Court asking it to temporarily suspend Blagojevich's powers by declaring him unable to serve and name Lieutenant Governor Quinn as acting governor. Failing that, Madigan sought a temporary injunction barring Blagojevich from appointing a replacement for Obama. She said that given the nature of the charges, the situation was too severe to wait for the legislature to act. The Supreme Court, however, in orders without opinions, denied Madigan leave to file the complaint, and it denied the motion for temporary relief.
Impeachment
According to the FBI affidavit, Blagojevich attempted to have Chicago Tribune writers fired for discussing his possible impeachment. Jan Schakowsky, a Democrat representing Illinois's 9th congressional district, called for impeachment proceedings to begin should Blagojevich not resign promptly.
On December 15, just six days after the scandal broke with no resignation by the Governor, the Illinois House voted unanimously 113–0 to begin impeachment proceedings. This was the first impeachment inquiry against an Illinois Governor. Also, on that same day, Illinois House Speaker Michael Madigan formed a bipartisan committee of inquiry within the House of Representatives to run an impeachment inquiry.
Madigan further stated, "We have given the governor six days to resign." He also stated that the committee would work every day except Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, New Year's Eve, and New Year's Day until they had completed their report. The Illinois House would decide whether to impeach after the committee completed its review. The Illinois Senate would then have a trial to remove the Governor from office. Illinois House Majority Leader Barbara Flynn Currie was the chairperson of the Special Committee on Impeachment.
Madigan stated that the impeachment committee would consider the pending criminal charges as well as review other possible wrongdoing during Blagojevich's term such as abuse of power, taking action without legal authority, ignoring state laws, and defying lawful requests for information from the General Assembly. Currie further stated that among the controversial actions under review by the committee would be the Blagojevich administration's purchase of a flu vaccine that was never distributed and his unilateral decision to send a $1 million grant to a private school that was damaged when the historic Pilgrim Baptist Church was destroyed by fire. She also warned that the panel's interest in investigating alleged criminal activities surrounding Blagojevich might be affected by how much cooperation was forthcoming from federal investigators, which was supported by a formal written request to Prosecutor Fitzgerald. On December 30, Fitzgerald filed a motion to allow the impeachment committee to hear the conversations recorded by wiretap during his federal investigation.
Impeachment vote and trial
On January 8, 2009, after the testimony by Roland Burris, the 21-member bipartisan committee on impeachment voted unanimously to recommend that the House impeach the Governor. The following day, the full House voted 114–1 to impeach the governor. The lone dissenter was Chicago-area Representative Milton Patterson; three other representatives abstained. After the Illinois House impeached Blagojevich, the Illinois Senate held a trial at which Illinois Supreme Court Chief Justice Thomas R. Fitzgerald presided. Under the Illinois Constitution, Fitzgerald rather than Senate President John Cullerton, presided because the accused was the governor.
Blagojevich was the sixteenth governor in the United States and the first Illinois governor to have been impeached. Seven of the fifteen impeached governors were removed from office.
The article of impeachment alleged a pattern of conduct constituting abuse of power, including the events described in the criminal complaint and several instances of ignoring Illinois law in his use of executive power. In particular, it accused Blagojevich of engaging in a conduct constituting a pattern of abuse of power. Among the misdeeds were the following:
Plotting to "obtain a personal benefit in exchange for his appointment to fill the [President-elect Barack Obama's] vacant seat in the United States Senate";
Plotting to extort the Tribune Company by withholding state funds unless it fired certain members of the editorial board who had been critical of the governor;
Plotting to obtain a campaign contribution in exchange for signing a bill to divert casino gambling revenues to the horse racing industry.
On January 14, the new session of the Illinois House of Representatives convened and voted to affirm the impeachment vote of the prior session with only Blagojevich's sister-in-law Deborah Mell dissenting.
The impeachment trial in the Illinois State Senate began on January 26, 2009. Blagojevich boycotted attending his own hearings, referring to them as a kangaroo court. Neither the governor nor his lawyer was present in Springfield, Illinois on the first day of the trial. Blagojevich spent the day in New York City making media appearances on a myriad of shows including Good Morning America and The View. In his absence, a "not guilty" plea was automatically entered on his behalf. On the same day, in a cable television news interview with Geraldo Rivera, Blagojevich derided the whole process. Lead attorney Ed Genson announced that he was withdrawing from representing Blagojevich, saying "I never require a client to do what I say, but I do require them to at least listen." Blagojevich was in New York again the next day continuing an apparent attempt to upstage the hearings with eleven media appointments at places such as The Early Show, and the Associated Press. Blagojevich insisted that unlike Richard Nixon who did not want his tapes heard during Watergate, he wanted his tapes heard in order to reveal the whole truth, which he felt would vindicate him.
On January 27, Federal prosecutors played four recordings from among the thousands of intercepted calls from Blagojevich's home and campaign offices. Although lawmakers trying to build an impeachment case wanted to hear more, the prosecutors feared further collaboration could jeopardize the criminal case against the governor. The recordings played at the impeachment trial were taped in November and December and revealed efforts by Blagojevich to collect money from a horse track owner in exchange for signing legislation benefiting the racing industry, prosecutors said. State Senator Dan Cronin said hearing the recordings "hits me right here in the stomach. It sort of reminds me of some Hollywood movie or a couple of thugs in a car driving around." Daniel Cain, an FBI agent who investigated Blagojevich for years, also testified on January 27 and answered questions that did not extend to information not presented in the affidavit.
On January 28, Blagojevich requested the opportunity to deliver his own closing arguments, although he would not testify or submit himself to cross-examination. The Senate allowed Blagojevich to file an appearance late, enabling him to make a 90-minute closing argument.
The following day, January 29, the prosecution delivered a 40-minute closing argument. Blagojevich then delivered his 47-minute closing arguments in defense. Among Blagojevich's statement were continuing reminders that he believed the process to be tainted because it did not allow him to call witnesses or challenge the evidence (although, as the Chicago Tribune reported two days earlier, the process did in fact allow the governor to call witnesses and challenge the evidence, but Blagojevich had done neither by the deadline). The prosecution then made a 12-minute rebuttal. Blagojevich did not remain in the Statehouse for the prosecution's rebuttal speech or the vote on his impeachment. After giving his closing statement, Blagojevich immediately left Springfield to return to his Chicago home aboard an official state aircraft. Had Blagojevich remained in Springfield for his impeachment, he would have been immediately ineligible to be transported on state aircraft as he would no longer be governor—he would have been stranded in Springfield, responsible for his own transportation home.
After a recess, the Senate debated the vote on the article of impeachment. Under the Illinois Constitution, a two-thirds majority, or 40 votes out of 59, was required to convict him on the article of impeachment. After several hours of deliberations, Rod Blagojevich was convicted and removed from office by a unanimous vote of 59–0. State Senator Mike Frerichs then moved that Blagojevich be banned from ever holding office in Illinois again. This motion carried, also by a unanimous vote of 59–0. Shortly after the vote, the lieutenant governor, Pat Quinn was sworn in as the new governor. Although Blagojevich is disqualified from running for any Government of Illinois office, he is eligible to run for federal office such as his old congressional seat.
Placeholder names in the complaint
During the federal investigation leading up to the arrest, the Federal Bureau of Investigation used wire taps at both the Governor's campaign offices and his home phone.
Rather than identifying subject individuals by name, the FBI affidavit used aliases to refer to people not necessarily accused of any crimes including the six people Blagojevich was considering appointing to the Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama.
The affidavit said that a representative of Senate Candidate 5 had proposed having the candidate raise up to $1 million for Blagojevich's campaign in exchange for being appointed to the Senate.
ABC News reported that federal law enforcement officials identified Jesse Jackson, Jr. as Senate Candidate 5. Jackson, who was asked for an interview by federal agents, denied that anyone on his behalf had offered anything for the Senate seat. Jackson claimed not to be a target of an investigation, but admitted to being questioned. Also WLS-TV reported December 15 that Jackson notified investigators that Blagojevich refused to appoint Jackson's wife, Sandi, as state lottery director because Jackson refused to donate $25,000 to the governor's campaign fund.
The affidavit says that Blagojevich knew "that the President-elect want[ed] Senate Candidate 1 for the Senate seat", but Blagojevich was upset that "they're not willing to give me anything except appreciation, so fuck them". The Washington Post identified Senate Candidate 1 as Valerie Jarrett.
Other prospects for the Senate seat, including Rep. Danny Davis and Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan, said that they had not been contacted by federal authorities. Madigan confirmed that she is Senate Candidate 2 in the indictment. An anonymous source described Louanner Peters as being Senate Candidate 4.
On December 10, 2008, Illinois Deputy Governor Bob Greenlee resigned, with his lawyer saying the reason for the resignation should be obvious. Reportedly, Greenlee was the colleague who advised Blagojevich to pursue the cabinet position of Secretary of Energy because it was the one that "makes the most money". Deputy Governor A is also named as the person who supposedly attempted to coerce the Chicago Tribune on Blagojevich's behalf. Schakowsky, Luis Gutierrez, Jones, and Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs Director Tammy Duckworth (who would later be elected to the seat in 2016) were also reportedly under consideration.
The 76-page FBI affidavit included extensive detail of various acts by the governor including a November 10 call between Blagojevich, Harris, his wife, and a group of advisers in which Harris had formulated an agreement with the Service Employees International Union. Harris proposed that Blagojevich would appoint a new senator who would be helpful to the president in exchange for a job as head of the union-formed group Change to Win. The union would receive an unspecified favor from Obama later under the plan.
Criminal trial
Federal grand jury indictment
On April 2, 2009, a federal grand jury issued a 19 count indictment; 16 of which named Rod Blagojevich, including racketeering conspiracy, wire fraud, extortion, conspiracy, attempted extortion, and making false statements to federal agents. Prosecutors amended the indictment on February 4, 2010, in anticipation of a U.S. Supreme Court ruling on the so-called "Honest Services" law.
Four of his closest advisors were also indicted on various crimes:
Robert Blagojevich, the ex-governor's brother (All charges against Robert Blagojevich were subsequently dropped in August 2010 following his brother's mistrial on 23 of 24 counts) was outraged how he was treated by the Federal authorities and used as a pawn against his brother. He later wrote a book about his experience that was published in 2015.
John Harris, former chief of staff
Alonzo Monk, another former chief of staff, who pleaded guilty, testified against the Governor, and received two years in prison
Christopher G. Kelly, a Springfield businessman (Kelly died on September 12, 2009, after having pleaded guilty, three days before he was to begin his prison sentence.)
If convicted, the former governor faced up to 20 years in prison on the most serious counts. On July 27, 2010, the final arguments concluded, and the jury began its deliberations.
On Wednesday, August 11, 2010, after eleven days of deliberations (during the course of which they sent Judge James Zagel two notes requesting guidance and instructions), the jury sent the judge a third, rather vague, note (which Rod Blagojevich was summoned to court to hear). The note appeared to state that the jurors may be deadlocked (raising the possibility of a hung jury) on at least some, if not all, the counts.
Judge Zagel advised the jurors that they could find the former governor guilty on some (perhaps lesser) charges while finding him not guilty of others. The judge scheduled a hearing so that he, the defendants and their defense team, and prosecutors could receive further clarification on the matter. He also forbade both sides from discussing the matter further until it had been clarified and resolved.
Response
The ex-governor and his family learned of the indictment while they were vacationing in Florida, near Disney World. Through his publicist, the ex-governor stated, "I'm saddened and hurt, but I am not surprised by the indictment. I am innocent. I now will fight in the courts to clear my name."
Blagojevich's successor, Gov. Pat Quinn responded, "The events of Dec 9 and the events of today underline for the people of Illinois that there is a serious crisis of integrity in our government, and I think it's very, very important that we the people confront this crisis, enact the reforms that will solve the problems and make sure they never happen again."
A Reform Commission headed by Patrick M. Collins drew up a 95-page list of recommendations for political reform in Illinois. In an emotional news conference, Collins criticized an Illinois legislative panel for its opposition to the recommendations. Proposed changes included campaign contribution limits and term limits for state legislative leaders. However House Speaker Michael Madigan and Senate president John Cullerton had not supported the reform Commission's proposals.
Conviction
On August 17, 2010, Blagojevich was convicted of one count of lying to federal agents but a mistrial was declared on the other 23 charges due to hung jury. Prosecutors pledged to retry the case as soon as possible. The four charges against Robert Blagojevich were dismissed. Prosecutors had offered to retry Robert Blagojevich separately. However, he refused and the charges were dropped the very next day. The retrial was set to begin April 20, 2011. On June 27 after ten days of deliberation, the jury found Blagojevich guilty of 11 counts related to the senate seat and 6 counts related to fundraising extortion of a hospital executive. He was found not guilty of bribery related to a fundraising shakedown of a road-building executive. The jury deadlocked on one count related to another road builder related to a 2006 fundraising pay-to-play involving then-U.S. Rep. Rahm Emanuel, now Chicago Mayor. Unlike the first trial, Blagojevich took the stand in his own defense. Also, for the second trial, the government dropped all racketeering charges and charges against his brother. The verdict followed the conviction of his gubernatorial predecessor five years earlier.
Sentence
On December 7, 2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison. He was also given two other concurrent sentences in addition to the 168-month sentence. Federal prison does not use parole; he must serve at least 85% of the 168-month sentence before becoming eligible to be given supervised release. On March 15, 2012, Blagojevich reported to Federal Correctional Institution, Englewood in Colorado to begin serving his sentence. The Federal Bureau of Prisons previously listed Blagojevich's expected release date from prison as May 23, 2024, before his sentence was later commuted.
Appeal
On July 21, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit overturned four of former Illinois Gov. Rod Blagojevich's 18 convictions, stating that proposals to exchange promises for appointments "is a common exercise in logrolling". The Supreme Court of the United States announced on March 28, 2016, that they had deferred the option to hear the appeal, which instead went to the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois.
On August 9, 2016, U.S. District Judge James Zagel ruled that despite the four dropped charges, reports of good behavior, and pleas for leniency, Blagojevich's 14-year sentence would stand. In making his decision, Zagel noted that "these are serious crimes that had an impact on the people of Illinois." and it is "an unfortunate reality" that Blagojevich's family members are made to suffer consequences. Patti Blagojevich commented on the sentence, calling it "unusually cruel and heartless and unfair".
Commutation of sentence
On February 18, 2020, President Donald Trump commuted Rod Blagojevich's prison sentence. Blagojevich was released from prison that day, having served about eight years of his 14-year sentence.
References
Citations
Illinois Gov. Rod R. Blagojevich and his Chief of Staff John Harris Arrested on Federal Corruption Charges Department of Justice, December 9, 2008, press release
Criminal Complaint in U.S. v. Rod Blagojevich and John Harris, December 9, 2008, copy of 76-page complaint (text version)
Documents of the Illinois General Assembly Investigative Committee
Sweet, Lynn Illinois House Speaker Mike Madigan, Majority leader Barbara Flynn Currie on Blagojevich impeachment. Transcript Chicago Sun-Times, December 16, 2008
State of Illinois 95th General Assembly House of Representatives Special Investigative Committee proposed report recommending impeachment
Complete Blagojevich Coverage Chicago Tribune, ongoing coverage
The Blagojevich Blog Chicago Tonight at WTTW (PBS), ongoing coverage
Turner.com, Illinois Supreme Court Ruling on Burris v. White
CBS2Chicago.com, death of Christopher Kelly, key adviser to Blogojevich
2008 in American politics
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Fraud in the United States
History of Illinois
Impeachment by state and territorial governments of the United States
Political corruption investigations in the United States
Political scandals in Illinois
Political scandals in the United States
Rod Blagojevich
United States Department of Justice
Political corruption scandals in the United States |
61785754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological%20regions%20of%20Quebec | Ecological regions of Quebec | The Ecological regions of Quebec are regions with specific types of vegetation and climates as defined by the Quebec Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks.
Given the size of this huge province, there is wide variation from the temperate deciduous forests of the southwest to the arctic tundra of the extreme north.
Vegetation zones
Quebec covers more than of land between 45° and 62° north, with vegetation that varies greatly from south to north.
Most of the natural vegetation is forest, with various species of trees and other plants, and these forests are the habitat for diverse fauna.
Energy, precipitation and soil are all important factors in determining what can grow.
The climate influences the natural disturbances that affect forests: western Quebec has a drier climate than the east, and experiences more fires.
For most species these disturbances are not disasters, and some need them to regenerate.
The climate in Quebec supports rich deciduous forest in the southern regions, and further north become progressively harsher.
In the Saint Lawrence Lowlands there are graduations of climate from southwest to northeast.
Changes in elevation can have similar effects to changes in latitude, with plants adapted to cooler conditions found higher up.
Within a given bioclimatic domain the types of vegetation depend on soil, terrain features such as hilltops, slopes and valley floors, and disturbances such as fires, insect infestations and logging.
The Quebec Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks divides Quebec into three vegetation zones: northern temperate, boreal and Arctic, which correspond to Quebec's major climate subdivisions, and divides these into sub-zones, which in turn are divided into domains and sub-domains.
The ministry publishes a map in which these sub-domains are in turn divided into ecological regions and subregions, and then into landscape units.
Geology
All of the bedrock of Quebec north of the foothills of the Laurentian Mountains is the Canadian Shield, one of the oldest and most stable of geological formations in the world, with rocks from 600 million to 4 billion years old.
The rocks are hard and mostly acidic.
The second largest geological zone is the Appalachians, about 230 million years old, softer and less acidic than the shield.
The most fertile part of Quebec is on the rocks of the Saint Lawrence Lowlands, which are at least 250 million years old.
They are sedimentary, once the beds of ancient seas.
Most of the rock is covered with surface deposits from a few centimeters or inches thick to over .
All forests grow on deposits at least thick.
The roots penetrate the deposits and draw water and nutrients from them.
All these surface deposits in Quebec date to the last glacial period in North America, when ice completely covered Quebec to a depth of or more.
The Laurentide Ice Sheet began to melt in the south about 15,000 years ago, and steadily retreated north, exposing rocks, sand and silt that had been scraped from the rock when the glaciers had moved south.
These loose deposits, or glacial till, are the most abundant type of surface deposit in Quebec.
The till has often been reworked by the rivers that carried away the water of the melting ice sheet, or by the ancient lakes or seas that flooded inland before the land rebounded from the weight of the ice cap.
The tills drain well due to their stones and abundant sand, but their richness in nutrients depends on their origins.
The soil derived from the Shield is mostly acidic, lacking in nutrients such as calcium, stony and with fine particles that are mostly sand.
Most of Quebec's coniferous boreal forest grows on the Canadian Shield.
The Appalachians form less acidic and more fertile soils, still rocky, but with less sand and more silt.
In the Eastern Townships the forests are mostly deciduous, but the forests of the Bas-Saint-Laurent and the Gaspé Peninsula are mostly conifers.
Although the soils of the Saint Lawrence Lowlands are very stony they are also very rich in nutrients.
Bioclimatic domains
The Committee on the Map of Ecological Regions of the Quebec Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks defined the current classification of bioclimatic domains in Quebec in 1998.
These are regions with similar climate and vegetation.
There are ten of these domains.
Some of the domains are subdivided into west and east sub-domains due to differences in vegetation caused by differences in precipitation.
The domains are:
Northern temperate zone
The northern temperate zone has two sub-zones: deciduous forest and mixed forest.
Deciduous forest sub-zone
The deciduous forest sub-zone contains northern hardwood forests and is dominated by maples (Acer).
Windthrow is an important element of the forest dynamics.
It includes the maple / bitternut hickory domain, the maple / basswood domain and the maple / yellow birch domain.
The maple / bitternut hickory domain has the mildest climate in Quebec and has very diverse forests.
It includes several warm climate species, some at the northern limit of their range such as bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), hackberries (Celtis), black maple (Acer nigrum), swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), rock elm (Ulmus thomasii), pitch pine (Pinus rigida) and several shrubs and herbaceous plants.
Other species such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum), fir and spruce also grow further north.
The maple / basswood domain extends north and east of the Maple / bitternut hickory domain, and also has very diverse flora.
As well as sugar maple the American basswood (Tilia americana), white ash (Fraxinus americana), American hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) and butternut (Juglans cinerea) are found in favorable locations, but are less common beyond this area.
The western subdomain is drier than the eastern subdomain, and the northern red oak (Quercus rubra) is more common in the east.
The maple / yellow birch domain covers the slopes and hills that border the southern Laurentian plateau and the Appalachians, and is the most northern domain of the deciduous forest sub-zone.
The flora are less diverse and include many boreal species.
On representative sites the yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) is one of the main companions to the sugar maple.
American Basswood, American hophornbeam. American beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) grow in this area, but are very rare beyond its northern limit.
The domain is divided into east and west sub-domains based on rainfall and the distribution of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and red pine (Pinus resinosa).
Mixed forest sub-zone
The mixed forest sub-zone has one domain, the fir / yellow birch domain.
It is slightly less rich in species than the deciduous forest sub-zone.
It contains southern species such as yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and boreal species such as balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and black spruce (Picea mariana).
This domain is an ecotone, or transition from the northern temperate zone to the boreal zone.
It extends from the west to the center of Quebec between latitudes 47° and 48°.
It also surrounds the Gaspé Peninsula and encompasses the Appalachian hills east of Quebec, the Laurentian foothills north of the Saint Lawrence, and the Lac Saint-Jean lowlands.
The sugar maple is at the northern limit of its range here.
Typical sites have mixed stands of yellow birch and conifers such as balsam fir, white spruce (Picea glauca) and cedar.
Fires and outbreaks of spruce budworm are the main types of forest disturbance.
Boreal zone
The boreal zone has three sub-zones: boreal forest, taiga and tundra forest.
Continuous boreal forest sub-zone
The boreal forest sub-zone has fairly dense stands that mostly contain boreal softwood species and light-leaved deciduous trees.
It includes the fir / white birch domain and the spruce / moss domain.
The fir / white birch domain covers the southern part of the boreal zone.
The forests are dominated by stands of fir and white spruce, often mixed with white birch.
Yellow birch and red maple (Acer rubrum) are found only in the south of the domain.
In more marginal areas black spruce (Picea mariana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and tamarack (Larix laricina) often grow beside paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides).
Spruce budworm is the main type of forest disturbance, attacking the balsam fir.
Fire is also a significant factor.
The western part of the domain is drier and has more frequent fires, resulting in more stands of species such as trembling aspen, white birch and jack pine.
The spruce / moss domain extends to around 52° north.
The forest is dominated by black spruce, which is often the only species of tree, but is often accompanied by species such as balsam fir.
Hardwoods such as white birch, trembling aspen and sometimes balsam poplar also grow in this area.
The ground is covered with hypnaceous mosses and ericaceous shrubs.
There are few herbaceous species.
Fires are the main factor in forest dynamics, and occur more frequently in the west, which has fewer fir trees than the east.
Taiga sub-zone
The taiga sub-zone contains one domain, the spruce-lichen domain, and extends from the 52° to 55° north.
It differs from the spruce-moss forest mainly by the more sparse forest cover.
Black spruce, which is adapted to the harsh climate with low precipitation, grows in a carpet of lichens.
Balsam fir and jack pine are found at the northern limit of their range.
Fires can destroy huge areas in this domain.
Tundra sub-zone
The tundra sub-zone contain one domain, the forest tundra domain.
It is the ecotone between the boreal zone and the Arctic zone, and extends roughly from 55° to 58° north.
Shrubby heathland with shrubs and lichens has patches of forest in sheltered sites, mainly stunted black spruce less than high.
There are some areas of permafrost.
Arctic zone
The tree line, beyond which black spruce, white spruce and tamarack no longer grow, is the boundary between the boreal zone and the Arctic zone.
The Low Arctic sub-zone, the only Arctic sub-zone in Quebec, has no trees, continuous permafrost and tundra vegetation.
This includes shrubs, herbaceous plants, typically graminoids, mosses and lichens.
It includes the tundra arctic shrubs domain and the tundra arctic herbaceous domain.
The tundra arctic shrubs domain extends roughly from 58° to 61° north and has continuous permafrost and landscapes shaped by periglaciation.
Dwarf willows and birches no more than high grow beside herbaceous plants, mostly graminoids, mosses and lichens.
Patches of vegetation similar to this domain can be found on high peaks of southern Quebec on the Gaspé Peninsula and Monts Groulx.
The tundra arctic herbaceous domain is the northernmost domain in Quebec, and is completely covered in permafrost.
Shrubs are rare and small.
Cyperaceae, grasses, mosses and lichens are found, and rock and mineral soil is often bare.
Notes
Sources
Ecological regions |
4839312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prithviraj%20Sukumaran | Prithviraj Sukumaran | Prithviraj Sukumaran (/pr̩it̪ʰʋiɾaːd͡ʒ/; born 16 October 1982) is an Indian actor, director, producer and playback singer primarily working in Malayalam and Tamil language films. He has also done Telugu and Hindi films. He acted in more than 100 films in a variety of roles and has received several awards including a National Film Award, three Kerala State Film Awards, a Tamil Nadu State Film Award and a Filmfare Awards South.
Prithviraj made his acting debut with Nandanam (2002), a commercial success. He established himself as a leading Malayalam actor with Classmates (2006), the highest-grossing Malayalam film of the year. The Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor for Vaasthavam made him its youngest recipient at 24. He played a musician in the Tamil romantic comedy Mozhi (2007) and ventured into playback singing with Puthiya Mukham (2009) before earning his second Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor for medical drama Ayalum Njanum Thammil and biographical film Celluloid.
In 2010, Prithviraj joined the production house August Cinema to then headline and co-produce Urumi and Indian Rupee (both 2011); the latter won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam and Kerala State Film Award for Best Film. He won a Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain for Kaaviya Thalaivan (2014) before appearing in Ennu Ninte Moideen (2015) and Ezra (2017). After leaving August Cinema in 2017, he launched Prithviraj Productions independently that firstly backed 9 (2019). Prithviraj made his directorial debut with Lucifer (2019), which was the highest-grossing Malayalam film ever until June 2023. He has since starred in Driving License (2019), Ayyappanum Koshiyum (2020), Jana Gana Mana (2022) and Kaduva (2022).
Early life
Prithviraj was born to the actors Sukumaran and Mallika Sukumaran at Thiruvananthapuram.
His family was settled in Tamil Nadu at the time, where he attended Shrine Vailankanni Senior Secondary School in T. Nagar, Chennai, and St. Joseph's Boys School, Coonoor. When the family moved to Kerala, he attended the NSS Public School, Perunthanni. He then moved to St. Mary's Residential Central School, Poojappura where he acted in plays and skits for the school's Annual Day Celebrations. He completed his education at Sainik School, Kazhakootam and Bhavan's Senior Secondary School, Kodunganoor. He also participated and won several debates and elocution competitions while in school. Prithviraj won the title of "Mr LA Fest" in the Annual Inter-School arts festival hosted by Loyola School, Thiruvananthapuram in successive years and is the only person to date to win that title twice.
After school, he studied for a bachelor's degree in Information Technology at the University of Tasmania in Australia. During this time, he auditioned for film director Ranjith and won the lead role in the film Nandanam. It was film director Fazil who introduced him to Ranjith. His elder brother Indrajith Sukumaran and sister-in-law Poornima Indrajith are also film actors.
Career
Debut and career struggles (2002–2008)
In 2001, Prithviraj underwent a screen-test by director Fazil for one of his projects. Even though that project never materialised, Fazil recommended him to director Ranjith, who was planning his second directorial, Nandanam (2002), Prithviraj underwent screen-test for the role and got selected. Though Nandanam was the first film that Prithviraj acted in, it was released after Nakshathrakkannulla Rajakumaran Avanundoru Rajakumari and Stop Violence. Prithviraj then appeared in films directed by Lohithadas, Vinayan, Kamal and Bhadran. Shyamaprasad, who cast him in lead role in his film Akale, said that Prithvi's advantages are his talent and intelligence irrespective of his box office successes.
In 2005, Prithviraj Sukumaran debuted in Tamil through Kana Kandaen. In 2006, Prithviraj co-starred with actor Bhagyaraj's daughter Saranya Bhagyaraj in Parijatham. It has been acclaimed as a hit and gave the actor a turning point in his Tamil film career.
In 2006, he played the role of Sub Inspector Solomon Joseph in Vargam, then appeared in Vaasthavam, for which he received the Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor. He was the youngest actor to win the award. The same year he starred in Lal Jose's Classmates. In 2007, he starred in Chocolate, directed by Shafi. In 2007, Prithviraj co-starred in Mozhi. He also starred in Satham Podathey and Kannamoochi Yenada in the same year.
In 2008, he starred in Thalappavu, (directed by Madhupal) and Thirakkatha (directed by Ranjith), playing pivotal characters in both. One of the reviews of Thalappavu describes it as the coming-of-age film for prithviraj describing the "spartan dignity" he brought to his portrayal of the Naxalite Joseph. The Sify review of Thirakkatha describes it as a "genuine attempt that keeps the viewer engaged until the end". Both Thalappavu and Thirakkatha shared the award for the best film in the Film Critics Award for 2008. He also made a special appearance in Anjali Menon's Manjadikuru. In 2008, Prithviraj starred in Vellithirai, the Tamil remake of Udayananu Tharam. Rediff described his performance: "Prithviraj ... makes the best of his assets – his expressive eyes, which glint in fury, soften with love, or brim over with frustrated tears."
Established actor (2009–2012)
In 2009, the success of Prithviraj Sukumaran's Puthiya Mukham (directed by Diphan) lead to him being called a "Superstar". His other releases in 2009 were Robin Hood (directed by Joshy) and the anthology film Kerala Cafe. In 2010, Sukumaran's notable films were Pokkiri Raja and Anwar, directed by Amal Neerad. He played a cop in Mani Ratnam's Raavanan in 2010 with Vikram playing the main protagonist and his performance was critically acclaimed. Prithviraj Sukumaran debuted in Telugu through Police Police, which was released in 2010.
In 2011, Prithviraj produced his first film, the multilingual Urumi. Other releases in Malayalam include City of God, Manikyakallu, Veettilekkulla Vazhi and Indian Rupee. Reviewers praised Prithviraj Sukumaran for his performance in Indian Rupee, the critic at Nowrunning.com, who described it as his "career best performance". In 2012, his major releases were Hero, Molly Aunty Rocks! and Ayalum Njanum Thammil, along with cameo roles in Aakashathinte Niram and Manjadikuru.
Prithviraj debuted in Bollywood through Aiyyaa, directed by Sachin Kundalkar. Aiyyaa, which was jointly produced by Anurag Kashyap and Viacom 18 released on 12 October 2012.
Critical acclaim and further success (2013–2018)
In 2013, Prithviraj had three releases Celluloid, Mumbai Police and Memories, all of which were critical and commercial successes. He portrayed J.C. Daniel in Celluloid, for which he won his second Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor. His second hindi film Aurangzeb, directed by Athul Sabharwal, released on 17 May 2013. His performance was highly praised.
In 2014, Prithviraj's first major release was London Bridge, which failed at box office; followed by 7th Day, which turned out to become a commercial success. He also did a cameo role in Munnariyippu. His third release of the year, Sapthamashree Thaskaraha was praised by critics and audiences alike. Prithviraj played one of the main characters in director Vasanthabalan's big budget period film Kaaviya Thalaivan, in which he co-stars with Siddharth.
His first release of 2015 was Picket 43. His second movie of 2015 was Shyamaprasad's Ivide. Prithviraj was widely praised for his acting in the movie. Varun Blake (Prithviraj's character in Ivide) is considered to be one of his best performances till the date. He next appeared in Lijo Jose Pellissery's Double Barrel, which was appreciated for its novelty. His most successful film of the year was Ennu Ninte Moideen, which narrated the tragic love tale of Kanchanamala and Moideen that happened in the 1960s in Mukkam, a riverside village in Kerala. The film opened to critical acclaim, with several critics regarding it as one of the greatest romance films made in Malayalam. His role as Moideen in the film is regarded as one of the best in his career. His next releases Amar Akbar Anthony and Anarkali became a major commercial success at the box office, thus completing a hat-trick of hits ending the year.Prithviraj had four releases in 2016, debuting with Paavada, a family drama in which he played a drunkard. It met with a positive response and was a commercial success, grossing 16.34 crore from Kerala box office and ran for 100 days in theatres. His following releases Darvinte Parinamam and James & Alice met with mixed reviews, the former told the story of an ordinary man dealing with a local goon and the latter was a family drama that discussed the matter of life and death. His last release, Oozham, an action thriller directed by Jeethu Joseph was a commercial success, earning 15.25 crore in 25 days. He played a demolition expert. In 2017, he starred in the horror film Ezra, which became one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of the year, grossing 50 crore worldwide, with 33 crore from Kerala box office. He continued the year with Tiyaan, Adam Joan and Vimaanam. Both Tiyaan and Vimaanam were moderate box office hits. Adam Joan collected around 20 crores at the box office and emerging as a superhit. His third hindi film was Naam Shabana in 2017, in which he played the antagonist.
His first release of 2018 was Roshini Dinakar's romantic drama My Story, a commercial failure at the box office. His next two releases were Anjali Menon's drama Koode and Nirmal Sahadev's crime drama Ranam. Koode received critical acclaim and was a commercial success, while Ranam met with positive critical response but performed moderately at the box office. In 2018, Prithviraj launched his independent production house, Prithviraj Productions. In 2019, he produced and starred in the science fiction film 9. The film received critical praise for its novelty, actors' performance, direction and cinematography. It was a box office hit.
Lucifer and beyond (2019–present)
Prithviraj made his directorial debut in 2019 with Lucifer, starring Mohanlal. The film became the highest-grossing Malayalam film ever. He then starred in Driving License (2019), Ayyappanum Koshiyum (2020), Jana Gana Mana (2022) and Kaduva (2022), all of which emerged as box office successes. However, Brother's Day, Kaapa, and Gold failed at the box office.
Dubbing
Besides, Prithviraj has had many of his Malayalam films dubbed into Telugu such as Sivapuram in 2006, which was the dubbing of Ananthabhadram and ATM in 2010, which was the dubbing of Robin Hood. The dubbed version of Urumi released in August 2011.
Personal life
Prithviraj married BBC India reporter Supriya Menon on 25 April 2011 in a private ceremony held in Palakkad. They have a daughter, born in 2014. His family resides in Thevara, Kochi.
Other ventures
Prithviraj Productions is an Indian film production and distribution company based in Kochi, established in 2017 by Prithviraj and his wife Supriya Menon. Since then, it has produced and distributed over 10 films.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Indian male film actors
Kerala State Film Award winners
Living people
Malayali people
Male actors from Thiruvananthapuram
Indian Hindus
Male actors in Tamil cinema
1982 births
Male actors in Malayalam cinema
Sainik School alumni
Film producers from Thiruvananthapuram
Malayalam film producers
21st-century Indian male actors
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Indian male playback singers
Singers from Thiruvananthapuram
Malayalam playback singers
Male actors in Telugu cinema
South Indian International Movie Awards winners |
303126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festivus | Festivus | Festivus () is a secular holiday celebrated on December 23 as an alternative to the pressures and commercialism of the Christmas season. Originally created by author Daniel O'Keefe, Festivus entered popular culture after it was made the focus of the 1997 Seinfeld episode "The Strike", which O'Keefe's son, Dan O'Keefe, co-wrote.
The non-commercial holiday's celebration, as depicted on Seinfeld, occurs on December 23 and includes a Festivus dinner, an unadorned aluminum Festivus pole, practices such as the "airing of grievances" and "feats of strength", and the labeling of easily explainable events as "Festivus miracles". The episode refers to it as "a Festivus for the rest of us".
It has been described both as a parody holiday festival and as a form of playful consumer resistance. Journalist Allen Salkin describes it as "the perfect secular theme for an all-inclusive December gathering".
History
Festivus was conceived by author and editor Daniel O'Keefe, the father of television writer Dan O'Keefe, and was celebrated by his family as early as 1966. While the Latin word means "excellent, jovial, lively", and derives from fēstus, meaning "joyous; holiday, feast day", Festivus in this sense was coined by the elder O'Keefe. According to him, the name "just popped into my head". In the original O'Keefe tradition, the holiday would take place to celebrate the anniversary of Daniel O'Keefe's first date with his future wife, Deborah. The phrase "a Festivus for the rest of us" originally referred to those remaining after the death of the elder O'Keefe's mother, Jeanette, in 1976; i.e., the "rest of us" are the living, as opposed to the dead.
In 1982, Daniel O'Keefe wrote a book, Stolen Lightning: The Social Theory of Magic, that deals with idiosyncratic ritual and its social significance, a theme relevant to Festivus tradition.
It is now celebrated on December 23, as depicted in the Seinfeld episode written by the younger O'Keefe.
Seinfeld
The Seinfeld episode that featured Festivus was titled "The Strike", although O'Keefe notes that the writers later wished they had named it "The Festivus". It was first broadcast on December 18, 1997. The plot revolves around Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards) returning to work at his old job, H&H Bagels. While dining at Monk's Restaurant, as George Costanza (Jason Alexander) is opening his mail, he receives a card from his father saying, "Dear Son, Happy Festivus." This leads to Jerry Seinfeld and Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) discussing George's father's creation of Festivus despite George not wanting it to be discussed. Kramer then becomes interested in resurrecting the holiday when, at the bagel shop, Frank Costanza (Jerry Stiller) tells him how he created Festivus as an alternative holiday in response to the commercialization of Christmas.
Meanwhile, George creates donation cards for a fake charity called The Human Fund (with the slogan "Money for People") in lieu of having to give office Christmas presents. When his boss, Mr. Kruger (Daniel von Bargen), questions George about a $20,000 check he gave George to donate to the Human Fund as a corporate donation, George hastily concocts the excuse that he made up the Human Fund because he feared persecution for his beliefs, of celebrating Festivus instead of Christmas. Attempting to call his bluff, Kruger goes home with George to see Festivus in action.
Kramer eventually goes back on strike from his bagel-vendor job when his manager tells him he cannot take December 23 off to celebrate his newfound holiday. Kramer is then seen on the sidewalk picketing H&H Bagels, carrying a sign reading "Festivus yes! Bagels no!" and chanting to anyone passing the store: "Hey! No bagel, no bagel, no bagel..."
Finally, at Frank's house in Queens, New York, Jerry, Elaine, Kramer, and George gather to celebrate Festivus. George brings Kruger to prove to him that Festivus is "all too real".
O'Keefe was initially reluctant to insert his family's tradition into this episode, but when executive producers Alec Berg and Jeff Schaffer learned of the bizarre holiday through O'Keefe's brother, they became curious, then enthusiastic, then insisted it have a place in the episode. Schaffer later reflected: "That's the thing with Seinfeld stories, the real ones are always the best ones. There's a nuance to reality sometimes that is just perfect. We could have sat in a room for a billion years and we never would have made up Festivus. It's crazy and hilarious and just so funny and so disturbing. It's awesome."
Festivus practices and traditions
The Festivus practices and traditions began as original O'Keefe family practices, and later expanded to include the traditions introduced in the 1997 Seinfeld episode "The Strike".
O'Keefe family practices (1966–1997)
The O'Keefe family holiday featured other practices, as detailed in The Real Festivus (2005), a book by Daniel O'Keefe's son, Dan O'Keefe. Besides providing a first-person account of the early version of the Festivus holiday as celebrated by the O'Keefe family, the book relates how Dan O'Keefe amended or replaced details of his father's invention to create the Seinfeld episode.
Festivus clock
In a 2013 CNN segment on the origins of Festivus, O'Keefe spoke about the real-life experiences related to the holiday. O'Keefe's father, who originated some of the now-recognized Festivus traditions, used a clock in a bag nailed to a wall, not an aluminum pole. It was never the same bag, rarely the same clock, but always the same wall. The nailing was most often done in secret and then revealed proudly to his family. The younger O'Keefe told CNN: "The real symbol of the holiday was a clock that my dad put in a bag and nailed to the wall every year...I don't know why I don't know what it means, he would never tell me. He would always say, 'That's not for you to know.
Fictional practices introduced due to the Seinfeld television episode (1997–onwards)
The holiday, as portrayed in the Seinfeld episode, includes practices such as the "airing of grievances", which occurs during the Festivus meal and in which each person tells everyone else all the ways they have disappointed them over the past year. After the meal, the "feats of strength" are performed, involving wrestling the head of the household to the floor, with the holiday ending only if the head of the household is pinned.
Festivus pole
In the episode, the tradition of Festivus begins with an aluminum pole. Frank Costanza cites its "very high strength-to-weight ratio" as appealing. During Festivus, the pole is displayed unadorned, as Frank "find[s] tinsel distracting." Dan O'Keefe credits fellow Seinfeld writer Jeff Schaffer with introducing the concept. The aluminum pole was not part of the original O'Keefe family celebration, which centered on putting a clock in a bag and nailing it to a wall.
In 2021 the Seinfeld Twitter, YouTube and other social media accounts, along with the environmental organization One Tree Planted, tried to give a new environmental meaning to the pole, pledging to plant a tree for every person that posted a selfie with a pole using the hashtag #FestivusSavesTrees. Pointing out that using a Festivus pole instead of a Christmas tree saves a tree, they also said that for this purpose the pole would not have to be aluminum but could be any kind of pole of any size.
Festivus dinner
In "The Strike", a celebratory dinner is shown on the evening of Festivus prior to the feats of strength and during the airing of grievances. The on-air meal shows Estelle Costanza serving a sliced reddish meatloaf-shaped food on a bed of lettuce. In the episode no alcohol is served at the dinner, but George's boss, Mr. Kruger, drinks something from a hip flask.
The original holiday dinner in the O'Keefe household featured turkey or ham as described in Dan O'Keefe's The Real Festivus.
Airing of grievances
The "airing of grievances" takes place immediately after the Festivus dinner has been served. In the television episode, Frank Costanza began it with the phrase, "I got a lotta problems with you people, and now you're going to hear about it!" It consists of each person lashing out at others and the world about how they have been disappointed in the past year. Some mental health professionals believe that having a space for people to air some of their grievances to their families and friends could actually be good for mental health, although it is something other holidays usually avoid.
Feats of strength
The "feats of strength" are the final tradition observed in the celebration of Festivus, celebrated immediately following (or in the case of "The Strike", during) the Festivus dinner. The head of the household selects one person at the Festivus celebration and challenges them to a wrestling match. Tradition states Festivus is not over until the head of the household has been pinned. In "The Strike", however, Kramer manages to circumvent the rule by creating an excuse to leave. The feats of strength are mentioned twice in the episode before they take place. In both instances, no detail was given as to what had happened, but in both instances, George Costanza ran out of the coffee shop in a mad panic, implying he had bad experiences with the feats of strength in the past. What the feats of strength entailed was revealed at the very end of the episode when it occurred.
Festivus miracles
Cosmo Kramer twice declares a "Festivus miracle" during the Festivus celebration in the Costanza household. Kramer causes the occurrence of two "miracles" by inviting two off-track betting bookies (Tracy Letts and Colin Malone) to dinner with Elaine (men whom Elaine wished to avoid), and by causing Jerry's girlfriend Gwen to believe that Jerry was cheating on her.
Wider adoption
Some people, many of them inspired by the Seinfeld episode, subsequently began to celebrate the holiday with varying degrees of seriousness. Allen Salkin's 2005 book Festivus: The Holiday for the Rest of Us chronicles the early adoption of Festivus. Rabbi Joshua Eli Plaut's 2012 book A Kosher Christmas: 'Tis the Season to Be Jewish''' references Festivus. Martin Bodek's 2020 book The Festivus Haggadah fuses Passover with Festivus. Others have adopted Festivus as a way of engaging in a non-religious celebration over the traditional holiday season, such as by showcasing winter festivities.
During the Baltimore Ravens' run to the Super Bowl XXXV championship in 2000, head coach Brian Billick superstitiously issued an organizational ban on the use of the word "playoffs" until the team had clinched its first postseason berth. "Playoffs" was instead referred to as "Festivus" and the Super Bowl as "Festivus Maximus".
In 2005, Wisconsin governor Jim Doyle was declared "Governor Festivus", and during the holiday season displayed a Festivus pole in the family room of the Executive Residence in Madison, Wisconsin. Doyle's 2005 Festivus pole is now part of the collection of the Wisconsin Historical Museum.
In 2010, a CNN story featuring Jerry Stiller detailed the increasing popularity of the holiday, including US Representative Eric Cantor's Festivus fundraiser. The Christian Science Monitor reported that Festivus was a top trend on Twitter that year. In 2012, Google introduced a custom search result for the term "Festivus". In addition to the normal results, an unadorned aluminum pole was displayed running down the side of the list of search results and "A festivus miracle!" prefixed the results count and speed. Also in 2012, a Festivus Pole was erected on city property in Deerfield Beach, Florida, alongside religious-themed holiday displays. A similar Festivus pole was displayed next to religious displays in the Wisconsin State Capitol, along with a banner provided by the Freedom From Religion Foundation advocating for the separation of government and religion. In 2013 and 2014, Chaz Stevens erected a Festivus pole constructed with of beer cans next to a nativity scene and other religious holiday displays in the Florida State Capitol Building, as a protest supporting separation of church and state. In 2015, the same man was granted permission to display a Festivus pole decorated with a gay pride theme and topped with a disco ball to celebrate the United States Supreme Court's decision on same-sex marriage, at state capitols in Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Washington.
In 2016, US Senator Rand Paul released a special Festivus edition of The Waste Report. The Festivus "airing of grievances" has become an annual tradition for Paul on Twitter. In 2016, the Tampa Bay Times became the first newspaper to allow readers to submit Festivus grievances through its website, with the promise to publish them on December 23, the day of the Festivus holiday. An annual public Festivus celebration has been held in Pittsburgh since 2005, featuring live bands, a Seinfeld trivia contest, and holiday traditions. In 2017, the Pittsburgh City Paper called its 13th iteration "the longest-running celebration of Sein-Culture in the 'Burgh".
In 2018, Wollongong City Council (New South Wales, Australia) named a lane "Festivus Lane" in the suburb of Corrimal. The name was chosen as the celebration of Festivus started by locals grew to become a local annual fixture.
In 2021, WWE world heavyweight wrestling Champion Big E started wearing custom-designed singlets on-air adorned with catchphrases and images of Seinfelds version of Festivus.
Attempts at national recognition
In 2022, the official Seinfeld'' social media accounts created a petition on the website change.org to make Festivus a national holiday on December 23, and encouraged the use of the hashtag #MakeFestivusOfficial. The video promoting the petition notes that Festivus is as worthy of recognition as other unofficial national holidays, such as National Bagel Day, Boss's Day, and hug a musician day.
See also
Takanakuy - December 25th tradition of drunken holiday combat resolving open grievances, from the Chumbivilcas Province, near Cuzco, Peru
References
1966 introductions
Criticism of the commercialization of Christmas
December observances
Seinfeld
Unofficial observances
American culture |
62139539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20World%20Heritage%20Sites%20by%20religion | List of World Heritage Sites by religion | This is an unofficial list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites around the world by the religion they are associated with. While some sites have had their religious affiliation changed at various points throughout history, this list categorizes sites by their most recent affiliation. Also, not all of the following sites are functioning as places of worship.
UNESCO does not endorse classification by religion, which would be inconsistent with the universal value of these sites as "world heritage".
Buddhist World Heritage Sites
Historical Buddhist sites
Ajanta Caves, India
Ancient City of Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka
Ancient City of Sigiriya, Sri Lanka
Angkor Wat, Cambodia
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar, India
Baekje Historic Areas, South Korea
Jeongnimsa Temple
Mireuksa Temple
Borobudur Temple Compounds, Indonesia
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, India
Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol, Pakistan
Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan
Dazu Rock Carvings, China
Elephanta Caves, India
Ellora Caves, India
Historic City of Ayutthaya, Thailand
Longmen Grottoes, China
Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha, Nepal
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, India
Mogao Caves, China
Pyu Ancient Cities, Myanmar
Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur, Bangladesh
Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor, China
Bin County Cave Temple
Bingling Cave Temple Complex
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
Kizil Cave Temple Complex
Maijishan Cave Temple Complex
Small Wild Goose Pagoda
Subash Buddhist Ruins
Xingjiao Temple
Taxila, Pakistan
Yungang Grottoes, China
Eastern Buddhist (East Asian Mahayana) Sites
Ancient City of Ping Yao, China
Shuang Lin Temple
Zhenguo Temple
Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū-ji Area, Japan
Haeinsa Temple Janggyeong Panjeon, the Depositories for the Tripitaka Koreana Woodblocks, South Korea
Hiraizumi – Temples, Gardens and Archaeological Sites Representing the Buddhist Pure Land, Japan
Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities), Japan
Byōdō-in
Daigo-ji
Enryaku-ji
Kinkaku-ji
Kiyomizu-dera
Kōzan-ji
Ninna-ji
Nishi Hongan-ji
Ryōan-ji
Saihō-ji
Tō-ji
Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, Japan
Gangō-ji
Kōfuku-ji
Tōdai-ji
Tōshōdai-ji
Yakushi-ji
Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in 'The Centre of Heaven and Earth ,China
Lushan National Park, China
Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area, China
Mount Wutai, China
Mountain Resort and its Outlying Temples, Chengde
Quanzhou: Emporium of the World in Song-Yuan China, China
Kaiyuan Temple
Liusheng Pagoda
Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple, South Korea
Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range, Japan
Fudarakusan-ji
Kimpusen-ji
Mount Kōya
Seiganto-ji
Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea
Shrines and Temples of Nikkō, Japan
Rinnō-ji
Tràng An Scenic Landscape Complex
Northern Buddhist (Indo-Tibetan) Sites
Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace, Lhasa, China
Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
Boudhanath
Swayambhu
Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape, Mongolia
Erdene Zuu Monastery
Shankh Monastery
Southern Buddhist (Theravada) Sites
Bagan, Myanmar
Rangiri Dambulla Cave Temple, Sri Lanka
Sacred City of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Sacred City of Kandy, Sri Lanka
Christian World Heritage Sites
Catholic Sites
Aachen Cathedral, Germany
Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch, Germany
Abbey Church of Saint-Savin sur Gartempe, France
Amiens Cathedral, France
Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale, Italy
Archaeological Area and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia, Italy
Assisi, the Basilica of San Francesco and Other Franciscan Sites, Italy
Baroque Churches of the Philippines, Philippines
Benedictine Convent of St John at Müstair, Switzerland
Bourges Cathedral, France
Burgos Cathedral, Spain
Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey, Germany
Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí, Spain
Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville, Spain
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Former Abbey of Saint-Rémi and Palace of Tau, Reims, France
Cathedral, Torre Civica and Piazza Grande, Modena, Italy
Chartres Cathedral, France
Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region, Japan
Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie with "The Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci, Italy
Churches of Chiloé, Chile
Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay, France
Cologne Cathedral, Germany
Convent of Christ in Tomar, Portugal
Convent of St Gall, Switzerland
Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna, Italy
Episcopal Complex of the Euphrasian Basilica in the Historic Centre of Poreč, Croatia
Historic Centre of Avignon: Papal Palace, Episcopal Ensemble and Avignon Bridge, France
Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights, and San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Italy and Vatican City
Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos, Bolivia
Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis: San Ignacio Miní, Santa Ana, Nuestra Señora de Loreto and Santa María Mayor (Argentina), Ruins of São Miguel das Missões (Brazil)
Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue, Paraguay
Late Baroque Churches of the Val di Noto, Italy
León Cathedral, Nicaragua
Maulbronn Monastery, Germany
Monastic Island of Reichenau, Germany
Monastery and Site of the Escorial, Madrid, Spain
Monastery of Alcobaça, Portugal
Monastery of Batalha, Portugal
Monastery of the Hieronymites and Tower of Belém in Lisbon, Portugal
Notre-Dame Cathedral in Tournai, Belgium
Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches, Spain
Piazza del Duomo, Pisa, Italy
Pilgrimage Church of Wies, Germany
Poblet Monastery, Spain
Protective town of San Miguel de Allende and the Sanctuary of Jesús Nazareno de Atotonilco, Mexico
Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier, Germany
Routes of Santiago de Compostela: Camino Francés and Routes of Northern Spain, Spain
Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France, France
Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe, Spain
Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, Italy
San Antonio Missions, United States
Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Congonhas, Brazil
Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte in Braga, Portugal
San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries, Spain
Santhome Church in Chennai, India
Sceilg Mhichíl, Ireland
Speyer Cathedral, Germany
St Mary's Cathedral and St Michael's Church at Hildesheim, Germany
Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey, United Kingdom
Šibenik Cathedral, Croatia
The Sassi and the Park of the Rupestrian Churches of Matera, Italy
Vatican City
Vézelay, Church and Hill, France
Eastern Orthodox Sites
Gelati Monastery, Georgia
Historical Monuments of Mtskheta, Georgia
Medieval Monuments in Kosovo, Serbia and Kosovo
Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni of Chios, Greece
Mount Athos, Greece
Paleochristian and Byzantine Monuments of Thessalonika, Greece
Studenica Monastery, Serbia
The Historic Centre (Chorá) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the Island of Pátmos
Protestant Sites
Canterbury Cathedral, St Augustine's Abbey, and St Martin's Church, United Kingdom
Christiansfeld, a Moravian Church Settlement, Denmark
Durham Castle and Cathedral, United Kingdom
Church Village of Gammelstad, Luleå, Sweden
Naumburg Cathedral, Germany
Petäjävesi Old Church, Finland
Roskilde Cathedral, Denmark
Urnes Stave Church, Norway
St Mary's Cathedral and St Michael's Church at Hildesheim, Germany
Hindu World Heritage Sites
Angkor Wat, Cambodia
Pashupati Temple Nepal
Muktainath Temple Nepal
Guheswari Temple Nepal
Gadhi mai Temple Nepal
Airavatesvara Temple
Anegundi
Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur
Chaturbhuj Temple (Khajuraho)
Devi Jagadambi Temple
Duladeo Temple
Elephanta Caves
Ellora Caves
Great Living Chola Temples
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram
Hampi
Javari Temple, Khajuraho
Kailasa temple, Ellora
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Konark Sun Temple
Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho
Lakshmi Temple, Khajuraho
Mamallapuram
Nanda Devi
Nandi Temple, Khajuraho India
Parvati Temple, Khajuraho
Pattadakal
Prambanan
Vamana Temple, Khajuraho
Varaha Temple, Khajuraho
:Category:Hampi
Muslim World Heritage Sites
Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, Iran
Selimiye Mosque and its Social Complex, Turkey
Mosque City of Bagerhat, Bangladesh
Qutb Minar, India
Islamic Cairo, Egypt
Samarra Archaeological City, Iraq
Ancient Ksour of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt and Oualata, Mauritania
Kairouan, Tunisia
Casbah of Algiers, Algeria
Great Mosque of Djenné, Mali
Notes
References
Religion
World Heritage Sites |
31353379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtburg | Lichtburg | Lichtburg ("fortress of light" or "light castle") has been a popular name for cinemas in Germany. Those in Berlin, Essen and Düsseldorf have been particularly famous; the Lichtburg in Oberhausen is the site of the International Short Film Festival Oberhausen, and Quernheim is the smallest municipality in Germany with a cinema, also called Lichtburg.
Düsseldorf
The Düsseldorf Lichtburg opened on 5 November 1910 as the "Lichtspiele Königsallee" (Königsallee Moving Pictures, for the name of the street). It was designed by Oskar Rosendahl, a local architect who the following year published an influential article in Der Kinomatograph in which he laid out guidelines for cinema design such as an inviting foyer with cloakrooms through which the public would be drawn rapidly into the auditorium, an equally good view from all seats, achieved by a raked floor and a screen raised at least 2.5 metres off the floor, and toilets within easy reach to minimise disturbances.
The cinema was renamed the Union in 1915, the Titania in 1928, the U.T. (Union Theater) Königsallee in 1931, and finally the Lichtburg, also in 1931. Throughout its years as a cinema, the façade retained a stone archway over the doorway and a group of small windows above. The semicircular canopy bore the name Lichtburg in large letters, changing position and script slightly over the years. The neon letters came to embody the cinema. Immediately after World War II, it was an AKC cinema for American and British occupying forces, with only limited access for locals. It originally had a balcony and a total of 1,000 seats, but in the 1970s was tripled into Lichtburg 1, Lichtburg 2, and Studio Lichtburg. These were renovated in the 1990s to seat 205, 176 and 112 respectively.
It closed on 29 December 2004 despite a petition with 15,000 signatures. On 4 February 2004, the façade had been awarded protected status as an architectural landmark by the City of Düsseldorf. A commemorative plaque was placed in the pavement in front of its former location. The Lichtburg Studio Theater, a cellar arthouse cinema opened in 2005, revived the name but was itself forced to close in 2009.
Essen
The Lichtburg in Essen was built as a result of the city general plan of 1924, which included the redevelopment of the Burgplatz in the city centre by Die Burgplatz-Bau AG, a consortium of city government and private investors, to include a large new cinema within an office building, in order to give the city centre "urban flair". The exterior was designed by municipal planner Ernst Bode in a stark New Objectivist style without surface adornment; the interior by the local company of Heydkamp und based on designs by the city architect, Lothar Kaminski. The building had a 20-metre dome, at the time the largest in a German theatre. It had 2,000 upholstered seats with an electrical system which sent a message to the cashier when the seat was occupied, and a 150,000 Reichsmark Wurlitzer organ, at the time the largest in any European cinema, with sound effects including traffic noise and thunder. The 30-person orchestra was drawn in part from the Gürzenich Orchestra. The cinema opened on 18 October 1928: evening dress was requested from those attending the multi-part gala, which included a concert performance and a ballet by a Parisian troupe from the Folies Bergère before the featured film, Marquis d'Eon, der Spion der Pompadour.
Under the Third Reich, the Lichtburg's operator, Karl Wolffsohn, a Berlin publisher and entrepreneur, was forced as a Jew to sell it in 1933/34 for a tenth of its value to Universum Film AG (UfA). He and his family fled to Palestine in 1939 and he did not live to see the end of his lawsuit for recompense. In 2006 a memorial plaque was placed on the building; Wolffsohn's nephew, the historian Michael Wolffsohn, was present at the unveiling and heads the Berlin Lichtburg-Stiftung (Lichtburg Foundation), among whose projects is a German-Turkish-Jewish cultural centre.
During World War II, the building was almost completely destroyed by Allied bombing in 1943. The auditorium was completely destroyed by fire, but the walls remained standing.
Responding to a newspaper advertisement placed by the city of Essen, Heinrich Jaeck and Erich Menz, who had run several cinemas in the city, became the new operators almost two years after the war. In 1948–50, the cinema was rebuilt in contemporary style, with approximately 1,700 seats. It reopened on 23 March 1950; the mayor, , gave a speech and Gustav Heinemann, later to be President of the Republic, and Willi Forst, the director of the featured film, Wiener Mädeln, were both present.
In the 1950s, the Lichtburg in Essen was the foremost cinema for film premières in Germany. Its importance declined with the increasing popularity of television and increasing economic hardship in the Ruhr region. However, unlike most cinemas in Essen, it survived as a result of its size and stage facilities. In 1991 the German cinema chain CinemaxX opened the largest multiplex in Germany nearby. The building was in need of renovations and in 1994 it was suggested it should instead be demolished and the central site used in some other way. In 1998 the Essener Filmkunsttheater GmbH (Essen Cinema Art Theatre) acquired the building and it received landmark protection. After advocacy by cultural and political figures including Wim Wenders, Wolfgang Niedecken und Gerhard Schröder, the city council passed a resolution in 2000 to retain it as a cinema. It was decided to relocate a folk high school and investors were found. The building was comprehensively rebuilt to historic building standards in 1950s style in a 7 million Euro project. The tea room became the film bar and the 1970s Atelier-Theater became the Blue Salon. The college building was designed by Hartmut Miksch and Wolfgang Rücker. The college now uses most of the office space in the Lichtburg building itself. The cinema reopened on 16 March 2003 and now has modern sound and video equipment and is once again the site of many premières.
The main auditorium seats 1,250 and is still the largest cinema auditorium in Germany. The stage behind the screen enables the space to also be used for theatrical and cabaret performances. The small secondary auditorium below ground level seats 150 and is named for the Indian-American actor Sabu.
Berlin
The Lichtburg in Berlin opened on Christmas Day in 1929. It was designed by Rudolf Fränkel as the centrepiece of his housing development in Gesundbrunnen (Fränkel's first project as an independent architect) and was next to the Gesundbrunnen station. It seated 2,000 and was part of an entertainment complex which also contained spaces for dancing and banqueting, meeting rooms, restaurants, bars, cafes, shops and a bowling alley. It was one of the most important cinemas in Germany.
Architecturally, the Berlin Lichtburg was of international significance. The building was distinguished by the interplay of verticals and horizontals and recalled works by other avant garde architects of the period such as Erich Mendelsohn in its expressive use of curves and mostly horizontal divisions. It consisted of two horizontally defined wings, 5 and 4 storeys high, between which the main body of the cinema was located. A 22.5 metre high rotunda positioned at the street corner contained the foyer and event spaces and was topped by a glass roof pavilion; the cinema was given pride of place. In the auditorium, the decor featured mahogany, wine-red upholstery and swooping curves. The new building received praise in the architectural press for its innovative and successful technical realisation and use of space, including two-sided access to the cloakrooms so that entering and leaving people did not hinder each other.
The Berlin Lichtburg was also a prime example of German architecture of the night (Architektur der Nacht) or Light Architecture (Licht-Architektur). At night, the rotunda's 15 vertical bands of windows were illuminated by approximately 1,500 light bulbs each, red illuminated letters 1.2 metres high spelled out "Lichtburg" above the roofline, and 3 rotating searchlights mounted on the roof raked the sky from under them. In addition to drawing attention to itself amongst the residential buildings, the building thus embodied the principle of cinema – the projection of light into the darkness. The night-time appearance of the cinema was widely depicted and probably influenced Cecil Clavering's striking design for the Odeon in Kingstanding, with its tall central fins on which the architect originally intended a searchlight to be mounted.
During the Nazi period, the singer Walter Kirchhoff operated the building as an opera venue. In 1937, with the aid of American Jewish investors, Karl Wolffsohn, the former owner of the Essen Lichtburg, gained financial control of the Gartenstadt Atlantic in an attempt to remain operator of the Berlin Lichtburg, but in 1939 he was stripped of it under Nazi policy.
The building was badly damaged late in World War II. Soviet occupying forces then used the foyer to stable their horses. It received basic repairs and reopened in 1947 as the Corso, initially presenting operettas. In 1961 it was redesigned by M. A. Elsner. In this incarnation it had 1,933 seats and was less tall and more modestly decorated. Its location in the French sector of occupied Berlin, close to the border with the Soviet sector, attracted large audiences from East Berlin until the building of the Berlin Wall divided the city, after which the isolated location of the district led to the closure of the cinema in 1962. The Berlin Senate used the building to store food as part of the Senate Reserve, but in 1970 it was demolished to make way for redevelopment. It is now commemorated in the Lichtburgforum, which is named for it and attempts to replace some of its functions in the community, and the Lichtburg-Stiftung (Lichtburg Foundation), which was founded to finance cultural activities in the Gartenstadt Atlantic.
Oberhausen
The International Short Film Festival Oberhausen, founded in 1954, moved in 1998 into the Lichtburg Filmpalast, which has 5 auditoria: the Lichtburg, Gloria, Sunset, Star and Studio. The cinema opened on 13 March 1931 with 1,200 seats. It was destroyed by bombing in World War II. In 1949 the "Little Lichtburg" opened; this later became the Gloria. On 13 May 1952 the new Lichtburg opened with 872 seats arranged for optimal viewing, 150 of them with extra-deep upholstery. The auditorium also has a theatrical stage. The Movie opened in 1974, with only 65 seats; the Star opened in 1986.
Quernheim
With fewer than 500 inhabitants, Quernheim is the smallest settlement in Germany to have a cinema: the Lichtburg Filmtheater. The cinema opened on Christmas Day in 1952 and has had a second auditorium added. Since 1982, there has been a showing of The Blues Brothers every Good Friday, which people attend in costume.
References
Further reading
Essen
Dorothea Bessen. 70 Jahre Lichtburg Essen: 1928–1998. 2 vols. Essen: Essener Filmkunsttheater, 1998.
Carsten Günther, directed by Susanne Spröer. "Wie die Traumfabrik ins Revier kam". Doku am Freitag. Westdeutscher Rundfunk 30 April 2010.
Berlin
Dietrich Neumann and Kermit S. Champa. Architektur der Nacht. Munich: Prestel, 2002.
Peter Boeger. Architektur der Lichtspieltheater in Berlin. Bauten und Projekte 1919–1930. Berlin: Arenhövel, 1993.
External links
Lichtburg Düsseldorf
Lichtburg Essen
Panoramic views of the interior, Essen Lichtburg
Historic postcards of Essen Lichtburg at CARTHALIA
Lichtburg Filmpalast, Oberhausen
Lichtburg Filmtheater, Quernheim
Modernist architecture in Germany
Cinemas in Germany
Buildings and structures in Düsseldorf
Buildings and structures in Essen
Buildings and structures in Mitte
Buildings and structures in Lower Saxony
Former buildings and structures in Germany |
56765804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahs%27%20Home | Ayahs' Home | The Ayahs' Home, London, provided accommodation for Indian ayahs and Chinese amahs (nannies) at the turn of the 20th century who were "ill-treated, dismissed from service or simply abandoned" with no return passage to their home country. The Home also operated like an employment exchange to help ayahs find placements with families returning to India. It was the only institution of its type in Britain with a named building.
Background
Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company was abolished and its powers transferred to the British Crown under the Government of India Act 1858. This resulted in a large number of British families travelling between the two countries. Many of these families employed local servants as they were cheaper than British staff. Among them were ayahs, the most highly prized being the sophisticated "Madrassi ayahs". Some ayahs were experienced travellers and advertised their services in newspapers. Travelling ayahs were seen as "honest, clean, capable nurses and made good sailors".
The British public were captivated by the picturesque ayahs shown in paintings and books. The ayah would accompany the British family back to England, either on the seasonal trips to escape the Indian summer or on retirement of the colonial official. These journeys were more frequent from the 1870s with the introduction of steam-powered ships and regular passenger services such as those provided by P&O. The journey was shortened by 4,500 miles after the Suez Canal opened in 1869, with the effect that up to 140 travelling ayahs visited England every year with their employing families, memsahibs (ladies of the family) and children. Some may have had a sense of adventure, but they were vulnerable to the whims of their erstwhile employers. Without official contracts or guarantees for return passages, some ayahs then had their employment terminated or were abandoned, forcing them to live in squalor or to beg. Others found alternative employment to pay for return journeys or stayed in Britain.
Origins
The exact date and method of establishment of the Ayahs' Home is unclear. Evidence from the India Office gives a foundation date of 1825; however, it has also been said to have been founded in 1891 by a Mr and Mrs Rogers at 6 Jewry Street, Aldgate. It appears to have been closed prior to 1891 due to administrative inadequacies, but, in response to the lobbying of a committee of white British women, the foreigners' branch committee of the London City Mission (LCM) took it over and prevented its permanent closure. Around 1900, the Home moved to 26 King Edward Road, Hackney, and in 1921, requiring more space, it moved to the larger 4 King Edward Road. The new home was opened by Lady Chelmsford, wife of Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford, the former Viceroy of India and ran until 1943 when the address is recorded as the East London Tabernacle Hostel.
Early years
Regarded as a "symbol of empire" and a "home from home", around 100 ayahs stayed at the Home each year. The residents were mainly nursemaids from India and other countries including China, Java and Malaya. Socio-political changes created variations in numbers, with a higher occupancy during the summer when many British families left India to escape the heat. The home was almost unoccupied from November to March. It was busier during the First World War when sea travel was banned for women, with a resulting increase in the number of stranded ayahs. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918, 223 Ayahs were recorded at the Home as families rushed back to England at the first opportunity. The number of occupants was less during the depression of the 1930s. The length of stay varied from weeks to months.
Despite the lack of any testimonies from the ayahs, it is known that they were typically older women, used to childcare responsibilities and able to fit into both the English and Indian worlds. Life in the Home was an amalgamation of oriental and western tradition, with Indian food, the playing of pachis (a board game), embroidery and outings to places of interest such as Westminster Abbey, the Houses of Parliament and Buckingham Palace. The home was decorated in an "oriental fashion". Food was provided for different tastes and presumably religious requirements.
The Home generated income by the resale of the ayah's ticket, public donations, fundraising events and the sale of handwork done by the ayahs. A deficit in finances by 1917, when the war prolonged occupancy, led the Home's administrator to apply to the India Office for assistance. Initially hesitant, by 1928 the government was making an annual contribution to the Home.
Matron's testimony
In 1910, Mrs Dunn, the matron of the Home, gave evidence to the Committee on Distressed Colonial and Indian Subjects of the India Office. Dunn described how the system depended on the ayah's return ticket. The employer who released the ayah from duties once in Britain typically purchased the ayah's return ticket, which was transferred to the Home. The ticket was then "sold" to a family wanting the ayah's services; the Home used the money from the sale to pay for the ayah's accommodation until she departed. According to her evidence, the Home had been established by a committee of women who had realised there should be a shelter for abandoned ayahs in England.
Among the evidence that was given by Mrs Dunn and also recorded in correspondence between the Home and the India Office was of an ayah who was brought to England from Bombay by a British woman in 1908, who, in the usual manner, released her to Thomas Cook and Son in order to transfer her employment. Re-employed by the Drummond family of Edinburgh who had pledged her return to India, she was abandoned at London's King's Cross Station, leaving her with one pound after two weeks' work. The ayah arrived at the Thomas Cook office, which then directed her to the Home. Not in the custom of taking in destitute women, Mrs Dunn successfully obtained compensation from the India Office.
Residents
In 1900 the Ayahs' Home was housing between 90 and 100 women each year. The residents were separated by nationality and caste in the dormitories but mixed during the day.
In the 1911 census, there were five boarders listed, including amah Ah Kum, (born in Hong Kong), ayah Elsie Hamey (born in Ceylon) and ayahs Mary Stella, Pikya Sawmey and Mary Fernandez from India. Mary Fernandez – the name suggests a Luso-Indian or Anglo-Indian origin – is thought to have been a regular travelling ayah and one of the 331 victims of the sinking of the SS Persia by the German U-boat U-38 in 1915, as her last address was Ayah's House, 26 King Edward Road, Hackney.
Antony Pereira made an alleged 54 journeys and frequently visited the Ayah's Home.
Missionary activity
The Home was a converting station for missionaries to introduce the ayahs to Christianity. "Foreigners' Fetes" were frequently organised by the Foreigner's Branch Committee of the London City Mission, which was supported by Christian missionaries. Religious services were held daily, hymns were taught and religious "chats in the bedroom" which the matron felt were "productive of much good", were part of daily life at the Home. This all principally stemmed from the perception of ayahs as "child-like".
Demonstrating a "domestic ideal and moral framework", the parlour of the Home was depicted in Alec Robert's Living London article "Missionary London", with a group of women looking busy sewing and reading. Expressing Christian charity for the benefit of the ayahs' welfare and the British empire, the Home encouraged the ayahs to show gratitude and loyalty.
Joseph Salter was the missionary responsible for the Home. London City Mission had previously employed him to work with lascars (foreign sailors) at the Strangers' Home for Asiatics in Limehouse near the London Docks, and during this time he had developed his skills and his fluency in several Indian languages.
Recognition and commemoration
Rozina Visram, historian of the Asian presence in Britain, in 1986 wrote Ayahs, Lascars and Princes: The Story of Indians in Britain 1700–1947.
The Swadhinata Trust, a secular Bengali group based on Brick Lane, produced a brief history of "Bengalis in London's East End" in 2010, which claimed that London Metropolitan University had a building on the site of the Ayah's Home.
In 2013, the Royal Shakespeare Company produced Tanika Gupta's play The Empress, about Queen Victoria, the equally real Abdul Karim, who became her teacher (munshi), and a fictional young ayah who was abandoned at Tilbury Docks by her employers. Gupta was inspired to write the play when her curiosity was piqued by a photograph from the Ayah's Home reproduced in the work of Rozina Vishram. The play was directed by Emma Rice of Kneehigh Theatre. The Birmingham Mail compared The Empress to a sequel to the 1997 film Mrs Brown, and The Telegraph'''s review predicted that it would be turned into a film, but when Victoria & Abdul appeared in 2017, it was based on the book of the same title by the Indian historian Shrabani Basu – no ayahs involved. In 2019 Pearson Edexcel added The Empress to its list of GCSE English literature texts, ensuring that the story of the ayahs and their Hackney home reaches schools across England.
From March to September 2016, the Geffrye Museum (now the Museum of the Home) held an exhibition "Swept Under the Carpet? Servants in London Households 1600-2000", which included a mention of the Ayah's Home.
In October 2016, Meera Syal drew attention to the Ayahs' Home in the Sky Arts programme Treasures of the British Library (series 1, episode 2). The writer and actress selected letters concerning the plight of one unnamed woman, stranded by the Drummond family as described above, and how she found her way to the Ayahs' Home. The British Library documented this, with photographs of the correspondence and of the building, in a post entitled "An abandoned ayah" in its Untold Lives blog. The ayahs featured in the 2018 BBC Two series A Passage to Britain, in which historian Yasmin Khan used ships' passenger records to trace the stories of migration from the Indian subcontinent from the 1930s-1950s.
The 2018 programme led to The Ayahs' Home Project. Supported by the council's arts and culture representative and the local MP Rushanara Ali, the project aims to bring the history of ayahs to light. It launched on International Women's Day 2020 at Hackney Museum, with presentations from academics, including Rozina Visram, still "the acknowledged authority", according to The Guardian review of the event. The launch also included elements aimed at a younger audience, such as a poetry workshop and spoken word performance by The Yoniverse Collective, and a visual exhibition in partnership with the East End Women's Museum. The unfolding of the stories of the ayahs and the home has been covered by the BBC in Britain and the Business Standard in India.
A video installation entitled "Re-soundings Prelude- The Ayahs Home" was exhibited at Bikaner House in New Delhi in 2020. Also in that year, a children's novel was published; When Secrets Set Sail'' is set in modern times, in the building that used to be the Ayahs' home and is now re-imagined as a refugee hostel.
Scholarship on historical forms of domestic employment is now examining its international patterns, in which the Ayahs' Home plays a part. The Ayah and Amah International Research Network was founded by a Hackney Museum manager; several of its members are funded by the Australian Research Council to research 'Ayahs and Amahs: Transcolonial Servants in Australia and Britain, 1780 to 1945'.
Following lobbying from the Ayahs' Home Project, in June 2022 English Heritage unveiled a blue plaque on the building which had housed the Home from 1900 to 1921, 26 King Edward Road, Hackney.
References
Further reading
Migration-related organisations based in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in London
Migrant workers
Nannies
British India
Hostels
English Christian missionaries
London Borough of Hackney
History of London
History of women in the United Kingdom
Domestic work |
4306089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Hall%2C%20Baron%20Hall%20of%20Birkenhead | Tony Hall, Baron Hall of Birkenhead | Anthony William Hall, Baron Hall of Birkenhead, (born 3 March 1951) is a British life peer. He was Director-General of the BBC between April 2013 and August 2020, and chaired the board of trustees of the National Gallery from September 2020 to May 2021.
Hall was Director of News at the BBC between 1993 and 2001, and Chief Executive of the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London from 2001 until March 2013. He was made a life peer and took his seat in the House of Lords as a crossbench member on 22 March 2010. He took up the post of Director-General of the BBC on 2 April 2013, and stepped down as Director-General on 31 August 2020, replaced by Tim Davie.
An inquiry in 2021 found that Hall, when Director of News at the BBC, had misled authorities over the methods used by Martin Bashir for the BBC's Panorama interview with Diana, Princess of Wales. He resigned as chairman of the National Gallery on 22 May 2021.
Early life
Tony Hall, the son of a bank manager, was born in Birkenhead, Wirral, in 1951. He was educated at two direct grant schools (now independent), King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Birkenhead School, before going to Keble College, Oxford, where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics, graduating with an MA degree.
Career
BBC
After Oxford, Hall joined the BBC as a trainee in 1973, initially working at its Belfast newsroom. He later worked as producer on Today, The World at One, The World Tonight, and PM. He became editor of the Nine O'Clock News at the age of 34.
In 1987 he was appointed the Editor of News and Current Affairs, and was appointed Director of BBC News and Current Affairs in 1990, combining TV and radio for the first time. He continued to lead BBC News until 2001.
Among his career achievements are the launch of BBC Parliament, BBC Radio 5 Live, BBC News 24, and BBC News Online. In 1999 he applied unsuccessfully for the position of Director-General of the BBC, but was later successful, being appointed as BBC Director-General on 22 November 2012, and took office on 2 April 2013.
On 25 March 2015, Hall decided not to renew Top Gear presenter Jeremy Clarkson's BBC contract after an internal investigation found that Clarkson had assaulted the programme's producer. Hall and his wife received death threats which the BBC decided were "credible", and they were subsequently guarded by police. On 28 March, Scotland Yard confirmed that officers were investigating the threats.
Shortly before leaving the BBC on 31 August 2020, Hall commented that the 2015 negotiations with the government over TV licences for the over 75s had been "tense". Hall struck the deal despite warning that the government's proposals would be a "nuclear" option that could lead to the loss of many BBC services. He said that he had thought about resigning over the issue, before deciding to stay and seek to ameliorate the changes. Hall agreed with the interviewer, Amol Rajan, that there was a need to improve "diversity of thought" at the BBC, and was hopeful of 50/50 equal pay parity during 2020.
On 20 January 2020, it was announced that Hall would leave his Director-General job in the summer, saying "If I followed my heart I would genuinely never want to leave." He spent seven years in the role. Hall said it was better for a new person to lead the corporation through its mid-term review in 2022 and BBC Charter renewal in 2027.
Royal Opera House
Hall was appointed Chief Executive of the Royal Opera House in April 2001. He set up ROH2, a department devoted to supporting new artists and developing new audiences, following which he set up new initiatives to widen access to the Royal Opera House – including big screen relays to locations across the UK: Paul Hamlyn matinées and other low-price ticket schemes.
In 2007, he oversaw the ROH's purchase of Opus Arte, a ballet and opera DVD/Blu-ray production and distribution company. As a Royal Opera House subsidiary, Opus Arte has relaunched its website as an online classical music retailer, selling both digital and physical products from across all the major record labels.
Between 2010 and 2011, Hall's salary increased from £165,000 to £205,000, making him the highest-paid Chief Executive of all UK charities. His emoluments for management of the Royal Opera House exceeded £390,000 per annum in the years ending 29 August 2010 and 2011 respectively.
National Gallery
Hall's appointment to become chair of the board of trustees of the National Gallery was announced in January 2020. He took up the position on 1 September 2020 after standing down from his position at the BBC. He resigned as National Gallery chairman on 22 May 2021 following an inquiry into BBC Panorama's Princess Diana interview.
External appointments
Hall was appointed inaugural chair of the industry-led Creative & Cultural Skills (Sector Skills Councils), a post he held between 2004 and 2009. Sector Skills Councils introduced the first formal creative apprenticeships; won government approval to build state-of-the-art facility The Backstage Centre for backstage skills located with the Royal Opera House's production park at High House Purfleet in Thurrock, Essex, and maintain a careers advice and guidance website called "Creative Choices".
He served as chair of the Music and Dance Scheme Advisory Board, and led a Dance Review for the Department for Education and Skills resulting in an additional £5 million input towards dance education. He was a member of the Management Committee of the Clore Leadership Programme until 2011. He sat on the Culture and Creative Advisory Forum panel for the Department for Culture, Media and Sport and was chair of the Theatre Royal Stratford East until 2009.
Hall has been a member of the Regeneration Through Heritage Steering Group, a board member for Race for Opportunity, a board member for Learndirect and Council member of Brunel University. Until May 2000 he was chair of the Royal Television Society. In April 2007, in the wake of the 2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel, he was asked to lead an enquiry into the MOD's media strategy. Since 2008, he has served on the board of the British Council.
In July 2009, at the Mayor of London and HM Government's request, he set up and chaired a board directing the Cultural Olympiad, and also joined the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games Board.
Hall has been a Trustee of the Paul Hamlyn Foundation since 2011, and was appointed Deputy Chairman of Channel 4 in 2012, a post he was obliged to relinquish upon becoming Director-General of the BBC.
On 29 June 2018, Hall was elected as the new President of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU).
After leaving the BBC in September 2020, it was announced that Hall would chair an independent company producing documentaries, HTYT Stories.
In January 2022, he was appointed to chair the board of Frontline, a charity whose aim is "helping to keep children free from harm and supporting them to achieve their full potential..".
Honours, awards and peerage
Life Peer as Baron Hall of Birkenhead, of Birkenhead, in the County of Cheshire (created 19 March 2010)
CBE (2006)
In September 2009 Hall received an honorary doctorate of Literature (Hon DLit) from Goldsmiths, University of London, and subsequently was elected an Honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. The Chartered Management Institute awarded him the 2010 Gold Medal Award for outstanding achievement.
City University elected him an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Journalism in 2012, and he has been a liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Painter-Stainers since 1985. More recently, Hall received an honorary degree from Birmingham City University in January 2017 and honorary doctorate from City University in January 2018.
Bibliography
Hall has written:
King Coal: Miners, Coal and Britain's Industrial Future (Penguin Books, 1981)
Nuclear Politics: The History of Nuclear Power in Britain (Penguin Books, 1986).
Personal life
He is married to Cynthia Hall, who was formerly headmistress of the School of St Helen and St Katharine and then of Wycombe Abbey, both girls' schools, and president of the Girls’ Schools Association. They have two children.
References
External links
Official biography at About the BBC
Profile on UK Parliament site
Profile by Debretts
Parliamentary voting record
Profile of Tony Hall by Tash Shifrin, The Guardian, 24 September 2003
Interview by Henry Chu, "How Tony Hall Turned Around the BBC", Variety, 14 December 2016
2005 recorded BBC interview "...bringing opera to the people?"
2002 recorded BBC interview with regard to ROH and public funding
2001 article on taking the ROH job
The Opus Arte website
Debretts People of Today entry
BBC Declaration of Personal Interests
1951 births
Living people
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
BBC Board members
BBC executives
BBC radio producers
British television executives
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Crossbench life peers
European Broadcasting Union
Fellows of Keble College, Oxford
Fellows of King's College London
Opera managers
People educated at Birkenhead School
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
People from Birkenhead
People from Cheshire
People's peers
Royal Opera House
Life peers created by Elizabeth II |
34521467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20%282013%20film%29 | Shadow (2013 film) | Shadow is a 2013 Indian Telugu language action drama film, produced by Paruchuri Kireeti on United Movies banner and directed by Meher Ramesh. The film stars Venkatesh, Srikanth, Tapsee, Madhurima and music was composed by S. Thaman. The film was released on 26 April 2013.
The film was later dubbed into Tamil under the same title and in Hindi as Meri Jung: One Man Army by Sumeet Arts in 2013.
Plot
Rajaram (Venkatesh) is the son of Raghuram (Naga Babu), an investigative journalist in a United Nations agency who infiltrates the criminal organization of Nana Bhai (Aditya Pancholi) and earns his trust. He gathers proof against the activities of Nana and hands them over to newspaper publisher Chaitanya Prasad alias CP (Sayaji Shinde). This is discovered by Nana Bhai who murders Raghuram in an exceedingly brutal manner. He additionally destroys Raghuram's family. Rajaram manages to flee from the Massacre and vows to get revenge on Nana. With the assistance of Baba (Nassar), Rajaram grows up to be a strong young man. He assumes the identity of Shadow and starts looking for members of Nana's gang in Malaysia. With the help of his friends who were raised by Baba, Rajaram first kills Shakeel (Mukthar Khan), a member of Nana Bhai's gang. Meanwhile, Prathap (Srikanth), a tricky cop in the UN agency, also arrives in Malaysia with a special team of officers searching for Nana Bhai and his gang. Prathap and his team manage to arrest Robert (Supreeth), another member of Nana's gang & keep him in a high-security jail to be taken to India. Nana's brothers Jeeva (Rahul Dev) and Lala find out about Robert's arrest & plan to free him from police custody before Nana finds out. Rajaram too learns about Robert's arrest from Baba & assures that Robert will not leave Malaysia alive. Rajaram gets arrested by the police on purpose for being drunk and causing nuisance. He is taken to the same high-security jail where Robert is imprisoned. He sedates a police officer and kills Robert after revealing his identity to him. After sensing something amiss, Prathap arrives at the prison only to find Robert dead. Rajaram escapes by covering the entire prison with smoke. He gets acquainted with Dr Donga Srinivasa Rao aka Psycho Seenu (M. S. Narayana) and his team of students who perform postmortem on Robert's body and hand it over to the police. Madhubala (Tapsee) is also a member of Psycho Seenu's team and becomes friendly with Raja. Soon, a private funeral is held for Robert in a cemetery. Nana Bhai attends the funeral with Jeeva and Lala. Rajaram disguises himself as one of the priests and arrives at the cemetery to finish off Nana & his brothers. Prathap and his team are also at the cemetery in hiding to catch Nana and his brothers red-handed. However, their plans fail as Lala spots the gun, which Rajaram had placed on the tree and gets shot saving Nana Bhai. This results in a major shoot out in the cemetery. Nana Bhai and Jeeva escape leaving Lala behind. Lala is arrested by Prathap's team and taken to the hospital. Rajaram also escapes from the cemetery and evades the police after a long chase. However he jumps off a truck, rolls down a slope and hits his head hard to a steel post suffering a major injury. Psycho Seenu spots Raja who falls on his vehicle due to dizziness and takes him to his house where his students also reside. Madhubala is shocked to see Rajaram injured and gives him first aid, haircut and a new look. Rajaram soon regains consciousness and starts behaving like a kid. Psycho Seenu and his team take him to the hospital and learn from the doctor that Rajaram has lost his memory due to the injury to his head. The doctor also reveals that Rajaram can regain his memory if he sees someone or something he vividly remembers and advises them to take good care of him till then. Soon everyone starts calling Rajaram as Chanti since they're unaware of his real name. Meanwhile, Nana Bhai and Jeeva learn that Lala is out of danger at the hospital but still in coma. They decide to free him from police custody after he regains consciousness. Later, Psycho Seenu and some of his students take Rajaram to the hospital to give him Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) to help him regain his memories. However Psycho Seenu ends up receiving the shock treatment due to a mix-up. Prathap is also at the same hospital video chatting with his wife Bindu (Nyra Banerjee). Rajaram arrives and is introduced to Bindu as Chanti by Prathap. Jeeva arrives at the hospital with some goons to free Lala and kills many policemen. Prathap hears the sounds of gunshots and goes to investigate leaving Rajaram to chat with Bindu. However, Bindu is also tensed and ask Rajaram to check on Prathap. She calls out to her mother. Rajaram is shocked to see his mother Lakshmi (Geetha) alive and finally regains his memories. He realizes that Bindu is his sister and that Prathap is his brother-in-law. He also joins the fight and kills all of Jeeva's goons. Baba gets shot saving Rajaram. He blesses Raja after learning that his mother & sister are still alive and dies in arms of Rajaram and his friends. Lala is found and arrested by Prathap. Rajaram fights with Jeeva at the top of the hospital and kills him by stabbing him and throwing him from the top of the building. Lala is devastated to see his brother Jeeva dead. Nana Bhai is shocked to learn the same. Prathap and his team arrive in Hyderabad with Lala. Commissioner Thyagi (Nagineedu) calls Nana Bhai to inform him about Lala's arrival to Hyderabad. Rajaram also arrives in Hyderabad with his friends. He learns that Psycho Seenu is staying in the house opposite to Prathap's house and stays with him. He sees his mother and sister from a distance. He is happy to learn about his sister Bindu's pregnancy. Prathap spots Rajaram and greets him as Chanti. On the eve of Raksha Bandhan, Bindu is in tears as she is missing her brother. Rajaram arrives and asks her to tie a Rakhi to his hand. She emotionally does so and starts calling him as brother. Rajaram learns about the bomb blasts Nana Bhai has planned in October by looking into Prathap's laptop. Lakshmi soon realizes that Chanti is indeed her long-lost son Rajaram and shares an emotional reunion with him. She reveals that she and Bindu had managed to jump off the boat just before the explosion but couldn't find him after coming out from the water. She also reveals that she came with Bindu to Hyderabad to kill her brother Journalist Surya (Surya) for betraying Raghuram only to find him dead. Lakshmi tells him that his aunt (Vinaya Prasad) knows who the killers are but refused to reveal. Raja and his mother reunite with his estranged aunt at the temple. She finally reveals the truth that Commissioner Thyagi who was an ACP then & Chaitanya Prasad are Nana Bhai's partners in crime. They are the ones who brutally murdered his uncle Surya. Raja vows to punish them for their sins. CP and Nana Bhai meet to plan bomb blasts at Achariyaji's press meet. Nana Bhai learns that his brother is being tortured by Prathap in police custody and orders Thyagi to kill Prathap. Thyagi plans to kill Prathap during Ganesh Immersion with the help of a goon. However Rajaram arrives at the Ganesh Immersion, kills the goon and brutally stabs Thyagi to death after revealing his true identity. Madhubala witnesses the murder along with Psycho Seenu and is shocked. Prathap is shocked to learn that Shadow has murdered the commissioner and gets help from 2 eye-witnesses who are drunk. Madhu arrives tensed at Prathap's house and reveals to Lakshmi that Chanti is the killer. However she learns that Chanti is actually Lakshmi's son Rajaram. Rajaram reveals about his past to Madhu who supports him after learning the truth. She and Raja fall in love with each other. With the help of Psycho Seenu, Home minister Naidu (Jaya Prakash Reddy) & Madhu, Rajaram sneaks into Chaitanya Prasad's new channel launch function. He confronts CP with the help of the home minister and brutally shoots him to death using Prathap's revolver. Through Guru Bhai (Satya Prakash), Nana Bhai learns that Raghuram's wife Lakshmi is still alive and that Prathap is her son-in-law. Intelligence officer Chakravarthy (Suman) arrives from Delhi to meet with Prathap and his team. Prathap is shocked to learn that Thyagi and Chaitanya Prasad were Nana Bhai's partners in crime and have been working with him for the past 20 years. With the help of Chakravarthy, he realizes that Guru Bhai is still alive and that Chanti is Shadow. Prathap arrives at his house to confront Chanti/Shadow. He is shocked to learn that Chanti/Shadow is none other than Bindu's long-lost elder brother Rajaram. Bindu too is shocked to learn the same from her mother. Prathap learns that Acharyaji's scheduled meeting in Bangalore is cancelled due to riots and rescheduled in Hyderabad, which makes him realize that Nana had planned the bomb blasts in this very meeting. Nana Bhai and his goons attack Prathap & his team and free Lala from police custody. Prathap is hospitalized in a critical state which shocks Bindu. Rajaram arrives at the hospital and reunites with Bindu. He learns that Nana Bhai has abducted his mother Lakshmi. Shivaji (Rao Ramesh), Acharyaji's deputy is also revealed as Nana Bhai's partner. Rajaram arrives and finally kills Shivaji, Guru Bhai, Lala, Nana Bhai and all their goons. The film ends on a happy note as Prathap fully recovers and reunites with his family and Rajaram in the hospital.
Cast
Venkatesh as Rajaram / Shadow / Chanti
Srikanth as ACP Prathap
Tapsee as Madhubala
Nyra Banerjee as Bindu, Rajaram's sister
Aditya Pancholi as Nana Bhai
Nassar as Baba
Raghu Babu as Raghu Rajaram's friend
Sayaji Shinde as Chaithanya Prasad "CP"
Naga Babu as Raghuram, Rajaram's father
Geetha as Lakshmi, Rajaram's mother
Suman as Chakravarthy, Intelligence officer
M. S. Narayana as Dr. Donga Srinivasa Rao aka Psycho Srinu
Dharmavarapu Subramanyam as Peter Penchalayya
Jaya Prakash Reddy as Home Minister Naidu
Chalapathi Rao as D.G.
Nagineedu as Thyagi, Police Commissioner
Subbaraju as Sanyasi Naidu, Home Minister's son
Rao Ramesh as Sivaji
Rahul Dev as Jeeva
Supreeth as Robert
Satya Prakash as Guru Bhai
Surya as Journalist Surya (Lakshmi's brother)
Vennela Kishore as Nana Bhai's henchman
Krishna Bhagavaan as Kammareddy Kapuraju
Prabhas Sreenu as Daambar, Shadow's friend and partner
Srinivasa Reddy as Psycho Srinu's student
Satyam Rajesh as Psycho Srinu's student
Thagubothu Ramesh as Drunkard
Nalla Venu as Drunkard
Harshavardhan as Madhubala's brother
Mukthar Khan as Shakeel
Uttej as Shadow's friend and partner
Telangana Shakuntala as Home Minister's wife
Hema as Madhubala's sister-in-law
Vinaya Prasad as Lakshmi's sister-in-law
Nyra Benerjee as Shadow's friend and partner
Kesha Khambhati as an item number in the song "Shadow Title Track"
Soundtrack
The music of the film was composed by S. Thaman and released on T-Series Audio Company. The title track of this film was released at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad. Venkatesh, V. V. Vinayak, Meher Ramesh, Producer Paruchuri Prasad, Paruchuri Kireeti, Kona Venkat, Gopimohan and Thaman attended this event. Vinayak launched the title song of the movie.
The audio launch of this film was held at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad on 15 March 2013. Vinayak unveiled the T-Series audio albums and handed one to Boyapati Srinu. Gopichand Malineni, K. L. Narayana, Nagababu, Boyapati Srinu and V. V. Vinayak launched the songs of the movie. Madhurima, Kona Venkat, Gopimohan, Baba Sehgal, Adithya Pancholi attended this event.
Production
This is the first Tollywood film, played in Prasad multiplex screen equipped with the high quality Auro 11.1 3D sound with 55 speakers.
Casting
The media reported that Venkatesh played the role of a mafia don in this film. However, he said that this was not the case Bollywood actor Aditya Pancholi is making his debut as villain in Telugu for this film.
Release
Initially the film was scheduled for a Ugadi release on 11 April 2013. Later director Meher Ramesh confirmed that the film was postponed to 26 April 2013. The film was censored with a U/A certificate, obtained from the CBFC on 18 April 2013, and was released on the previously scheduled release date.
Distribution
Earlier sources reports that the film was to be released in the U.S. and Canada by Ficus. However, it was released in those countries by Suresh Productions through Praneeth Media.
Critical reception
Sashidhar AS from The Times of India website reviewed the film and stated, "It's a mash up of several other movies and does not showcase anything new." Shekhar from the Oneindia website reviewed and gave a rating of 2.5/5 for the film and said, "The director has failed in executing his ideas in crispy way. However, it is good entertainer, which will appeal both class and mass audience. It is a must watch film for Venky fans." A critic from the Way2movies website reviewed and gave a rating of 2/5 for the film and stated, "Even Venkatesh couldn't salvage 'Shadow'." Mahesh S Koneru from the 123telugu website reviewed and gave a rating of 2.25/5 for the film, and stated, "Meher Ramesh must realise that style without substance will never work." A critic from the Supergoodmovies website reviewed and gave a rating of 2/5 for the film, and said that Shadow "is a below average film. Here Meher Ramesh Direction, Screen Play and Story are bad. It is not a worthy flick." Cherukuri Raja from the Apherald website reviewed and gave a rating of 1.5/5 for the film and said, "Biggest Disaster of this Summer, dont waste your bucks on this flick."
Box office
The film collected a worldwide share of 11.5 crore in its full run.
India
The film collected 3.75 crore (37.5 m)in the first day in Andhra Pradesh.
Overseas
Trade analyst Taran Adarsh tweeted that this film collected $22,968 (1.25 million) in two days in the US.
Home media
The VCDs, DVDs and Blu-rays of the film were released through the Company BhavaniDVD on 12 July 2013.
References
External links
Films scored by Thaman S
2010s Telugu-language films
Indian crime action films
2013 crime action films
2013 films
Films shot in Kuala Lumpur
Films about altered memories
Films shot in Hyderabad, India
Indian slapstick comedy films
Indian crime comedy films
Films shot at Ramoji Film City
2010s crime comedy films
Indian films about revenge
Films directed by Meher Ramesh
2013 comedy films |
43405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary | Actuary | An actuary is a professional with advanced mathematical skills who deals with the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty. The name of the corresponding field is actuarial science which covers rigorous mathematical calculations such as the survival function and stochastic process. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Actuaries provide assessments of financial security systems, with a focus on their complexity, their mathematics, and their mechanisms.
While the concept of insurance dates to antiquity, the concepts needed to scientifically measure and mitigate risks have their origins in the 17th century studies of probability and annuities. Actuaries of the 21st century require analytical skills, business knowledge, and an understanding of human behavior and information systems to design and manage programs that control risk. The actual steps needed to become an actuary are usually country-specific; however, almost all processes share a rigorous schooling or examination structure and take many years to complete.
The profession has consistently been ranked as one of the most desirable. In various studies in the United States, being an actuary was ranked first or second multiple times since 2010, and in the top 20 for most of the past decade.
Responsibilities
Actuaries use skills primarily in mathematics, particularly calculus-based probability and mathematical statistics, but also economics, computer science, finance, and business. For this reason, actuaries are essential to the insurance and reinsurance industries, either as staff employees or as consultants; to other businesses, including sponsors of pension plans; and to government agencies such as the Government Actuary's Department in the United Kingdom or the Social Security Administration in the United States of America. Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner that will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis.
Disciplines
Most traditional actuarial disciplines fall into two main categories: life and non-life.
Life actuaries, which includes health and pension actuaries, primarily deal with mortality risk, morbidity risk, and investment risk. Products prominent in their work include life insurance, annuities, pensions, short and long term disability insurance, health insurance, health savings accounts, and long-term care insurance. In addition to these risks, social insurance programs are influenced by public opinion, politics, budget constraints, changing demographics, and other factors such as medical technology, inflation, and cost of living considerations.
Non-life actuaries, also known as "property and casualty" (mainly US) or "general insurance" (mainly UK) actuaries, deal with both physical and legal risks that affect people or their property. Products prominent in their work include auto insurance, homeowners insurance, commercial property insurance, workers' compensation, malpractice insurance, product liability insurance, marine insurance, terrorism insurance, and other types of liability insurance.
Actuaries are also called upon for their expertise in enterprise risk management. This can involve dynamic financial analysis, stress testing, the formulation of corporate risk policy, and the setting up and running of corporate risk departments. Actuaries are also involved in other areas of the financial services industry, such as analyzing securities offerings or market research.
Traditional employment
On both the life and casualty sides, the classical function of actuaries is to calculate premiums and reserves for insurance policies covering various risks. On the casualty side, this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event, called the frequency, and the size of that loss event, called the severity. The amount of time that occurs before the loss event is important, as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred. On the life side, the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future. Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely deterministic processes, stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and severity distributions and the parameters of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially on the life side.
Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often, their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called retrospective reinsurance, or the development or re-pricing of new products.
Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They are involved in financial reporting of companies' assets and liabilities. They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. Actuaries work under a code of ethics that covers their communications and work products.
Non-traditional employment
As an outgrowth of their more traditional roles, actuaries also work in the fields of risk management and enterprise risk management for both financial and non-financial corporations. Actuaries in traditional roles study and use the tools and data previously in the domain of finance. The Basel II accord for financial institutions (2004), and its analogue, the Solvency II accord for insurance companies (in force since 2016), require institutions to account for operational risk separately, and in addition to, credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for upside gain, as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk.
Actuaries are also involved in investment advice and asset management, and can be general business managers and chief financial officers. They analyze business prospects with their financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows, and apply their pricing expertise from insurance to other lines of business. For example, insurance securitization requires both actuarial and finance skills. Actuaries also act as expert witnesses by applying their analysis in court trials to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages.
History
Need for insurance
The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of civilization. For example, people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire, which would leave their band or family without shelter. After barter came into existence, more complex risks emerged and new forms of risk manifested. Merchants embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them, their own possessions, or even their lives. Intermediaries developed to warehouse and trade goods, which exposed them to financial risk. The primary providers in extended families or households ran the risk of premature death, disability or infirmity, which could leave their dependents to starve. Credit procurement was difficult if the creditor worried about repayment in the event of the borrower's death or infirmity. Alternatively, people sometimes lived too long from a financial perspective, exhausting their savings, if any, or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society.
Early attempts
In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies. Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved charity; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the 3rd century, charitable operations in Rome supported 1,500 suffering people. Charitable protection remains an active form of support in the modern era, but receiving charity is uncertain and often accompanied by social stigma.
Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity. Early in the Roman empire, associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria, or burial vaults, owned by the fund. Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forebears, and to Celtic society.
Non-life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel. Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes, who lived in the 4th century BCE. The earliest records of an official non-life insurance policy come from Sicily, where there is record of a 14th-century contract to insure a shipment of wheat. In 1350, Lenardo Cattaneo assumed "all risks from act of God, or of man, and from perils of the sea" that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins. For this he was paid a premium of 18%.
Development of theory
During the 17th century, a more scientific basis for risk management was being developed. In 1662, a London draper named John Graunt showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group, or cohort, of people, despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or mortality of any one individual. This study became the basis for the original life table. Combining this idea with that of compound interest and annuity valuation, it became possible to set up an insurance scheme to provide life insurance or pensions for a group of people, and to calculate with some degree of accuracy each member's necessary contributions to a common fund, assuming a fixed rate of interest. The first person to correctly calculate these values was Edmond Halley. In his work, Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the premium someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life-annuity.
Early actuaries
James Dodson's pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship (now commonly known as Equitable Life) in London in 1762. This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates that were calculated scientifically for long-term life policies, using Dodson's work. After Dodson's death in 1757, Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an actuary. Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or acts, of ecclesiastical courts, in ancient times originally the secretary of the Roman senate, responsible for compiling the Acta Senatus. Other companies that did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable.
Development of the modern profession
In the 18th and 19th centuries, computational complexity was limited to manual calculations. The calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums can be burdensome. The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily used tables, using arithmetical short-cuts called commutation functions, to facilitate timely, accurate, manual calculations of premiums. In the mid-19th century, professional bodies were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science, and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards. Since calculations were cumbersome, actuarial shortcuts were commonplace.
Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early 20th century. In the United States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries. In the 1930s and 1940s, rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed. Actuaries began to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession. From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown vastly.
Another modern development is the convergence of modern finance theory with actuarial science. In the early 20th century, some economists and actuaries were developing techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models. In the 21st century, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory, but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics.
Remuneration and ranking
As there are relatively few actuaries in the world compared to other professions, actuaries are in high demand, and are highly paid for the services they render. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, in , the median annual salary for actuaries in the U.S. was $105,900. Similarly, a survey in the United Kingdom by Hays plc indicated a starting salary for a graduate of about £35,500; actuaries with more experience can earn well in excess of £100,000.
The actuarial profession has been consistently ranked for decades as one of the most desirable. Actuaries work comparatively reasonable hours, in comfortable conditions, without the need for physical exertion that may lead to injury, are well paid, and the profession consistently has a good hiring outlook. Not only has the overall profession ranked highly, but it also is considered one of the best professions for women, and one of the best recession-proof professions. In the United States, the profession was rated as the best profession by CareerCast, which uses five key criteria to rank jobs—environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands, and stress, in 2010, 2013, and 2015. In other years, it remained in the top 20. In the United Kingdom, and around the world, actuaries continue to be highly ranked as a profession.
Credentialing and exams
Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous series of professional examinations, usually taking several years. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the US, most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations. In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure.
Exam support
As these qualifying exams are extremely rigorous, support is usually available to people progressing through the exams. Often, employers provide paid on-the-job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams. Also, many companies that employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed. As a result, actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off-work hours. A common rule of thumb for exam students is that, for the Society of Actuaries examinations, roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four-hour exam. Thus, thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years, assuming no failures.
Pass marks and pass rates
Historically, the actuarial profession has been reluctant to specify the pass marks for its examinations. To address concerns that there are pre-existing pass/fail quotas, a former Chairman of the Board of Examiners of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries stated: "Although students find it hard to believe, the Board of Examiners does not have fail quotas to achieve. Accordingly pass rates are free to vary (and do). They are determined by the quality of the candidates sitting the examination and in particular how well prepared they are. Fitness to pass is the criterion, not whether you can achieve a mark in the top 40% of candidates sitting." In 2000, the Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) decided to start releasing pass marks for the exams it offers. The CAS's policy is also not to grade to specific pass ratios; the CAS board affirmed in 2001 that "the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination. If the CAS determines that 70% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then those 70% should pass. Similarly, if the CAS determines that only 30% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then only those 30% should pass."
Notable actuaries
Nathaniel Bowditch (1773–1838)
Early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. In 1804, Bowditch became what was probably the United States of America's second insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem, Massachusetts
Harald Cramér (1893–1985)
Swedish actuary and probabilist notable for his contributions in mathematical statistics, such as the Cramér–Rao inequality. Cramér was an Honorary President of the Swedish Actuarial Society
James Dodson (c. 1705 – 1757)
Head of the Royal Mathematical School, and Stone's School, Dodson built on the statistical mortality tables developed by Edmund Halley in 1693
Edmond Halley (1656–1742)
While Halley actually predated much of what is now considered the start of the actuarial profession, he was the first to rigorously calculate premiums for a life insurance policy mathematically and statistically
James C. Hickman (1927–2006)
American actuarial educator, researcher, and author
Oswald Jacoby (1902–1984)
American actuary best known as a contract bridge player, he was the youngest person ever to pass four examinations of the Society of Actuaries
David X. Li
Canadian qualified actuary who in the first decade of the 21st century pioneered the use of Gaussian copula models for the pricing of collateralized debt obligations (CDOs)
Edward Rowe Mores (1731–1778)
First person to use the title 'actuary' with respect to a business position
William Morgan (1750–1833)
Morgan was the appointed Actuary of the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1775. He expanded on Mores's and Dodson's work, and may be considered the father of the actuarial profession in that his title became applied to the field as a whole.
Robert J. Myers (1912–2010)
American actuary who was instrumental in the creation of the U.S. Social Security program
Frank Redington (1906–1984)
British actuary who developed the Redington Immunization Theory.
Isaac M. Rubinow (1875–1936)
Founder and first president of the Casualty Actuarial Society.
Elizur Wright (1804–1885)
American actuary and abolitionist, professor of mathematics at Western Reserve College (Ohio). He campaigned for laws that required life insurance companies to hold sufficient reserves to guarantee that policies would be paid.
Fictional actuaries
Actuaries have appeared in works of fiction including literature, theater, television, and film. At times, they have been portrayed as "math-obsessed, socially disconnected individuals with shockingly bad comb-overs", which has resulted in a mixed response amongst actuaries themselves.
Citations
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External links
Be an Actuary: The SOA and CAS jointly sponsored web site
Actuarial science
Financial services occupations
Mathematical science occupations |
451023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Brood | The Brood | The Brood is a 1979 Canadian psychological body horror film written and directed by David Cronenberg and starring Oliver Reed, Samantha Eggar, and Art Hindle. Its plot follows a man and his mentally ill ex-wife, who has been sequestered by a psychiatrist known for his controversial therapy techniques. A series of brutal unsolved murders serves as the backdrop for the central narrative.
Written by Cronenberg after his own acrimonious divorce, he intended the screenplay as a meditation on a fractured relationship between a husband and wife who share a child, and cast Eggar and Hindle as loose facsimiles of himself and his ex-wife. He would later state that, despite its incorporation of science fiction elements, he considered it his sole feature that most embodied a "classic horror film". Principal photography of The Brood took place in late 1978 in Toronto on a budget of $1.5 million. The film's score was composed by Howard Shore, in his film composing debut.
Released in the spring of 1979 by New World Pictures, The Brood proved profitable for the studio, grossing over $5 million. Though it initially received positive reviews from critics, it would establish itself as a cult film in the following decades. It has attracted scholarly interest from academics in the areas of film theory for its themes regarding mental illness and parenthood. In 2006, the Chicago Film Critics Association named it the 88th scariest film of all time. In 2013, it was selected for restoration by the Criterion Collection, which subsequently released it on Blu-ray.
Plot
Psychotherapist Hal Raglan runs the Somafree Institute of Psychoplasmics, where he encourages patients with mental disturbances to let go of their suppressed emotions through physiological changes to their bodies in a technique he calls "psychoplasmics". One of his patients is Nola Carveth, a severely disturbed woman who is legally embattled with her husband Frank for custody of their five-year-old daughter Candice. When Frank discovers bruises and scratches on Candice following a visit with Nola, he informs Raglan of his intent to stop visitation rights. Wanting to protect his patient, Raglan begins to intensify the sessions with Nola to resolve the issue quickly. During the therapy sessions, he discovers that Nola was physically and verbally abused by her self-pitying alcoholic mother while neglected by her co-dependent alcoholic father, who refused to protect Nola out of shame and denial.
Meanwhile, Frank, intending to invalidate Raglan's methods, questions Jan Hartog, a former Somafree Institute patient who is dying of psychoplasmic-induced lymphoma. Frank leaves Candice with her maternal grandmother, Juliana, and the two spend the evening viewing old photographs. Juliana tells Candice that Nola was frequently hospitalized as a child and often exhibited strange unexplained wheals on her skin that doctors were unable to diagnose. While in the kitchen, Juliana is attacked and bludgeoned to death by a small, dwarf-like child. Candice is traumatized, but physically unharmed.
Juliana's ex-husband Barton returns for the funeral and attempts to contact Nola at the Somafree Institute, but Raglan turns him away. Frank invites Candice's teacher, Ruth Mayer, home for dinner to discuss his daughter's performance in school. Barton interrupts with a drunken phone call from Juliana's home, demanding that Frank and he go to the Somafree Institute to see Nola. Frank leaves to calm Barton, leaving Candice in Ruth's care. While he's away, Ruth answers a phone call from Nola, who, recognizing her voice and believing her to be having an affair with Frank, insults her and angrily warns Ruth to stay away from her family. Meanwhile, Frank arrives to find Barton murdered by the same deformed dwarf-child, who dies after attempting to kill Frank.
The police autopsy of the dwarf-child reveals a multitude of bizarre anatomical anomalies: the creature is asexual, supposedly colorblind, naturally toothless, and devoid of a navel, indicating no known means of natural human birth. After the murder story reaches the newspapers, Raglan reluctantly acknowledges that the deaths coincided with his sessions with Nola relating to their respective topics. He closes the Somafree Institute and sends his patients to municipal care with the exception of Nola. Frank is alerted about the closure of the institute by Hartog.
Mike Trellan, one of the patients forced to leave the institute, tells Frank that Nola is now Raglan's "queen bee" and in charge of some "disturbed children" in an attic. When Candice returns to school, two dwarf-children attack and kill Ruth in front of her class before absconding with Candice to the Somafree Institute, with Frank in pursuit. Upon arriving at the institute, Raglan tells Frank the truth about the dwarf-children: they are the accidental product of Nola's psychoplasmic sessions; her rage about her abuse was so strong that she parthenogenetically bore a brood of creatures resembling children who psychically respond and act on the targets of her rage, with Nola completely unaware of their actions. Realizing the brood are too dangerous to keep anymore, Raglan plans to venture into their quarters and rescue Candice, provided that Frank can keep Nola calm to avoid provoking the children.
Frank attempts a feigned rapprochement long enough for Raglan to collect Candice, but when he witnesses Nola give birth to another child through a psychoplasmically-induced external womb, she notices his disgust when she licks the child clean. The brood awakens and kills Raglan. Nola then threatens to kill Candice rather than lose her. The brood goes after Candice who hides in a closet, but the brood begins to break through the door and tries to grab her. In desperation, Frank strangles Nola to death, and the brood dies without its mother's psychic connection. Frank carries a visibly traumatized Candice back to his car and the two depart. As the pair sit in silence, two small lesions—a germinal stage of the phenomenon experienced by Nola—appear on Candice's arm.
Cast
Production
Screenplay
In retrospect, Cronenberg stated that he felt The Brood was "the most classic horror film I've done" in terms of structure. He conceived the screenplay in the aftermath of an acrimonious divorce from his wife, which resulted in a bitter custody battle over their daughter. During his divorce, Cronenberg became aware of the drama Kramer vs. Kramer (also released in 1979), and was disillusioned by its optimistic depiction of a familial breakdown after a couple's separation. In response, he began writing the screenplay for The Brood, aspiring to depict the strife between a divorced couple battling over their child.
Casting
In casting the roles of Frank and Nola Carveth, Cronenberg sought actors who were "vague facsimiles" of himself and his wife. Canadian actor Art Hindle was cast in the role of Frank. There was difficulty in casting Nola Carveth and Samantha Eggar, who Cronenberg stated "looked a little like my ex-wife" and had a husband that looked like him, was selected. Cronenberg met Eggar ten years later at the Sitges Film Festival where she told him that "The Brood was the strangest and most repulsive film I've ever done".
Oliver Reed was cast in the role of Hal Raglan, the psychologist who has kept Nola sequestered after her divorce from Frank. This marked the second time Eggar and Reed had starred in a film together, having previously co-starred in The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun (1970). Additionally, Eggar and Reed had known one another personally, having grown up together in Bledlow, England. Eggar was impressed by Cronenberg's screenplay, and agreed to appear in the film as she felt the role of Nola was "almost Shakespearean... How could you turn this part down?"
Filming
Les Productions Mutuelles Ltée and Elgin International Productions produced the film as The Brood Films. The film was shot in Toronto from 14 November to 21 December 1978, on a budget of $1,400,000 () with $200,000 coming from the Canadian Film Development Corporation. The Kortright Centre for Conservation, just north of Toronto, was used as the location of the Somafree Institute. Additional photography was done in Mississauga.
Eggar recalled the production crew being very small, with only around seven crew members in total while she was filming her sequences, many of them "academics and PhDs, standing there holding lights". Her scenes were shot over a period of three days. To portray the brood of children, Cronenberg cast a group of child gymnasts from Toronto.
This was the first film scored by composer Howard Shore. Shore's work consists in a composition for chamber orchestra strongly reminiscent of the Second Viennese School's Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg and Anton Webern. The technically difficult score by Shore is performed by professional players. It was the first Cronenberg film to have an original soundtrack. Shore has written the music for most of Cronenberg's subsequent films.
Release
Censorship
The Brood had cuts demanded for an R-rating for its theatrical release in the United States. Eggar conceived the idea of licking the new fetuses that her character Nola Carveth has spawned. "I just thought that when cats have their kittens or dogs have puppies (and I think at that time I had about 8 dogs), they lick them as soon as they’re born. Lick, lick, lick, lick, lick…," Eggar said.
However, when the climactic scene was censored, Cronenberg responded: "I had a long and loving close-up of Samantha licking the fetus […] when the censors, those animals, cut it out, the result was that a lot of people thought she was eating her baby. That's much worse than I was suggesting."
Box office
The Brood was released as Chromosome 3 in France and La Clinique De La Terreur in Quebec. The film was distributed by New World Pictures and opened in the United States on 25 May 1979, Canada on 1 June, France on 10 October, and the United Kingdom on 13 March 1980. The French dub was released in Montreal on 14 March 1980. After its screenings in Toronto and Chicago, The Brood grossed $685,000 over only a period of ten days between the two cities. By 1981, the film had grossed over $5 million. Cronenberg was able to purchase a home using his earnings from the film.
Critical response
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Brood holds an 81% approval rating based on 31 critic reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The consensus reads: "The Brood is a grotesque, squirming, hilariously shrill exploration of the bizarre and deadly side of motherhood.”
While Variety called it "an extremely well made, if essentially unpleasant shocker", Leonard Maltin reviewed the film in two sentences: "Eggar eats her own afterbirth while midget clones beat grandparents and lovely young schoolteachers to death with mallets. It's a big, wide, wonderful world we live in!" and rated it an outright "BOMB". Roger Ebert called it "a bore" and "disgusting in ways that are not entertaining; as opposed, for example, to the great disgusting moments in Alien or Dawn of the Dead", and even went as far as asking, "Are there really people who want to see reprehensible trash like this?" concluding with "I guess so. It's in its second week." Writing for the Vancouver Sun, Vaughn Palmer lambasted the film, referring to it as "mean, foul and witless... The people who made The Brood do not like people. They do not even appear to like themselves. They just like money." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times praised the film as "well-made" and "expertly acted," but criticized its depictions of violence, stating: "Perhaps Cronenberg means to make an extreme comment upon the irresponsibility of psychiatrists and parents, but The Brood is so totally sickening it's an irresponsible work itself."
In Cult Movies, Danny Peary, who openly disapproves of Shivers and Rabid, calls The Brood "Cronenberg's best film" because "we care about the characters", and, although he dislikes the ending, "an hour and a half of absorbing, solid cinema". In his An Introduction to the American Horror Film, critic Robin Wood views The Brood as a reactionary work portraying feminine power as irrational and horrifying, and the dangerous attempts of Oliver Reed's character's psychoanalysis as an analogue to the dangers of trying to undo repression in society.
The Brood was listed #88 on the "Chicago Film Critics Association's 100 Scariest Movies of All-Time". In 2004, one of its sequences was voted #78 among the "100 Scariest Movie Moments" by the Bravo Channel.
Home media
The film was released on DVD in its original uncensored version by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer on August 26, 2003. Anchor Bay Entertainment subsequently released the film on DVD in the United Kingdom 2005.
In mid-2013, the Criterion Collection added The Brood, as well as Scanners, to their selection of films available to Hulu and iTunes customers. The film was subsequently issued on DVD and Blu-ray by the Criterion Collection on October 13, 2015, featuring a new 2K scan of the original film elements.
Related works
A novelization by Richard Starks was published to coincide with the film's initial release. In 2009, Spyglass Entertainment announced a remake from a script by Cory Goodman, to be directed by Breck Eisner. Eisner left the project in 2010.
Analysis
Cronenberg stated that it was his only film without humor. Child characters rarely appear in his films, with Cronenberg stating that having a child made it unbearable, but child characters are present in The Brood as "it was cathartic, I had to do it, but I have never done it since" according to Cronenberg.
Written in the aftermath of writer-director Cronenberg's divorce from his wife, The Brood has been noted by critics and film scholars for its prominent themes surrounding fears of parenthood, as well as corollary preoccupations with repression and the treatment of mental illness in women.
Film theorist Barbara Creed notes that Nola's parthenogenetic births are thematically "used to demonstrate the horrors of unbridled maternal power" in which a woman gives birth to "deformed manifestations of herself". Scholar Sarah Arnold similarly suggests that, despite Nola's apparent representation as a "bad mother" epitomizing "the monstrous feminine", The Brood "does not disseminate such images unproblematically, [and] instead questions these already (culturally and socially) pre-existing notions of the maternal and motherhood... the film fuses the concerns of the woman's film with that of the body horror film."
Feminist critic Carrie Rickey notes that, like many of Cronenberg's films, The Brood has been accused of presenting a misogynistic representation of women. However, Rickey argues against this assertion, writing: "For me, Cronenberg’s gynophobia is a nonissue. It’s blaming the victim. After all, aren’t we talking about movies where male scientists use women as guinea pigs and then are shocked, shocked when the test subjects become monstrous, voracious, etc.? Let me invoke the Jessica Rabbit defense: The women are not bad, they’re just drawn that way. It’s the male scientists who have inadvertently transformed them into men’s worst nightmares."
References
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
The Brood: Separation Trials an essay by Carrie Rickey at the Criterion Collection
1970s English-language films
1970s Canadian films
1979 films
1979 horror films
1979 independent films
1970s pregnancy films
1970s psychological thriller films
1970s science fiction horror films
1970s horror drama films
Canadian body horror films
Canadian independent films
Canadian science fiction horror films
Canadian pregnancy films
Canadian psychological thriller films
English-language Canadian films
Films based on urban legends
Films about psychiatry
Films directed by David Cronenberg
Films scored by Howard Shore
Films shot in Toronto
New World Pictures films |
2415337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress%20Dou%20%28Wen%29 | Empress Dou (Wen) | Empress Dou (; died 29 June 135 BC), formally Empress Xiaowen (孝文皇后), was an empress of the Chinese Han dynasty who greatly influenced the reigns of her husband Emperor Wen and her son Emperor Jing with her adherence to Taoist philosophy; she was the main support for the Huang-Lao school. She therefore contributed greatly to the Rule of Wen and Jing, commonly considered one of the golden ages of Chinese history. She even continued her considerable influence in the reign of her grandson Emperor Wu, and even her influence in the reign of Emperor Wu was so great that the young emperor did not have the power to decide for himself even one day. As a result, according to her influence, the Taoist laws were in force until her death over the empire.
Early life
Empress Dou was born into a family in Qinghe Commandery (清河). She had two brothers, Dou Zhangjun (竇長君) and Dou Guangguo (竇廣國) or Shaojun (少君, probably courtesy name). When she was young, she was summoned into the palace to be a lady in waiting at the court of Emperor Hui. She would not see her brothers again for a very long time.
On one occasion, Emperor Hui's mother Empress Dowager Lü wanted to give some of the ladies in waiting to the imperial princes as gifts. Lady Dou was one of the ladies chosen. Because her home was part of the Principality of Zhao (modern central and southern Hebei), she requested that the eunuch in charge send her to Zhao. He agreed—but then forgot about it, and had her sent to the Principality of Dai (modern northern Shanxi and north-western Hebei), then considered a desolate region. When she found out, she cried and did not want to go, but had no choice.
That mistake by the eunuch turned out to be a fortunate one for Lady Dou, however. She became a favourite of Liu Heng, the Prince of Dai, and they had a daughter Liu Piao, and two sons, Liu Qi and Liu Wu.
As empress to Emperor Wen
After Prince Heng became emperor in the aftermaths of the Lü Clan Disturbance, then-Consort Dou, as the mother of his oldest son Prince Qi, was created empress in 179 BC. Prince Qi was created crown prince. She was always exceedingly loved and supported by her husband until the end of his reign. As such, she wielded considerable influence over his administration.
One of the first things that she carried out was a search for her brothers. Finding Zhangjun was not difficult. Finding Guangguo turned out to be difficult—and Guangguo had to find her himself, in one of the touching stories of Chinese antiquity. Shortly after Empress Dou was summoned as a lady in waiting, when he was only four or five years old, Guangguo himself was kidnapped and sold into slavery. He was sold from household to household for more than 10 times. Eventually, he was sold to a household in the capital Chang'an. There, he heard the news that the new empress was from Qinghe and named Dou. He therefore wrote a letter to the imperial palace, identifying himself, and relating an incident when they were young where they climbed a mulberry tree to gather its leaves, and he fell off it. Empress Dou summoned him and questioned him further to try to ascertain if he was in fact her brother. He then related details about their separation:
When my sister was about to be summoned west to Chang'an, we said our farewells at the imperial messenger station. She bathed me and fed me one last time before she left.
Empress Dou immediately held him and cried, and all of her ladies in waiting and eunuchs, seeing the touching scene, also cried. She then gave her brothers much wealth and built them mansions in Chang'an. At the suggestion of the officials who had overthrown the Lü clans and were fearful of a repeat, the Dou brothers were given companions of humility and virtue to try to influence them positively, and they became humble and virtuous themselves.
Either early in her husband's reign as emperor, or while he was still the Prince of Dai, Empress Dou became a strict adherent to Taoist philosophy, as encapsulated in the writing of Lao Zi and the legendary writings attributed to the Yellow Emperor—the idea of favouring inaction over action, of non-interference with others and nature, and of thriftiness in living. She ordered that her children (including Prince Qi), grandchildren, and the members of the Dou clan all study these writings. Emperor Wen was heavily influenced by these Taoist ideas during his reign.
As empress dowager
After Emperor Wen died in July 157 BC, Crown Prince Qi succeeded to the throne as Emperor Jing, and Empress Dou became empress dowager and the effective lead figure in his administration. He became heavily influenced by his mother both in terms of governing philosophy and politics, and he exceedingly feared insult and disrespect to his mother, and he largely continued his father's policies. He also created her brother Guangguo and her nephew Dou Pengzu (竇彭祖, Zhangjun's son) marquesses. A major concern for Empress Dou was the welfare of her young son, Liu Wu, who had by that point been created the Prince of Liang, and he, at her suggestion, seriously considered making him crown prince over one of his own sons, although he ultimately did not do so. In any case, however, the Principality of Liang, because of imperial favours and its own location as prime farmland, became exceedingly wealthy.
Whether Empress Dowager Dou favoured Emperor Jing's policies of reducing principality sizes—which eventually led to the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—is unknown. During that rebellion, however, her heart was wrenched when the Principality of Liang was under heavy attack by the rebelling princes. She wanted Zhou Yafu, the commander of the imperial forces, to relieve Liang as soon as possible, but Zhou correctly concluded that the better strategy was to bypass Liang and cut off the rebels' supply lines first. Zhou's strategy would lead to victory, but would also earn him the enmity of Prince Wu and Empress Dowager Dou. She was probably pleased when Zhou, then under arrest under false charges of treason, committed suicide in 143 BC.
Empress Dowager Dou's concerns for Prince Wu would be tested again in 148 BC. Prince Wu, whose contribution in repelling the rebels during the Rebellion of the Seven States had earned him the privilege of using many imperial styles, wanted to be crown prince. This was favored by Empress Dowager Dou as well, but opposed by officials, who believed such a move would bring instability to dynastic succession. When Prince Wu sought permission to build a highway directly from his capital Suiyang (睢陽, in modern Shangqiu, Henan) to Chang'an, the same officials, fearing that the highway might be used for military purposes if Liang rebelled, opposed it. Prince Wu had these officials assassinated. Emperor Jing was extremely angry and sent many investigators to Liang to track down the conspirators, whom Prince Wu eventually surrendered. However, Emperor Jing was greatly displeased. Prince Wu, in order to show contrition to regain his brother's favor, thought of a plan and carried it out. On his next official visit to the capital, when he got to the Hangu Pass, he eluded his train as well as the imperial train that had been sent to welcome him, and instead took a side road to Chang'an, to the house of his sister Liu Piao. (When the imperial train could not locate Prince Wu, both Emperor Jing and Empress Dowager Dou was greatly distressed, and she accused him of killing Prince Wu.) Prince Wu then appeared before the imperial palace, half-naked, and bearing a cutting board on his back, in a manner of a criminal ready to be slaughtered. Both Emperor Jing and Empress Dowager Dou was greatly touched, and Emperor Jing pardoned him on the spot. However, he would no longer consider him a potential heir. When Prince Wu died in 144 BC, Empress Dowager Dou greatly mourned him, and could not be consoled easily until Emperor Jing created all five of Prince Wu's sons princes themselves.
When Empress Dowager Dou's grandson Liu Rong, the Prince of Linjiang (and former crown prince), was imprisoned in 148 BC for intruding onto the grounds of Emperor Wen's temple when building walls to his palace, it is unknown whether Empress Dowager Dou tried to intercede on his behalf. However, after he was ultimately forced to commit suicide, she was greatly saddened, and she eventually ordered, against Emperor Jing's wishes, that the official who forced Prince Rong to commit suicide, Zhi Du (郅都), be executed on a minor offence.
As grand empress dowager
When Emperor Jing died in 141 BC, Empress Dowager Dou became grand empress dowager over his son and her grandson, Emperor Wu. Grand Empress Dowager Dou, the more actively involved in politics, did not let this young emperor decide for himself one day. She forced the Emperor to ask her questions before making a political decision. Moreover the tiger tally, which was needed to authorize any use of armed forces, and also the fish tally, was also used as a pass to enter or leave the palace gate or the city gate, was in her possession at the time. Early in his reign, in 140 BC, he would make Confucianism the official state ideology, replacing Taoism. Grand Empress Dowager Dou would try to resist this, however, as she despised Confucians. In 139 BC, when in response, Confucian officials Zhao Wan (趙綰) and Wang Zang (王臧) advised the emperor to no longer consult the grand empress dowager and commenting that "There is no need to wait for the order of the Grand Empress Dowager", she had them investigated and tried for corruption, and they committed suicide. Early in Emperor Wu's reign, then, even though there was an official shift in ideology, the policies remained largely constant to the reigns of Emperors Wen and Jing. This would change after Grand Empress Dowager Dou's death in 135 BC. She was buried with her husband Emperor Wen. In her will, she left her possessions to her daughter, Princess Liu Piao.
Impact on Chinese history
Empress Dou was one of the earliest politically dominating female figures in Chinese history. Unlike her stepmother-in-law Empress Dowager Lü, despite her shortcomings in nepotistic behaviour, she is largely viewed positively, for her impact on her husband and son and the consequent benefit to the people.
Media
She is portrayed by Ruby Lin in the 2010 Chinese television series Beauty's Rival in Palace.
She is portrayed by Sally Chen in the 2014 Chinese television series The Virtuous Queen of Han.
Notes
Book of Han, vol. 97, part 1.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.
References
Han dynasty empresses
135 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Chinese women
2nd-century BC Chinese people
Han dynasty Taoists
Year of birth unknown
Han dynasty empresses dowager
Chinese grand empresses dowager |
20082214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive%20disorder | Obsessive–compulsive disorder | Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental and behavioral disorder in which an individual has intrusive thoughts (an obsession) and feels the need to perform certain routines (compulsions) repeatedly to relieve the distress caused by the obsession, to the extent where it impairs general function.
Obsessions are persistent unwanted thoughts, mental images, or urges that generate feelings of anxiety, disgust, or discomfort. Some common obsessions include fear of contamination, obsession with symmetry, the fear of acting blasphemously, the sufferer's sexual orientation, and the fear of possibly harming others or themselves. Compulsions are repeated actions or routines that occur in response to obsessions to achieve a relief from anxiety. Common compulsions include excessive hand washing, cleaning, counting, ordering, avoiding triggers, hoarding, neutralizing, seeking assurance, praying, and checking things. People with OCD may only perform mental compulsions, this is called primarily obsessional obsessive–compulsive disorder (Pure O). Many adults with OCD are aware that their compulsions do not make sense, but they perform them anyway to relieve the distress caused by obsessions. Compulsions occur often, typically taking up at least one hour per day and impairing one's quality of life. Compulsions cause relief in the moment, but cause obsessions to grow over time. More than three million Americans suffer from OCD. According to Mercy, approximately 1 in 40 U.S. adults and 1 in 100 U.S. children have OCD.
The cause of OCD is unknown. There appear to be some genetic components, and it is more likely for both identical twins to be affected than both fraternal twins. Risk factors include a history of child abuse or other stress-inducing events; some cases have occurred after streptococcal infections. Diagnosis is based on presented symptoms and requires ruling out other drug-related or medical causes; rating scales such as the Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) assess severity. Other disorders with similar symptoms include generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, eating disorders, tic disorders, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder. The condition is also associated with a general increase in suicidality.
OCD is chronic and long-lasting with periods of severe symptoms followed by periods of improvement. Treatment can improve ability to function and quality of life. Treatment for OCD may involve psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), pharmacotherapy such as antidepressants, or surgical procedures such as deep brain stimulation. CBT increases exposure to obsessions and prevents compulsions, while metacognitive therapy encourages ritual behaviors to alter the relationship to one's thoughts about them. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a common antidepressant used to treat OCD. SSRIs are more effective when used in excess of the recommended depression dosage; however, higher doses can increase side effect intensity. Commonly used SSRIs include sertraline, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, citalopram, and escitalopram. Some patients fail to improve after taking the maximum tolerated dose of multiple SSRIs for at least two months; these cases qualify as treatment-resistant and can require second-line treatment such as clomipramine or atypical antipsychotic augmentation. Surgery may be used as a final resort in the most severe or treatment-resistant cases, though most procedures are considered experimental due to the limited literature on their side effects.
Obsessive–compulsive disorder affects about 2.3% of people at some point in their lives, while rates during any given year are about 1.2%. It is unusual for symptoms to begin after age 35, and around 50% of patients experience detrimental effects to daily life before age 20. Males and females are affected equally, and OCD occurs worldwide. The phrase obsessive–compulsive is sometimes used in an informal manner unrelated to OCD to describe someone as excessively meticulous, perfectionistic, absorbed, or otherwise fixated. However, the actual disorder is not characterized by that, and many individuals with OCD may be dirty, unclean, or uncaring about disease/symmetry.
Signs and symptoms
OCD can present with a wide variety of symptoms. Certain groups of symptoms usually occur together; these groups are sometimes viewed as dimensions, or clusters, which may reflect an underlying process. The standard assessment tool for OCD, the Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), has 13 predefined categories of symptoms. These symptoms fit into three to five groupings. A meta-analytic review of symptom structures found a four-factor grouping structure to be most reliable: a symmetry factor, a forbidden thoughts factor, a cleaning factor, and a hoarding factor. The symmetry factor correlates highly with obsessions related to ordering, counting, and symmetry, as well as repeating compulsions. The forbidden thoughts factor correlates highly with intrusive thoughts of a violent, religious, or sexual nature. The cleaning factor correlates highly with obsessions about contamination and compulsions related to cleaning. The hoarding factor only involves hoarding-related obsessions and compulsions, and was identified as being distinct from other symptom groupings.
When looking into the onset of OCD, one study suggests that there are differences in the age of onset between males and females. In children, a study found the average age of onset of OCD to be 9.6 for male children and 11.0 for female children. When looking at both adults and children a study found the average ages of onset to be 21 and 24 for males and females respectively. Looking at women specifically, a different study suggested that 62% of participants found that their symptoms worsened at a premenstrual age. Across the board, all demographics and studies showed a mean age of onset of less than 25.
Some OCD subtypes have been associated with improvement in performance on certain tasks, such as pattern recognition (washing subtype) and spatial working memory (obsessive thought subtype). Subgroups have also been distinguished by neuroimaging findings and treatment response, though neuroimaging studies have not been comprehensive enough to draw conclusions. Subtype-dependent treatment response has been studied, and the hoarding subtype has consistently been least responsive to treatment.
While OCD is considered a homogeneous disorder from a neuropsychological perspective, many of the symptoms may be the result of comorbid disorders. For example, adults with OCD have exhibited more symptoms of attention–deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) than adults without OCD.
In regards to the cause of onset, researchers asked participants in one study what they felt was responsible for triggering the initial onset of their illness. 29% of patients answered that there was an environmental factor in their life that did so. Specifically, the majority of participants who answered with that noted their environmental factor to be related to an increased responsibility.
Obsessions
Obsessions are stress-inducing thoughts that recur and persist, despite efforts to ignore or confront them. People with OCD frequently perform tasks, or compulsions, to seek relief from obsession-related anxiety. Within and among individuals, initial obsessions vary in clarity and vividness. A relatively vague obsession could involve a general sense of disarray or tension, accompanied by a belief that life cannot proceed as normal while the imbalance remains. A more intense obsession could be a preoccupation with the thought or image of a close family member or friend dying, or intrusive thoughts related to relationship rightness. Other obsessions concern the possibility that someone or something other than oneself—such as God, the devil, or disease—will harm either the patient or the people or things the patient cares about. Others with OCD may experience the sensation of invisible protrusions emanating from their bodies, or feel that inanimate objects are ensouled.
Some people with OCD experience sexual obsessions that may involve intrusive thoughts or images of "kissing, touching, fondling, oral sex, anal sex, intercourse, incest, and rape" with "strangers, acquaintances, parents, children, family members, friends, coworkers, animals, and religious figures," and can include heterosexual or homosexual contact with people of any age. Similar to other intrusive thoughts or images, some disquieting sexual thoughts are normal at times, but people with OCD may attach extraordinary significance to such thoughts. For example, obsessive fears about sexual orientation can appear to the affected individual, and even to those around them, as a crisis of sexual identity. Furthermore, the doubt that accompanies OCD leads to uncertainty regarding whether one might act on the troubling thoughts, resulting in self-criticism or self-loathing.
Most people with OCD understand that their thoughts do not correspond with reality; however, they feel that they must act as though these ideas are correct or realistic. For example, someone who engages in compulsive hoarding might be inclined to treat inorganic matter as if it had the sentience or rights of living organisms, despite accepting that such behavior is irrational on an intellectual level. There is debate as to whether hoarding should be considered an independent syndrome from OCD.
Compulsions
Some people with OCD perform compulsive rituals because they inexplicably feel that they must do so, while others act compulsively to mitigate the anxiety that stems from obsessive thoughts. The affected individual might feel that these actions will either prevent a dreaded event from occurring, or push the event from their thoughts. In any case, their reasoning is so idiosyncratic or distorted that it results in significant distress, either personally, or for those around the affected individual. Excessive skin picking, hair pulling, nail biting, and other body-focused repetitive behavior disorders are all on the obsessive–compulsive spectrum. Some individuals with OCD are aware that their behaviors are not rational, but they feel compelled to follow through with them to fend off feelings of panic or dread. Furthermore, compulsions often stem from memory distrust, a symptom of OCD characterized by insecurity in one's skills in perception, attention, and memory, even in cases where there is no clear evidence of a deficit.
Common compulsions may include hand washing, cleaning, checking things (such as locks on doors), repeating actions (such as repeatedly turning on and off switches), ordering items in a certain way, and requesting reassurance. Although some individuals perform actions repeatedly, they do not necessarily perform these actions compulsively; for example, morning or nighttime routines and religious practices are not usually compulsions. Whether behaviors qualify as compulsions or mere habit depends on the context in which they are performed. For instance, arranging and ordering books for eight hours a day would be expected of someone who works in a library, but this routine would seem abnormal in other situations. In other words, habits tend to bring efficiency to one's life, while compulsions tend to disrupt it. Furthermore, compulsions are different from tics (such as touching, tapping, rubbing, or blinking) and stereotyped movements (such as head banging, body rocking, or self-biting), which are usually not as complex and not precipitated by obsessions. It can sometimes be difficult to tell the difference between compulsions and complex tics, and about 10–40% of people with OCD also have a lifetime tic disorder.
People with OCD rely on compulsions as an escape from their obsessive thoughts; however, they are aware that relief is only temporary, and that intrusive thoughts will return. Some affected individuals use compulsions to avoid situations that may trigger obsessions. Compulsions may be actions directly related to the obsession, such as someone obsessed with contamination compulsively washing their hands, but they can be unrelated as well. In addition to experiencing the anxiety and fear that typically accompanies OCD, affected individuals may spend hours performing compulsions every day. In such situations, it can become difficult for the person to fulfill their work, familial, or social roles. These behaviors can also cause adverse physical symptoms; for example, people who obsessively wash their hands with antibacterial soap and hot water can make their skin red and raw with dermatitis.
Individuals with OCD often use rationalizations to explain their behavior; however, these rationalizations do not apply to the behavioral pattern, but to each individual occurrence. For example, someone compulsively checking the front door may argue that the time and stress associated with one check is less than the time and stress associated with being robbed, and checking is consequently the better option. This reasoning often occurs in a cyclical manner, and can continue for as long as the affected person needs it to in order to feel safe.
In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), OCD patients are asked to overcome intrusive thoughts by not indulging in any compulsions. They are taught that rituals keep OCD strong, while not performing them causes OCD to become weaker. This position is supported by the pattern of memory distrust; the more often compulsions are repeated, the more weakened memory trust becomes, and this cycle continues as memory distrust increases compulsion frequency. For body-focused repetitive behaviors (BFRB) such as trichotillomania (hair pulling), skin picking, and onychophagia (nail biting), behavioral interventions such as habit reversal training and decoupling are recommended for the treatment of compulsive behaviors.
OCD sometimes manifests without overt compulsions, which may be termed "primarily obsessional OCD." OCD without overt compulsions could, by one estimate, characterize as many as 50–60% of OCD cases.
Insight and overvalued ideation
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), identifies a continuum for the level of insight in OCD, ranging from good insight (the least severe) to no insight (the most severe). Good or fair insight is characterized by the acknowledgment that obsessive–compulsive beliefs are not or may not be true, while poor insight, in the middle of the continuum, is characterized by the belief that obsessive–compulsive beliefs are probably true. The absence of insight altogether, in which the individual is completely convinced that their beliefs are true, is also identified as a delusional thought pattern, and occurs in about 4% of people with OCD. When cases of OCD with no insight become severe, affected individuals have an unshakable belief in the reality of their delusions, which can make their cases difficult to differentiate from psychotic disorders.
Some people with OCD exhibit what is known as overvalued ideas, ideas that are abnormal compared to affected individuals' respective cultures, and more treatment-resistant than most negative thoughts and obsessions. After some discussion, it is possible to convince the individual that their fears are unfounded. It may be more difficult to practice exposure and response prevention therapy (ERP) on such people, as they may be unwilling to cooperate, at least initially. Similar to how insight is identified on a continuum, obsessive-compulsive beliefs are characterized on a spectrum, ranging from obsessive doubt to delusional conviction. In the United States, overvalued ideation (OVI) is considered most akin to poor insight—especially when considering belief strength as one of an idea's key identifiers—but European qualifications have historically been broader. Furthermore, severe and frequent overvalued ideas are considered similar to idealized values, which are so rigidly held by, and so important to affected individuals, that they end up becoming a defining identity. In adolescent OCD patients, OVI is considered a severe symptom.
Historically, OVI has been thought to be linked to poorer treatment outcome in patients with OCD, but it is currently considered a poor indicator of prognosis. The Overvalued Ideas Scale (OVIS) has been developed as a reliable quantitative method of measuring levels of OVI in patients with OCD, and research has suggested that overvalued ideas are more stable for those with more extreme OVIS scores.
Cognitive performance
Though OCD was once believed to be associated with above-average intelligence, this does not appear to necessarily be the case. A 2013 review reported that people with OCD may sometimes have mild but wide-ranging cognitive deficits, most significantly those affecting spatial memory and to a lesser extent with verbal memory, fluency, executive function, and processing speed, while auditory attention was not significantly affected. People with OCD show impairment in formulating an organizational strategy for coding information, set-shifting, and motor and cognitive inhibition.
Specific subtypes of symptom dimensions in OCD have been associated with specific cognitive deficits. For example, the results of one meta-analysis comparing washing and checking symptoms reported that washers outperformed checkers on eight out of ten cognitive tests. The symptom dimension of contamination and cleaning may be associated with higher scores on tests of inhibition and verbal memory.
Children
Approximately 1–2% of children are affected by OCD. Obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms tend to develop more frequently in children 10–14 years of age, with males displaying symptoms at an earlier age, and at a more severe level than females. In children, symptoms can be grouped into at least four types, including sporadic and tic-related OCD.
Associated conditions
People with OCD may be diagnosed with other conditions as well, such as obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, anorexia nervosa, social anxiety disorder, bulimia nervosa, Tourette syndrome, transformation obsession, ASD, ADHD, dermatillomania, body dysmorphic disorder, and trichotillomania. More than 50% of people with OCD experience suicidal tendencies, and 15% have attempted suicide. Depression, anxiety, and prior suicide attempts increase the risk of future suicide attempts.
It has been found that between 18 and 34% of females currently experiencing OCD scored positively on an inventory measuring disordered eating. Another study found that 7% are likely to have an eating disorder, while another found that fewer than 5% of males have OCD and an eating disorder.
Individuals with OCD have also been found to be affected by delayed sleep phase disorder at a substantially higher rate than the general public. Moreover, severe OCD symptoms are consistently associated with greater sleep disturbance. Reduced total sleep time and sleep efficiency have been observed in people with OCD, with delayed sleep onset and offset.
Some research has demonstrated a link between drug addiction and OCD. For example, there is a higher risk of drug addiction among those with any anxiety disorder, likely as a way of coping with the heightened levels of anxiety. However, drug addiction among people with OCD may be a compulsive behavior. Depression is also extremely prevalent among people with OCD. One explanation for the high depression rate among OCD populations was posited by Mineka, Watson, and Clark (1998), who explained that people with OCD, or any other anxiety disorder, may feel "out of control".
Someone exhibiting OCD signs does not necessarily have OCD. Behaviors that present as obsessive–compulsive can also be found in a number of other conditions, including obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or disorders in which perseveration is a possible feature (ADHD, PTSD, bodily disorders, or stereotyped behaviors). Some cases of OCD present symptoms typically associated with Tourette syndrome, such as compulsions that may appear to resemble motor tics; this has been termed tic-related OCD or Tourettic OCD.
OCD frequently occurs comorbidly with both bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. Between 60 and 80% of those with OCD experience a major depressive episode in their lifetime. Comorbidity rates have been reported at between 19 and 90%, as a result of methodological differences. Between 9–35% of those with bipolar disorder also have OCD, compared to 1–2% in the general population. About 50% of those with OCD experience cyclothymic traits or hypomanic episodes. OCD is also associated with anxiety disorders. Lifetime comorbidity for OCD has been reported at 22% for specific phobia, 18% for social anxiety disorder, 12% for panic disorder, and 30% for generalized anxiety disorder. The comorbidity rate for OCD and ADHD has been reported to be as high as 51%.
Causes
The cause of OCD is unknown. Both environmental and genetic factors are believed to play a role. Risk factors include a history of Adverse Childhood Experiences or other stress-inducing events.
Drug-induced OCD
Some medications and other drugs, such as methamphetamine or cocaine, can induce obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in people without previous symptoms.
Some atypical antipsychotics (second-generation antipsychotics) such as olanzapine (Zyprexa) and clozapine (Clozaril) can induce OCD in people, particularly individuals with schizophrenia.
Genetics
There appear to be some genetic components of OCD causation, with identical twins more often affected than fraternal twins. Furthermore, individuals with OCD are more likely to have first-degree family members exhibiting the same disorders than matched controls. In cases in which OCD develops during childhood, there is a much stronger familial link in the disorder than with cases in which OCD develops later in adulthood. In general, genetic factors account for 45–65% of the variability in OCD symptoms in children diagnosed with the disorder. A 2007 study found evidence supporting the possibility of a heritable risk for OCD.
Research has found there to be a genetic correlation between anorexia nervosa and OCD, suggesting a strong etiology. First and second hand relatives of probands with OCD have a greater risk of developing anorexia nervosa as genetic relatedness increases.
A mutation has been found in the human serotonin transporter gene hSERT in unrelated families with OCD.
A systematic review found that while neither allele was associated with OCD overall, in Caucasians, the L allele was associated with OCD. Another meta-analysis observed an increased risk in those with the homozygous S allele, but found the LS genotype to be inversely associated with OCD.
A genome-wide association study found OCD to be linked with single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) near BTBD3, and two SNPs in DLGAP1 in a trio-based analysis, but no SNP reached significance when analyzed with case-control data.
One meta-analysis found a small but significant association between a polymorphism in SLC1A1 and OCD.
The relationship between OCD and Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) has been inconsistent, with one meta-analysis reporting a significant association, albeit only in men, and another meta analysis reporting no association.
It has been postulated by evolutionary psychologists that moderate versions of compulsive behavior may have had evolutionary advantages. Examples would be moderate constant checking of hygiene, the hearth, or the environment for enemies. Similarly, hoarding may have had evolutionary advantages. In this view, OCD may be the extreme statistical tail of such behaviors, possibly the result of a high number of predisposing genes.
Brain structure and functioning
Imaging studies have shown differences in the frontal cortex and subcortical structures of the brain in patients with OCD. There appears to be a connection between the OCD symptoms and abnormalities in certain areas of the brain, but such a connection is not clear. Some people with OCD have areas of unusually high activity in their brain, or low levels of the chemical serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter that some nerve cells use to communicate with each other, and is thought to be involved in regulating many functions, influencing emotions, mood, memory, and sleep.
Autoimmune
A controversial hypothesis is that some cases of rapid onset of OCD in children and adolescents may be caused by a syndrome connected to Group A streptococcal infections (GABHS), known as pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS). OCD and tic disorders are hypothesized to arise in a subset of children as a result of a post-streptococcal autoimmune process. The PANDAS hypothesis is unconfirmed and unsupported by data, and two new categories have been proposed: PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome) and CANS (childhood acute neuropsychiatric syndrome). The CANS and PANS hypotheses include different possible mechanisms underlying acute-onset neuropsychiatric conditions, but do not exclude GABHS infections as a cause in a subset of individuals. PANDAS, PANS, and CANS are the focus of clinical and laboratory research, but remain unproven. Whether PANDAS is a distinct entity differing from other cases of tic disorders or OCD is debated.
A review of studies examining anti-basal ganglia antibodies in OCD found an increased risk of having anti-basal ganglia antibodies in those with OCD versus the general population.
Environment
OCD may be more common in people who have been bullied, abused, or neglected, and it sometimes starts after a significant life event, such as childbirth or bereavement. It has been reported in some studies that there is a connection between childhood trauma and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. More research is needed to understand this relationship better.
Mechanisms
Neuroimaging
Functional neuroimaging during symptom provocation has observed abnormal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), right premotor cortex, left superior temporal gyrus, globus pallidus externus, hippocampus, and right uncus. Weaker foci of abnormal activity were found in the left caudate, posterior cingulate cortex, and superior parietal lobule. However, an older meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging in OCD reported that the only consistent functional neuroimaging finding was increased activity in the orbital gyrus and head of the caudate nucleus, while anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activation abnormalities were too inconsistent.
A meta-analysis comparing affective and nonaffective tasks observed differences with controls in regions implicated in salience, habit, goal-directed behavior, self-referential thinking, and cognitive control. For nonaffective tasks, hyperactivity was observed in the insula, ACC, and head of the caudate/putamen, while hypoactivity was observed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and posterior caudate. Affective tasks were observed to relate to increased activation in the precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex, while decreased activation was found in the pallidum, ventral anterior thalamus, and posterior caudate. The involvement of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical loop in OCD, as well as the high rates of comorbidity between OCD and ADHD, have led some to draw a link in their mechanism. Observed similarities include dysfunction of the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex, as well as shared deficits in executive functions. The involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in OCD is shared with bipolar disorder, and may explain the high degree of comorbidity. Decreased volumes of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex related to executive function has also been observed in OCD.
People with OCD evince increased grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular nuclei, extending to the caudate nuclei, with decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri. These findings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince decreased (rather than increased) grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular/caudate nuclei, as well as decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial frontal/anterior cingulate gyri. Increased white matter volume and decreased fractional anisotropy in anterior midline tracts has been observed in OCD, possibly indicating increased fiber crossings.
Cognitive models
Generally, two categories of models for OCD have been postulated. The first category involves deficits in executive dysfunction and is based on the observed structural and functional abnormalities in the dlPFC, striatum and thalamus. The second category involves dysfunctional modulatory control and primarily relies on observed functional and structural differences in the ACC, mPFC, and OFC.
One proposed model suggests that dysfunction in the OFC leads to improper valuation of behaviors and decreased behavioral control, while the observed alterations in amygdala activations leads to exaggerated fears and representations of negative stimuli.
Due to the heterogeneity of OCD symptoms, studies differentiating various symptoms have been performed. Symptom-specific neuroimaging abnormalities include the hyperactivity of caudate and ACC in checking rituals, while finding increased activity of cortical and cerebellar regions in contamination-related symptoms. Neuroimaging differentiating content of intrusive thoughts has found differences between aggressive as opposed to taboo thoughts, finding increased connectivity of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in aggressive symptoms, while observing increased connectivity between the ventral striatum and insula in sexual or religious intrusive thoughts.
Another model proposes that affective dysregulation links excessive reliance on habit-based action selection with compulsions. This is supported by the observation that those with OCD demonstrate decreased activation of the ventral striatum when anticipating monetary reward, as well as increased functional connectivity between the VS and the OFC. Furthermore, those with OCD demonstrate reduced performance in Pavlovian fear-extinction tasks, hyperresponsiveness in the amygdala to fearful stimuli, and hyporesponsiveness in the amygdala when exposed to positively valanced stimuli. Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens has also been observed to effectively alleviate both obsessions and compulsions, supporting the role of affective dysregulation in generating both.
Neurobiological
From the observation of the efficacy of antidepressants in OCD, a serotonin hypothesis of OCD has been formulated. Studies of peripheral markers of serotonin, as well as challenges with proserotonergic compounds have yielded inconsistent results, including evidence pointing towards basal hyperactivity of serotonergic systems. Serotonin receptor and transporter binding studies have yielded conflicting results, including higher and lower serotonin receptor 5-HT2A and serotonin transporter binding potentials that were normalized by treatment with SSRIs. Despite inconsistencies in the types of abnormalities found, evidence points towards dysfunction of serotonergic systems in OCD. Orbitofrontal cortex overactivity is attenuated in people who have successfully responded to SSRI medication, a result believed to be caused by increased stimulation of serotonin receptors 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C.
A complex relationship between dopamine and OCD has been observed. Although antipsychotics, which act by antagonizing dopamine receptors, may improve some cases of OCD, they frequently exacerbate others. Antipsychotics, in the low doses used to treat OCD, may actually increase the release of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex, through inhibiting autoreceptors. Further complicating things is the efficacy of amphetamines, decreased dopamine transporter activity observed in OCD, and low levels of D2 binding in the striatum. Furthermore, increased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens after deep brain stimulation correlates with improvement in symptoms, pointing to reduced dopamine release in the striatum playing a role in generating symptoms.
Abnormalities in glutamatergic neurotransmission have been implicated in OCD. Findings such as increased cerebrospinal glutamate, less consistent abnormalities observed in neuroimaging studies, and the efficacy of some glutamatergic drugs (such as the glutamate-inhibiting riluzole) have implicated glutamate in OCD. OCD has been associated with reduced N-Acetylaspartic acid in the mPFC, which is thought to reflect neuron density or functionality, although the exact interpretation has not been established.
Diagnosis
Formal diagnosis may be performed by a psychologist, psychiatrist, clinical social worker, or other licensed mental health professional. OCD, like other mental and behavioral health disorders, cannot be diagnosed by a medical exam. Nor are there any medical exams that can predict if one will fall victim to such illnesses. To be diagnosed with OCD, a person must have obsessions, compulsions, or both, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The DSM notes that there are multiple characteristics that can turn obsessions and compulsions from normalized behavior to "clinically significant". There has to be recurring and strong thoughts or impulsive that intrude on the day-to-day lives of the patients and cause noticeable levels of anxiousness.
These thoughts, impulses, or images are of a degree or type that lies outside the normal range of worries about conventional problems. A person may attempt to ignore, suppress such obsessions, neutralize them with another thought or action, or try to rationalize their anxiety away. People with OCD tend to recognize their obsessions as irrational.
Compulsions become clinically significant when a person feels driven to perform them in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly, and when the person consequently feels or causes significant distress. Therefore, while many people who do not have OCD may perform actions often associated with OCD (such as ordering items in a pantry by height), the distinction with clinically significant OCD lies in the fact that the person with OCD must perform these actions to avoid significant psychological distress. These behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these activities are not logically or practically connected to the issue, or, they are excessive. In addition, at some point during the course of the disorder, the individual must realize that his or her obsessions or compulsions are unreasonable or excessive.
Moreover, the obsessions or compulsions must be time-consuming, often taking up more than one hour per day, or cause impairment in social, occupational, or scholastic functioning. It is helpful to quantify the severity of symptoms and impairment before and during treatment for OCD. In addition to the person's estimate of the time spent each day harboring obsessive-compulsive thoughts or behaviors, concrete tools can be used to gauge the person's condition. This may be done with rating scales, such as the Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS; expert rating) or the obsessive-compulsive inventory (OCI-R; self-rating). With measurements such as these, psychiatric consultation can be more appropriately determined, as it has been standardized.
In regards to diagnosing, the health professional also looks to make sure that the signs of obsessions and compulsions are not the results of any drugs, prescription or recreational, that the patient may be taking.
There are several types of obsessive thoughts that are found commonly in those with OCD. Some of these include fear of germs, hurting loved ones, embarrassment, neatness, societally unacceptable sexual thoughts etc. Within OCD, these specific categories are often diagnosed into their own type of OCD.
OCD is sometimes placed in a group of disorders called the obsessive–compulsive spectrum.
Another criterion in the DSM is that a person's mental illness does not fit one of the other categories of a mental disorder better. That is to say, if the obsessions and compulsions of a patient could be better described by trichotillomania, it would not be diagnosed as OCD. That being said, OCD does often go hand in hand with other mental disorders. For this reason, one may be diagnosed with multiple mental disorders at once.
A different aspect of the diagnoses is the degree of insight had by the individual in regards to the truth of the obsessions. There are three levels, good/fair, poor and absent/delusional. Good/fair indicated that the patient is aware that the obsessions they have are not true or probably not true. Poor indicates that the patient believes their obsessional beliefs are probably true. Absent/delusional indicates that they fully believe their obsessional thoughts to be true. Approximately 4% or fewer individuals with OCD will be diagnosed as absent/delusional. Additionally, as many as 30% of those with OCD also have a lifetime tic disorder, meaning they have been diagnosed with a tic disorder at some point in their life.
There are several different types of tics that have been observed in individuals with OCD. These include but are not limited to, "grunting", "jerking" or "shrugging" body parts, sniffling, and excessive blinking.
There has been a significant amount of progress over the last few decades, and as of 2022 there is statically significant improvement in the diagnostic process for individuals with OCD. One study found that of two groups of individuals, one with participants under the age of 27.25 and one with participants over that age, those in the younger group experienced a significantly faster time between the onset of OCD tendencies and their formal diagnoses.
Differential diagnosis
OCD is often confused with the separate condition obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). OCD is egodystonic, meaning that the disorder is incompatible with the individual's self-concept. As egodystonic disorders go against a person's self-concept, they tend to cause much distress. OCPD, on the other hand, is egosyntonic, marked by the person's acceptance that the characteristics and behaviors displayed as a result are compatible with their self-image, or are otherwise appropriate, correct, or reasonable.
As a result, people with OCD are often aware that their behavior is not rational, and are unhappy about their obsessions, but nevertheless feel compelled by them. By contrast, people with OCPD are not aware of anything abnormal; they will readily explain why their actions are rational. It is usually impossible to convince them otherwise, and they tend to derive pleasure from their obsessions or compulsions.
Management
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and psychotropic medications are the first-line treatments for OCD.
Therapy
The specific CBT technique used is called exposure and response prevention (ERP), which involves teaching the person to deliberately come into contact with situations that trigger obsessive thoughts and fears (exposure), without carrying out the usual compulsive acts associated with the obsession (response prevention). This technique causes patients to gradually learn to tolerate the discomfort and anxiety associated with not performing their compulsions. For many patients, ERP is the add-on treatment of choice when selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) medication does not effectively treat OCD symptoms, or vice versa, for individuals who begin treatment with psychotherapy. Modalities differ in ERP treatment but both virtual reality based as well as unguided computer assisted treatment programs have shown effective results in treatment programs.
For example, a patient might be asked to touch something very mildly contaminated (exposure), and wash their hands only once afterward (response prevention). Another example might entail asking the patient to leave the house and check the lock only once (exposure), without going back to check again (response prevention). After succeeding at one stage of treatment, the patient's level of discomfort in the exposure phase can be increased. When this therapy is successful, the patient will quickly habituate to an anxiety-producing situation, discovering a considerable drop in anxiety level.
ERP has a strong evidence base, and is considered the most effective treatment for OCD. However, this claim was doubted by some researchers in 2000, who criticized the quality of many studies.
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), a newer therapy also used to treat anxiety and depression, has also been found to be effective in treatment of OCD. ACT uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies to teach patients not to overreact to or avoid unpleasant thoughts and feelings but rather "move toward valued behavior."
A 2007 Cochrane review found that psychological interventions derived from CBT models, such as ERP and ACT, were more effective than non-CBT interventions. Other forms of psychotherapy, such as psychodynamics and psychoanalysis, may help in managing some aspects of the disorder. However, in 2007, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) noted a lack of controlled studies showing their efficacy, "in dealing with the core symptoms of OCD." For body-focused repetitive behaviors (BFRB), behavioral interventions such as habit-reversal training and decoupling are recommended.
Psychotherapy in combination with psychiatric medication may be more effective than either option alone for individuals with severe OCD. ERP coupled with weight restoration and serotonin reuptake inhibitors has proven the most effective when treating OCD and an eating disorder simultaneously.
Medication
The medications most frequently used to treat OCD are antidepressants, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). Sertraline and fluoxetine are effective in treating OCD for children and adolescents.
SSRIs help people with OCD by inhibiting the reabsorption of serotonin by the nerve cells after they carry messages from neurons to synapse; thus, more serotonin is available to pass further messages between nearby nerve cells.
SSRIs are a second-line treatment of adult OCD with mild functional impairment, and as first-line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment. In children, SSRIs can be considered as a second-line therapy in those with moderate to severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects. Patients treated with SSRIs are about twice as likely to respond to treatment as are those treated with placebo, so this treatment is qualified as efficacious. Efficacy has been demonstrated both in short-term (6–24 weeks) treatment trials, and in discontinuation trials with durations of 28–52 weeks.
Clomipramine, a medication belonging to the class of tricyclic antidepressants, appears to work as well as SSRIs, but has a higher rate of side effects.
In 2006, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines recommended augmentative second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics for treatment-resistant OCD. Atypical antipsychotics are not useful when used alone, and no evidence supports the use of first-generation antipsychotics. For OCD treatment specifically, there is tentative evidence for risperidone, and insufficient evidence for olanzapine. Quetiapine is no better than placebo with regard to primary outcomes, but small effects were found in terms of Y-BOCS score. The efficacy of quetiapine and olanzapine are limited by an insufficient number of studies. A 2014 review article found two studies that indicated that aripiprazole was "effective in the short-term", and found that "[t]here was a small effect-size for risperidone or anti-psychotics in general in the short-term"; however, the study authors found "no evidence for the effectiveness of quetiapine or olanzapine in comparison to placebo." While quetiapine may be useful when used in addition to an SSRI/SNRI in treatment-resistant OCD, these drugs are often poorly tolerated, and have metabolic side effects that limit their use. A guideline by the American Psychological Association suggested that dextroamphetamine may be considered by itself after more well-supported treatments have been attempted.
Procedures
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been found to have effectiveness in some severe and refractory cases. Transcranial magnetic stimulation has shown to provide therapeutic benefits in alleviating symptoms.
Surgery may be used as a last resort in people who do not improve with other treatments. In this procedure, a surgical lesion is made in an area of the brain (the cingulate cortex). In one study, 30% of participants benefitted significantly from this procedure. Deep brain stimulation and vagus nerve stimulation are possible surgical options that do not require destruction of brain tissue. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration approved deep-brain stimulation for the treatment of OCD under a humanitarian device exemption, requiring that the procedure be performed only in a hospital with special qualifications to do so.
In the United States, psychosurgery for OCD is a treatment of last resort, and will not be performed until the person has failed several attempts at medication (at the full dosage) with augmentation, and many months of intensive cognitive–behavioral therapy with exposure and ritual/response prevention. Likewise, in the United Kingdom, psychosurgery cannot be performed unless a course of treatment from a suitably qualified cognitive–behavioral therapist has been carried out.
Children
Therapeutic treatment may be effective in reducing ritual behaviors of OCD for children and adolescents. Similar to the treatment of adults with OCD, cognitive behavioral therapy stands as an effective and validated first line of treatment of OCD in children. Family involvement, in the form of behavioral observations and reports, is a key component to the success of such treatments. Parental interventions also provide positive reinforcement for a child who exhibits appropriate behaviors as alternatives to compulsive responses. In a recent meta-analysis of evidenced-based treatment of OCD in children, family-focused individual CBT was labeled as "probably efficacious," establishing it as one of the leading psychosocial treatments for youth with OCD. After one or two years of therapy, in which a child learns the nature of their obsession and acquires strategies for coping, they may acquire a larger circle of friends, exhibit less shyness, and become less self-critical.
Although the known causes of OCD in younger age groups range from brain abnormalities to psychological preoccupations, life stress such as bullying and traumatic familial deaths may also contribute to childhood cases of OCD, and acknowledging these stressors can play a role in treating the disorder.
Epidemiology
Obsessive–compulsive disorder affects about 2.3% of people at some point in their life, with the yearly rate about 1.2%. OCD occurs worldwide. It is unusual for symptoms to begin after the age of 35 and half of people develop problems before 20. Males and females are affected about equally. However there is an earlier age for onset for males than females.
Prognosis
Quality of life is reduced across all domains in OCD. While psychological or pharmacological treatment can lead to a reduction of OCD symptoms and an increase in reported quality of life, symptoms may persist at moderate levels even following adequate treatment courses, and completely symptom-free periods are uncommon. In pediatric OCD, around 40% still have the disorder in adulthood, and around 40% qualify for remission.
History
Plutarch, an ancient Greek philosopher and historian, describes an ancient Roman man who possibly had scrupulosity, which could be a symptom of OCD or OCPD. This man is described as "turning pale under his crown of flowers," praying with a "faltering voice," and scattering "incense with trembling hands."
In the 7th century AD, John Climacus records an instance of a young monk plagued by constant and overwhelming "temptations to blasphemy" consulting an older monk, who told him: "My son, I take upon myself all the sins which these temptations have led you, or may lead you, to commit. All I require of you is that for the future you pay no attention to them whatsoever." The Cloud of Unknowing, a Christian mystical text from the late 14th century, recommends dealing with recurring obsessions by attempting to ignore them, and, if that fails, to "cower under them like a poor wretch and a coward overcome in battle, and reckon it to be a waste of your time for you to strive any longer against them", a technique now known as emotional flooding.
From the 14th to the 16th century in Europe, it was believed that people who experienced blasphemous, sexual or other obsessive thoughts were possessed by the devil. Based on this reasoning, treatment involved banishing the "evil" from the "possessed" person through exorcism. The vast majority of people who thought that they were possessed by the devil did not have hallucinations or other "spectacular symptoms" but "complained of anxiety, religious fears, and evil thoughts." In 1584, a woman from Kent, England, named Mrs. Davie, described by a justice of the peace as "a good wife", was nearly burned at the stake after she confessed that she experienced constant, unwanted urges to murder her family.
The English term obsessive–compulsive arose as a translation of German Zwangsvorstellung (obsession) used in the first conceptions of OCD by Karl Westphal. Westphal's description went on to influence Pierre Janet, who further documented features of OCD. In the early 1910s, Sigmund Freud attributed obsessive–compulsive behavior to unconscious conflicts that manifest as symptoms. Freud describes the clinical history of a typical case of "touching phobia" as starting in early childhood, when the person has a strong desire to touch an item. In response, the person develops an "external prohibition" against this type of touching. However, this "prohibition does not succeed in abolishing" the desire to touch; all it can do is repress the desire and "force it into the unconscious." Freudian psychoanalysis remained the dominant treatment for OCD until the mid-1980s, even though medicinal and therapeutic treatments were known and available, because it was widely thought that these treatments would be detrimental to the effectiveness of the psychotherapy. In the mid-1980s, this approach changed, and practitioners began treating OCD primarily with medicine and practical therapy rather than through psychoanalysis.
Notable cases
John Bunyan (1628–1688), the author of The Pilgrim's Progress, displayed symptoms of OCD (which had not yet been named). During the most severe period of his condition, he would mutter the same phrase over and over again to himself while rocking back and forth. He later described his obsessions in his autobiography Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, stating, "These things may seem ridiculous to others, even as ridiculous as they were in themselves, but to me they were the most tormenting cogitations." He wrote two pamphlets advising those with similar anxieties. In one of them, he warns against indulging in compulsions: "Have care of putting off your trouble of spirit in the wrong way: by promising to reform yourself and lead a new life, by your performances or duties".
British poet, essayist and lexicographer Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) also had OCD. He had elaborate rituals for crossing the thresholds of doorways, and repeatedly walked up and down staircases counting the steps. He would touch every post on the street as he walked past, only step in the middles of paving stones, and repeatedly perform tasks as though they had not been done properly the first time.
The American aviator and filmmaker Howard Hughes is known to have had OCD, primarily an obsessive fear of germs and contamination. Friends of Hughes have also mentioned his obsession with minor flaws in clothing. This was conveyed in The Aviator (2004), a film biography of Hughes.
English singer-songwriter George Ezra has openly spoken about his life-long struggle with OCD, particularly primarily obsessional obsessive–compulsive disorder (Pure O).
World renowned Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg is also known to have OCD, among other mental health conditions.
American actor James Spader has also spoken about his OCD. In 2014, when interviewed for Rolling Stone he said: "I'm obsessive-compulsive. I have very, very strong obsessive-compulsive issues. I'm very particular. ... It's very hard for me, you know? It makes you very addictive in behavior, because routine and ritual become entrenched. But in work, it manifests itself in obsessive attention to detail and fixation. It serves my work very well: Things don't slip by. But I'm not very easygoing.
In 2022 the president of Chile Gabriel Boric stated that he had OCD, saying: "I have an obsessive–compulsive disorder that's completely under control. Thank God I've been able to undergo treatment and it doesn't make me unable to carry out my responsibilities as the President of the Republic."
Society and culture
Art, entertainment and media
Movies and television shows may portray idealized or incomplete representations of disorders such as OCD. Compassionate and accurate literary and on-screen depictions may help counteract the potential stigma associated with an OCD diagnosis, and lead to increased public awareness, understanding and sympathy for such disorders.
The play and film adaptations of The Odd Couple based around the character of Felix, who shows some of the common symptoms of OCD.
In the film As Good as It Gets (1997), actor Jack Nicholson portrays a man with OCD who performs ritualistic behaviors that disrupt his life.
The film Matchstick Men (2003) portrays a con man named Roy (Nicolas Cage) with OCD who opens and closes doors three times while counting aloud before he can walk through them.
In the television series Monk (2002–2009), the titular character Adrian Monk fears both human contact and dirt.
In the novel Turtles All the Way Down (2017) by John Green, teenage main character Aza Holmes struggles with OCD that manifests as a fear of the human microbiome. Throughout the story, Aza repeatedly opens an unhealed callus on her finger to drain out what she believes are pathogens. The novel is based on Green's own experiences with OCD. He explained that Turtles All the Way Down is intended to show how "most people with chronic mental illnesses also live long, fulfilling lives".
The British TV series Pure (2019) stars Charly Clive as a 24-year-old Marnie who is plagued by disturbing sexual thoughts, as a kind of primarily obsessional obsessive compulsive disorder.
Research
The naturally occurring sugar inositol has been suggested as a treatment for OCD.
μ-Opioids, such as hydrocodone and tramadol, may improve OCD symptoms. Administration of opiate treatment may be contraindicated in individuals concurrently taking CYP2D6 inhibitors such as fluoxetine and paroxetine.
Much current research is devoted to the therapeutic potential of the agents that affect the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate or the binding to its receptors. These include riluzole, memantine, gabapentin, N-acetylcysteine, topiramate and lamotrigine.
Other animals
References
External links
National Institute Of Mental Health
American Psychiatric Association
APA Division 12 treatment page for obsessive-compulsive disorder
Anxiety disorders
Magical thinking
Ritual
Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate |
13990479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Czechoslovak%20nationality | History of Czechoslovak nationality | The history of Czechoslovak nationality involves the rise and fall of national feeling among Czechs and Slovaks. Once forming a rather unified group, they were historically separated, unified under a democratic system, separated during threat of war, and reunified under a socialist authoritarian regime. However, a democratization process has led to a definition of separate statehood for the majority of Czechs and Slovaks.
History
Ancient time
The Czechs and Slovaks are both ethnic Slavs and speak very similar languages. Moreover, these peoples once formed a very unified group of tribes, which were basically indistinguishable from one another. It is through history and different circumstances, it is believed, that those tribes acquired the characteristics that made them Czechs and Slovaks. As to where exactly the Slav tribes came from, historians cannot agree.
Empires
Great Moravia
The earliest instance of formal Czechoslovak unity was under the empire of Samo, whose capital was centered in what is today Bratislava. The Slavonic tribes of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia would continue to be united within the succeeding great Moravian Empire. Prince Mojmír I, founder of the House of Mojmír, established Great Moravia in 833. At the end of the 9th century, it extended further under the rule of Svatopluk I and became the most powerful Slavonic state of Christendom.
However, the tribes living in today's Slovakia were conquered by Magyar (Hungarian) tribes and were separated from the Moravians and Bohemians. In 1025, the territory of present-day Slovakia indeed became a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, thus reducing, but not ending relations between the Czechs and Slovaks. In this period, culture expanded mostly through literature, creating nationalist feelings. Nevertheless, the Czechs and Slovaks were still far from forming a strong united country and the Slovaks remained under Hungarian influence.
Habsburg Monarchy
In 1526, Bohemia became part of the Habsburg crown, but it was not until the battle of the White Mountain in 1620 that Bohemian independence was liquidated and the native, Czech aristocracy dispossessed. As for Moravia, it also became part of the Habsburg monarchy in 1648. Thus, the Czechs' and Slovaks' lands were divided between Austria and Hungary. This division remained even after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, whereby the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was established.
In their respective Empires, Czechs and Slovaks lived under strongly different conditions. On the one hand, Czechs enjoyed a certain autonomy within Austria. Their culture and language could continue to live and expand, even though Czech remained mainly spoken by the peasantry. Moreover, they were represented in the Austrian Parliament.
In 1862, the Sokol movement was founded in Prague. It played an important part in the Czech national revival and eventually extended to other Slavic countries (Sokół in Poland). Educated Czechs called for increased political participation. They wanted to have similar privileges as the Magyars, or Hungarians, and Germans, but were unable to form a united force. Thus, the Czech national movement was mostly suppressed.
On the other hand, Slovaks were living under harsher conditions in the Kingdom of Hungary. Having no political nor economic power, they were dominated by the Hungarians who tried to assimilate them through Magyarisation process as Slovak schools were closed. Under such conditions, the development of a national identity was much more complex and slower.
Having cultural ties with the Czechs, Slovaks were divided between associating with the Czechs or seeking for a separate existence. Moreover, the appeal of joining the Czechs was great since they considered Slovaks as members of their own people and often defended Slovak interests in the Austrian Parliament.
First Czechoslovak Republic
Czechoslovakism was mainly a product of the First World War. The three founders of the Czechoslovak National Council, Masaryk, Beneš, and Štefánik, met in France, seeking for complete independence rather than only more autonomy in the Habsburg Empire. On 6 January 1918 Czech deputies in the Reichsrat issued the ‘Twelfth Night Declaration’ demanding self-determination for the Czechoslovaks. On October 28, the National Council seized power and Czechoslovakia was created as a parliamentary democracy.
Besides the mutual feelings of unity among Czechs and Slovaks, there were also clear demographic incentives for creating Czechoslovakia. One in three of the population of the Czechs lands was Germans, most of them living in the Sudetenland region. The Czechs could not be confident of defending the new state against a German minority which constituted approximately a third of the population; association with the Slovaks would decrease the minority to just under a quarter and thus make it much more manageable. The Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 identified the "Czechoslovak nation" as the creator and principal constituent of the Czechoslovak state and established the "Czechoslovak language" as the official language. The concept of Czechoslovakism was necessary in order to justify the establishment of Czechoslovakia towards the world, because otherwise the statistical majority of the Czechs as compared to Germans would be rather weak.
After World War I, the First Czechoslovak Republic was finally formed by combining the Czech lands, Upper Hungary, and Carpathian Ruthenia, which was annexed in 1919 due to the Allies’ pressure. If the desire for a Czechoslovak nation had been expressed for a long time, the Slovaks in the 1920s, nevertheless, felt resentment because they were proportionally less represented into the Czechoslovak administration. This, however, can be explained by the fact that, in Austria-Hungary, the Czechs had the opportunity to develop an elite which could then lead the new country and that such an elite was totally absent in the Slovak population. Moreover, the formation of a Czechoslovak Hussite Church which conducted its services in Czech created large discontent. New national holidays, such as July 6, which commemorated the death of Czech reformer Jan Hus, created opposition within the Catholics. Also during the 1920s, the Slovaks became more and more literate, thus developing their own culture, and the structures promoting such a Slovak culture.
1938–1945: Nazi Regime and World War II
The resentment felt by the Slovak population was expressed by the growing support it gave to the Nazi regime and policies. Thus, when Adolf Hitler decided to split Czechoslovakia, Slovaks showed little opposition. The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was created, and Slovak State became a puppet state of Nazi Germany. However, Slovaks soon realized that this clearly meant Nazi domination and control, not real independence. The Slovak National Uprising in 1944 was suppressed by Nazi Germany, but guerrilla warfare continued until the Soviet Army liberated Slovakia in 1945.
Soviet-backed regime
Following the defeat of the Nazis and the end of the Second World War, Czechoslovakia was restored as a unitary state. After the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948, the Slovak independence movement was suppressed and the Communist Party of Slovakia incorporated into the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. In addition, Slovak communists who favoured a unitary state were installed in power. The most important change in the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia was that it severely limited the autonomy granted to Slovakia. This provision was the decision of President Antonín Novotný. The executive branch of the Slovak government was abolished and its duties assigned to the Presidium of the Slovak National Council, thus combining executive and legislative functions into a single body. The legislative National Assembly was given authority to overrule decisions of the Slovak National Council, and central government agencies took over the administration of the major organs of Slovak local government.
The situation changed under Nikita Khrushchev’s leadership. The new General Secretary had a very different perspective about nationalities and decided to rehabilitate Slovak nationalists. Moreover, the purges and destalinization process of the 1950s caused the revival of Slovak nationalism. On the one hand, many Slovaks had been purged from the Party, and on the other hand, the destalinization process asked for more concessions and compromises. Intellectuals began to have ideas of federalism. The Prague Spring in 1968 was followed by a period of normalization, sometimes called Husakism after Gustáv Husák. Thus, in October 1968, Czechoslovakia amended the 1960 Constitution by the Constitutional Law of Federation. The Slovaks were recognized as a separate nation and were given their own governmental bodies, namely the Slovak national council and the board of commissioners.
Velvet Revolution and divorce
With the Velvet Revolution of 1989 and the end of the Soviet Union, the historic differences between the Czechs and the Slovaks came back. Those were mainly expressed through different political and economic viewpoints. While Slovaks were more attached and committed to state welfare and ownership, Czechs were wishing for a quick change to the western model of capitalism. Moreover, there were intense debates on renaming the country, with various hyphened versions of Czechoslovakia (this conflict was called the Hyphen War). In addition, the system of checks and balances set up by the constitution made it possible for Slovak autonomists to block political institutions from functioning.
On July 17, 1992, the Slovak National Council adopted Slovakia's declaration of sovereignty, and major constitutional changes gave the Slovaks their own state, which they had desired for a long time. The peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia led to the establishment of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
National characteristics
Languages
Czech and Slovak remain very similar languages. At the time of their formation, Czech and Slovak were actually the same. They both come from Church Slavonic, the original language of Slav tribes and transformed into a literary language by Saints Cyril and Methodius, who brought Christianity to Eastern Europe. However, spoken Czech is today very different from Slavonic, due to the many reforms, notably those of Jan Hus. As for Slovak, it consists of many dialects. Those from the Western part resemble Czech and those from the East are more similar to Slavonic. Differences between the Czech and Slovak languages can also be explained by the Magyarisation of Slovak which occurred mainly in the 19th Century. However, even though Czech and Slovak are different languages, in most cases both Czech and Slovaks can easily understand each other, speaking their own language. Nevertheless, language is an important stone of the Czech and Slovak societies. Thus, knowledge of language is a requirement for the acquisition of citizenship.
Religions
The Bohemian population was mainly Protestant. Today, however, it is mostly non-religious. The Moravian and Slovak populations are mainly Catholic. However, Czechoslovakia is truly a mosaic of diverse religions.
Citizenship laws
After the Velvet Divorce, laws about citizenship became clearer with the new constitutions. During the Communist Regime, there was not much place for the rule of law. The rights and duties of citizens were similar to other socialist states, an included the right to serve in the military and the right to work. If the citizens clearly had no recognized political rights, they were, however, able to organize and get some political impact through the civil society, highly developed in Czechoslovakia. Moreover, the Beneš Decrees were very discriminatory against the German and Hungarian minorities of Czechoslovakia, who could not be granted citizenship. Emphasis was thus put on the unitary character of Czechoslovakia.
Definition of citizenship
As of December 31, 1992, citizens of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic could either choose to become Czech or Slovak citizens. However, since in 1968 Slovakia was given some degree of autonomy, there existed a Slovak Republic that was granting citizenship. Thus, people who had Czechoslovak citizenship, but not Slovak citizenship had one year to apply for Slovak citizenship, which usually meant loss of Czech nationality. As for citizens of both Czechoslovakia and Slovak Republic, they could be automatically granted any of both citizenship, according to their choice.
Slovak citizenship laws
Children acquire their citizenship from their parents, even if they are adoptive parents, or by birth on Slovak territory if otherwise they would become stateless. Acquisition of citizenship is also granted upon request if a person has lived for at least 5 continuous years on Slovak territory and speaks Slovak language. Moreover, persons having no other citizenship are usually favoured. In addition, citizenship is easily granted to a person married to a Slovak citizen, or to a person who has economically, culturally, scientifically, or technologically greatly contributed to the Slovak society. As for loss to citizenship, a person who request it in order to get citizenship from another state, will be released from state bond.
Czech citizenship laws
Citizenship in Czech Republic is granted by Jus Sanguinis principle. Thus, nationality is granted to children of Czech Citizens. Unless the parents are stateless, and at least one is a permanent resident of the Czech Republic, the children born on Czech territory from non-Czech parents are not granted citizenship. However, children under 15 years old, born in Czech territory, whose parents’ nationality cannot be identified become Czech citizens. As for naturalization, permanent residents of the Czech Republic who have lived on the territory for at least 5 years and do not hold citizenship from another country and who has sufficient knowledge of Czech language, can apply to be granted of Czech citizenship. More flexibility is possible if the person demanding is the spouse of a Czech citizen, or if that person was adopted by a Czech citizen. As for the loss of citizenship, it is given on voluntary demand, unless that would make the person stateless.
Rights and duties
Czech and Slovak citizens basically have the same rights and duties than most citizens of other democratic countries, including the right to vote. Moreover, they cannot be refused access to their country and may benefit from diplomatic protection.
See also
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1960–1990)
References
Czechoslovak
Society of Czechoslovakia |
21097119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newburgh%20and%20North%20Fife%20Railway | Newburgh and North Fife Railway | The Newburgh and North Fife Railway was a Scottish railway company formed to build a connecting line between St Fort and Newburgh, in Fife, intended to open up residential traffic between the intermediate communities and Dundee and Perth. It opened its line, which was expensive to construct, in 1909 but the local traffic never developed. It closed to passenger traffic in 1951, and completely in 1964.
Background
The Newport Railway opened its short line in 1879, running from the Fife end of the newly opened Tay Rail Bridge. The short line immediately opened up residential travel from Newport-on-Tay to Dundee, providing a journey time of ten minutes by train, rather than the former unreliable ferry crossing. The fall of the Tay Bridge later that year, in the Tay Bridge Disaster, naturally caused a disruption to the development of the passenger business, but when the second Tay Bridge opened in 1887 the trade was quick to resume.
Dundee is hemmed in between the Firth of Tay and the hilly country to the north, and expansion to the south, in Fife, encouraged residential development.
Incorporation of the Newburgh and North Fife Railway
Observing the commercial success of the Newport Railway, local promoters developed a scheme for another railway, this time running south-west from the Fife end of the Tay Bridge. This too was intended to develop housing and residential travel across the Tay, as well as linking up towards Perth at the Newburgh end, potentially tapping traffic at that end of the line.
There was an enthusiastic meeting of potential promoters in the Royal Hotel, Cupar on 3 November 1896.
The Newburgh and North Fife Railway
The Newburgh and North Fife Railway obtained its Act of Parliament on 6 August 1897. It was to be just over thirteen miles in length, between Glenburnie Junction at Newburgh (between Ladybank and Perth) and a triangular junction at St Fort, between the Tay Bridge and Leuchars, enabling direct running to the bridge or towards St Andrews. The authorised capital was £120,000.
However the months rolled past and nothing was done, the subscription list not having been fulfilled, and the powers for construction had to be revived by the North British Railway in its general powers Acts in 1900, 1902, 1904 and 1906. At last on 11 June 1906 contracts had been let. Soon the first sod was cut, in June 1906
The line involved prodigious engineering works and took five years to construct. The line was inspected by Major Pringle of the Board of Trade on 12 January 1909.
Opening
The line opened for "general" traffic (that is, goods) on 22 January 1909 and on 25 January 1909 the line opened fully.
The actual cost at completion seems to have exceeded the estimate by a considerable margin:
The Newburgh and North Fife Railway, which is to be opened on Monday [25 January 1909] for public service, is about 13¼ miles in length and was built at a cost of about £240,000. The new railway, besides being expected to aid in the development of an important agricultural district, gives the North British a through route between the districts to the north and west of Perth and Dundee and the Forfarshire coasts. There are three stations, at Kilmanie, Luthrie and Lindores, which have been designed with specially long platforms for the accommodation of the summer excursion traffic.
Owing to the nature of the country, no less than 22 steel and nine masonry have been erected, and nearly half a million cubic yards of material were excavated. The railway, which is a single line with loops to enable trains to pass one another, and with bridges wide enough to accommodate a double track, has been built so as to enable the heaviest modern rolling stock to be worked over it. In addition to the expected traffic in agricultural produce to the Perth and Dundee markets, a considerable residential traffic is anticipated, especially on the section of line near Dundee. The railway will be worked by the North British, which is entitled to 50% of the gross receipts, the larger company guaranteeing a 4% dividend, in addition to giving a valuable traffic guarantee.
The line was worked from the outset by the North British Railway. There were intermediate stations at Kilmany, Luthrie and Lindores; Kilmany and Luthrie had passing loops and the three stations had ample 450 feet long platforms. There were also intermediate goods sidings at Rathillet, just west of Kilmany, and at Ayton Smithy, between Lindores and Luthrie.
Coming late to the development of transport facilities, there were several important roads to be crossed on the skew, and there were a prodigious number of long-span bridges on the line; earthworks too were of a heavier character than usual.
Dissension
The initial passenger train service evidently made poor connections at each end; "A disappointed Fifer" wrote to the local newspaper:
The earliest train in the morning does not arrive in Dundee until 9.34. Passengers by the succeeding train have only fifty minutes to wait at St Fort. These, however, are not to be compared with the accommodating arrangements westwards. By the first train in the morning going towards Perth there is a delay at Newburgh of sixteen minutes, by the second twenty-four minutes, and by the third and last one hour and nineteen minutes. Returning from Perth, the delays at Newburgh by the three trains are one hour thirty-nine minutes, one hour twenty-one minutes, and eleven minutes. To the second of these trains has to be added the fifty minutes' wait at St Fort.
This proved not merely to be a traveller's complaint. The Directors of the Newburgh and North Fife Railway sued the North British Railway for inadequately generating income. In addition there was a dispute about the extent of the guarantee to make up the 4% dividend: the issue was the capital sum on which that 4% was to be based.
The NBR was accused by the owning company (the Newburgh and North Fife Railway) of failing to make enough effort to generate traffic for the line, and indeed of diverting traffic on to their own wholly owned parallel lines. At a tribunal the NBR presented figures showing that they were losing money heavily in working the line, which was being done for 50% of gross receipts. In a typical year the receipts for the line were £2,799 of which the NBR received £1,399; the cost to them of working the line was £4,122, incurring a loss of £2,723. Local traffic generated only £20 to £30 annually.
At summary hearing the North British lost the case brought by the Newburgh and North Fife company requiring NBR to make up the 4% dividend; the N&NFR alleged that the NBR had not made adequate efforts to promote the line. The court found against the NBR.
However, on appeal the capital on which the 4% was due was reduced from the claimed £240,000 to £137,965.
The NBR attempted to make something of the line by running fast trains between Dundee and Perth in competition with the Caledonian Railway service. However the NBR trains had a significant mileage penalty, crossing the Tay Bridge before turning west, and finally being dependent on the rival company's line from Hilton Junction into Perth, and the trains were not outstandingly successful.
Moreover, the cut-throat competition of earlier decades was over; in those days the NBR would have used every stratagem to route goods traffic over the line it was working at the expense of its rival; but now fair play was the philosophy, and only goods wagons that achieved a shorter transit travelled over the line. There was little originating on the line itself. The promoters compared the towns they were going to serve with Newport-on-Tay; but Newport had an established traffic of daily commuters with Dundee by ferry, and was a commercially oriented town; the villages on the Newburgh line were relatively undeveloped agricultural settlements.
Later events
The south curve at St Fort was closed after only three years.
During World War I there was a serious shortage of manpower and the line closed temporarily; the service resumed on 22 July 1916 traffic resumed after temporary closure due to staff shortage.
In 1922 there were four passenger trains daily over the line, running between Dundee and Perth. The journey time from Kilmany to Dundee was about twenty minutes.
Grouping, and nationalisation
The Newburgh and North Fife Railway remained independent, although not operating the railway itself until the grouping of the railways of Great Britain following the Railways Act 1921, when the N&NFR and the North British Railway were transferred into the new London and North Eastern Railway. In 1948 the LNER was nationalised and became part of British Railway.
In 1933 an application by a bus operator to run a service paralleling the line was refused by the Road Traffic Commissioners, on the ground that the line's precarious finances meant that it would close if the bus service operated.
The last regular passenger train ran on 10 February 1951. However, for eight weeks in early 1955 the Tay viaduct at Perth was closed at night for repairs, and night goods trains were diverted over the line during the work.
The line was closed to all traffic from Glenburnie Junction to Lindores on 4 April 1960, and throughout on 5 October 1964.
Heritage paths
A stretch of the old line is featured in the Heritage Paths web site under Kilmany Railway Line.
Route
Notes
References
Further reading
A photograph of Lindores station is reproduced in David Ross, The North British Railway: A History, Stenlake Publishing Limited, Catrine, 2014, , at page 200.
External links
Railscot on Newburgh and North Fife Railway
London and North Eastern Railway constituents
North British Railway
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Early Scottish railway companies
Railway companies established in 1897
Railway lines opened in 1909
Railway companies disestablished in 1922 |
44984325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication%20crisis | Replication crisis | The replication crisis (also called the replicability crisis and the reproducibility crisis) is an ongoing methodological crisis in which the results of many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to reproduce. Because the reproducibility of empirical results is an essential part of the scientific method, such failures undermine the credibility of theories building on them and potentially call into question substantial parts of scientific knowledge.
The replication crisis is frequently discussed in relation to psychology and medicine, where considerable efforts have been undertaken to reinvestigate classic results, to determine both their reliability and, if found unreliable, the reasons for the failure. Data strongly indicate that other natural and social sciences are affected as well.
The phrase replication crisis was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. Considerations of causes and remedies have given rise to a new scientific discipline, metascience, which uses methods of empirical research to examine empirical research practice.
Considerations about reproducibility fall into two categories. Reproducibility in the narrow sense refers to re-examining and validating the analysis of a given set of data. Replication refers to repeating the experiment or study to obtain new, independent data with the goal of reaching the same or similar conclusions.
Background
Replication has been called "the cornerstone of science". Environmental health scientist Stefan Schmidt began a 2009 review with this description of replication:
But there is limited consensus on how to define replication and potentially related concepts. A number of types of replication have been identified:
Direct or exact replication, where an experimental procedure is repeated as closely as possible.
Systematic replication, where an experimental procedure is largely repeated, with some intentional changes.
Conceptual replication, where a finding or hypothesis is tested using a different procedure. Conceptual replication allows testing for generalizability and veracity of a result or hypothesis.
Reproducibility can also be distinguished from replication, as referring to reproducing the same results using the same data set. Reproducibility of this type is why many researchers make their data available to others for testing.
The replication crisis does not necessarily mean these fields are unscientific. Rather, this process is part of the scientific process in which old ideas or those that cannot withstand careful scrutiny are pruned, although this pruning process is not always effective.
A hypothesis is generally considered to be supported when the results match the predicted pattern and that pattern of results is found to be statistically significant. Results are considered significant whenever the relative frequency of the observed pattern falls below an arbitrarily chosen value (i.e. the significance level) when assuming the null hypothesis is true. This generally answers the question of how unlikely results would be if no difference existed at the level of the statistical population. If the probability associated with the test statistic exceeds the chosen critical value, the results are considered statistically significant. The corresponding probability of exceeding the critical value is depicted as p < 0.05, where p (typically referred to as the "p-value") is the probability level. This should result in 5% of hypotheses that are supported being false positives (an incorrect hypothesis being erroneously found correct), assuming the studies meet all of the statistical assumptions. Some fields use smaller p-values, such as p < 0.01 (1% chance of a false positive) or p < 0.001 (0.1% chance of a false positive). But a smaller chance of a false positive often requires greater sample sizes or a greater chance of a false negative (a correct hypothesis being erroneously found incorrect). Although p-value testing is the most commonly used method, it is not the only method.
History
The beginning of the replication crisis can be traced to a number of events in the early 2010s. Philosopher of science and social epistemologist Felipe Romero identified four events that can be considered precursors to the ongoing crisis:
Controversies around social priming research: In the early 2010s, the well-known "elderly-walking" study by social psychologist John Bargh and colleagues failed to replicate in two direct replications. This experiment was part of a series of three studies that had been widely cited throughout the years, was regularly taught in university courses, and had inspired a large number of conceptual replications. Failures to replicate the study led to much controversy and a heated debate involving the original authors. Notably, many of the conceptual replications of the original studies also failed to replicate in subsequent direct replications.
Controversies around experiments on extrasensory perception: Social psychologist Daryl Bem conducted a series of experiments supposedly providing evidence for the controversial phenomenon of extrasensory perception. Bem was highly criticized for his study's methodology and upon reanalysis of the data, no evidence was found for the existence of extrasensory perception. The experiment also failed to replicate in subsequent direct replications. According to Romero, what the community found particularly upsetting was that many of the flawed procedures and statistical tools used in Bem's studies were part of common research practice in psychology.
Amgen and Bayer reports on lack of replicability in biomedical research: Scientists from biotech companies Amgen and Bayer Healthcare reported alarmingly low replication rates (11-20%) of landmark findings in preclinical oncological research.
Publication of studies on p-hacking and questionable research practices: Since the late 2000s, a number of studies in metascience showed how commonly adopted practices in many scientific fields, such as exploiting the flexibility of the process of data collection and reporting, could greatly increase the probability of false positive results. These studies suggested how a significant proportion of published literature in several scientific fields could be nonreplicable research.
This series of events generated a great deal of skepticism about the validity of existing research in light of widespread methodological flaws and failures to replicate findings. This led prominent scholars to declare a "crisis of confidence" in psychology and other fields, and the ensuing situation came to be known as the "replication crisis".
Although the beginning of the replication crisis can be traced to the early 2010s, some authors point out that concerns about replicability and research practices in the social sciences had been expressed much earlier. Romero notes that authors voiced concerns about the lack of direct replications in psychological research in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He also writes that certain studies in the 1990s were already reporting that journal editors and reviewers are generally biased against publishing replication studies.
In the social sciences, the blog Data Colada (whose three authors coined the term "p-hacking" in a 2014 paper) has been credited with contributing to the start of the replication crisis.
University of Virginia professor and cognitive psychologist Barbara A. Spellman has written that many criticisms of research practices and concerns about replicability of research are not new. She reports that between the late 1950s and the 1990s, scholars were already expressing concerns about a possible crisis of replication, a suspiciously high rate of positive findings, questionable research practices (QRPs), the effects of publication bias, issues with statistical power, and bad standards of reporting.
Spellman also identifies reasons that the reiteration of these criticisms and concerns in recent years led to a full-blown crisis and challenges to the status quo. First, technological improvements facilitated conducting and disseminating replication studies, and analyzing large swaths of literature for systemic problems. Second, the research community's increasing size and diversity made the work of established members more easily scutinized by other community members unfamiliar with them. According to Spellman, these factors, coupled with increasingly limited resources and misaligned incentives for doing scientific work, led to a crisis in psychology and other fields.
Prevalence
In psychology
Several factors have combined to put psychology at the center of the conversation. Some areas of psychology once considered solid, such as social priming, have come under increased scrutiny due to failed replications. Much of the focus has been on the area of social psychology, although other areas of psychology such as clinical psychology, developmental psychology, and educational research have also been implicated.
In August 2015, the first open empirical study of reproducibility in psychology was published, called The Reproducibility Project: Psychology. Coordinated by psychologist Brian Nosek, researchers redid 100 studies in psychological science from three high-ranking psychology journals (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and Psychological Science). 97 of the original studies had significant effects, but of those 97, only 36% of the replications yielded significant findings (p value below 0.05). The mean effect size in the replications was approximately half the magnitude of the effects reported in the original studies. The same paper examined the reproducibility rates and effect sizes by journal and discipline. Study replication rates were 23% for the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48% for Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and 38% for Psychological Science. Studies in the field of cognitive psychology had a higher replication rate (50%) than studies in the field of social psychology (25%).
A study published in 2018 in Nature Human Behaviour replicated 21 social and behavioral science papers from Nature and Science, finding that only about 62% could successfully reproduce original results.
Similarly, in a study conducted under the auspices of the Center for Open Science, a team of 186 researchers from 60 different laboratories (representing 36 different nationalities from six different continents) conducted replications of 28 classic and contemporary findings in psychology. The study's focus was not only whether the original papers' findings replicated but also the extent to which findings varied as a function of variations in samples and contexts. Overall, 50% of the 28 findings failed to replicate despite massive sample sizes. But if a finding replicated, then it replicated in most samples. If a finding was not replicated, then it failed to replicate with little variation across samples and contexts. This evidence is inconsistent with a proposed explanation that failures to replicate in psychology are likely due to changes in the sample between the original and replication study.
Results of a 2022 study suggest that many earlier brain–phenotype studies ("brain-wide association studies" (BWAS)) produced invalid conclusions as the replication of such studies requires samples from thousands of individuals due to small effect sizes.
In medicine
Of 49 medical studies from 1990 to 2003 with more than 1000 citations, 92% found that the studied therapies were effective. Of these studies, 16% were contradicted by subsequent studies, 16% had found stronger effects than did subsequent studies, 44% were replicated, and 24% remained largely unchallenged. A 2011 analysis by researchers with pharmaceutical company Bayer found that, at most, a quarter of Bayer's in-house findings replicated the original results. But the analysis of Bayer's results found that the results that did replicate could often be successfully used for clinical applications.
In a 2012 paper, C. Glenn Begley, a biotech consultant working at Amgen, and Lee Ellis, a medical researcher at the University of Texas, found that only 11% of 53 pre-clinical cancer studies had replications that could confirm conclusions from the original studies. In late 2021, The Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology examined 53 top papers about cancer published between 2010 and 2012 and showed that among studies that provided sufficient information to be redone, the effect sizes were 85% smaller on average than the original findings. A survey of cancer researchers found that half of them had been unable to reproduce a published result. Another report estimated that almost half of randomized controlled trials contained flawed data (based on the analysis of anonymized individual participant data (IPD) from more than 150 trials).
In other disciplines
In economics
Economics has lagged behind other social sciences and psychology in its attempts to assess replication rates and increase the number of studies that attempt replication. A 2016 study in the journal Science replicated 18 experimental studies published in two top-tier economics journals, The American Economic Review and the Quarterly Journal of Economics, between 2011 and 2014. It found that about 39% failed to reproduce the original results. About 20% of studies published in The American Economic Review are contradicted by other studies despite relying on the same or similar data sets. A study of empirical findings in the Strategic Management Journal found that about 30% of 27 retested articles showed statistically insignificant results for previously significant findings, whereas about 4% showed statistically significant results for previously insignificant findings.
In water resource management
A 2019 study in Scientific Data estimated with 95% confidence that of 1,989 articles on water resources and management published in 2017, study results might be reproduced for only 0.6% to 6.8%, even if each of these articles were to provide sufficient information that allowed for replication.
Across fields
A 2016 survey by Nature on 1,576 researchers who took a brief online questionnaire on reproducibility found that more than 70% of researchers have tried and failed to reproduce another scientist's experiment results (including 87% of chemists, 77% of biologists, 69% of physicists and engineers, 67% of medical researchers, 64% of earth and environmental scientists, and 62% of all others), and more than half have failed to reproduce their own experiments. But fewer than 20% had been contacted by another researcher unable to reproduce their work. The survey found that fewer than 31% of researchers believe that failure to reproduce results means that the original result is probably wrong, although 52% agree that a significant replication crisis exists. Most researchers said they still trust the published literature. In 2010, Fanelli (2010) found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as astronomy or geosciences. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases.
Early analysis of result-blind peer review, which is less affected by publication bias, has estimated that 61% of result-blind studies in biomedicine and psychology have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5% to 20% in earlier research.
Causes
The replication crisis may be triggered by the "generation of new data and scientific publications at an unprecedented rate" that leads to the "desperation to publish or perish" and a failure to adhere to good scientific practice.
Historical and sociological roots
Predictions of an impending crisis in the quality control mechanism of science can be traced back several decades. Derek de Solla Price—considered the father of scientometrics, the quantitative study of science—predicted in 1963 that science could reach "senility" as a result of its own exponential growth. Some present-day literature seems to vindicate this "overflow" prophecy, lamenting the decay in both attention and quality.
Historian Philip Mirowski offers another reading of the crisis in his 2011 book Science-Mart: Privatizing American Science. Mirowski uses the word Mart as a metaphor for the commodification of science. In his analysis, the quality of science collapses when it becomes a commodity being traded in a market. He argues his case by tracing the decay of science to the decision of major corporations to close their in-house laboratories. They outsourced their work to universities in an effort to reduce costs and increase profits. The corporations subsequently moved their research away from universities to an even cheaper option – Contract Research Organizations.
Social systems theory, as expounded in the work of German sociologist Niklas Luhmann, inspires a similar diagnosis. This theory holds that each system, such as economy, science, religion or media, communicates using its own code: true and false for science, profit and loss for the economy, news and no-news for the media, and so on. According to some sociologists, science's mediatization, its commodification and its politicization, as a result of the structural coupling among systems, have led to a confusion of the original system codes.
Economist Noah Smith suggests that a factor in the crisis has been the overvaluing of research in academia and undervaluing of teaching ability, especially in fields with few major recent discoveries.
Problems with the publication system in science
Publication bias
A major cause of low reproducibility is the publication bias stemming from the fact that statistically non-significant results and seemingly unoriginal replications are rarely published. Only a very small proportion of academic journals in psychology and neurosciences explicitly welcomed submissions of replication studies in their aim and scope or instructions to authors. This does not encourage reporting on, or even attempts to perform, replication studies. Among 1,576 researchers Nature surveyed in 2016, only a minority had ever attempted to publish a replication, and several respondents who had published failed replications noted that editors and reviewers demanded that they play down comparisons with the original studies. An analysis of 4,270 empirical studies in 18 business journals from 1970 to 1991 reported that less than 10% of accounting, economics, and finance articles and 5% of management and marketing articles were replication studies. Publication bias is augmented by the pressure to publish and the author's own confirmation bias, and is an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers.
Publication bias leads to what psychologist Robert Rosenthal calls the "file drawer effect". The file drawer effect is the idea that as a consequence of the publication bias, a significant number of negative results are not published. According to philosopher of science Felipe Romero, this tends to produce “misleading literature and biased meta-analytic studies”, and when publication bias is considered along with the fact that a majority of tested hypotheses might be false a priori, it is plausible that a considerable proportion of research findings might be false positives, as shown by metascientist John Ioannidis. In turn, a high proportion of false positives in the published literature can explain why many findings are nonreproducible.
"Publish or perish" culture
The consequences for replicability of the publication bias are exacerbated by academia's "publish or perish" culture. As explained by metascientist Daniele Fanelli, "publish or perish" culture is a sociological aspect of academia whereby scientists work in an environment with very high pressure to have their work published in recognized journals. This is the consequence of the academic work environment being hypercompetitive and of bibliometric parameters (e.g., number of publications) being increasingly used to evaluate scientific careers. According to Fanelli, this pushes scientists to employ a number of strategies aimed at making results “publishable”. In the context of publication bias, this can mean adopting behaviors aimed at making results positive or statistically significant, often at the expense of their validity (see QRPs, section 4.3).
According to Center for Open Science founder Brian Nosek and his colleagues, "publish or perish" culture created a situation whereby the goals and values of single scientists (e.g., publishability) are not aligned with the general goals of science (e.g., pursuing scientific truth). This is detrimental to the validity of published findings.
Philosopher Brian D. Earp and psychologist Jim A. C. Everett argue that, although replication is in the best interests of academics and researchers as a group, features of academic psychological culture discourage replication by individual researchers. They argue that performing replications can be time-consuming, and take away resources from projects that reflect the researcher's original thinking. They are harder to publish, largely because they are unoriginal, and even when they can be published they are unlikely to be viewed as major contributions to the field. Replications "bring less recognition and reward, including grant money, to their authors".
In his 1971 book Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems, philosopher and historian of science Jerome R. Ravetz predicted that science—in its progression from "little" science composed of isolated communities of researchers to "big" science or "techno-science"—would suffer major problems in its internal system of quality control. He recognized that the incentive structure for modern scientists could become dysfunctional, creating perverse incentives to publish any findings, however dubious. According to Ravetz, quality in science is maintained only when there is a community of scholars, linked by a set of shared norms and standards, who are willing and able to hold each other accountable.
Standards of reporting
Certain publishing practices also make it difficult to conduct replications and to monitor the severity of the reproducibility crisis, for articles often come with insufficient descriptions for other scholars to reproduce the study. The Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology showed that of 193 experiments from 53 top papers about cancer published between 2010 and 2012, only 50 experiments from 23 papers have authors who provided enough information for researchers to redo the studies, sometimes with modifications. None of the 193 papers examined had its experimental protocols fully described and replicating 70% of experiments required asking for key reagents. The aforementioned study of empirical findings in the Strategic Management Journal found that 70% of 88 articles could not be replicated due to a lack of sufficient information for data or procedures. In water resources and management, most of 1,987 articles published in 2017 were not replicable because of a lack of available information shared online.
Questionable research practices and fraud
Questionable research practices (QRPs) are intentional behaviors that capitalize on the gray area of acceptable scientific behavior or exploit the researcher degrees of freedom (researcher DF), which can contribute to the irreproducibility of results by increasing the probability of false positive results. Researcher DF are seen in hypothesis formulation, design of experiments, data collection and analysis, and reporting of research. Some examples of QRPs are data dredging, selective reporting, and HARKing (hypothesising after results are known). In medicine, irreproducible studies have six features in common. These include investigators not being blinded to the experimental versus the control arms, a failure to repeat experiments, a lack of positive and negative controls, failing to report all the data, inappropriate use of statistical tests, and use of reagents that were not appropriately validated.
QRPs do not include more explicit violations of scientific integrity, such as data falsification. Fraudulent research does occur, as in the case of scientific fraud by social psychologist Diederik Stapel, cognitive psychologist Marc Hauser and social psychologist Lawrence Sanna, but it appears to be uncommon.
Prevalence
According to IU professor Ernest O’Boyle and psychologist Martin Götz, around 50% of researchers surveyed across various studies admitted engaging in HARKing. In a survey of 2,000 psychologists by behavioral scientist Leslie K. John and colleagues, around 94% of psychologists admitted having employed at least one QRP. More specifically, 63% admitted failing to report all of a study's dependent measures, 28% to report all of a study's conditions, and 46% to selectively reporting studies that produced the desired pattern of results. In addition, 56% admitted having collected more data after having inspected already collected data, and 16% to having stopped data collection because the desired result was already visible. According to biotechnology researcher J. Leslie Glick's estimate in 1992, 10% to 20% of research and development studies involved either QRPs or outright fraud. The methodology used to estimate QRPs has been contested, and more recent studies suggested lower prevalence rates on average.
A 2009 meta-analysis found that 2% of scientists across fields admitted falsifying studies at least once and 14% admitted knowing someone who did. Such misconduct was, according to one study, reported more frequently by medical researchers than by others.
Statistical issues
Low statistical power
According to Deakin University professor Tom Stanley and colleagues, one plausible reason studies fail to replicate is low statistical power. This happens for three reasons. First, a replication study with low power is unlikely to succeed since, by definition, it has a low probability to detect a true effect. Second, if the original study has low power, it will yield biased effect size estimates. When conducting a priori power analysis for the replication study, this will result in underestimation of the required sample size. Third, if the original study has low power, the post-study odds of a statistically significant finding reflecting a true effect are quite low. It is therefore likely that a replication attempt of the original study would fail.
Stanley and colleagues estimated the average statistical power of psychological literature by analyzing data from 200 meta-analyses. They found that on average, psychology studies have between 33.1% and 36.4% statistical power. These values are quite low compared to the 80% considered adequate statistical power for an experiment. Across the 200 meta-analyses, the median of studies with adequate statistical power was between 7.7% and 9.1%.
In a study published in Nature, psychologist Katherine Button and colleagues conducted a similar study with 49 meta-analyses in neuroscience, estimating a median statistical power of 21%. Meta-scientist John Ioannidis and colleagues computed an estimate of average power for empirical economic research, finding a median power of 18% based on literature drawing upon 6.700 studies. In light of these results, it is plausible that a major reason for widespread failures to replicate in several scientific fields might be very low statistical power on average.
Statistical heterogeneity
As also reported by Stanley and colleagues, a further reason studies might fail to replicate is high heterogeneity of the to-be-replicated effects. In meta-analysis, "heterogeneity" refers to the variance in research findings that results from there being no single true effect size. Instead, findings in such cases are better seen as a distribution of true effects. Statistical heterogeneity is calculated using the I-squared statistic, defined as "the proportion (or percentage) of observed variation among reported effect sizes that cannot be explained by the calculated standard errors associated with these reported effect sizes". This variation can be due to differences in experimental methods, populations, cohorts, and statistical methods between replication studies. Heterogeneity poses a challenge to studies attempting to replicate previously found effect sizes. When heterogeneity is high, subsequent replications have a high probability of finding an effect size radically different than that of the original study.
Importantly, significant levels of heterogeneity are also found in direct/exact replications of a study. Stanley and colleagues discuss this while reporting a study by quantitative behavioral scientist Richard Klein and colleagues, where the authors attempted to replicate 15 psychological effects across 36 different sites in Europe and the U.S. In the study, Klein and colleagues found significant amounts of heterogeneity in 8 out of 16 effects (I-squared = 23% to 91%). Importantly, while the replication sites intentionally differed on a variety of characteristics, such differences could account for very little heterogeneity . According to Stanley and colleagues, this suggested that heterogeneity could have been a genuine characteristic of the phenomena being investigated. For instance, phenomena might be influenced by so-called "hidden moderators" - relevant factors that were previously not understood to be important in the production of a certain effect.
In their analysis of 200 meta-analyses of psychological effects, Stanley and colleagues found a median percent of heterogeneity of I-squared = 74%. According to the authors, this level of heterogeneity can be considered "huge". It is three times larger than the random sampling variance of effect sizes measured in their study. If considered along sampling error, heterogeneity yields a standard deviation from one study to the next even larger than the median effect size of the 200 meta-analyses they investigated. The authors conclude that if replication is defined by a subsequent study finding a sufficiently similar effect size to the original, replication success is not likely even if replications have very large sample sizes. Importantly, this occurs even if replications are direct or exact since heterogeneity nonetheless remains relatively high in these cases.
Others
Within economics, the replication crisis may be also exacerbated because econometric results are fragile: using different but plausible estimation procedures or data preprocessing techniques can lead to conflicting results.
Context sensitivity
New York University professor Jay Van Bavel and colleagues argue that a further reason findings are difficult to replicate is the sensitivity to context of certain psychological effects. On this view, failures to replicate might be explained by contextual differences between the original experiment and the replication, often called "hidden moderators". Van Bavel and colleagues tested the influence of context sensitivity by reanalyzing the data of the widely cited Reproducibility Project carried out by the Open Science Collaboration. They re-coded effects according to their sensitivity to contextual factors and then tested the relationship between context sensitivity and replication success in various regression models.
Context sensitivity was found to negatively correlate with replication success, such that higher ratings of context sensitivity were associated with lower probabilities of replicating an effect. Importantly, context sensitivity significantly correlated with replication success even when adjusting for other factors considered important for reproducing results (e.g., effect size and sample size of original, statistical power of the replication, methodological similarity between original and replication). In light of the results, the authors concluded that attempting a replication in a different time, place or with a different sample can significantly alter an experiment's results. Context sensitivity thus may be a reason certain effects fail to replicate in psychology.
Base rate of hypothesis accuracy
According to philosopher Alexander Bird, a possible reason for the low rates of replicability in certain scientific fields is that a majority of tested hypotheses are false a priori. On this view, low rates of replicability could be consistent with quality science. Relatedly, the expectation that most findings should replicate would be misguided and, according to Bird, a form of base rate fallacy. Bird's argument works as follows. Assuming an ideal situation of a test of significance, whereby the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis is 5% (i.e. Type I error) and the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis is 80% (i.e. Power), in a context where a high proportion of tested hypotheses are false, it is conceivable that the number of false positives would be high compared to those of true positives. For example, in a situation where only 10% of tested hypotheses are actually true, one can calculate that as much as 36% of results will be false positives.
The claim that the falsity of most tested hypotheses can explain low rates of replicability is even more relevant when considering that the average power for statistical tests in certain fields might be much lower than 80%. For example, the proportion of false positives increases to a value between 55.2% and 57.6% when calculated with the estimates of an average power between 34.1% and 36.4% for psychology studies, as provided by Stanley and colleagues in their analysis of 200 meta-analyses in the field. A high proportion of false positives would then result in many research findings being non-replicable.
Bird notes that the claim that a majority of tested hypotheses are false a priori in certain scientific fields might be plausible given factors such as the complexity of the phenomena under investigation, the fact that theories are seldom undisputed, the "inferential distance" between theories and hypotheses, and the ease with which hypotheses can be generated. In this respect, the fields Bird takes as examples are clinical medicine, genetic and molecular epidemiology, and social psychology. This situation is radically different in fields where theories have outstanding empirical basis and hypotheses can be easily derived from theories (e.g., experimental physics).
Consequences
When effects are wrongly stated as relevant in the literature, failure to detect this by replication will lead to the canonization of such false facts.
A 2021 study found that papers in leading general interest, psychology and economics journals with findings that could not be replicated tend to be cited more over time than reproducible research papers, likely because these results are surprising or interesting. The trend is not affected by publication of failed reproductions, after which only 12% of papers that cite the original research will mention the failed replication. Further, experts are able to predict which studies will be replicable, leading the authors of the 2021 study, Marta Serra-Garcia and Uri Gneezy, to conclude that experts apply lower standards to interesting results when deciding whether to publish them.
Public awareness and perceptions
Concerns have been expressed within the scientific community that the general public may consider science less credible due to failed replications. Research supporting this concern is sparse, but a nationally representative survey in Germany showed that more than 75% of Germans have not heard of replication failures in science. The study also found that most Germans have positive perceptions of replication efforts: only 18% think that non-replicability shows that science cannot be trusted, while 65% think that replication research shows that science applies quality control, and 80% agree that errors and corrections are part of science.
Response in academia
With the replication crisis of psychology earning attention, Princeton University psychologist Susan Fiske drew controversy for speaking against critics of psychology for what she called bullying and undermining the science. She called these unidentified "adversaries" names such as "methodological terrorist" and "self-appointed data police", saying that criticism of psychology should be expressed only in private or by contacting the journals. Columbia University statistician and political scientist Andrew Gelman responded to Fiske, saying that she had found herself willing to tolerate the "dead paradigm" of faulty statistics and had refused to retract publications even when errors were pointed out. He added that her tenure as editor had been abysmal and that a number of published papers she edited were found to be based on extremely weak statistics; one of Fiske's own published papers had a major statistical error and "impossible" conclusions.
Credibility revolution
Some researchers in psychology indicate that the replication crisis is a foundation for a "credibility revolution", where changes in standards by which psychological science are evaluated may include emphasizing transparency and openness, preregistering research projects, and replicating research with higher standards for evidence to improve the strength of scientific claims. Such changes may diminish the productivity of individual researchers, but this effect could be avoided by data sharing and greater collaboration. A credibility revolution could be good for the research environment.
Remedies
Focus on the replication crisis has led to renewed efforts in psychology to retest important findings. A 2013 special edition of the journal Social Psychology focused on replication studies.
Standardization as well as (requiring) transparency of the used statistical and experimental methods have been proposed. Careful documentation of the experimental set-up is considered crucial for replicability of experiments and various variables may not be documented and standardized such as animals' diets in animal studies.
A 2016 article by John Ioannidis elaborated on "Why Most Clinical Research Is Not Useful". Ioannidis describes what he views as some of the problems and calls for reform, characterizing certain points for medical research to be useful again; one example he makes is the need for medicine to be patient-centered (e.g. in the form of the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute) instead of the current practice to mainly take care of "the needs of physicians, investigators, or sponsors".
Reform in scientific publishing
Metascience
Metascience is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. It seeks to increase the quality of scientific research while reducing waste. It is also known as "research on research" and "the science of science", as it uses research methods to study how research is done and where improvements can be made. Metascience is concerned with all fields of research and has been called "a bird's eye view of science." In Ioannidis's words, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings ... but we can do it better."
Meta-research continues to be conducted to identify the roots of the crisis and to address them. Methods of addressing the crisis include pre-registration of scientific studies and clinical trials as well as the founding of organizations such as CONSORT and the EQUATOR Network that issue guidelines for methodology and reporting. Efforts continue to reform the system of academic incentives, improve the peer review process, reduce the misuse of statistics, combat bias in scientific literature, and increase the overall quality and efficiency of the scientific process.
Presentation of methodology
Some authors have argued that the insufficient communication of experimental methods is a major contributor to the reproducibility crisis and that better reporting of experimental design and statistical analyses would improve the situation. These authors tend to plead for both a broad cultural change in the scientific community of how statistics are considered and a more coercive push from scientific journals and funding bodies. But concerns have been raised about the potential for standards for transparency and replication to be misapplied to qualitative as well as quantitative studies.
Business and management journals that have introduced editorial policies on data accessibility, replication, and transparency include the Strategic Management Journal, the Journal of International Business Studies, and the Management and Organization Review.
Result-blind peer review
In response to concerns in psychology about publication bias and data dredging, more than 140 psychology journals have adopted result-blind peer review. In this approach, studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before they are conducted and on the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs, and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done. Early analysis of this procedure has estimated that 61% of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5% to 20% in earlier research. In addition, large-scale collaborations between researchers working in multiple labs in different countries that regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess have become much more common in psychology.
Pre-registration of studies
Scientific publishing has begun using pre-registration reports to address the replication crisis. The registered report format requires authors to submit a description of the study methods and analyses prior to data collection. Once the method and analysis plan is vetted through peer-review, publication of the findings is provisionally guaranteed, based on whether the authors follow the proposed protocol. One goal of registered reports is to circumvent the publication bias toward significant findings that can lead to implementation of questionable research practices. Another is to encourage publication of studies with rigorous methods.
The journal Psychological Science has encouraged the preregistration of studies and the reporting of effect sizes and confidence intervals. The editor in chief also noted that the editorial staff will be asking for replication of studies with surprising findings from examinations using small sample sizes before allowing the manuscripts to be published.
Metadata and digital tools for tracking replications
It has been suggested that "a simple way to check how often studies have been repeated, and whether or not the original findings are confirmed" is needed. Categorizations and ratings of reproducibility at the study or results level, as well as addition of links to and rating of third-party confirmations, could be conducted by the peer-reviewers, the scientific journal, or by readers in combination with novel digital platforms or tools.
Statistical reform
Requiring smaller p-values
Many publications require a p-value of p < 0.05 to claim statistical significance. The paper "Redefine statistical significance", signed by a large number of scientists and mathematicians, proposes that in "fields where the threshold for defining statistical significance for new discoveries is p < 0.05, we propose a change to p < 0.005. This simple step would immediately improve the reproducibility of scientific research in many fields." Their rationale is that "a leading cause of non-reproducibility (is that the) statistical standards of evidence for claiming new discoveries in many fields of science are simply too low. Associating 'statistically significant' findings with p < 0.05 results in a high rate of false positives even in the absence of other experimental, procedural and reporting problems."
This call was subsequently criticised by another large group, who argued that "redefining" the threshold would not fix current problems, would lead to some new ones, and that in the end, all thresholds needed to be justified case-by-case instead of following general conventions.
Addressing misinterpretation of p-values
Although statisticians are unanimous that the use of "p < 0.05" as a standard for significance provides weaker evidence than is generally appreciated, there is a lack of unanimity about what should be done about it. Some have advocated that Bayesian methods should replace p-values. This has not happened on a wide scale, partly because it is complicated and partly because many users distrust the specification of prior distributions in the absence of hard data. A simplified version of the Bayesian argument, based on testing a point null hypothesis was suggested by pharmacologist David Colquhoun. The logical problems of inductive inference were discussed in "The Problem with p-values" (2016).
The hazards of reliance on p-values arises partly because even an observation of p = 0.001 is not necessarily strong evidence against the null hypothesis. Despite the fact that the likelihood ratio in favor of the alternative hypothesis over the null is close to 100, if the hypothesis was implausible, with a prior probability of a real effect being 0.1, even the observation of p = 0.001 would have a false positive risk of 8 percent. It would still fail to reach the 5 percent level.
It was recommended that the terms "significant" and "non-significant" should not be used. p-values and confidence intervals should still be specified, but they should be accompanied by an indication of the false-positive risk. It was suggested that the best way to do this is to calculate the prior probability that would be necessary to believe in order to achieve a false positive risk of a certain level, such as 5%. The calculations can be done with various computer software. This reverse Bayesian approach, which physicist Robert Matthews suggested in 2001, is one way to avoid the problem that the prior probability is rarely known.
Encouraging larger sample sizes
To improve the quality of replications, larger sample sizes than those used in the original study are often needed. Larger sample sizes are needed because estimates of effect sizes in published work are often exaggerated due to publication bias and large sampling variability associated with small sample sizes in an original study. Further, using significance thresholds usually leads to inflated effects, because particularly with small sample sizes, only the largest effects will become significant.
Replication efforts
Funding
In July 2016, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research made €3 million available for replication studies. The funding is for replication based on reanalysis of existing data and replication by collecting and analysing new data. Funding is available in the areas of social sciences, health research and healthcare innovation.
In 2013, the Laura and John Arnold Foundation funded the launch of The Center for Open Science with a $5.25 million grant. By 2017, it provided an additional $10 million in funding. It also funded the launch of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford at Stanford University run by Ioannidis and medical scientist Steven Goodman to study ways to improve scientific research. It also provided funding for the AllTrials initiative led in part by medical scientist Ben Goldacre.
Emphasis in post-secondary education
Based on coursework in experimental methods at MIT, Stanford, and the University of Washington, it has been suggested that methods courses in psychology and other fields should emphasize replication attempts rather than original studies. Such an approach would help students learn scientific methodology and provide numerous independent replications of meaningful scientific findings that would test the replicability of scientific findings. Some have recommended that graduate students should be required to publish a high-quality replication attempt on a topic related to their doctoral research prior to graduation.
Final year thesis
Some institutions require undergraduate students to submit a final year thesis that consists of an original piece of research. Daniel Quintana, a psychologist at the University of Oslo in Norway, has recommended that students should be encouraged to perform replication studies in thesis projects, as well as being taught about open science.
Semi-automated
Researchers demonstrated a way of semi-automated testing for reproducibility: statements about experimental results were extracted from, as of 2022 non-semantic, gene expression cancer research papers and subsequently reproduced via robot scientist "Eve". Problems of this approach include that it may not be feasible for many areas of research and that sufficient experimental data may not get extracted from some or many papers even if available.
Involving original authors
Psychologist Daniel Kahneman argued that, in psychology, the original authors should be involved in the replication effort because the published methods are often too vague. Others, such as psychologist Andrew Wilson, disagree, arguing that the original authors should write down the methods in detail. An investigation of replication rates in psychology in 2012 indicated higher success rates of replication in replication studies when there was author overlap with the original authors of a study (91.7% successful replication rates in studies with author overlap compared to 64.6% successful replication rates without author overlap).
Big team science
The replication crisis has led to the formation and development of various large-scale and collaborative communities to pool their resources to address a single question across cultures, countries and disciplines. The focus is on replication, to ensure that the effect generalizes beyond a specific culture and investigate whether the effect is replicable and genuine. This allows interdisciplinary internal reviews, multiple perspectives, uniform protocols across labs, and recruiting larger and more diverse samples. Researchers can collaborate by coordinating data collection or fund data collection by researchers who may not have access to the funds, allowing larger sample sizes and increasing the robustness of the conclusions.
Broader changes to scientific approach
Emphasize triangulation, not just replication
Psychologist Marcus R. Munafò and Epidemiologist George Davey Smith argue, in a piece published by Nature, that research should emphasize triangulation, not just replication, to protect against flawed ideas. They claim that,
Complex systems paradigm
The dominant scientific and statistical model of causation is the linear model. The linear model assumes that mental variables are stable properties which are independent of each other. In other words, these variables are not expected to influence each other. Instead, the model assumes that the variables will have an independent, linear effect on observable outcomes.
Social scientists Sebastian Wallot and Damian Kelty-Stephen argue that the linear model is not always appropriate. An alternative is the complex system model which assumes that mental variables are interdependent. These variables are not assumed to be stable, rather they will interact and adapt to each specific context. They argue that the complex system model is often more appropriate in psychology, and that the use of the linear model when the complex system model is more appropriate will result in failed replications.
The linear causal assumptions underlying conventional statistics are being questioned across many scientific fields.
Replication should seek to revise theories
Replication is fundamental for scientific progress to confirm original findings. However, replication alone is not sufficient to resolve the replication crisis. Replication efforts should seek not just to support or question the original findings, but also to replace them with revised, stronger theories with greater explanatory power. This approach therefore involves pruning existing theories, comparing all the alternative theories, and making replication efforts more generative and engaged in theory-building. However, replication alone is not enough, it is important to assess the extent that results generalise across geographical, historical and social contexts is important for several scientific fields, especially practitioners and policy makers to make analyses in order to guide important strategic decisions. Reproducible and replicable findings was the best predictor of generalisability beyond historical and geographical contexts, indicating that for social sciences, results from a certain time period and place can meaningfully drive as to what is universally present in individuals.
Open science
Open data, open source software and open source hardware all are critical to enabling reproducibility in the sense of validation of the original data analysis. The use of proprietary software, the lack of the publication of analysis software and the lack of open data prevents the replication of studies. Unless software used in research is open source, reproducing results with different software and hardware configurations is impossible. CERN has both Open Data and CERN Analysis Preservation projects for storing data, all relevant information, and all software and tools needed to preserve an analysis at the large experiments of the LHC. Aside from all software and data, preserved analysis assets include metadata that enable understanding of the analysis workflow, related software, systematic uncertainties, statistics procedures and meaningful ways to search for the analysis, as well as references to publications and to backup material. CERN software is open source and available for use outside of particle physics and there is some guidance provided to other fields on the broad approaches and strategies used for open science in contemporary particle physics.
Online repositories where data, protocols, and findings can be stored and evaluated by the public seek to improve the integrity and reproducibility of research. Examples of such repositories include the Open Science Framework, Registry of Research Data Repositories, and Psychfiledrawer.org. Sites like Open Science Framework offer badges for using open science practices in an effort to incentivize scientists. However, there have been concerns that those who are most likely to provide their data and code for analyses are the researchers that are likely the most sophisticated. Ioannidis suggested that "the paradox may arise that the most meticulous and sophisticated and method-savvy and careful researchers may become more susceptible to criticism and reputation attacks by reanalyzers who hunt for errors, no matter how negligible these errors are".
See also
Decline effect
Estimation statistics
Exploratory data analysis
p-value
Student's t-test
Analysis of variance
Misuse of statistics
Data dredging
Invalid science
Falsifiability
Extension neglect
Base rate fallacy
Selection bias
Sampling bias
Observer bias
Naturalism
Problem of induction
Correlation does not imply causation
Black swan theory
Uniformitarianism
Notes
References
Further reading
Bonett, D.G. (2021). Design and analysis of replication studies. Organizational Research Methods, 24, 513-529. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428120911088
Book Review (November 2020, The American Conservative)
review of
Scientific method
Criticism of science
Ethics and statistics
Metascience
Statistical reliability |
14254090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wisdom%20of%20Doctor%20Dodypoll | The Wisdom of Doctor Dodypoll | The Wisdom of Doctor Dodypoll is a later Elizabethan stage play, an anonymous comedy first published in 1600. It is illustrative of the type of drama staged by the companies of child actors when they returned to public performance in that era.
Date, performance, publication
The Wisdom of Doctor Dodypoll was entered into the Stationers' Register on 7 October 1600, and was published before the end of that year, in a quarto printed by Thomas Creede for the bookseller Richard Olive. This was the only edition of the play prior to the nineteenth century. The title page states the drama had been acted by the Children of Paul's, the troupe of boy actors that had resumed public dramatic performances in 1599 or 1600 after a decade's absence.
Various internal features in the play point to a date of authorship in the 1599–1600 interval. Like many plays of the children's companies, Doctor Dodypoll parodies the works of the established adult companies, including those of William Shakespeare. In Act III of Dodypoll occurs the line "Then reason's fled to animals I see," which parodies the famous "O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, / And men have lost their reason" in Julius Caesar (c. 1599), Act III, scene ii, lines 104–5. (Ben Jonson parodies the same line, as "Reason long since is fled to animals, you know," in his 1599 play Every Man Out of His Humour, III, iv, 33.) The comic character Doctor Dodypoll, with his thick French accent, resembles Doctor Caius in The Merry Wives of Windsor (c. 1597–99); and Dodypoll also borrows from A Midsummer Night's Dream (c. 1595; printed 1600).
Authorship
The matter of the play's date impinges on the question of its authorship. There is no external evidence for any specific author; the style of the play is reminiscent of the works of John Lyly and George Peele, and each has been suggested as the author of Dodypoll. "What thing is love?", a song used in Act I of Dodypoll is thought to derive from Peele's play The Hunting of Cupid. Yet Peele died in 1596, and Lyly had retired from playwriting in the early 1590s, making both of them problematic candidates for the authorship of Dodypoll. Ernest Gerrard proposed a complex scheme, in which Dodypoll was an old play by Lyly, written c. 1592, and then revised by Thomas Dekker and collaborators (perhaps Henry Chettle, John Day, and/or William Haughton) in 1599. Lack of supporting evidence has prevented most scholars from accepting such a genesis for the play.
Marshall Nyvall Matson, a modern editor of Dodypoll, argues that no convincing case for any given author, for revision, or for derivation from a previous source, has yet been made.
Synopsis
In the Duchy of Saxony, the aristocrat Earl Lassingbergh masquerades as the humble painter Cornelius, to be near his love Lucilia. The opening scene shows the two of them together. Lassingbergh exalts her beauty as he paints; Lucilia modestly demurs. They are interrupted by the clown character Haunce, who is followed by Lucilia's elder sister Cornelia. Cornelia sings the song "What thing is Love?" while gazing at a cameo of the Saxon prince Alberdure. Cornelia in turn is followed by a merchant named Albertus and by Doctor Dodypoll. The two men are rival suitors for Cornelia's hand in marriage; each tries to court her, largely by insulting the other's occupation and extolling his own.
The jeweller Flores, the father of Cornelia and Lucilia, enters; in an aside, he reveals that he plans to marry Cornelia to Alberdure, the duchy's prince and heir, in order to raise his family "to our ancient states again" – his family derives from the nobility but has declined in fortune over time. Flores has obtained a love potion from Dodypoll, and orders Cornelia to administer it to Alberdure at a coming banquet. Cornelia disapproves, but agrees to comply. Alberdure loves Hyanthe, the daughter of Lord Cassimere; but the banquet arrives and Cornelia does as commanded. Dodypoll has miscalculated the dose of his potion, however; Alberdure reacts to an overdose with a fit of frenzy, complaining of "smoke and fire...Etna, sulphur...I burn, I burn...." He races from the banquet.
The nobles of the court, on visiting Flores, see the paintings of "Cornelius" and recognize the style of Earl Lassingbergh; and when they meet the artist they recognize the Earl. Flores is at first indignant at the Earl's masquerade, suspecting that Lassingbergh has seduced, or tried to seduce, his daughter. Lassingbergh protests that his intentions are honorable, and that he wants to marry Lucilia. Flores is mollified by this; but Lassingbergh is struck by a deep fit of melancholia at this slight to his honor. The wedding takes place, but Lassingbergh is unable to shake off his melancholy; he leaves his bride to wander off into the countryside, and she loyally follows him.
Alberdure is not alone in his infatuation with Hyanthe; the prince's father, Duke Alphonso, also wishes to marry her, even though he is contracted to the dowager Duchess of Brunswick. The Duke makes feeble excuses for delaying his planned marriage with the Duchess, claiming sinister portents and foreboding dreams. His attempt to court Hyanthe is disrupted by the mad Alberdure, who eventually escapes his would-be guardians and makes off into the countryside...so that he, and Lassingbergh and Lucilia, are discontentedly roaming about. The resemblance to A Midsummer Night's Dream is accentuated by the appearance of a troupe of fairies; they set out a banquet, and mistakenly give a precious bejewelled cup to a passing peasant. The Enchanter who controls the fairies appears, and reproves them for misplacing the cup; then he sees Lassingbergh and Lucilia, and has his fairies bind and abduct them. Confused by his spells, Lucilia forgets both herself and her husband; the Enchanter tries to convince her that he is her husband – but Lucilia's true love is too strong to be deceived by the trick.
The play depicts a series of comings and goings, meetings and partings and misunderstandings among Alberdure, his pursuers, Lassingbergh and Lucilia, and the peasant. Costumes are switched, and the fairies' cup and Alberdure's cameo portrait change hands. Alberdure falls into a cold stream; he is fished out by pursuers, but presumed drowned. The shock of the cold plunge cures his fit; he awakens alone, and returns to the court to be re-united with Hyanthe. A party from the court of Brunswick arrives, including the present Duke and the dowager Duchess (the widow of the Duke's late brother) who is betrothed to Duke Alphonso. They discover their nephew the Earl Lassingbergh sleeping in the woods, with Lucilia sitting, disconsolately but faithfully, nearby. Once they obtain her story, the Duke and Duchess bring her to the Saxon court with them. Lassingbergh awakens alone; though he has previously scorned and neglected his wife, he is now shocked to find her gone. Fearing for her safety, he sets off in search of her – and heads back to court himself.
The characters are now gathering for the final resolution – though it does not come about smoothly. Duke Alphonso expresses his remorse for his past actions and longs for his son's return – the type of repentance that often prefigures and motivates the denouement of an Elizabethan comedy. Yet when Alberdure is revealed to him, the Duke recants his repentance and insists that he will have Hyanthe for his wife. It is only when the visitors from Brunswick arrive that Alphonso, to save face, accepts the Duchess (who is reportedly even more beautiful than Hyanthe) as his bride, and permits the marriage of Alberdure and Hyanthe. Lassingbergh, now jolted out of his melancholy, is re-united with Lucilia. Doctor Dodypoll comes in for some final fooling and mockery at the play's end.
Critical responses
Several aspects of the play have drawn special attention from scholars and critics. The portrayal of Earl Lassingbergh as an admirable and aristocratic painter is noteworthy, in a historical era in which artists had not yet fully shaken off their Medieval status as mere artisans or craftsmen. (Lucilia notes that the Earl has humbled his dignity by masquerading as a simple "mercenary painter.") The play's fairies and Enchanter have also drawn attention from critics interested in the occult aspects of English Renaissance theatre.
Individual scholars have proposed that two characters in the play were based on real people of the Elizabethan age. Abraham Feldman argued that the character Haunce was based on the artist Hans Ewouts. (While the stage Dutchman in Elizabethan drama is normally a drunkard and a contemptuous figure, Haunce is clever and speaks English well.) Hersch Zitt proposed that the Doctor Dodypoll character derives from Dr. Roderigo Lopez, the physician who was executed for treason in 1594 – even though Dodypoll is not Jewish, Lopez was not French, and there was nothing particularly funny about Lopez or his case.
Notes
References
Chambers, E. K. The Elizabethan Stage. 4 Volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.
Cutts, John P. "Peele's Hunting of Cupid," Studies in the Renaissance Vol. 5 (1958), pp. 121–32.
Feldman, Abraham. "Hans Ewouts, Artist of the Tudor Court Theatre," Notes and Queries Vol. 195 (1950), pp. 257–8.
Gerrard, Ernest A. Elizabethan Drama and Dramatists, 1583–1603. 1928; reprinted New York, Cooper Square, 1972.
Logan, Terence P., and Denzell S. Smith, eds. The New Intellectuals: A Survey and Bibliography of Recent Studies in English Renaissance Drama. Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska Press, 1977.
Manser, M., and George Latimer Apperson. Wordsworth Dictionary of Proverbs. Wordsworth Editions Ltd., Ware, Hertfordshire, 2006 edition.
Nares, Robert. A Glossary. London, John Russell Smith, 1859.
Tassi, Marguerite A. The Scandal of Images: Iconoclasm, Eroticism, and Painting in Early Modern English Drama. Snelinsgrove, PA, Susquehanna University Press, 2005.
Zitt, Hersch L. "The Jew in the Elizabethan World Picture." Historia Judaica Vol. 14 (1952), pp. 53–60.
External links
Online Text of Doctor Dodypoll
English Renaissance plays
Plays by John Lyly
1600 plays |
70831670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razzia%20%28military%29 | Razzia (military) | A razzia (from French razzia "incursion", and from Algerian Arabic ġaziya (غزية), "algara" or "raid") is a term used to refer to a surprise attack against an enemy settlement. Although it primarily sought to obtain booty, historically the objectives of a razzia have been diverse: the capture of slaves, ethnic or religious cleansing, expansion of territory, and intimidation of the enemy.
One of the most representative razzias, because of its symbolic significance, was the sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigothic king Alaric I, whose repercussions echoed in future massive invasions in the following decades.
Over time, its meaning has also been extended to other activities that bear certain similarities to these attacks, such as police raids or certain violent incursions by organized or paramilitary groups, such as those carried out in Brazilian favelas, or in refugee camps during the war in Central Africa.
Etymology
Ghazwah (plural ghazawat) (Arabic: غزوة) is an originally Arabic term meaning "invasion". It comes from the triconsonantal root g.z.w. ("to attack"). It has the same connotation as the words ghaziya and maghazi, which in pre-Islamic times referred to raids organized by nomadic Bedouin warriors for the purpose of plundering rival tribes or sedentary, wealthier neighbors. The plural ghazawat is used in some Islamic countries as a synonym for "judgment".
The word ghazwa was originally applied to those battles in which Muhammad personally participated. Over time it has evolved to be associated with battles related to the expansion of Islam. The term ghazi or "Warrior of the Faith" was used to identify participants in such battles and is synonymous with the roots ghāziya and maghāzī.
The word sirya (plural saraya or sariya) designates those battles that Muhammad arranged but in which he did not participate personally. By extension, it also applies to those mounted and reconnaissance raids that he organized but did not attend in person.
The word ba'atha differed in size from saraya, and while it sometimes alluded to combat, it generally referred to expeditions or missions of a diplomatic nature (e.g. embassies or political dialogues).
In Western European literature it is known by the name razzia, derived from the French word razzier (rezzou), which entered the French vocabulary after the colonization of Algeria, and which is no more than a transliteration of the colloquial Arabic word ghazya.
In Medieval Hispania, the razzias were known by the name aceifa, from the Andalusian Arabic ṣáyfa, which in turn comes from the classical Arabic ṣā'ifah, with the meaning of "harvest" or "summer expedition".
Related terms.
akinji: "raider," a late synonym of ghāzī.
al-'Awāsim: the Syrian-Anatolian border area between the Byzantine Empire and its successive opponents.
ribāt: fortified convent used by a military order, especially in North Africa.
uj: Turkish term meaning "mark"; uj begi ("Lord of the Mark") was a title assumed by early Turkish leaders, later replaced by serhadd (border).
The Aceifas
In the Iberian Peninsula, the Muslim razzias received the name of aceifas, from the Arabic al-ṣayfa: "Saracen war expedition that takes place in summer".
The Arabic name ṣayfa is etymologically related to ṣayf (summer) and initially meant "harvest", but over time it was used as "military expedition", due to the "harvest" of goods in the plundering, and that it also used to be carried out in summer period.
The first important razzias against peninsular Christian territory began after the defeat of Bermudo I by the Andalusian Hisham I in the battle of Burbia (791), even sacking the city of Oviedo in 794.
The Moorish aceifas were interrupted with the ascent to the Asturian throne of Alfonso II the Chaste and the Christian victory in the battle of Lutos, giving rise in response to a series of Christian razzias, such as the one carried out in 798 against Lisbon.
Internal strife in the emirate of Cordoba interrupted the raids, at least intensively, until the accession to the throne of Abderraman II. After putting an end to his uncle Abdallah's pretensions to the throne and putting down a revolt in Murcia, he organized annual aceifas against the Christians (at their most intense, up to three were organized in the same year). Most were directed against Alava and, especially, Galicia, which was the most vulnerable region of the Kingdom of Asturias. Despite this, there was no lack of attacks against Ausona (Vich), Barcelona, Girona and even Narbonne in the expeditions of the years 828, 840 and 850.
In the Malikí law there was a precept on how the holy war was to be carried out:
This precept was fulfilled with zeal by Almanzor. In the year 981, when Hisham II delegated his powers to the warlord, who was named al-Mansūr bi-l-Lah ("The Victorious of God"), he organized up to five expeditions in Christian lands.
At his death, after the battle of Calatañazor (1002), Almanzor left a terrible legacy: up to 52 victorious military campaigns to the Christian kingdoms, of which the best known are the aceifas organized to Barcelona (985) and Santiago de Compostela (997), where according to legend he made Christian slaves carry the bells of the cathedral to Cordoba. But a large number of Christian monasteries such as San Millán de Suso, Portuguese cities, or the capitals of the Christian kingdoms of Pamplona and León, which he sacked up to four times, were not spared either.
During the Almoravid and Almohad domination, aceifas were directed both to Christian and Muslim territory. The Almoravids raided all of North Africa, reaching as far as Ghana. The fanaticism of these new invaders caused some Taifa kings to ally with the Christian kings of the north, also becoming targets of the summer aceifas.
The last important aceifas in peninsular territory would take place shortly after the battle of Alarcos, in 1198 to Madrid and in 1199 to Guadalajara. The battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) would definitively ruin the Almohad military power. Al-Andalus would never again go on the offensive.
Raiders: the "Ghazi"
Ghazi (Arabic: غازى) is an Arabic word in origin, derived from ghazā (contraction for *ghazawa) = "raided" or "waged war", adopted into other languages such as Turkish to designate those Muslims who have sworn to fight non-believers in the Islamic religion. In this sense, it is essentially equivalent to Mujahid: "one who wages jihad", commonly known as "holy war".
The ghāzī warrior dates back to at least the Sasanian period, when he appears as a mercenary and frontier fighter in Khorasan and Transoxiana. Subsequently, as many as 20,000 ghazi took part in the Indian campaigns of Mahmud of Gazni.
The ghāzī way of life was based on plunder, so in times of peace they engaged in banditry and sedition. They were organized into guilds that attracted adventurers, zealots, and political and religious dissidents of all ethnicities. Soldiers of Turkish descent predominated, especially after the acquisition of Mamluks, Turkish slaves, and guard corps of the caliphs and amirs for the ghāzī ranks. Some of them would climb to control positions of military and eventually political power in various Muslim states.
In the west, Turkish ghāzīs regularly raided along the Byzantine frontier, finding in the Greek and Armenian akritoi their nemesis. After the battle of Manzikert, these raids intensified, while the ghāzī guilds grouped together to form fraternities similar to Christian military orders. They adopted as their emblems the white cap and the club. The rise of the ghāzī organizations occurred during the Mongol conquest, as a result of which many fled to Anatolia from Persia and Turkestan.
The organization of these groups was fluid, reflecting their popular character. Ghāzī warriors could rise in the hierarchy by gaining prestige with a particular amir, similar to the condotiers of western mercenary bands. From the territory conquered in Anatolia during the ghazw emerged the Ottoman Empire. Tradition has it that its founder, Osman I, was a ghāzī who rose through the inspiration of Sheikh Ede Bali.
In a later period of Islamic history, the honorific title ghāzī was adopted by those Muslim leaders who showed some success in extending the frontiers of Islam, eventually this title became exclusive, similar to how the Roman title Imperator became the exclusive property of the supreme leader of the Roman state and his family.
The Ottomans were probably the first in this practice, so the institution of ghazw dates back to the beginnings of their state:
By the beginning of Ottoman rule, it had become a title of honor and synonymous with leadership. In a 1337 inscription (concerning the construction of the Bursa mosque), Orhan, second in the Ottoman dynasty, is described as "Sultan, son of the Sultan of the Gazis, Gazi son of Gazi, martial lord of the horizons." The Ottoman poet Ahmedi, circa 1402, defines a Gazi as:
The first nine Ottoman leaders used the word "Ghazi" as part of their title, and often their successors. It never became a formal title, unlike Sultan ul-Muyahidin, used by Sultan Murad Khan II KhojāGhazi, sixth ruler of the House of Osman (1421-1451), whose full title was 'Abu'l Hayrat, Sultan ul-Muyahidin, Khan of Khanes, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, and of the cities of Adrianople and Philopolis.
As a result of the political legitimacy granted to the one holding this title, Muslim leaders competed with each other for preeminence in the ghāziya. Generally, the Ottoman sultans were recognized for their excellence over the rest:
The term Ghazi was also used as an honorific title, usually translated as "the Victorious", by high-ranking officers, who distinguished themselves in the field against non-Muslim enemies; thus, it was awarded to General Osman Pasha after his successful defense of Plevna in Bulgaria. It was also assigned to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, despite the fact that he was a secular politician.
Two Muslim leaders from Afghanistan and Hyderabad personally used the title Padshah-i-Ghazi.
Mode of execution of the razzias
When executed in the context of Islamic jihad, the function of the razzia was to weaken the enemy's defenses in preparation for his eventual conquest and subjugation. Since the typical razia was not sufficiently numerous to achieve military or territorial objectives, it usually involved surprise attacks on poorly defended targets (e.g. villages) with the intention of terrorizing and demoralizing their inhabitants and destroying supplies that might supply the enemy. Islamic rules clearly defined who should go to war and who was exempted from such responsibility.
Although the rules of Islamic warfare forbade taking the lives of non-combatants such as women, monastics and serfs, it was possible to plunder or destroy their property and take them as slaves.
The only way to avoid the offensives of the ghāzīs was to submit to the Islamic state. In that case, non-Muslims enjoyed the status of dhimmi-s, living under its protection. Many Christian sources confuse these two phases in the Ottoman conquests. Faced with the terrible threat of the ghāzīs, the population in the confines of the Empire often renounced the ineffective protection of the Christian states, seeking refuge by defection to the Ottoman Empire. In this way, peasants living in the open countryside gained far more than they lost.
One of the main sources that tell us about the development of a traditional razzia are the medieval Islamic jurists, whose discussions of what was and was not permitted in such actions in the course of war reveal some of the practices of this institution. One of the most important is the Andalusian Averroes, in his work Bida-yat al-Mujtahid wa-Niha-yat al-Muqtasid.
The Maghāzī razzias in literature
Maghāzī, literally meaning "campaigns", is a term often used in Islamic literature to represent the military campaigns conducted by the Prophet Muhammad following the Hijrah. The annals of these campaigns, often reflected as preemptive measures or attacks against invaders, which entailed the traditional plunder, constitute their own genre of prophetic biography within Islamic literature, distinctive of the sira. A famous example of this genre is al-Waqidi's Maghāzī.
Contemporary uses
World War II
Some of these well-known razzias are the Night of the Long Knives or the Night of Broken Glass, carried out by the Gestapo in Germany. The SS raid on the Yugoslav city of Žabalj (present-day Serbia) and occupied Denmark is also known as such.
Chechnya
During the Second Chechen War, Chechnya announced the gazawat against Russia, as a propaganda measure and to gain the support of the Islamic population, the majority in the country.
Other examples
Other examples of current razzias are the death squad raids in the Brazilian favelas, or the paramilitary incursions during the war in Central Africa. The multiple attacks by Colombian guerrilla groups on Colombian army squads and vice versa could also be considered as such.
See also
Malón
Notes and References
Bibliography
RoyalArk- Ottoman Turkey
Averroes, Bida-yat al-Mujtahid wa-Niha-yat al-Muqtasid
External links
F. Maillo. "La guerra santa según el derecho Malikí" (in Spanish). Biblioteca Gonzalo de Berceo.
Dolors Bramon, "La batalla de Albesa: Nuevas aportaciones" (in Spanish). C.E.M.A.
Cañada, Juste. "Nuevas propuestas para la identificación de topónimos e itinerarios en las campañas de Almanzor" (in Spanish). Dialnet.
Arabic words and phrases
French words and phrases
Islamic terminology
Military terminology
Military history
Battles of Muhammad |
27440407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuestra%20Belleza%20M%C3%A9xico%202010 | Nuestra Belleza México 2010 | The 17th annual Nuestra Belleza México pageant, was held at the Auditorio Parque Las Maravillas in Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico on September 25, 2010. The State of Jalisco, won for the third consecutive year with Karin Ontiveros, who later competed in Miss Universe 2011 in Brazil. Ontiveros was crowned by outgoing Nuestra Belleza México titleholder and Miss Universe 2010 Ximena Navarrete. She was the fourth Jalisciense to win this Title. Thirty-one contestants of the Mexican Republic competed for the national title.
The Nuestra Belleza Mundo México title was won by Cynthia de la Vega from Nuevo León, and she would compete in Miss World 2011 in United Kingdom. De la Vega was crowned by outgoing Nuestra Belleza Mundo México titleholder Anabel Solís. She was the third Neoleonesa to win this title, but she was dethroned 10 months later on July 29, 2011.
The Nuestra Belleza Internacional México title was won by Gabriela Palacio from Aguascalientes, who later competed in Miss International 2010 in China. Palacio was crowned by Miss International 2009 Anagabriela Espinoza after the show. On August 3, 2011, was announced that she would take the Nuestra Belleza Mundo México 2010 title and so she competed in Miss World 2011 in United Kingdom. She was the first Hidrocálida to win both Titles.
Karen Higuera from Baja California Sur was designated by the Nuestra Belleza México Organization as Nuestra Belleza Internacional México 2011 and later competed in Miss International 2011 in China. She was the first Sudcaliforniana to win this title.
The Recognition "Corona al Mérito 2010" was for Anagabriela Espinoza, Nuestra Belleza Mundo México 2007, Semi-finalist in Miss World 2008 and Miss International 2009.
Results
Placements
Order of announcements
Top 15
Morelos
Jalisco
Tamaulipas
Yucatán
Sonora
Nuevo León
Baja California Sur
Coahuila
Distrito Federal
Veracruz
Michoacán
Aguascalientes
Sinaloa
Aguascalientes
Jalisco
Top 10
Yucatán
Sonora
Nuevo León
Jalisco
Jalisco
Distrito Federal
Coahuila
Baja California Sur
Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
Top 5
Aguascalientes
Coahuila
Distrito Federal
Jalisco
Nuevo León
Preliminary competition
The Preliminary Competition was held at the Auditorio of Parque Las Maravillas in Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico a few days before to Final Competition. Prior to the final telecast, all contestants competed in swimsuit and evening gown as part of the selection for the others top 10 finalists who were revealed during the beginning of the two-hour live telecast of the Nuestra Belleza México 2010 Pageant live on Televisa on Saturday, September 25.
That night also took out the National Costume competition in which winning the representative from Sinaloa, Tiaré Oliva with "La Catrina". This costume was worn by the winner of Nuestra Belleza Mexico 2010 in Miss Universe 2011 winning the second place.
The Preliminary Competition was hosted by Alma Saint Martín and Patricio Cabezut.
Special awards
Judges
They were the same judges at the Preliminary and Final Competition.
Alberto Rodríguez – Fashion Designer
Alfonso Waithsman – Makeup Artist
Lissete Trapuad – Modeling Director & Director of RP
Celina Del Villar – Model
Jorge Aravena – Actor
Tony Dalton – Actor
Perla Beltrán – Nuestra Belleza Mundo México 2008
Elsa Burgos – Miss Costa Maya International 2002 & Television Hostess
Miguel Ángel Fox – Television Producer
Background music
Opening Number: "Nuestro México" by Contestants and "I Like It" by Enrique Iglesias ft. Pitbull
Swimsuit Competition: "Mi Niña Bonita", "Tu Angelito" by Chino & Nacho
Evening Gown Competition: "Cuando Me Enamoro" by Enrique Iglesias ft. Juan Luis Guerra
Crowning Moment: "Nuestra Belleza" (Official Theme)
Contestants
Replacements
Querétaro – Natasha Kaufmann was the winner of Nuestra Belleza Querétaro 2010. The Suplente/1st Runner-up, María Perusquía was who represented Querétaro in Nuestra Belleza México 2010. Natasha Kaufmann quit the state crown for school reasons, as the university where she studies, didn't give away the opportunity to participate in the national pageant, which is why she was forced to resign.
Tamaulipas – Cecilia Ortíz was the winner of Nuestra Belleza Tamaulipas 2010. The Suplente/1st Runner-up, Claudia González was who represented Tamaulipas in Nuestra Belleza México 2010. Cecilia Ortíz quit the state crown for health problems that prevent her from participating in national competition.
Designated
Aguascalientes – Gabriela Palacio
Jalisco – Eunice Sánchez
San Luis Potosí – Paola Lastras
Sonora – Jessica Lerma
Returning states
Last competed in 2008:
Tabasco
Withdrawals
Colima – Geraldine Valencia since the early days of concentration she began to feel unwell, so she decided to retire from competition before health was affected differently.
Estado de México
Quintana Roo
Tlaxcala
Hidalgo
Significance
Jalisco won the Nuestra Belleza México title for the fourth time and for third consecutive year (before 2000, 2008 and 2009).
This year the crown of Nuestra Belleza México suffers his sixth change, this new model would continue only this year.
Nuevo León won the Nuestra Belleza Mundo México title for the third time (before 1995 and 2007).
This year the crown of Nuestra Belleza Mundo México suffers his third change, this new model would continue only this year.
Aguascalientes won the Nuestra Belleza Internacional México title for the first time and was The Suplente/1st Runner-up for the second time (before 1994) .
This year the crown of Nuestra Belleza Internacional México suffers his first change, this new model would continue only this year.
Baja California Sur was appointed as Nuestra Belleza Internacional México for the first time.
For the third time a Titleholder was dethroned to the title (Cynthia de la Vega, Nuestra Belleza Mundo México 2010).
For the third time a Titleholders resigned to the title (Natasha Kaufmann, Nuestra Belleza Querétaro 2004 and Cecilia Ortíz Nuestra Belleza Tamaulipas 2010).
For the first time in this pageant were together Miss Universe 2010 and Miss International 2009, both Mexicans.
Tabasco return to competition after two years (2008).
Jalisco was placed for the seventh consecutive year in the Top 5.
Jalisco and Nuevo León were placed for the eighth consecutive year.
Sonora was placed for the fifth consecutive year.
Aguascalientes and Sinaloa were placed for the third consecutive year.
Coahuila, Distrito Federal and Yucatán were placed for the second consecutive year.
Michoacán returned to making calls to the semi-finals after four years (2006), Morelos, Tamaulipas and Veracruz after three years (2007) and Baja California Sur after two years (2008).
States that were called to the semi-finals last year and this year failed to qualify were Baja California, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Estado de México, Querétaro and Zacatecas.
Distrito Federal won Personality Fraiche Award for the first time.
Jalisco won Miss Talent for the second time (before 2006), Steps to Fame Award for the first time, and Fuller Beauty Queen for the third consecutive year (after 2008 and 2009).
Morelos won Miss Sports for the first time.
Sinaloa won Best National Costume for the third time (before 2004 and 2003).
Sonora won Miss Top Model for the first time.
Tamaulipas won the Academic Award for the first time.
Yucatán won Contestants' Choice for the first time.
The host delegate, Cecilia Flores from Coahuila, won fourth place.
For fifth time Ernesto Laguardia hosted Nuestra Belleza México, and for second time with Marisol González and Alma San Martín.
Baja California Sur (Karen Higuera) is the higher delegate in this edition (1.82 m).
Puebla (Ana Laura Gallardo) is the lower delegate in this edition (1.68 m).
Delegates from Campeche, Colima, Distrito Federal, Guerrero, Nayarit, Morelos, Puebla, Tabasco and Zacatecas were elected by designation.
Contestant notes
Aguascalientes – Estefanía Herrera was Princess in Reina Nacional de la Feria de San Marcos 2010 in Aguascalientes. She is sister of Kimberly Herrera, Nuestra Belleza Aguascalientes 2008. Also she opened the center to make beauty queens in her state called "Stefy Herrera".
Aguascalientes – Gabriela Palacio is the first delegate from her state to obtain a national title of the Nuestra Belleza México organization. She competed in Miss International 2010, held at Sichuan Province Gymnasium in Chengdu, China on November 7, 2010, where she won Miss Photogenic Award. She previously won the title as Reina Nacional de la Feria de San Marcos 2009 in Aguascalientes. On August 3, 2011, Palacio was designated to represent Mexico in Miss World 2011 after having dismissed to Cynthia de la Vega. This event was held at the Earls Court Two in London, England on November 6, 2011, but she didn't place. She was the Local Director of Nuestra Belleza Aguascalientes in 2012.
Baja California Sur – Karen Higuera was selected to represent Mexico in Miss International 2011 held at the Sichuan Opera Theatre in Chengdu, China on November 6, 2011, where she won Miss Friendship Award, but she didn't place. Karen Higuera is the wife of the brother of Jessica García Formenti Nuestra Belleza Baja California Sur 2011.
Colima – Geraldine Valencia was elected as Reina de la Feria de Todos los Santos Colima 2009 in Colima on October 30, 2009.
Chiapas – Grissel Hernández competed in Miss All Nations 2012 where she won the Miss Charity Award.
Chihuahua – Pamela Olivas was elected Miss Earth Chihuahua 2009 and she represented her State in the national competition Miss Earth México 2009 in Yucatán, where she won the title of Miss Air (1st Runner-up).
Distrito Federal – Lucia Del Cueto is sister of María José Del Cueto, Nuestra Belleza Distrito Federal 2007. She was designated by the Miss México Travel Organization as Señorita Rostro de México 2011 giving the right to represent Mexico in Miss Supranational 2011 on August 27, 2011, in Plock, Poland, but as she was the Queen Award Personality Fraiche 2010 was necessarily be in the national competition of Nuestra Belleza México 2011 in August so that problems of dates with both contests is prevented from attending international competition of Miss Supranational 2011.
Guerrero – Suslim Patrón participated in Srita. Flor de Noche Buena 2009–2010 in the Feria de San Mateo Navidad y Año Nuevo de Chilpancingo held in Chilpancingo, Guerrero on November 21, 2009, where she won 2nd Place.
Jalisco – Karin Ontiveros represented Mexico in Miss Universe 2011 in the Credicard Hall in São Paulo, Brazil on September 12, 2011, but she didn't place. She won the second place in the National Costume competition with "La Catrina". Two months after competing in the Miss Universe 2011 pageant Ontiveros was pursuing a modeling career with Hollywood Model Management in Los Angeles. She currently appears on ESPN Deportes and ESPN Latin America on various programs and segments. In 2015 she is married.
Jalisco – Eunice Sánchez was designated as Miss Universidad World México 2010 and represented Mexico in World Miss University 2010 in Seoul, South Korea where she won Miss Best Dresser award and she made to Semi-finalists.
Michoacán – Karla Paulina Gutiérrez was elected by Miss Mexico Travel Organization to compete in Miss Tourism Queen International 2011 representing Mexico on December 27, 2011, in Xi'an, China, but she didn't place. She was elected Miss Gaming México 2012 and she represented Mexico in the Miss Gaming International 2012 pageant. Also she competed in Reina Mundial del Banano 2012 in Ecuador where she was 2nd Runner-up. Now she lives in Mexico City since 2011. After in 2015 she competed in Miss Grand México 2015 and finished Finalist in the Top 5 representing Distrito Federal.
Morelos – Melissa Torres is originally from Hermosillo, Sonora, but she represented the state of Morelos, where she currently lives, in Cuernavaca.
Nayarit – Priscila Zárate was crowned Miss Earth Nayarit 2011 and she competed in Miss Earth Mexico 2011 on September 16, 2011, in Cancún, Quintana Roo where she was a finalist in the Top 8.
Nuevo León – Cynthia de la Vega is a professional model who won the 2008 Elite Model Look Mexico contest and subsequently participated in the international final, held in Sanya, China on November 1 of that year. She would represent Mexico in Miss World 2011 but she was dethroned on July 29, 2011, for not fulfilling functions as the current reigning queen, and so she didn't compete in Miss World 2011.Also she is the niece of Letty Coppel, Señorita Sinaloa 1991 and 2nd Runner-up in Señorita México 1991. Currently she is studying finance at the Universidad de Monterrey in his native of San Pedro Garza García.
San Luis Potosí – Carmen Hernández competed in the second Reina Internacional del Transporte pageant in Duitama, Colombia on January 10, 2011, and won the first Crown for Mexico. At the time of her crown, broke the dress, revealing a breast for what the public immediately set his sights on it. Also she competed in Reina Internacional del Joropo pageant in Venezuela in July 2011 where she was 3rd Runner-up and she received the Reina de los Periodistas award. Also she won the right to represent Mexico in Miss Princess of the World 2011 held in Czech Republic on October 1, 2011, where she won the first crown for Mexico. She married on 2013.
Sonora – Jessica Lerma was elected to represent Mexico in Reina Mundial del Banano 2014 in Ecuador, where she was 2nd Runner-up and won the Best National Costume Award. On 2015 she was elected Miss Grand Huatabampo 2016 to compete in Miss Grand México 2016.Tabasco – Lilia Lucamendi lives in Mexico City for her studies.Veracruz – Diana Botello is a businesswoman, as she has her own Boutique called "Di-Bo Modelaje & Boutique" in which, in addition to selling Clothing Youth are also taught modeling classes for girls who want to aspire to a Beauty Title. She was Señorita Turismo y Cultura Veracruz 2008.Yucatán – María Fernanda López was born in Tehuacán, Puebla, but she represented the state of Yucatán as she has lived in Mérida for several years.
Crossovers
Contestants who had competed or will compete at other beauty pageants:
Miss Universe
2011: Jalisco: Karin Ontiveros
Miss World
2011: Aguascalientes: Gabriela Palacio
Miss International
2010: Aguascalientes: Gabriela Palacio
2011: Baja California Sur: Karen Higuera
Miss Supranational
2016: Nuevo León: Cynthia de la Vega (TBD)
World Miss University
2010: Jalisco: Eunice Sánchez (Top 10)
Miss Tourism Queen International
2011: Michoacán: Karla Paulina Gutiérrez
Miss Princess of the World
2011: San Luis Potosí: Carmen Hernández (Winner)
Miss Gaming International
2012: Michoacán: Karla Paulina Gutiérrez
Reina Mundial del Banano
2012: Michoacán: Karla Paulina Gutiérrez (2nd Runner-up)
2014: Sonora: Jessica Lerma (2nd Runner-up)
Miss All Nations
2012: Chiapas: Grissel Hernández
Reina Internacional del Transporte
2011: San Luis Potosí: Carmen Hernández (Winner)
Reina Internacional del Joropo
2011: San Luis Potosí: Carmen Hernández (3rd Runner-up)
Miss Earth México
2009: Chihuahua: Pamela Olivas (Miss Air/1st Runner-up)
2011: Nayarit: Priscila Zárate (Top 8)
Miss Grand México
2015: Michoacán: Karla Paulina Gutiérrez (Top 5)
Distrito Federal's representative
Reina de la Feria de San Marcos
2009: Aguascalientes: Gabriela Palacio (Winner)
2010: Aguascalientes: Estefanía Herrera (Princess)
Señorita Flor de Noche Buena
2009: Guerrero: Suslim Patrón (1st Runner-up)
Nuestra Belleza Aguascalientes
2010: Aguascalientes': Gabriela Palacio (Suplente/1st Runner-up)''
References
External links
Official Website
.México
2010 in Mexico
2010 beauty pageants |
411936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty-one%20%28card%20game%29 | Thirty-one (card game) | Thirty-one or Trente et un is a gambling card game played by two to seven people, where players attempt to assemble a hand which totals 31. Such a goal has formed the whole or part of various games like Commerce, Cribbage, Trentuno, and Wit and Reason since the 15th century.
31 is popular in America and Britain.
Although the game is also known as Scat it has no connection whatsoever with Germany's national card game of Skat. It should also not be confused with other games called 31 including Schwimmen (also known as Schnauz or Hosen 'runter) and the Greek banking game of 31.
Names
The game is also known as Blitz, Scat, Cadillac in south Louisiana and Mississippi, Cad in Pennsylvania, Whammy! in central Indiana, Juble in Oklahoma and Kansas, as also as Kitty, High Hat, Ride the Bus and Geronimo.
History
Thirty-One is first mentioned in a French translation of a 1440 sermon by the Italian, Saint Bernadine, so may be of Italian origin. However, it spread rapidly across Europe to become popular in France, England and Ireland and is a precursor to Vingt-Un. In the 1670s, Francis Willughby recorded Thirty-One being played in England.
Object
The object is to obtain a hand with a value total as close as possible to 31, from which the name of the game is taken.
Details of play
Thirty-one uses a standard deck of 52 playing cards (in the Dutch version - Eenendertigen - only 32 cards - 7 and higher - are used). Aces are high, counting 11, court cards count 10, and all other cards count face value. Each player gets a hand of three cards, and three pennies as their "lives". The rest of the deck sits in the middle of the table as stock for the game, and the top card of the stock is turned over to begin the discard.
After the hands in the first round are dealt, play proceeds with each player, starting with the player to the immediate left of the dealer and going clockwise around the table, taking the top card of either the stock or the discard and subsequently discarding a card. All players are trying to collect a hand value of 31 (or the nearest to it) in the same suit. Play continues clockwise around the table until any player knocks or obtains a blitz.
When it is a player's turn, and that player believes their hand is high enough to beat all other opponents, that player may knock on the table in lieu of drawing and discarding. Once a player knocks, all other players, going clockwise from the player who knocked, have one more turn to draw from the stock and discard, or have the option of keeping all three cards in their hands, known as standing. The round ends when the player to the right of the player who knocked has had a final turn. If no one knocks by the time a player exhausts the stock, the round ends in a draw. Because knocking relies on the confidence that the player will not have the lowest score, a skilled player may memorise which suits the other players are discarding. If a player discards a different suit than that which they discarded their previous turn, it can be inferred that the player is "changing suits". Changing suits puts a player at a distinct disadvantage because the resulting lowered score raises the risk that another player may knock.
At the end of the round, all players show their hands and total each one up, only counting cards of the same suit. For instance, if the three cards in a hand are all different suits, the highest value card would stand as that player's score. The player whose hand scored the lowest loses the deal, and loses one life. In the event of a tie between two players for lowest score, both players are declared losers and each loses one life. If there is a tie involving the knocker for the highest score, the knocker is safe. If the knocker does not have a higher value than all other players, the knocker loses two lives.
If, at any time in the round prior to someone knocking, a player acquires a hand value of exactly 31 in the same suit, known as a blitz, their hand is immediately shown. This ends the round and all other players lose a life.
There is one case where it is possible to pick up one's own discard. This happens when there are only two players left in the game and one player knocks. The card that the other player discarded just before the knock is still on top of the pile, so it is now available to take back if desired. For example, if the player had just broken up a suit for tactical reasons, he or she can now restore it.
Scoring
When a player loses a life, they pay one of their pennies into the center of the table. A player with no pennies left is said to be "on the county", and is out of the game if they lose any further lives. The game continues until only one player remains.
Common variations
Banking
The play is the same as the regular version of Thirty-one described above, but with the following changes. Before each round, each player has to ante one token or coin onto the centre of the table. While dealing, after each player has received one card, the dealer puts one card face down on the table to form a pile of three cards known as the "widow". A player may use a turn to exchange one or more cards in their hand with an equivalent number of cards in the widow, leaving the cards they put in the widow face up.
At the end of the round, the player with the highest-valued hand takes all the tokens or coins on the table. If any player acquires a blitz in their hand, they immediately show it, the round ends, all other players place one token or coin on the table, and the player who blitzed takes all of the tokens or coins on the table.
Dollar bill
In this US version, players keep track of their lives by folding down the corners of a five-dollar note. The five-dollar note is also their stake in the game. (This can be substituted with other denominations or currency.)
A player who has folded all four corners of their bill, continues to play on a "free ride", also sometimes called "on the bike". On losing again, the player drops out of the game. The last player in the game wins all the five dollar bills.
Three-of-a-kind
One optional rule is that if a player has three cards of the same value from different suits, the hand is worth 30.5 points.
West Lansing Cut Throat
The play is the same as the regular version of Thirty-one described above, but with the following changes:
Three tokens are purchased for the agreed upon amount of money prior to play beginning, and the last player with any tokens wins the pot.
There is no "free ride". A player who knocks but does not beat at least one other player, pays two tokens. In this scenario the knocker tying for the lowest score will lose two tokens. All others with the same total as the knocker will not lose a token.
Three cards of the same rank count as a score of 30½, however all hands ranking as 30½ are equal and considered a tie, E.g. 2,2,2 and A,A,A.
Side wagers between individual players are quite common and often encouraged. Typically the first players knocked out will often choose an active player and place a "side bet" on which player will win or go further in the game.
Switch
The goal of the game is the same as in normal Thirty-One. The difference for this version called Switch is that instead of picking from the pile or the discard up-card, players exchange cards from two hands on the table. At the beginning of the game, the dealer is dealt two hands, and one extra hand is dealt and placed in the middle of the table face-down. The dealer looks at both hands and chooses the hand they want to play with and places the other hand face-up next to the face-down hand. Then it is the turn of the player next to the dealer.
During a turn, a player has four options:
Pick up a certain card in one of the hands on the table and exchange it for one of the cards held in their hand (if they pick up a face-down card, their discard will be face-up).
Swap one of the hands entirely with their own hand.
Renew one of the hands on the table. (If they renew a hand on the table, they have the choice to place it face-up or face-down. If they choose face-up, their turn is over; if they choose face-down their turn continues.)
"Nock". Nocking applies the same as it does in the normal game.
At the end of the game, the winner is decided in the same way as in the normal game of Thirty-One, although if a player has a hand of three cards of the same suit and is greater than 21, they may choose to restart the game making their hand the new face-up hand for the new game and re-dealing all hands for the other players and the face-down hand.
No-elimination thirty-one
This is a version which uses a running total instead of money or tokens. After each round of the game, each player earns points for a running total as follows:
Lowest score in the round: 1 point (or 0 if that player Knocked)
Middle score(s) in the round: 2 points (or 1 if that player Knocked)
Highest score in the round: 3 points (or 4 if that player Knocked)
Blitz (31) – 6 points
All ties get highest score possible. For instance, a tally of 30, 27, 27, 27 means 30 is high, and all 27s are middle (no low score for that hand).
Stop the Bus
Stop the Bus is a game common in England that uses the hand rankings from three card brag, instead of scoring closest to 31. The hand rankings are: three of a kind (a "prial") as the best hand, followed by a running flush, then a run, then a flush, then a pair followed by a high card. If a hand is otherwise similar then the card is ranked by high card or high pair, then by middle card or kicker, then low card. Suits are irrelevant.
Instead of drawing from a stock, the game starts with three face-up cards on the tables. On their turn, players may swap one or three cards from their hand for the table cards.
See also
Biribi
Trente et Quarante
References
Bibliography
Parlett, David (1991). A History of Card Games, OUP, Oxford.
External links
Pagat.com, Rules of Card Games: 31 (Scat), at Pagat.com
Blitz31 Open-source game for Windows
French card games
Year of introduction missing
Gambling games
Draw and discard games
15th-century card games
Showdown games |
425355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckley%2C%20Flintshire | Buckley, Flintshire | Buckley ( ) is a town and community in Flintshire, north-east Wales, from the county town of Mold and contiguous with the villages of Ewloe, Alltami and Mynydd Isa. It is on the A549 road, with the larger A55 road passing nearby.
Buckley is the second-largest town in Flintshire in terms of population. At the 2011 Census, its community had a population of 15,665. When the contiguous Argoed community is included, Buckley has a population of 21,502.
A prominent nearby landmark is the Hanson Cement kiln just south of the town.
Etymology
Buckley's name appears as Bocleghe in 1198 and Bokkeley in 1294. It may mean "clearing of the bucks", from Old English bucc lēah; however, the preponderance of an O vowel in historical forms suggests that the first element could instead be a personal name, Bocca. Another contender is bōca, meaning "beeches", but the fact that beech trees weren't introduced into North Wales until the 18th century argues against this.
History
In medieval times the area was part of three manors and lordships: Mold, Hawarden, and Ewloe. In 1420, Henry V presented Ewloe and the pasturage of Buckley to his wife, Catherine of Valois, as a wedding present. It was worth £26 per annum.
The town became an industrial heartland for pottery and coal mining between the 17th and 19th centuries. The first was opened in 1737. However, it only grew into any kind of prominence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when coal and clay were extensively mined there, and the name Buckley became synonymous with the production of various fire-clay and pottery products. By the early 19th century, there were 14 potteries in the town.
Buckley was a popular location for mining, as there were many faults in local rock formations that allowed seams of coal to be mined directly from the surface. Its heavy, clay soil also allowed for excellent pottery and bricks to be manufactured. Bricks from Buckley were transported all across the United Kingdom and as far as the United States, as Buckley became a brickworking centre. A great deal of people moved into the area, particularly from Ireland and Liverpool to find work in the mining and brick industries, giving the town a distinctive accent. Many pottery and earthenware products manufactured were taken on the backs of donkeys to either Chester market or exported via the River Dee, as early as the reign of Elizabeth I. The last pottery kiln was fired in 1946. The site of the brickworks is now being redeveloped as a housing estate. However, a local cement works is still in operation.
In 1932, a tradition started in Buckley of running an annual pantomime. Dennis Griffiths produced a version of Dick Whittington in 1933, and ran the pantomime for 27 years, famously using the programme to invite any and all complaints to arrive written "on the back of a 10 shilling note (non-returnable)".
In the Second World War, a Nazi German Luftwaffe plane, most likely on its way to blitz Liverpool, was shot down and crash landed in a nearby district, with the plane's engine crashing into a small lake known locally as 'The Trap'. The pilot survived, captured by a Special Constable, Peter Griffiths, and taken to Hawarden Prisoner of War camp.
Governance
Urban district status was conferred on the town in 1898; at this time, the area comprised two parishes, Buckley (1874) and Bistre (1844). The urban district of Buckley was formed of Pentrobin and Bannel (which was formerly a part of the parish of Hawarden), Argoed, and Bistre (the oldest part of the town). Wat's Dyke formed the western boundary. The urban district council was based at the council offices in Brunswick Road. Before then, it was divided between the parishes of Mold and Hawarden.
Today, Buckley Town Council consists of 20 councillors, elected from four wards. These are called Buckley Mountain, Pentrobin, Bistre East and Bistre West.
The same wards elect councillors to Flintshire County Councillors, one from Buckley Mountain, and two from each of the others.
Buckley is part of the Alyn and Deeside UK parliamentary constituency and the Alyn and Deeside Senedd constituency and North Wales region.
Geography and climate
Buckley is situated in north east Wales approximately from the border with England to the East. Buckley is in the lee of the Snowdonian mountain range to the west and is therefore in a rain shadow area. Average annual rainfall in Buckley is approximately which is significantly lower than areas to the West of the Snowdonian mountain range. However, in comparison to areas in the East and South East of the United Kingdom, Buckley still receives a fair amount of rainfall. Since Buckley is located approximately above sea level, snowfall is more frequent in winter months in comparison to the lower lying ground in neighbouring areas.
Areas in the parish of Buckley outside the town centre include Bistre, Lane End, Padeswood, Buckley Mountain, Drury, Pentrobin, Bannel, and Alltami.
Dialect
Although very few locals speak with a 'Buckley' accent nowadays, due to people moving in and out of the area, and with the proliferation of television and radio, a few of the town's older citizens still speak in a form of the strongly accented dialect, full of colloquialisms, and often unintelligible to outsiders. One of the last remaining pure 'Buckley' speakers was noted linguist Dennis Griffiths, a Buckley resident, who died in 1972, and whose books are the main repository and record of the dialect. A few examples (mainly phonetic) are noted below:
Wunst every blue moon – rarely occurring
Thou fries me to death – the limit of boredom
A lick and a promise – a quick wash
Fasen the fost un fost – fasten the first one first
The daddy on um aw – the best of the lot
Husht thee naise – be quiet
I conna meke thee out – I can't understand you
Chunner – Complain
The last 'pure' speaker of the Buckley dialect was Joseph Charles Shone, a foundryman born in 1917, who died in 1987.
An example of the Buckley dialect was recorded by community heritage archivist John Butler in 2016. In this item, long-time Buckley resident Margaret Shone recounts one of Dennis Griffiths's specially written stories, an adaptation of the Parable of the Prodigal Son into the Buckley dialect.
Economy
Today, Buckley has a population of around 20,000, and has numerous light industries. Those who cannot find work locally commute to Deeside, Cheshire, Wrexham and Merseyside.
The Hanson Cement works at Padeswood is the only large scale industry remaining in the town. Its kiln is now the major landmark on the skyline, visible from many miles away. Despite many locals considering it an eyesore, according to its website, the company has reduced pollution produced by the cement works by up to 90%.
Community facilities
Buckley has a large area of common land, known simply as 'The Common'. It has a large playground for children, as well as a duck pond. A funfair visits during the Buckley Jubilee in the summer, usually on the second Tuesday of July, which is the town jubilee.
There is also a small lake, known as 'The Trap', which is stocked with coarse fish. A German Messerschmitt bomber crashed into the Trap during World War II, shot down by anti-aircraft fire after going off course following a bombing run over Liverpool. The land is primarily heavy clay soil. Etna Park, which is just a short walk from the town centre, is part of the Heritage Trail walk in the area.
Buckley has a shopping precinct, as well as three supermarkets, Aldi, Iceland and Home Bargains. There is a town-centre car park which is charged at 30p per hour. The town contains a wide variety of public houses, which includes the local working men's club. The local branch of The Royal British Legion closed in 2010 and has since been demolished.
Education
Buckley has four primary schools: Westwood County Primary (Formerly known as West Lea infants and Buckley CP – juniors) which is on Tabernacle Street, Southdown Primary School on Linderick Avenue, Mountain Lane Primary School on Knowle Lane, and Drury County Primary on Beech Road, Drury.
Buckley has one secondary school, the Elfed High School, located near the Common on Mill Lane. The school includes a sports centre and a swimming pool, for use of both the students and the public. Many students from Buckley also attend Argoed High School, located in nearby Bryn-y-Baal, or the Alun School, in Mold. All schools in Buckley are run by the Flintshire Local Education Authority.
Religion
Buckley is unusual in having two ecclesiastical parishes. The Church of St Matthew is the oldest parish church in the town, and was consecrated in 1822. Bistre Emmanuel Parish Church was built in 1842, despite appearing much older due to its early Gothic-style architecture. The first Primitive Methodist church in Wales is on the outskirts of Buckley, in Alltami.
The present St John's United Reformed Church was originally a chapel known as "Chapel in the Meadow", set up by a noncomformist pottery owner, Jonathan Catherall, in 1811. Before that date, Catherall had held services in his house which he named after Lord Hawkesbury. As the Church forbade chapels from having bells, he built a bell tower in the grounds of his home. The site of this unique non-conformist bell tower is marked by a mound and plaque near the skate park at the Elfed Sports Complex.
The Our Lady of the Rosary Catholic church in Buckley was built in 2000 to replace a much older building. Other churches in Buckley include Bistre Methodist, Pentrobin Methodist, Buckley Cross Methodist, Bryn Methodist, and Drury Lane Methodist.
Culture
Events
Buckley observes an annual regional celebration and march that is over 200 years old called the Buckley Jubilee, which is celebrated on the second Tuesday of July. Officially, however, the Jubilee was begun in 1856. The difference in dates stems from the 'official' date being set when the Buckley Temperance Society first sanctioned the march. The Jubilee is a ceremonial march that begins on "The Common", a large area of common ground owned by the people of the town used for leisure and recreational purposes. The term 'jubilee' was first used in 1871.
A non-denominational Service led by the minister of the church or chapel leading the Jubilee that year is held on the Common, starting at around 3pm. The Sunday before the Jubilee, the leading church is presented with the Centenary Shield, which they hold for the year. A fifteen-minute service takes place, with two hymns accompanied by the Royal Buckley Town Band. The march then leaves the common, and marches through the town, with representatives from the local Sunday Schools, Scout and Guide troops, and many of the local schools. Banners from each of the local churches are carried.
Royal Buckley Town Band
Buckley has a famous brass band, the Royal Buckley Town Band. The band is one of only two in the entire United Kingdom to have received sanction from a British monarch to use "Royal" in their name. They lead the Jubilee every year.
Popular music
Buckley has one nightclub, the Tivoli Nightclub (known locally as "The Tiv"), on Brunswick Road. Formerly both a cinema and a music hall, the Tivoli has seen many bands play there over the years, including Uriah Heep, Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin in the early 1970s, and many Britpop bands including Oasis, Ocean Colour Scene and the Super Furry Animals in the 1990s. It has been described as 'one of the finest quirky little venues of our time' and is featured in the DVD re-issue of Oasis's album, Definitely Maybe. Between summer 1992 and spring 1993, Radiohead played there twice. Bands such as Cast, Ash, Stiff Little Fingers, Fun Lovin' Criminals, Skindred, Hed PE and OPM have all played there. Since a renovation and rebranding in 2000, few bands played live at the venue, with the club music policy having more emphasis on commercial dance and pop music, with a rock night on Fridays. The venue attracts crowds from Chester, Wrexham, Manchester and Liverpool.
Radio
The town was also home to a community radio project which used to broadcast 'trial' or 'temporary radio' licences to Buckley, Broughton, Mold, Deeside and the surrounding areas. The station was known as South Flintshire Radio and its offices were found above the swimming baths on Mold Road. The station was heard on eight separate occasions between November 1996 and July 2000 as part of a campaign to bring a local radio station to Flintshire, following the demise of Mold-based BBC Radio Clwyd. The project helped pave the way for a permanent local radio licence which was awarded to Chester FM (known as Dee 106.3) which broadcasts to Chester, Ellesmere Port, Deeside and Buckley.
Library
Buckley has a sizable two-storey library, with the second level being dedicated solely to history and reference pieces, mainly on the local area. The second floor also doubles as the local museum.
Sport
Buckley has a football club in the Cymru North league, Buckley Town F.C. In addition to the men's team Buckley also has a women's team, Buckley Town Ladies FC, who play in the North Wales Coast Women's Football League.
The Elfed Sports Complex was built in 2005, near the Elfed High School, and includes a swimming pool, which replaced the outdated, Victorian-style baths on the Mold Road high street.
Transport
Road
Buckley is located on the A549 road, and is near the A55 expressway, which passes to the south of Ewloe. Buckley is part of a trial run to bring 20 MPH to towns all over Wales. This means most roads in Buckley are 20 MPH.
Bus
There are a number of bus routes that pass through Buckley, mostly operated by Arriva Buses Wales, which now means on most weekdays a bus to Chester or Mold is available every 10 minutes.
Rail
Buckley has previously been served by up to three different stations on lines operated by the Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway and the Mold Railway. Services to Mold and Connah's Quay have been discontinued and the old train lines removed. Many features remain visible particularly within Knowle Hill Nature Reserve to the east of the town.
Today, Buckley railway station is a minor stop on the Borderlands Line, which runs from Wrexham to Bidston on the Wirral. It is operated by Transport for Wales. Trains run every 60 minutes, Monday to Saturday daytimes, and less frequently on evenings and Sundays. Connections can be made at Shotton, Wrexham General, and at Bidston for Liverpool. There are two platforms, one for each direction the line runs in.
Air
The nearest major airports are Liverpool John Lennon Airport and Manchester Airport, both around 45 minutes' drive away, although Hawarden Airport is a minor airfield nearby at Broughton.
Notable people
Frederick Birks (1894–1917), holder of the Victoria Cross for extreme valour in WWI.
Cherry Dee (born 1987), former professional glamour model and Page Three girl.
Claire Fox, Baroness Fox of Buckley (born 1960), writer, journalist, lecturer and politician, grew up in Buckley.
Sylvia Heal (born 1942), former Member of Parliament, went to school in Buckley.
Ann Keen (born 1948), politician and former MP for Brentford and Isleworth, went to school in Buckley
Howell Elvet Lewis (1860–1953), known as Elfed, a Welsh Congregational minister, hymn-writer, and devotional poet, who served as Archdruid of the National Eisteddfod of Wales. Elfed High School is named after him.
Blake Pelly (1907–1990), emigrated to Australia, became an air force officer, politician and businessman.
Sport
Tommy Astbury (1920–1993), footballer with 303 club caps with Chester City F.C.
Danny Collins (born 1980), footballer with 516 club caps.
John Lyons (1956–1982), footballer with 195 club caps.
Ryan Shawcross (born 1987) footballer with 375 club caps with Stoke City, grew up in Buckley,
James Williams (1885–1916), footballer with 169 club caps, died on active service in WWI.
Twin towns and sister cities
Murata (Japan Tōhoku region Miyagi Prefecture)
See also
Buckley Town F.C.
Elfed High School
St Matthew's Church, Buckley
References
Notes
Bibliography
Dialect extracts are taken from Dennis Griffiths' book Talk of My Town, Buckley Young People's Cultural Association, 1969. It can be borrowed from Buckley Library.
Out of This Clay Dennis Griffiths 1960 Published by Gee and Son, Ltd., Denbigh
The Making of Buckley and District by T.W. Pritchard, Bridge Books, 2006.
External links
Buckley Society
BBC North East Wales: Buckley Jubilee
Photos of Buckley and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk
Towns in Flintshire
Communities in Flintshire |
469578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision%20support%20system | Decision support system | A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and help people make decisions about problems that may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e., unstructured and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized or human-powered, or a combination of both.
While academics have perceived DSS as a tool to support decision making processes, DSS users see DSS as a tool to facilitate organizational processes. Some authors have extended the definition of DSS to include any system that might support decision making and some DSS include a decision-making software component; Sprague (1980) defines a properly termed DSS as follows:
DSS tends to be aimed at the less well structured, underspecified problem that upper level managers typically face;
DSS attempts to combine the use of models or analytic techniques with traditional data access and retrieval functions;
DSS specifically focuses on features which make them easy to use by non-computer-proficient people in an interactive mode; and
DSS emphasizes flexibility and adaptability to accommodate changes in the environment and the decision making approach of the user.
DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present includes:
inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),
comparative sales figures between one period and the next,
projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.
History
The concept of decision support has evolved mainly from the theoretical studies of organizational decision making done at the Carnegie Institute of Technology during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the implementation work done in the 1960s. DSS became an area of research of its own in the middle of the 1970s, before gaining in intensity during the 1980s.
In the middle and late 1980s, executive information systems (EIS), group decision support systems (GDSS), and organizational decision support systems (ODSS) evolved from the single user and model-oriented DSS. According to Sol (1987), the definition and scope of DSS have been migrating over the years: in the 1970s DSS was described as "a computer-based system to aid decision making"; in the late 1970s the DSS movement started focusing on "interactive computer-based systems which help decision-makers utilize data bases and models to solve ill-structured problems"; in the 1980s DSS should provide systems "using suitable and available technology to improve effectiveness of managerial and professional activities", and towards the end of 1980s DSS faced a new challenge towards the design of intelligent workstations.
In 1987, Texas Instruments completed development of the Gate Assignment Display System (GADS) for United Airlines. This decision support system is credited with significantly reducing travel delays by aiding the management of ground operations at various airports, beginning with O'Hare International Airport in Chicago and Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado. Beginning in about 1990, data warehousing and on-line analytical processing (OLAP) began broadening the realm of DSS. As the turn of the millennium approached, new Web-based analytical applications were introduced.
DSS also have a weak connection to the user interface paradigm of hypertext. Both the University of Vermont PROMIS system (for medical decision making) and the Carnegie Mellon ZOG/KMS system (for military and business decision making) were decision support systems which also were major breakthroughs in user interface research. Furthermore, although hypertext researchers have generally been concerned with information overload, certain researchers, notably Douglas Engelbart, have been focused on decision makers in particular.
The advent of more and better reporting technologies has seen DSS start to emerge as a critical component of management design. Examples of this can be seen in the intense amount of discussion of DSS in the education environment.
Applications
DSS can theoretically be built in any knowledge domain. One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis. There are four stages in the evolution of clinical decision support system (CDSS): the primitive version is standalone and does not support integration; the second generation supports integration with other medical systems; the third is standard-based, and the fourth is service model-based.
DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and other business performance software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources. Due to DSS, all the information from any organization is represented in the form of charts, graphs i.e. in a summarized way, which helps the management to take strategic decisions. For example, one of the DSS applications is the management and development of complex anti-terrorism systems. Other examples include a bank loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to know if they can be competitive with their costs.
A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in agricultural production, marketing for sustainable development. Agricultural DSSes began to be developed and promoted in the 1990s. For example, the DSSAT4 package, The Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer developed through financial support of USAID during the 1980s and 1990s, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural production systems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farm and policy levels. Precision agriculture seeks to tailor decisions to particular portions of farm fields. There are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption of DSS in agriculture.
DSS is also prevalent in forest management where the long planning horizon and the spatial dimension of planning problems demand specific requirements. All aspects of Forest management, from log transportation, harvest scheduling to sustainability and ecosystem protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. In this context, the consideration of single or multiple management objectives related to the provision of goods and services that are traded or non-traded and often subject to resource constraints and decision problems. The Community of Practice of Forest Management Decision Support Systems provides a large repository on knowledge about the construction and use of forest Decision Support Systems.
A specific example concerns the Canadian National Railway system, which tests its equipment on a regular basis using a decision support system. A problem faced by any railroad is worn-out or defective rails, which can result in hundreds of derailments per year. Under a DSS, the Canadian National Railway system managed to decrease the incidence of derailments at the same time other companies were experiencing an increase.
DSS has been used for risk assessment to interpret monitoring data from large engineering structures such as dams, towers, cathedrals, or masonry buildings. For instance, Mistral is an expert system to monitor dam safety, developed in the 1990s by Ismes (Italy). It gets data from an automatic monitoring system and performs a diagnosis of the state of the dam. Its first copy, installed in 1992 on the Ridracoli Dam (Italy), is still operational 24/7/365. It has been installed on several dams in Italy and abroad (e.g., Itaipu Dam in Brazil), and on monuments under the name of Kaleidos. Mistral is a registered trade mark of CESI. GIS has been successfully used since the '90s in conjunction with DSS, to show on a map real-time risk evaluations based on monitoring data gathered in the area of the Val Pola disaster (Italy).
Components
Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are:
the database (or knowledge base),
the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria)
the user interface.
The users themselves are also important components of the architecture.
Taxonomies
Using the relationship with the user as the criterion, Haettenschwiler differentiates passive, active, and cooperative DSS. A passive DSS is a system that aids the process of decision making, but that cannot bring out explicit decision suggestions or solutions. An active DSS can bring out such decision suggestions or solutions. A cooperative DSS allows for an iterative process between human and system towards the achievement of a consolidated solution: the decision maker (or its advisor) can modify, complete, or refine the decision suggestions provided by the system, before sending them back to the system for validation, and likewise the system again improves, completes, and refines the suggestions of the decision maker and sends them back to them for validation.
Another taxonomy for DSS, according to the mode of assistance, has been created by D. Power: he differentiates communication-driven DSS, data-driven DSS, document-driven DSS, knowledge-driven DSS, and model-driven DSS.
A communication-driven DSS enables cooperation, supporting more than one person working on a shared task; examples include integrated tools like Google Docs or Microsoft SharePoint Workspace.
A data-driven DSS (or data-oriented DSS) emphasizes access to and manipulation of a time series of internal company data and, sometimes, external data.
A document-driven DSS manages, retrieves, and manipulates unstructured information in a variety of electronic formats.
A knowledge-driven DSS provides specialized problem-solving expertise stored as facts, rules, procedures or in similar structures like interactive decision trees and flowcharts.
A model-driven DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a statistical, financial, optimization, or simulation model. Model-driven DSS use data and parameters provided by users to assist decision makers in analyzing a situation; they are not necessarily data-intensive. Dicodess is an example of an open-source model-driven DSS generator.
Using scope as the criterion, Power differentiates enterprise-wide DSS and desktop DSS. An enterprise-wide DSS is linked to large data warehouses and serves many managers in the company. A desktop, single-user DSS is a small system that runs on an individual manager's PC.
Development frameworks
Similarly to other systems, DSS systems require a structured approach. Such a framework includes people, technology, and the development approach.
The Early Framework of Decision Support System consists of four phases:
Intelligence – Searching for conditions that call for decision;
Design – Developing and analyzing possible alternative actions of solution;
Choice – Selecting a course of action among those;
Implementation – Adopting the selected course of action in decision situation.
DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may include:
The actual application that will be used by the user. This is the part of the application that allows the decision maker to make decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that particular problem.
Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to easily develop specific DSS applications. This level makes use of case tools or systems such as Crystal, Analytica and iThink.
Tools include lower level hardware/software. DSS generators including special languages, function libraries and linking modules
An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesigned at various intervals. Once the system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised where necessary for the desired outcome.
Classification
There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly into one of the categories, but may be a mix of two or more architectures.
Holsapple and Whinston classify DSS into the following six frameworks: text-oriented DSS, database-oriented DSS, spreadsheet-oriented DSS, solver-oriented DSS, rule-oriented DSS, and compound DSS. A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS; it is a hybrid system that includes two or more of the five basic structures.
The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated categories: Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support.
DSS components may be classified as:
Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze
User knowledge and expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the user
Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated
Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria
DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are based on artificial intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are called intelligent decision support systems (IDSS)
The nascent field of decision engineering treats the decision itself as an engineered object, and applies engineering principles such as design and quality assurance to an explicit representation of the elements that make up a decision.
See also
Argument map
Cognitive assets (organizational)
Decision theory
Enterprise decision management
Expert system
Information assurance
Judge–advisor system
Knapsack problem
Land allocation decision support system
List of concept- and mind-mapping software
Morphological analysis (problem-solving)
Online deliberation
Participation (decision making)
Predictive analytics
Project management software
Self-service software
Spatial decision support system
Strategic planning software
References
Further reading
Marius Cioca, Florin Filip (2015). Decision Support Systems – A Bibliography 1947-2007.
Borges, J.G, Nordström, E.-M. Garcia Gonzalo, J. Hujala, T. Trasobares, A. (eds). (2014). " Computer-based tools for supporting forest management. The experience and the expertise world-wide. Dept of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Umeå. Sweden.
Delic, K.A., Douillet, L. and Dayal, U. (2001) "Towards an architecture for real-time decision support systems:challenges and solutions.
Diasio, S., Agell, N. (2009) "The evolution of expertise in decision support technologies: A challenge for organizations," cscwd, pp. 692–697, 13th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20121009235747/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/CSCWD.2009.4968139
Gadomski, A.M. et al.(2001) "An Approach to the Intelligent Decision Advisor (IDA) for Emergency Managers ", Int. J. Risk Assessment and Management, Vol. 2, Nos. 3/4.
Ender, Gabriela; E-Book (2005–2011) about the OpenSpace-Online Real-Time Methodology: Knowledge-sharing, problem solving, results-oriented group dialogs about topics that matter with extensive conference documentation in real-time. Download https://web.archive.org/web/20070103022920/http://www.openspace-online.com/OpenSpace-Online_eBook_en.pdf
Matsatsinis, N.F. and Y. Siskos (2002), Intelligent support systems for marketing decisions, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Omid A.Sianaki, O Hussain, T Dillon, AR Tabesh – ... Intelligence, Modelling and Simulation (CIMSiM), 2010, Intelligent decision support system for including consumers' preferences in residential energy consumption in smart grid
Power, D. J. (2000). Web-based and model-driven decision support systems: concepts and issues. in proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems, Long Beach, California.
Sauter, V. L. (1997). Decision support systems: an applied managerial approach. New York, John Wiley.
Silver, M. (1991). Systems that support decision makers: description and analysis. Chichester ; New York, Wiley.
Information systems
Knowledge engineering
Business software |
5911594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spellingg%20Bee | Spellingg Bee | "Spellingg Bee", also known as "The Spellingg Bee", is the second episode of the first season of the American comedy-drama detective television series Psych. It was written by series creator and co-executive producer Steve Franks, and was directed by co-executive producer and director Mel Damski during November and December 2005. The episode originally aired on USA Network in the United States on July 14, 2006. The installment features guest appearances by Kirsten Nelson, Alexander Calvert, Kyle Pejpar, and Jeremy Loheir, among others. It also features an appearance by sportscaster Bud Collins.
The series follows Shawn Spencer (James Roday) and his assistant Burton "Gus" Guster (Dulé Hill), who operate a fake psychic detective agency, which is actually based on Shawn's hyperobservant ability. In the episode, Shawn and Gus are watching a spelling bee on TV when the expected champion collapses suddenly. Suspecting a set-up, they investigate the bee. While there, the spellmaster (Alex Bruhanski) suspiciously falls over a railing to his death, strengthening their beliefs in foul play. With help from Shawn's father, Henry Spencer (Corbin Bernsen) they discover poison in the spellmaster's meal, confirming their thoughts. Shawn realizes that the entire situation was created by a contestant and his father in order to cover up that they were cheating.
The installment was originally written to be the third episode of the season, but was moved up by the show's producers to introduce the character Juliet O'Hara earlier. Like most episodes of the series, it was filmed in and around the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. "Spellingg Bee" received mixed-to-positive reception from television critics. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was watched by 4.71 million people during its original broadcast, making up approximately 3.35 million households. It received a 1.5 rating/5 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic. Actor Dulé Hill was nominated for an award at the 13th NAMIC Vision Awards for his performance in the episode.
Plot
Shawn Spencer (James Roday) buys a newspaper and walks back into a restaurant to find his seat taken. The girl in his seat introduces herself as Juliet O'Hara (Maggie Lawson). Shawn realizes she's a cop, and immediately after he does, she and several officers arrest a man at the bar. Later, Burton "Gus" Guster (Dulé Hill) is in the Psych office, watching the local spelling bee on TV. Shortly after Shawn enters the office, expected spelling bee champion Brandon Vu (Issey Lamb) collapses, to the shock of the audience. Shawn notices something wrong with Vu's inhaler, and realizes that Vu was intentionally harmed. They receive a phone call from interim police chief Karen Vick (Kirsten Nelson) asking them to investigate the bee. They interview Vu at the hospital, who tells them that his inhaler was not working during the competition. They begin individual interviews with the competitors, but discover no leads. While they are waiting between interviews, spellmaster Cavanaugh (Alex Bruhanski) experiences chest pain and falls over a railing to his death, in front of Shawn and Gus. The police write off his death as a heart attack; Shawn and Gus are skeptical, and break into Cavanaugh's booth to investigate.
Gus finds Cavanaugh's lunch, and believes that it is poisoned due to its unusual smell. Shawn takes it to his father, Henry Spencer (Corbin Bernsen), to have it analyzed. Henry demands that in return, Shawn must build a dog house he promised to make in 1989. Shawn agrees, and leaves. While riding back to the office, he is run off the road by a mysterious van. Shawn wakes up in the hospital, and after he gets out, Gus informs him that he discovered another fake inhaler. Shawn returns to Henry's house to finish the dog house. Henry confirms that the lunch was poisoned, and Shawn returns to the bee. He disguises himself as the new spellmaster in order to enter the booth, and discovers that Cavanaugh had found out that Miklous Prochazka (Richard Zeman) was helping his son (Alexander Calvert), a contestant in the bee, to cheat by spelling out his son's words to him in Morse code using electrical impulses that were transferred to his false inhaler. After the bee has finished, Shawn has a "psychic vision" where he reveals everything to the police, who arrest Miklous and his son.
Production
Cast and crew
"Spellingg Bee" was the first episode directed by co-executive producer and director Mel Damski. The episode was the second installment written by co-executive producer and creator Steve Franks, after the previous episode "Pilot". Tracey Jeffery was the episode's producer, John J. Sakmar and Jerry Lenhart were the consulting producers, and Mel Damski, Steve Franks, Kelly Kulchak, and Chris Henze were the associate producers. Erin Smith was the production manager. Tracy Hillman was the installment's associate producer, and Michael McMurray was the director of photography, while Allan Lee and Anupam Nigam acted as the editors. David Crabtree, James Ilecic, Allan Lee, and Gordon Rempel were the script editors. The music for the episode was written by Adam Cohen and John Robert Wood. Assistant directors for the installment were Jack Hardy and Roger Russell.
The episode was originally planned to be the third installment of the season, but was moved up by the show's producers in order to introduce the major character Juliet O'Hara, played by Maggie Lawson. The scene introducing O'Hara was filmed as part of the fourth episode, "Woman Seeking Dead Husband: Smokers Okay, No Pets", but was added to the installment because of the need to bring in the character. It was also used for Lawson's audition for the show. Kyle Pejpar and Jeremy Loheir were cast to play Young Shawn and Young Gus in the episode. The show's casting directors brought in the actors because older versions of young Shawn and Gus were needed for the flashback scenes in the episode. Sportscaster Bud Collins guest starred in the episode. Collins wrote all of his dialogue, and designed his own wardrobe for the installment.
In addition, another guest star for the episode was Kirsten Nelson, who played interim police chief Karen Vick, a major reoccurring character who first premiered in the episode "Pilot". Shortly before the installment was filmed, Kirsten Nelson gave birth to her daughter, which would later be portrayed in the episode "Shawn vs. the Red Phantom". Other minor guests included Alex Bruhanski (who played Spellmaster Cavanaugh), Issey Lamb (who played Brandon Vu), Alexander Calvert (who played Jiri Prochazka), Richard Zeman (who played Miklous Prochazka), and Brendan Beiser (who played the bee's color commentator).
Writing and filming
The show is meant to take place in the Southern California city of Santa Barbara; however, most of the series is filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, and the surrounding communities. The majority of the scenes are filmed in the suburb community of White Rock, especially those including the ocean or coastline. Speaking about filming the show, Steve Franks stated that "I swear it's San Clemente, CA. It couldn't look more like it". In order to make the sets appear as Santa Barbara, the show's crew members installed many props stereotypical to Southern California, including fake palm trees, surfboards, and the California-published newspaper, the Santa Maria Sun. The production crew had to truck in eight palm trees to each set during filming.
Several of the show's filming sets were changed between episodes. The Psych office was expanded and refurnished, afterwards becoming the second largest stage for the show. The house for Henry Spencer was changed, in order to be closer to the ocean. The set for Chief Vick's office was also changed, and was repainted to brighten the scenes shot in it. Much of the episode was filmed on a sound stage, while several other scenes were filmed in the basement of the facility. Much of the installment was written to take place in Santa Barbara's Arlington Theater. Several of the episode's scenes were written by Franks while filming the pilot episode.
In order to make the show seem more realistic, Franks and other writers talked to his father, a former Los Angeles police officer, and several psychics. Much of the episode's content was improvised by the actors, and Roday included a pineapple in the episode, continuing the reoccurring theme on the show. James Roday talked to producers about including singing in the series' second episode, but the idea was shut down because it was too soon in the show. In addition, Steve Franks considered writing one of the show's early episodes to be about a psychic claiming Shawn was a fraud, but delayed writing the episode until later. The producers attempted to include themes against smoking and the issues of friendship. Franks also included a character named Mrs. Foote, a reference to his 1999 movie Big Daddy.
Release
The episode was originally broadcast in the United States on July 14, 2006, on USA Network as the second episode of the show's first season. It aired at a 10:00 P.M. EST/PST time slot, following a new episode of the show Monk. The show's previous installment, "Pilot", was a special extended episode, running for approximately 66 minutes. "Spellingg Bee" was the first installment of the show to run for a normal length, approximately 43 minutes. An encore was aired by USA Network's sister broadcast network NBC on August 7, 2006.
"Spellingg Bee", along with the fourteen other episodes from Psych's first season were released on a four-disc DVD set in the United States and Canada on June 26, 2007. The set includes full audio commentaries for six episodes, including "Spellingg Bee", deleted scenes for most episodes, blooper reals, audition tapes, character profiles, the international version of the episode "Pilot", an "Inside the writers' room" featurette, and other special features. The set is filmed in 1.78:1 aspect ratio, with English subtitles available, and Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround. The DVD set was released in the United Kingdom and other Region 2 countries on January 9, 2008, and was released in Australia on April 30 of the same year. The entire first season has also been released on the iTunes store for digital download, as well as independent downloads of each individual episode.
Reception
Ratings
According to the Nielsen Media Research, in its original American broadcast, "Spellingg Bee" was viewed by a total of 4.71 million people. Approximately 3.35 million households were watching the installment during its initial broadcast. The episode earned a 1.5 rating/5 share in the 18–49 demographic, meaning that on average 1.5 percent of all television-equipped households were tuned into the installment at any given moment, while 5 percent of households watching TV were tuned into it during the time slot. Approximately 1.8 million people in 25–54 demographic also viewed the episode. The installment was the most watched basic cable program for its air date. "Spellingg Bee" was ranked eighth in total viewers in the week of July 10–16, falling slightly behind its lead-in program, Monk, which was viewed by 4.89 million people. The installment's ratings were a major drop from the show's previous episode, "Pilot", which was viewed by 6.06 million people, and had a 1.9 rating/6 share. "Spellingg Bee" finished fourth in viewership for Psych's first season, falling behind the pilot, "Weekend Warriors" (4.76 million), and "9 Lives" (4.72 million).
Critical reception
Since airing, the episode has received mixed to positive reviews. In his review for IGN, contributor Colin Moriarty heavily criticized the episode, calling it "unintentionally lackluster". While Moriarty considered Hill to portray Gus well, he considered Juliet O'Hara and Carlton Lassiter's characters "rather forgettable" and stated that "neither character has any traits that make them interesting in the least". He considered the show to be "admittedly in a difficult spot". Moriarty criticized the show's police force, calling it "possibly miscast". He called the episode "mildly entertaining and mildly boring" and that the show is "not looking too good". The installment was given a rating of 6, or "okay", tying it for the lowest rated episode of the season, with the following episode, "Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece". In an article for The New York Times, journalist Bill Carter mentions that after just the two episodes, "USA Network seems to have found another drama hit with 'Psych'".
In his review for TV Squad, writer Richard Keller gave the episode a mixed to positive review, calling the installment "pretty unique", but that it also had its flaws. He enjoyed the fact that the episode revealed the relationship between Shawn and Henry, that it "reflects the relationship many of us have with our own fathers". He also enjoyed the "fleshing out" of Gus's character, that "we now see Gus as quite the brainiac" and "rather than saying nothing but 'No, Shawn'... Gus actually contributes quite a bit to this episode". However, Keller also criticized parts of the episode, saying that he disliked the "whole fake psychic concept". Keller also criticized Timothy Omundson's character Carlton Lassiter, saying "he just doesn't fit into the whole show", and "Omundson's makes Lassiter look like a cartoon character". In a comment for TV Guide, the show was called "a diamond in the rough", and writer Matt Roush called star James Roday "a delight". The episode was included in Yahoo! TV's list of the nerdiest episodes of Psych. Reviewer Tucker Cummings said that "the wordplay in this episode great" and that "it gives you a great insight into how Gus and Shawn's friendship has functioned (or dysfunctioned) over the years". In addition, she said that the episode's murder-mystery plot "is actually really engrossing" when compared to later episodes of the show.
In a review of the Syfy channel series Eureka, Boston Globe critic Matthew Gilbert compared the series to Psych, describing both as having "light-hearted dramedic tones". A few days after the episode aired, Virginia Rohan of The Record called the show a "promising series". Several critics compared the episode and show to the then-new Lifetime network series Angela's Eyes; in his article for the Los Angeles Daily News, journalist David Kronke stated that "Lifetime's new crime drama 'Angela's Eyes' is essentially the USA Network's new series 'Psych' inside out and played without laughs". In an article for the Akron Beacon Journal, Angela's Eyes main character Abigail Spencer was compared to Shawn Spencer, who was described as being "so good that people don't believe what he can figure out". Psych was also described as having "a much simpler premise", but being more entertaining than Angela's Eyes".
The installment has been very positively received by the show's cast and crew. Series creator Steve Franks was asked by iTunes in 2009 to select his twelve favorite episodes to be put on a special DVD release. The collection, titled Psych: Twelve Episodes That Will Make You Happy, contained four episodes from the first season, including "Spellingg Bee". When describing the episode, Franks stated that "The Spellingg Bee has my one of my favorite scenes in the run of the show when Shawn takes over for the spellmaster and has to investigate a murder while making up words for the contestants to spell". In 2013, iTunes asked stars James Roday and Dulé Hill to select their 20 favorite episodes from the show. The DVD collection was titled Psych: James and Dule's Top 20, with "Spellingg Bee" was selected as #14 on the collection, picked by Roday. Three other episodes from the first season were also selected.
Accolades
For his performance in portraying Burton "Gus" Guster in the episode, Dulé Hill was nominated to win the award for "Best Actor–Comedy" at the 13th Annual NAMIC Vision Awards. The awards are organized by the National Association for Multi-ethnicity in Communications (NAMIC), and are given for "outstanding achievements in original, multi-ethnic cable programming". Other nominees for the award were Carlos Mencia, Romany Malco, and Damon Wayans. Hill lost the award to Mencia, for received it for his performance in the Comedy Central program Mind of Mencia''.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Psych episodes
2006 American television episodes
Spelling competitions |
7474219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea%20in%20Turkey | Tea in Turkey | Tea ( ) is a popular drink throughout Turkey and the Turkish diaspora. Turkey has the highest per capita tea consumption in the world with an annual total consumption of over 3 kilograms per person. Turkey is a large exporter of tea, ranking fifth among the top exporting countries. Tea plays a big role in social gatherings that take place in tea houses and gardens. It is also used as a herbal medicine. Turkish tea culture extends to Northern Cyprus and some countries in the Balkan Peninsula. Turkish tea has a long and expansive history that shaped its harvesting even before the founding of the modern Turkish Republic. Since its introduction to Turkey, tea has become a large part of Turkish culture.
Domestic production
Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea, a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast. Rize has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil.
In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of the world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.5kg each a year, or almost four glasses a day. Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas.
History
Pre-history of tea in Turkey
Tea was first carried by Silk Road traders to present-day Turkey during the 5th century, who used it in barter trade for Chinese produce. By the end of 6th century, drinking tea had become popular, and was no longer considered just a medicinal drink.
In the later part of the 19th century, the nearby city of Batum, in what was then known as the Caucasus Viceroyalty (now known as Batumi in Georgia), was cultivating tea with great success. This commercial growing region in Georgia had been started by the Russians importing tea seedlings from China. With this fruition, the Russians looked towards Turkey to expand the crop.
Under the direction of the state and leaders, the Department of Agriculture selected the city of Bursa in order to evaluate the feasibility of tea cultivation by importing seedlings from Japan and China in 1888. There were issues with the growing of tea crops in Bursa as the land was found to be unsuitable for this crop.
1900s
Tea drinking was initially encouraged as an alternative to coffee after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Coffee had become expensive and, at times, unavailable in the aftermath of World War I. Upon the loss of Yemen Vilayet, where coffee was traditionally cultivated, coffee became an expensive import. Early tea cultivation experiments started in Rize Province in 1912, as an initiative by the Head of the Chamber of Agriculture, Hulusi Bey.
In 1918, botanist Ali Riza Erten was given government instruction to try tea cultivation in other regions of Turkey (including Rize Province, Artvin Province, Ardahan Province, and in Batumi in Georgia). He took detailed notes on the ecological factors that made for successful tea crops in Batumi and tried to find similar features in Turkey in his paper titled, Şimali Şarki Anadolu ve Kafkasyada Tetkikatı Ziraiye (Agricultural Investigations in North Eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus). Erten eventually narrowed production down to the provinces of Rize, Artvin and Ardahan. However, during this time Turkey and its neighboring countries were in turmoil and tea cultivation was not a priority. Much of this research by Erten on tea cultivation was not used for another 10 years.
By 1924, the government established the Central Tea Nursery (Turkish: Merkez Çay Fidanlığı) to distribute approximately 50,000 seedlings in the province of Rize. Research was conducted after Turkish tea plantations were formed to understand topics such as specific pruning techniques, plant fertilization needs, the shorter required timing for processing tea leaves. Many of the early tea farmers of this region stopped producing the crop as a result of lack of knowledge and initial profit. There had been many failed attempts to scale the efforts.
From 1939 to 1945, the earliest large scale crops were created and stabilized. Rize Province soon emerged as Turkey's main tea producing region, with tea becoming one of the most important agricultural products in the country. Attesting to its importance, some towns in the Black Sea region changed their names so as to include the word çay (tea), such as the towns of Kadahor and Mapavri, which became, respectively, Çaykara and Çayeli.
By the mid-20th century, tea became the beverage of choice in Turkey.
During the 1950s, the central authorities in government recognized the tea sector's transformative potential for the Black Sea province. In order to boost this new sector and improve the living conditions of this province with traditionally below par circumstances, the government strongly supported this industry. Ironically, Adnan Menderes and his Motherland Party - which stressed the importance of a free-market economy - used protectionism to help shore up the tea sector. The Motherland Party's central agenda was the modernization of Turkey. As the tea sector became more prosperous, so did the North Anatolian province with the construction of highways, schools, hospitals and important infrastructure.
The party-competition in the 1970s curbed tea production as well as the modernization process. This struggle between politicians increased the inflation rates which caused a devaluation of commodity prices such as tea. The decline in prices and a growing resentment towards the government led to many growers forgoing the quality controls placed by the Tea Corporation. The Tea Corporation was the state-owned monopoly that was the primary buyer of tea leaves. To ensure a satisfactory quality for exporting tea, the Corporation laid out standards for tea harvesting. The inspectors of the Corporation, many of whom were also producers themselves, often overlooked these regulations as they were aware of the significance of the declining incomes. The drop in the quality of tea was noticeable by the Turkish people at-large.
The 1980 coup which brought a strong-central government also shifted tea production and its regulations heavily. Producers were instructed to follow the quality standards set by the Tea Corporation. Instructions such as plucking only by hand and limiting daily quotas resulted in a drop in production. The 1983 elections brought back the Motherland Party. Soon after, the Tea Corporation's monopoly over the tea sector was lifted. Private companies were now able to enter the tea sector. The entrance of the private sector into the tea industry was welcomed by the producers, as many small-scale private companies disregarded the quality controls in comparison to the Corporation. Even with the entrance of new companies into the sector, the Tea Corporation remained dominant. The enthusiasm regarding the entrance of the private sector into the industry was not long-lived. Many companies either went bankrupt or were slow to pay their harvesters. Workers went back to selling to the Corporation as they found it to be more trustworthy- especially regarding payments.
After the 1991 elections where the Motherland Party was voted out of office, the new government sought to use the Tea Corporation to its benefit. The new coalition government added more jobs into the tea sector to increase its support.
Economics
In 2018, Germany was the top importer of Turkish tea. Within the months of January and August, Turkey made a profit of approximately 770,000 U.S. dollars from exporting tea to Germany. Turkey exported nearly 1,500 tonnes of its domestic tea in 2018. The amount of tea exported for the year 2018 was valued at 5.7 million U.S. dollars. As of 2017, Turkey ranks as the fifth largest exporter of tea in the world.
Impact of COVID-19
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Black Sea province witnessed a change in the demographics of the workers during the tea-harvesting season. Traditionally from the Caucasus, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan, the 40,000 workers who were anticipating harvesting tea were not let in the country due to the pandemic. This void was filled by African immigrants, primarily from Gambia and Senegal, who had been residing in Turkey with a visa.
The government “eased domestic travel restrictions” for harvesters of tea to travel to the Rize province. The harvesters were mandated to quarantine for fourteen days before getting to work.
Politics of tea
During the summer of 2021, widespread wildfires occurred in Turkey that left many displaced, homeless, and injured. As part of the response to the fires, the president, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, and his party threw teabags from a moving vehicle in one of the affected provinces. The government faced criticism due to the way it handled this crisis.
Tea drinking ritual
Turkish tea is typically prepared using two stacked teapots called "çaydanlık" specifically designed for tea preparation. Water is brought to a boil in the larger lower teapot and then some of the water is used to fill the smaller teapot on top and steep (infuse) several spoons of loose tea leaves, producing tea with a strong flavor. When served, the remaining water is used to dilute the tea on an individual basis, giving each consumer the choice between strong (, literally "dark") and weak (, literally "light").
Tea is drunk from small, tulip-shaped glasses called ince belli (literally "slim-waisted"), which allows the tea to be enjoyed hot as well as showing its crimson color. Istanbul is home to a prosperous glass-blowing industry where these traditional tea glasses are produced. Around 400 million of these traditional tea glasses are sold each year in Turkey. These glasses are usually held by the rim in order to save the drinker's fingertips from being scorched, as the tea is served boiling hot.
Traditionally, tea is served with small cubes of beet sugar. It is almost never taken with milk or lemon. Sweet or savory biscuits called kurabiye are usually served with tea during teatime (usually between three and five in the afternoon), though tea-drinking is not limited to these hours.
Tea is an important part of Turkish culture, and is the most commonly consumed hot drink, despite the country's long history of coffee consumption. Offering tea to guests is part of Turkish hospitality. Tea is most often consumed in households, shops, and kıraathane – social gatherings of men.
Tea houses and gardens
Aside from the traditional kiraathane, tea houses primarily for men — tea gardens are also settings in which social gatherings with tea take place. Backgammon is a common game that is often played in these tea gardens. They have proven to be an attraction for tourists in destinations such as Sultan Ahmet and Taksim in Istanbul. With the growing young population, Turkey is seeing a shift towards café culture in places like Karaköy where coffee is predominantly being drunk. However, this increase in the consumption of coffee does not negate the fact that black Turkish tea is still the drink of choice for Turks.
Turkish herbal teas
In Turkey, herbal teas are generally used as herbal medication. Many of the herbal medical treatments have not been proven by science but have existed in folk medicine. In Turkey, herbal teas destined for the treatment of most ailments can be found in local herbal shops, called .
The mostly popular herbal teas consumed by foreign tourists are apple (), rose hip (), and linden flower ().
Apple tea
Apple tea () has been used in Turkey for treatment of digestive problems, balancing blood sugar, boosting the immune system, has expectorant properties for improving a cough, and for improving eye health.
Yarrow tea
Yarrow tea has been medicinally used in Turkey as an anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial treatment. Modern medical research studies have been conducted on Yarrow tea to determine the medical benefits. In a 2014 study (Demirel, et al.) concluded yarrow (specifically species Achillea biebersteinii Afan.) to be a, "promising alternative for the treatment of endometriosis".
Sage teas
Sage tea (Turkish: ; literally 'island tea') is popular in the Mediterranean coastal region. Whereas in English sage usually refers to the species Salvia officinalis, throughout Turkey various species of the plant genera Salvia, Sideritis, and very rarely Stachys are usually known and consumed as "sage tea". Sideritis (also known as Ironwort, or Mountain tea; Turkish: Dağ Çayı) is used medicinally and grows at high elevations. Sideritis is often served with honey, lemon, or cinnamon.
See also
Samovar
Ayran
Turkish coffee
Salep
Boza
References
Culture of Turkey
Turkey
Turkey
Turkey
Turkish drinks
Turkey |
29789919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s%20in%20jazz | 2000s in jazz | In the 2000s in jazz, there was a gradual decline in popularity for the smooth jazz subgenre which had flourished in the previous decade
In the 2000s, a number of young musicians emerged, including the US band The Bad Plus, pianists Brad Mehldau, Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, bassist/singer Esperanza Spalding, and bassist Christian McBride. Well-established jazz musicians, such as Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Sonny Rollins, Wayne Shorter, Jessica Williams, Michael Franks and George Benson, continued to perform and record.
2000
Events
January
28 – The 3rd Polarjazz started in Longyearbyen, Svalbard (February 28 – 30).
April
14 – The 27th Vossajazz started in Voss, Norway (April 14 – 16).
May
10 – The 11th MaiJazz started in Stavanger, Norway (May 10 – 14).
25 – The 28th Nattjazz started in Bergen, Norway (May 25 – June 3).
June
9 – The 29th Moers Festival started in Moers, Germany (June 9 – 12).
13 – The 10th Jazz Fest Wien started in Wien, Austria (June 13 – July 9).
29 – The 21st Montreal International Jazz Festival started in Montreal, Quebec, Canada (June 29 – July 9).
July
5 – The 37th Kongsberg Jazzfestival started in Kongsberg, Norway (July 5 – 8).
7 – The 34th Montreux Jazz Festival started in Montreux, Switzerland (July 7 – 22).
11 – The 53rd Nice Jazz Festival started in Nice, France (July 11 – 18).
14
The 25th North Sea Jazz Festival started in The Hague (July 14 – 16).
The 35th Pori Jazz started in Pori, Finland (July 14 – 23).
17 – The 40th Moldejazz started in Molde, Norway (July 17 – 22).
21 – The 35th San Sebastian Jazz Festival started in San Sebastian, Spain (July 21 – 26).
August
9 – The 14th Sildajazz started in Haugesund, Norway (August 9 – 13).
11
The 46th Newport Jazz Festival started in Newport, Rhode Island (August 11 – 13).
The 15th Oslo Jazzfestival started in Oslo, Norway (August 11–19).
13 – The 17th Brecon Jazz Festival started in Brecon, Wales (August 13 – 15).
September
15 – The 43rd Monterey Jazz Festival started in Monterey, California (September 15 – 17).
October
12 – The DølaJazz started in Lillehammer, Norway (October 12 – 15).
November
2 – The Trondheim Jazz Festival started in Trondheim, Norway (November 2 – 5).
15 – The 9th London Jazz Festival started in London, England (November 15 – 24).
Album releases
Pat Metheny: Trio 99 → 00 (Warner Bros.)
Joshua Redman: Beyond (Warner Bros.)
Parker / Guy / Lytton and Marilyn Crispell: After Appleby (Leo Records)
Branford Marsalis Quartet: Contemporary Jazz (Columbia)
Dave Douglas: El Trilogy (BMG)
Guillermo Gregorio: Faktura (Hat[now]Art)
Pat Metheny: Trio → Live (Warner Bros.)
Joe Maneri: Going To Church (AUM Fidelity)
Marilyn Crispell: Red (Black Saint)
Myra Melford: Dance Beyond the Color (Arabesque)
The Rippingtons: Life in the Tropics (Peak)
Spring Heel Jack: Disappeared (Thirsty Ear)
Pat Metheny & The Heath Brothers + Ralph Towner & Charlie Haden: Move To The Groove (West Wind)
World Saxophone Quartet: Requiem for Julius (Justin Time)
Terence Blanchard: Wandering Moon (Sony Classical)
Misha Mengelberg: Solo (BUZZ Records)
Bill Dixon: Papyrus Volume I (Soul Note)
Bill Dixon: Papyrus Volume II (Soul Note)
Marty Ehrlich's Traveler's Tales: Malinke's Dance (OmniTone)
Magni Wentzel: Porgy and Bess (Hot Club)
Olga Konkova Trio: Northern Crossings (Candid)
Hugh Masekela: Sixty (Shanachie)
Deaths
January
2 – Nat Adderley, American trumpeter (born 1931).
4 – Roger Frampton, Australian pianist, saxophonist, composer, and educator (born 1948).
16 – Gene Harris, American pianist (born 1933).
20 – Don Abney, American pianist (born 1923).
25 – Lin Halliday, American saxophonist (born 1936).
31 – Si Zentner, American trombonist and big-band leader (born 1917).
February
15 – Gus Johnson, American drummer (born 1913).
29 – Hidehiko Matsumoto, Japanese saxophonist and bandleader (born 1926).
March
6 – Ole Jacob Hansen, Norwegian drummer (born 1940).
13 – Cab Kaye, English singer and pianist (born 1921).
18 – Randi Hultin, Norwegian jazz critic and impresario (born 1926).
24 – Al Grey, American trombonist (born 1925).
April
13 – Pete Minger, American trumpeter (born 1943).
29 – Jonah Jones, American trumpeter (born 1909)
May
2
Billy Munn, British pianist and arranger (born 1911).
Teri Thornton, American singer (born 1934).
21 – Buzzy Drootin, American drummer (born 1920).
31 – Tito Puente, American drummer, songwriter, and record producer (born 1923).
June
3 – Glenn Horiuchi, American jazz pianist, composer, and shamisen player (born 1955).
7 – Clint Houston, American upright bassist (born 1946).
12 – Bruno Martino, Italian jazz composer, singer, and pianist (born 1925).
22 – Svein Finnerud, Norwegian pianist, painter, and graphic artist (born 1945).
23 – Jerome Richardson, American saxophonist and flautist (born 1920).
25 – Wilson Simonal, Brazilian singer (born 1938).
July
6 – Akira Miyazawa, Japanese saxophonist, clarinetist, and flautist (born 1927).
August
14 – Walter Benton, American tenor saxophonist (born 1930).
20 – Chris Columbus, American drummer (born 1902).
25 – Jack Nitzsche, American musician, arranger, songwriter, record producer, and film score composer (born 1937).
September
12 – Stanley Turrentine, American tenor saxophonist (born 1934).
22 – Willie Cook, American trumpeter (born 1923).
26
Baden Powell, Brazilian guitarist and composer (born 1937).
Nick Fatool, American drummer (born 1915).
October
6 – Pat Flowers, American pianist and singer (born 1917).
11 – Sture Nordin, Swedish upright bassist (born 1933).
13 – Britt Woodman, American trombonist (born 1920).
18 – Julie London, American singer and actress (born 1926).
25 – Jeanne Lee, American singer, poet, and composer (born 1939).
30 – Steve Allen, American singer, songwriter, and television personality (born 1921).
November
4 – Vernel Fournier, American drummer (born 1928).
8 – Dick Morrissey, British saxophonist and composer (born 1908).
December
1
George Finola, American cornetist (born 1945).
Neal Creque, American organist and composer (born 1940).
12 – Rosa King, American saxophonist and singer (born 1939).
2001
Album releases
Michael Brecker: Nearness Of You: The Ballad Book (Verve)
Diana Krall: The Look of Love (Verve)
Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band: Swingin' For The Fences (Silverline)
Herbie Hancock: Future 2 Future (Transparent, Columbia)
Gordon Haskell: Look Out (Flying Sparks)
The Idea of North: The Sum of Us (Magnetic Records)
Robbie Williams: Swing When You're Winning (Capitol)
James Morrison: Scream Machine (Morrison Records)
World Saxophone Quartet: 25th Anniversary: The New Chapter (Justin Time)
Marilyn Crispell: Blue (Black Saint)
Matthew Shipp: Expansion Power Release (hatOLOGY)
Olga Konkova Trio: Some Things From Home (Candid)
Deaths
Moses Taiwa Molelekwa (17 April 1973 – 13 February), South African pianist
John Lewis (May 3, 1920 – March 29), American pianist, composer and arranger
2002
Events
January
25 – The 5th Polarjazz started in Longyearbyen, Svalbard (January 25 – 27).
March
22 – The 29th Vossajazz started in Voss, Norway (March 22 – 24).
May
5 – The 13th MaiJazz started in Stavanger, Norway (May 6 – 10).
17 – The 30th Moers Festival started in Moers, Germany (May 17 – 20).
24 – The 30th Nattjazz started in Bergen, Norway (May 24 – June 1).
June
24 – The 12th Jazz Fest Wien started in Wien, Austria (June 24 – July 7).
27 – The 23rd Montreal International Jazz Festival started in Montreal, Quebec, Canada (June 27 – July 7).
July
3 – The 38th Kongsberg Jazzfestival started in Kongsberg, Norway (July 3 – 6).
5 – The 36th Montreux Jazz Festival started in Montreux, Switzerland (July 5 – 22).
12 – 27th North Sea Jazz Festival started in The Hague (July 12 – 14).
13 – 37th Pori Jazz started in Pori, Finland (July 13 – 21).
15 – The 42nd Moldejazz started in Molde, Norway (July 15 – 20).
August
5 – The 17th Oslo Jazzfestival started in Oslo, Norway (August 5 – 10).
7 – The 16th Sildajazz started in Haugesund, Norway (August 7 – 11).
9
The 48th Newport Jazz Festival started in Newport, Rhode Island (August 9 – 11).
The 19th Brecon Jazz Festival started in Brecon, Wales (August 9 – 11).
September
20 – The 45th Monterey Jazz Festival started in Monterey, California (September 20 – 22).
November
15 – The 11th London Jazz Festival started in London, England (November 15 – 24).
Album releases
Norah Jones: Come Away with Me
Rova Saxophone Quartet: Freedom in Fragments (Composed by Fred Frith)
Herbie Hancock: Directions in Music: Live at Massey Hall, live album with Michael Brecker and Roy Hargrove
Gordon Haskell: Harry's Bar
Kenny Garrett: Happy People
James Morrison: So Far So Good
Wayne Shorter: Footprints Live!
World Saxophone Quartet: Steppenwolf (Justin Time)
Fred Frith and Maybe Monday: Digital Wildlife (Winter & Winter)
Kausland/Mathisen Quartet: Good Bait (Hot Club)
Hugh Masekela: Time (Sony Music Distribution)
Deaths
January
21 – Peggy Lee, American singer, songwriter, composer, and actress (born 1920).
February
1 – Streamline Ewing, American trombonist (born 1917).
2 – Remo Palmier, American guitarist (born 1923).
6 – Wendell Marshall, American upright bassist (born 1920).
8 – Nick Brignola, American baritone saxophonist (born 1936).
10 – Dave Van Ronk, American folk singer (born 1936).
22 – Ronnie Verrell, English drummer (born 1926).
24 – Mel Stewart, American character actor, television director, and saxophonist (born 1929).
28 – Helmut Zacharias, German violinist and composer (born 1920).
March
10 – Shirley Scott, African-American organist (born 1934).
19 – John Patton, American pianist and organist (born 1935).
27 – Dudley Moore, English actor, comedian, pianist, and composer (born 1935).
April
8 – Wilber Morris, American upright bassist and bandleader (born 1937).
9 – Weldon Irvine, American composer, playwright, poet, pianist, organist, and keyboardist (born 1943).
11 – Bubba Brooks, American tenor saxophonist (born 1922).
16 – Claudio Slon, Brazilian drummer (born 1943).
18 – Cy Laurie, English clarinetist and bandleader (born 1926).
29
Noel DaCosta, Nigerian-Jamaican composer, violinist, and choral conductor (born 1929).
Pete Jacobsen, English pianist (born 1950).
May
6 – Bjørn Johansen, Norwegian saxophonist (born 1940).
12 – Bob Berg, American saxophonist (born 1951).
24 – Susie Garrett, African-American actress, vocalist, and acting teacher (born 1929).
June
5
Curtis Amy, American tenor saxophonist (born 1929).
Truck Parham, American upright bassist (born 1911).
27
Russ Freeman, American pianist and composer (born 1926).
Chico O'Farrill, Cuban composer, arranger, and conductor (born 1921).
July
2 – Ray Brown, American upright bassist (born 1926).
20 – Jimmy Maxwell, American trumpeter (born 1917).
22 – Marion Montgomery, American singer (born 1934).
25 – Idrees Sulieman, American trumpeter and alto saxophonist (born 1923).
August
2 – Roy Kral, American pianist and vocalist (born 1921).
31 – Lionel Hampton, American vibraphonist (born 1908).
September
5 – Frank Hewitt, American hard bop pianist (born 1935).
17 – Dodo Marmarosa, American pianist, composer, and arranger (born 1925).
21 – Peter Kowald, German upright bassist and tubist (born 1944).
30 – Ellis Larkins, American pianist (born 1923).
October
17
Chuck Domanico, American bassist (born 1944).
Henri Renaud, French jazz pianist and record company executive (born 1925).
November
3 – Lonnie Donegan, Scottish skiffle singer, songwriter, and guitarist (born 1931).
13
Bill Berry, American trumpeter, Duke Ellington Orchestra (born 1930).
Roland Hanna, American pianist, composer, and teacher (born 1932).
16 – Mose Vinson, American pianist and singer (born 1917).
20 – Webster Lewis, American keyboardist (born 1943).
21 – Hadda Brooks, American pianist, vocalist, and composer (born 1916).
27
John McLevy, Scottish trumpeter (born 1927).
Stanley Black, English bandleader, composer, conductor, arranger and pianist (born 1913).
December
2 – Mal Waldron, American pianist, composer, and arranger (born 1925).
5 – Arvell Shaw, American upright bassist (born 1923).
7 – Clare Deniz, British pianist (born 1911).
11 – Lou Stein, American pianist (born 1922).
13 – Stella Brooks, American singer (born 1910).
2003
Album releases
Michael Brecker: Wide Angles
Michael Franks: Watching the Snow
Kenny Garrett: Standard of Language
Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band: XXL
The Idea of North: Here & Now
James Morrison: On The Edge (with Simon Stockhausen)
Mike Nock: Changing Seasons with Brett Hirst and Toby Hall
The Rippingtons: Let It Ripp
Wayne Shorter: Alegria
Amy Winehouse: Frank
Tord Gustavsen Trio: Changing Places (ECM)
Deaths
Nina Simone (February 21, 1933 – April 21), American singer
2004
Album releases
Jamie Cullum: Twentysomething
Fourplay: Journey
The Idea of North: Evidence
Norah Jones: Feels Like Home
Diana Krall: The Girl in the Other Room
Mike Nock: Duologue (Birdland, 2004) live concert recording with Dave Liebman
Ben Sidran: Nick's Bump
World Saxophone Quartet: Experience (Justin Time)
Gordon Haskell: The Lady Wants To Know
Deaths
Ray Charles (September 23, 1930 – June 10), American singer, pianist and composer
Bjørnar Andresen (April 1, 1945 – October 2), Norwegian upright bassist
Artie Shaw (May 23, 1910 – December 30), American clarinetist
2005
Album releases
Herbie Hancock: Possibilities
Diana Krall: Christmas Songs
James Morrison: Gospel Collection
The Rippingtons: Wild Card
Wayne Shorter: Beyond the Sound Barrier
Tord Gustavsen Trio: The Ground (ECM)
Hans Mathisen: Quiet Songs (Curling Legs)
Deaths
Pierre Michelot (March 3, 1928 – July 3), French upright-bassist
2006
Album releases
Eddie Daniels: Brief Encounter (Muse, 2006)
Michael Franks: Rendezvous in Rio
Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band: The Phat Pack
The Idea of North: The Gospel Project
Diana Krall: From This Moment On
James Morrison: Gospel Collection Volume II
James Morrison: 2x2 with Joe Chindamo
The Rippingtons: 20th Anniversary
World Saxophone Quartet: Political Blues (Justin Time)
Olga Konkova and Per Mathisen: Unbound (Alessa)
Deaths
Lou Rawls (December 1, 1933 – January 6), American singer
Maynard Ferguson (May 4, 1928 – August 23), American trumpet player, composer
Ruth Brown (January 12, 1928 – November 17), American singer, actress
Anita O'Day (October 18, 1919 – November 23), American singer
Jay McShann (January 12, 1916 – December 7), American pianist
Kenneth Sivertsen (January 16, 1961 – December 24), Norwegian guitarist, composer, and entertainer
Births
Angelina Jordan (January 10), Norwegian singer.
2007
Album releases
Michael Brecker: Pilgrimage
Herbie Hancock: River: The Joni Letters
The Idea of North: Live at the Powerhouse (CD and DVD)
James Morrison: The Other Woman with Deni Hines
James Morrison: Christmas
Tord Gustavsen Trio: Being There (ECM)
Deaths
Michael Brecker (March 29, 1949 – January 13), American tenor saxophonist, composer
Al Viola (June 16, 1919 – February 21), American guitarist
Art Davis (December 5, 1934 – July 29), American upright-bassist
Max Roach (January 10, 1924 – August 16), American drummer, percussionist, and composer
Joe Zawinul (July 7, 1932 – September 11), Austrian keyboardist and composer
Specs Powell (June 5, 1922 – September 15), American drummer and percussionist
Teresa Brewer (May 7, 1931 – October 17), American singer
Joel Dorn (April 7, 1942 – December 17), American music producer and record label entrepreneur
Oscar Peterson (August 15, 1925 – December 23), Canadian pianist
2008
Album releases
Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band: Act Your Age
Steve Tyrell: Back to Bacharach
Deaths
Esbjörn Svensson (April 16, 1964 – June 14), Swedish pianist and bandleader of Esbjörn Svensson Trio
Cachao (September 14, 1918 – March 22), Cuban upright-bassist
Earle Hagen (July 9, 1919 – May 26), American composer
LeRoi Moore (September 7, 1961 – August 19), American saxophonist
Bheki Mseleku (March 3, 1955 – September 9), South African pianist
Richard Wright (July 28, 1943 – September 15), English keyboarder, composer, singer and songwriter
Merl Saunders (February 14, 1934 – October 24), American pianist and keyboardist
Miriam Makeba (March 4, 1932 – November 9), South African singer
2009
Album releases
Diana Krall: Quiet Nights
The Rippingtons: Modern Art
Ben Sidran: Dylan Different
Tord Gustavsen Ensemble: Restored, Returned (ECM)
Olga Konkova: Improvisational Four (Candid)
Deaths
David "Fathead" Newman (February 24, 1933 – January 20), American saxophonist
Gerry Niewood (April 6, 1943 – February 12), American saxophonist
Blossom Dearie (April 28, 1924 – February 7), American singer and pianist
Coleman Mellett (May 27, 1974 – February 12), American guitarist
Koko Taylor (September 28, 1928 – June 3), American singer
Kenny Rankin (February 10, 1940 – June 7), American singer and composer
Tina Marsh (January 18, 1954 – June 16), American singer and composer
See also
List of years in jazz
2000 in music
References
External links
History Of Jazz Timeline: 2000 at All About Jazz
2000s in music
21st century in jazz
Jazz by decade
Jazz |
42003897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%2052%3A%20Futures%20End | The New 52: Futures End | {{Infobox comic book title
| image = The New 52 Futures End 0.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Cover of The New 52: Futures End #0 (May 2014 DC Comics). Art by Ryan Sook.
| schedule = Weekly
| limited = Y
| Superhero = Y
| publisher = DC Comics
| date =
| startmo = May
| startyr = 2014
| endmo = April
| endyr = 2015
| issues = 48, plus a 0 issue
| main_char_team = FrankensteinFirestormMister Terrific (Michael Holt)Batman (Terry McGinnis)Lois Lane
| issn =
| writers = Brian Azzarello, Jeff Lemire, Dan Jurgens, Keith Giffen
| artists = {{Plainlist|
Issue 0: Ethan Van Sciver, et al.
Issues 1, 6, 9, 13, 17, 22, 25, 29, 34, 39, 40, 44: Patrick Zircher
Issues 2, 5, 12, 16, 24, 31, 35: Jesus Merino, Dan Green
Issue 3: Dan Jurgens, Mark Irwin
Issues 4, 7, 10, 14, 20, 23, 27, 37: Aaron Lopresti, Art Thibert
Issues 8, 15, 19, 26, 32: Scot Eaton, Drew Geraci
Issues 11, 18: Georges Jeanty, Dexter Vines
Issue 21: Cully Hamner
Issues 28, 38, 43, 44: Andy MacDonald
Issue 30: Tom Raney
Issue 33: Aaron Lopresti, Scot Eaton, Art Thibert
Issue 36, 41, 42, 46: Scot Eaton, Scott Hanna
Issue 45: Jack Herbert, Stephen Thompson Issue 47: Andy MacDonald, Alberto Ponticelli, Allan GoldmanIssue 48: Andy MacDonald, Allan Goldman, Stephen Thompson, Freddie E. Williams II}}
| pencillers =
| inkers =
| letterers =
| colorists =
| editors =
| creative_team_month =
| creative_team_year =
| creators =
| TPB =
| ISBN =
| subcat =
| altcat =
| sort = New 52 Futures End
| addpubcat# =
| nonUS =
}}The New 52: Futures End is an eleven-month weekly comic book miniseries, published by American company DC Comics from May 2014 to April 2015. The series is set five years in The New 52's future, and is written by Brian Azzarello, Keith Giffen, Dan Jurgens, and Jeff Lemire. Covers for the series are drawn by Ryan Sook.
Publication history
In December 2013, DC Comics announced the series would launch in May 2014, with Keith Giffen, Brian Azzarello, Dan Jurgens, and Jeff Lemire writing. The series would start with a #0 issue, released on Free Comic Book Day on May 3, 2014, with issue 1 releasing later in the month. Artists on the series include Ethan Van Sciver, drawing the zero issue, along with Jesus Merino, Aaron Lopresti and Jurgens, as well as others who will be added as the series goes from one issue to the next. Lemire stated the series is "an exploration of DC's past, present and its future," with the writers trying "to explore the nature of what a hero is." It was also revealed that Ryan Sook would provide the covers, as well as character designs, for the series.
In January 2014, the writers revealed the concept for the story began to come together around June 2013. Griffen stated that each writer has a voice in each issue, and the four "have conference calls wherein we explain what we're hoping to do in the next issue, and then we parse out the pages – 'I'll trade you one for two' – and figure out who's doing what, and what order they're in." Jurgens added that each writer will concentrate on certain characters, saying "They'll encounter each from time to time, and then we start to work that wider scope thing, and then pull back and let them have their own adventures for a bit." Later in the month, Newsarama commented on the styling of the title as Futures End opposed to Future's End, speculating that the series may affect multiple futures seen in The New 52 since its launch. DC co-publisher Dan DiDio responded to this by saying, "what you're going to see is the potential of where the futures can be going" as well as the "direct impact it has on stories set in the current timeline in the DCU." In February 2014, with the May 2014 solicitations, it was revealed that the first issue would release on May 7, 2014, four days after the zero issue on Free Comic Book Day.
In April 2014, a teaser image by Mikel Janin, captioned "When Futures End... Blood Moon Shall Rise!", was released via the "Channel 52" back up in all comics. The image, in the style of M. C. Escher's Relativity, highlighted characters of the series, as well as red skies, which Newsarama noted might be a tease to an eventual crisis.
Premise
Starting 35 years into the future of the DC Universe, before moving to five years in the future, Prime Earth is feeling the after effects of a war across the multiverse. As a new threat approaches the vulnerable Earth, Batman Beyond travels back in time to help the heroes of Prime Earth fend off the impending apocalypse.
Characters
With the series announcement, Lemire noted that The New 52: Futures End would mainly focus on Frankenstein, Firestorm and Batman Beyond, who will make his in-continuity debut in the series and was later confirmed by Azzarello to be Terry McGinnis. Lemire added that "The cast is quite large," and the writers will try "to create new characters and new concepts that will hopefully have a life beyond the series."
With the May 2014 solicit preview summaries in February 2014, it was revealed that former WildStorm properties Grifter and Stormwatch would play a role in the series. Their inclusion suggests a larger presence of WildStorm characters, who have generally been limited to solo titles since the start of The New 52. Later in the month, DiDio stated that the creative team were the ones to choose to use WildStorm characters, and stated DC has "a lot of faith in them. That's why they were in the initial launch. And from our standpoint, this gives us another opportunity to show why we included them in the beginning, and why feel that they're part of our pantheon now."
As well, the April 2014 teaser image by Janin showcased previously unknown characters for the series, such as Mister Terrific, Lois Lane, Robin, Hawkman, Apollo, Booster Gold and Amethyst, along with Frankenstein, Firestorm, Batman Beyond and Grifter.
Plot
Thirty-five years into the future, Brother Eye has managed to transform the majority of superheroes into cyborg bugs. As the last remaining heroes launch one final attack on Brother Eye's power source, Bruce Wayne creates a time machine in an attempt to prevent Brother Eye's ascension and this future. Before Bruce is able to use the time machine, he gets ambushed by cyborg bugs, forcing Batman (Terry McGinnis) to travel through time instead. Arriving in the past, Terry realizes that he has arrived five years too late, with what he was trying to prevent already in play. After Terry is attacked by the cyborg bug of Plastique, which he subsequently dismantles, he learns that Mister Terrific is working on the technology which will lead to Brother Eye's ascension. He poses as a homeless person and slums outside Terrifitech Tower.
The DC Universe of five years in the future is one that has been rocked by enormous social upheaval slightly in the future of contemporary DC Comics stories. For example, following the events of Earth 2: Worlds End, thousands of refugees from the alternate universe of Earth 2 arrived on Earth after the destruction of their Earth; many are close doppelgangers of their Prime Earth counterparts. They were closely followed by the hordes of Apokolips, which had ravaged their world, leading to an all-out global conflict in which many civilians and heroes died. After the war, the governments of the world responded with hostility to the new interdimensional refugees, and scientists such as Mister Terrific developed new ways to detect who is from Earth or who is, in fact, an Earth 2 alien. Early in Futures End, further tragedies only add to the division and chaos in the superhero community. After Green Arrow appears to die, the two component parts of the hero Firestorm (Ronnie Raymond and Jason Rusch) have a major falling out over their failure to save him. The crew of the spacefaring team Stormwatch is attacked and destroyed, leaving Frankenstein and the Atom to lead a team determined to recover them.
In another plot thread, Grifter is putting his abilities to good use; he can easily detect who is and isn't native to this Earth. He is eventually recruited by King Faraday to work with Deathstroke on Cadmus Island, where thousands of Earth 2 refugees are being inhumanely held captive. Elsewhere, Lois Lane's arc sees her determined to uncover the circumstances behind Green Arrow's death, but her investigations lead her to discover Tim Drake, the former and thought-deceased Red Robin, alive and masquerading as a bartender named Cal. On Earth, the public question why Superman has become more violent and taken to wearing a full-face mask, until Lois discovers and reveals that Shazam has taken over as Superman in Clark Kent's absence. The real Clark later returns to Earth, as discovered by John Constantine, due to the impending threat of Brainiac's invasion. It is Brainiac who, unknowingly, is manipulating Mister Terrific into creating Brother Eye. He, too, is causing the security issues at Cadmus Island which are causing difficulties for Grifter and Deathstroke.
In the final stretch of the series, Green Arrow is revealed to have faked his death, in collaboration with his Earth 2 doppelganger Red Arrow, has built an army to oppose the internment of Earth 2's refugees. When Brainiac attempts to capture New York City to add to his collection of cities from different eras of history, he is opposed by a united front of Superman, Mister Terrific, the Atom, and a new Firestorm (composed of Jason Rusch and Tim Drake's girlfriend Madison). Using the Atom's shrinking technology, Mister Terrific's T-spheres, and the Brother Eye code, they are able to shrink down and capture a city-sized Brainiac, ending his threat to their reality. However, Brother Eye's technology is still set to bring on a technological apocalypse. Terry McGinnis attempts to shut down Mister Terrific's development of his technology, but accidentally helps it along with the introduction of corrupted technology from his future. In a final battle, he teams up with Tim Drake, who has been persuaded to return to active duty as a hero, and sacrifices himself in order to prevent the rise of the machines. Honouring his sacrifice, Tim Drake takes Terry's futuristic Batman suit and becomes the new Batman.
With Brother Eye having taken over all of the technology on Earth, Tim is forced to use Terry's time travel technology (repaired by the Atom) to travel back in time a further five years and destroy Brother Eye's satellite in the past (the very-near future in contemporaneous DC Comics). He convinces the Brother Eye satellite not to send a beacon in response to the distress call of Earth 2's refugees, leaving them stranded in their own dimension. In the final issue and the story's denouement, Tim Drake emerges in Terry's future, 35 years later, only to find his mission in the past was a failure and humanity remains enslaved and decimated by the machines. Accepting that it is impossible to defeat Brother Eye with time travel, he vows to form a resistance in the present day, setting up the new Batman Beyond (vol. 5) spin-off series starring Tim Drake as Batman. The future of Earth's 2 now-stranded refugees, and the ultimate aims of Brainiac, are left open to be picked up on in the Convergence crossover series.
September 2014 event
In February 2014, DC announced that as part of the celebration of The New 52's third anniversary, all ongoing titles published in September 2014 feature stories that tie in to The New 52: Futures End. DiDio stated "One of the things we wanted to do was not just look at it through the lens of the weekly series, but also take a month and flash forward, and see what the potential futures of all our characters might be in that month. So in that month, you'll get a chance to see where, in the next five years, our characters might finish up or might end up being." He added that like the "Villains Month" event in September 2013, these titles also feature 3D lenticular covers, in addition to the 2D ones, saying, "The covers now will also have the ability to have a 'flicker' effect. That means that the images change and show the transformation going on... There is a level of change that is taking place with our characters during the course of this story."
Following the month of tie-ins, a third weekly title will launch in October 2014. This title will be set in the present DC Universe, while showcasing the events and circumstances that lead to the future depicted in Futures End. In April 2014, the title was revealed to be Earth 2: World's End, indicating it would be focused on the Earth 2 universe.
Titles were released as [Title]: Futures End #1. For example, Batman issue released as Batman: Futures End #1.
Reception
In February 2014, The New 52: Futures End, along with DC's first weekly title launching in 2014, Batman Eternal, were featured on IGN's "Most Anticipated Comics of 2014". The first issue received mixed reviews. Richard Gray of Newsarama felt in the first issue, "The deliberately disjointed plot is designed to keep readers discombobulated and asking all the right questions, but mostly, 'why is this the new status quo?' Yet by leading with a group of characters not popular enough to sustain their own titles, The New 52: Futures End is missing the key hook of us being given new information about characters we’ve grown to care about," giving the issue a 6 out of 10. IGN's Jesse Schedeen gave the issue a 7.0 out of 10, saying, "while everything is competently executed so far, the... vague allusions to wars and other dramatic developments in the more immediate future of the New 52, [makes the series read] like a very ambitious What If? comic."
Sales
For May 2014, Diamond Comic Distributors announced that The New 52: Futures End issues 1–4 were the 9th, 19th, 26th and 28th best selling titles of the month, respectively.
In other media
Elements from the storyline were adapted into the final movie of the DC Animated Movie Universe, Justice League Dark: Apokolips War as part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies
Collected editions
See also
DC One Million - A similar event about a possible future in the DC Universe
References
Monthly Creative Team SolicitationsIssue 0: Issues 1–4: Issues 5–8: Issues 9–13: Issues 14–17: Issues 18–21: Issues 22–26: Issues 27–30: Issues 31–35: Issues 36–39:'''
Comics by Brian Azzarello
Comics by Dan Jurgens
Comics by Jeff Lemire
Comics by Keith Giffen
DC Comics limited series |
405661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ilidh | Cèilidh | A ( , ) or () is a traditional Scottish and Irish social gathering. In its most basic form, it simply means a social visit. In contemporary usage, it usually involves dancing and playing Gaelic folk music, either at a home or a larger concert at a social hall or other community gathering place.
(plural of ) and (plural of ) originated in the Gaelic areas of Scotland and Ireland and are consequently common in the Scottish and Irish diasporas. They are similar to the traditions in Cornwall and and events in Wales, as well as English country dance throughout England which have in some areas undergone a fusion with céilithe.
Etymology
The term is derived from the Old Irish (singular) meaning 'companion'. It later became and , which means 'visit' in Gaelic. In Scottish Gaelic reformed spelling it is spelt (plural ) and in Irish reformed spelling as (plural ).
History
Originally, a was a social gathering of any sort, and did not necessarily involve dancing.
In more recent decades, the dancing portion of the event has usurped the older meanings of the term, though the tradition of guests performing music, songs, storytelling, and poetry still persists in some areas.
were originally hosted by a , meaning 'man of the house'. This is still the form in Ireland, though otherwise in modern events the host is usually referred to more simply as the "host" or "master of ceremonies".
Modern cèilidhean
The facilitated courting and prospects of marriage for young people and, although discos and nightclubs have displaced the to a considerable extent, such events are still an important and popular social outlet in rural parts of Scotland and Ireland, especially in the Gaelic-speaking regions. are sometimes held on a smaller scale in private or public houses, for example in remote rural areas and during busy festivals.
It is common for some clubs and institutions such as sports clubs, schools and universities and even employers to arrange cèilidhs on a regular—or at least annual—basis. The formality of these can vary. Some mix modern pop music with a Scottish country dancing band and dress codes range from compulsory highland dress to informal. Knowledge and use of the basic dance steps is not always strictly necessary, and dances often alternate with songs, poetry recitals, story telling and other types of "party pieces".
Cèilidh music may be provided by an assortment of instruments including fiddle, flute, tin whistle, accordion, bodhrán (frame-drum), hammered dulcimer, and in more recent times also drums, guitar, mandolin, bouzouki, Scottish smallpipes, and electric bass guitar. The music is cheerful and lively, consisting in Ireland mainly of jigs, reels, hornpipes, polkas, slip-jigs, and waltzes, with Scotland adding strathspeys, and England adding regional forms such as the northeastern rant. The basic steps can be learned easily; a short instructional session is often provided for new dancers before the start of the dance itself. In Ireland, the first band was put together in 1926 by Séamus Clandillon, Radio Éireann's director of music, to have dance music for his studio-based programmes.
Dancing at is usually in the form of cèilidh dances, set dances, or couples' dances. A "set" consists of four to eight couples, with each pair of couples facing another in a square or rectangular formation. Each couple exchanges position with the facing couple, and also facing couples exchange partners, while all the time keeping in step with the beat of the music.
About half of the dances in the modern Scots , however, are couples' dances performed in a ring. These can be performed by fixed couples or in the more sociable "progressive" manner, with the lady moving to the next gentleman in the ring at or near the end of each repetition of the steps. In Ireland, the similar style of dance is called dance or ('true') dance. Some of the dances are named after famous regiments, historical battles, and events, others after items of daily rural life. The "gay Gordons", "siege of Ennis", "walls of Limerick", and "stack of barley" are popular dances in this genre.
Step dancing is another form of dancing often performed at , the form that was popularised in the 1990s by the world-famous Riverdance ensemble. Whereas set dancing involves all present, whatever their skill, step dancing is usually reserved for show, being performed only by the most talented of dancers.
The has been internationalised by the Scottish and Irish diasporas in Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where local and traditional music competitions are held. In recent years, and traditional music competitions have been frequently won by descendants of emigrants.
It bears mention that are common throughout Nova Scotia. The tradition and the spirit of these gatherings are carried on in most small communities of these Maritime Provinces.
In Scotland
Privately organised in the 2020s are extremely common in both rural and urban Scotland, where bands are hired, usually for evening entertainment for a wedding, birthday party, celebratory or fundraising event. These may be more or less formal, and very often omit all other traditional Gaelic activity beyond the actual music and dancing. Novices are usually among the participants, so a "dance caller" may teach the steps before music begins for each dance. The more versatile bands will demonstrate the dances too. Scottish primary schools frequently teach some Scottish country dancing, often around Christmas time. Bands vary in size but are commonly made up of between two and six players. The appeal of the Scottish is by no means limited to the younger generation, and dances vary in speed and complexity to accommodate most age groups and levels of ability. Most private schools in Scotland will also hold on a fairly regular basis.
Public are also held, attracting paying participants, often held at dance clubs; and the annual Ceilidh Culture festival in Edinburgh.
Universities in Scotland hold regular , with the University of Edinburgh providing a number for students throughout each term, especially the long-running Highland Annual, the oldest in Edinburgh and the largest in Scotland, organised by the Highland Society (). Glasgow University Union's annual debating competition, Glasgow Ancients, traditionally ends the night with a . The union's Christmas event, Daft Friday, also involves a . are common fundraising and social events for many societies at the University of Glasgow.
Some bands intersperse dancing with a DJ playing disco music to broaden the appeal of the evening's entertainment.
In Northern Ireland
The resurgence in the popularity of the over the last 20 years or so in Northern Ireland has been assisted in no small way by the interest in amongst the younger generation and bands such as 'Haste to the Wedding', a band.
In Ireland
dances (, ) or true dances () are a popular form of folk dancing in Ireland, and are part of the broader Irish dances. The Irish Céilí dances are based on heys ("hedges", or pairs of facing lines), round dances, long dances, and quadrilles, generally revived during the Gaelic revival in the first quarter of the twentieth century and codified by the Irish Dancing Commission. There are about thirty dances that form the basis for examination of dance teachers. Irish is a participatory social event attended by both men and women and accompanied by live Irish traditional music. The dance emerged within cultural nationalist consciousness as during the late 19th and early 20th century traditions promoting nationalist agendas, and national identities were regarded as not culturally unified.
History and background
Irish regained its popularity in the late 19th century, when Ireland made efforts to regain its cultural and political autonomy after being colonized for over 800 years. The goal of the Gaelic League established in 1893 was to promote Irish cultural independence and de-anglicisation, which involved the remergent popularization of the Irish language, literature, and vernacular traditions, such as Irish singing and dancing. Plentiful branches of the Gaelic League giving dance, singing, music, and literature classes were established across Ireland.
Dance form and style
The style of dance employed for dance differs greatly from that used for set dance, and has more the appearance associated with the style of step dance. In particular, it emphasizes height and extension, with dancers generally dancing on their toes (but not as in ballet).
A movement called "side-step" or "sevens and threes" with which dancers travel sideways to the direction they are facing is common, as are jig-step movements called the "rising step" or "grinding step". dances may be divided into figures, but a single type of tune is generally used for all the figures and the dancing does not pause between the figures.
Unlike square dance and round dance, dances are generally not called by a caller; the flow of dance is defined by its name.
Social ceili dances
dances when performed socially are often performed in a progressive style. At the end of one whole iteration of the dance (lead around and body), instead of stopping, the groups move on to the next set of partners in the line. dances that can be performed progressively are: walls of Limerick, siege of Ennis, haymaker's jig, and fairy reel. When there is a large social gathering, there will often be a caller for the dance, though it is a very different style from square-dancing caller. A caller is usually the teacher or most experienced dancer of the group who has the dance memorized. They then call the movements out in a non-stylized way, intended to remind those who are non-dancers when and where to move. Social dances are often the easiest dances and very easy to shuffle through as a non-dancer. A caller makes sure that everyone at a social dance can participate. Embellishments are accepted and fun in social dances, women adding spins or changing the style of a swing based on the skill of a partner.
Similar gatherings in England
Ceilidh in England has evolved a little differently from its counterparts elsewhere in Britain and Ireland. English ceilidh (usually spelled without the diacritics), sometimes abbreviated to eCeilidh or E-ceilidh, can be considered part of English country dance (and related to contra dance). English ceilidh has many things in common with the Scottish and Irish social dance traditions. The dance figures are similar using couples dances, square sets, long sets, and circle dances. However, the English style requires a slower tempo of tune accentuating the on-beat, the central instrument often being the English melodeon, a diatonic accordion in the keys of D and G. Dancers often use a skip, a step-hop or rant step depending on region. This contrasts with the smoother style and more fluid motion seen in Ireland, Scotland, or (the walking) in contra. Many ceilidh dances involve a couple, but this does not limit the number of partners any one dancer has during the ceilidh. Often dancers will change partners every dance to meet new people.
An important part of English ceilidhs is the "caller" who instructs the dancer in the next dance. An experienced ceilidh caller will have a good understanding of the mechanics of the tunes and a deep knowledge of regional dances from the UK and beyond. They will confer with the band about what type of tune to play for the dance. This aids the selection of the right dance for the right audience. This skill is so sought after in the south of England that there are callers who are famous in their own right. However, many bands have their own caller, often also an instrumentalist; some have two.
During an English ceilidh there is often an interval involving the talents of local Morris or rapper side; this also serves to give bands with older members a rest.
It is possible to see many diverse and regionally distinct acts at a modern English ceilidh. Acts range from the most traditional, like the Old Swan Band, to the most experimental like the electronic dance music-influenced Monster Ceilidh Band. Many other forms of music have been combined with English ceilidh music including; Irish music from the band Phoenix Ceilidh Band; ska from the band Whapweasel; traditional jazz from the bands Chalktown and Florida; funk fusion from Licence to Ceilidh, Ceilidhography, and Climax Ceilidh Band, rock from the bands Peeping Tom, Aardvark Ceilidh Band, Touchstone, and Tickled Pink; West African- and Indian-influenced music from the band Boka Halattraditional; traditional French music from the band Token Women; traditional Welsh music from Twm Twp; and heavy metal from Glorystrokes.
In popular culture
In the 1945 film I Know Where I'm Going! the characters attend a .
In the song Oh! What a Ceilidh, performed by Andy Stewart on his 1965 album Cambeltown Loch. The song's composition is credited as: (Grant-Stewart).
In the 1983 film Local Hero the characters are shown at a .
The 1987 song When New York Was Irish by Terence Winch mentions the .
The 1990 film The Field features a céilidh.
A song by the group Black 47 is titled "Funky Céilí" (1992).
Danny Boyle's 1994 film Shallow Grave features Ewan McGregor and Kerry Fox at a .
In the 1997 film Titanic the third class passengers hold a which Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet's characters attend.
In the 1999 Michael Winterbottom Belfast-set movie With or Without You, London–Irish band Neck appear performing at a that Christopher Eccleston and Dervla Kirwan's characters attend. Neck describe themselves as being a "psycho-ceilídh" band - a term picked up by frontman Leeson O'Keeffe from Shane MacGowan when he was playing in his post-Pogues band, Shane MacGowan and The Popes. One of Neck's most popular tracks, an instrumental highlighting the band's musicianship on a set of traditional Irish jigs and reels, is called "The Psycho-Ceilídh Mayhem Set".
In the 2000 – 2005 BBC TV series Monarch of the Glen the characters are shown at a .
In 2002's The Magdalene Sisters a is portrayed.
The characters in the 2003 film The Boys from County Clare participate in a band competition.
In the 2006 film The Wind That Shakes The Barley, the characters are shown at a .
The popular Celtic musical team Celtic Woman describes a in their popular tour song "At the Céilí", a live recording of which appears on their 2007 album Celtic Woman: A New Journey.
Pogues frontman Shane MacGowan features the song "Céilidh Cowboy" on his The Crock of Gold album.
The Richard Thompson song "Johnny's Far Away" describes a couple who are unfaithful while the husband travels with a band.
The band Real McKenzies song "Ceilidh" from the album Clash of the Tartans (1998) describes the practice.
The word "Ceili" in the name of the band Ceili Rain is explicitly meant to invoke the spirit.
The Philadelphia Céilí Group is a music organisation known for its traditional Irish music and dance festivals.
In the 2011 movie The Guard, the main character takes his dying mother to see a band.
In the British television series My Mother & Other Strangers, part of the Masterpiece series, there are multiple references to ceili and multiple scenes set at in the fictional Northern Irish town of Moybeg.
Carnegie Mellon University holds an annual Cèilidh Weekend which serves as the university's homecoming celebration.
The lyrics of Ed Sheeran's song "Galway Girl" (2017) mention "dancing the , singing to trad tunes".
See also
Hootenanny
References
Bibliography
John Cullinane: Aspects of the History of Irish Céilí Dancing, The Central Remedial Clinic, Clontarf, Dublin 3,(1998),
An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha: Ár Rincí Fóirne-Thirty Popular Céilí Dances, Westside Press (2003)
J. G. O' Keeffe, Art O' Brien: A Handbook of Irish Dances, 1. Edition, Gill & Son Ltd., (1902)
Helen Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, Mount Eagle Publications Ltd., 1999
Further reading
The Sweets of May; Aoibhneas na Bealtaine: The céilí band era, music and dance of south Armagh. Ceol Camlocha (Tommy Fegan, chairman; book accompanied by 2 CDs and a DVD)
External links
A Handbook of Irish Dances, 1. Edition (1902) O'Keeffe & O'Brien
dance notes
Irish folk music
Scottish folk music
European folk dances
Irish dance
Scottish country dance
Society of Scotland
Entertainment in Scotland
Celtic music festivals |
3150216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau%20de%20la%20Generalitat%20de%20Catalunya | Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya | The Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya () is a historic palace in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It houses the offices of the Presidency of the Generalitat de Catalunya. It is one of the few buildings of medieval origin in Europe that still functions as a seat of government and houses the institution that originally built it.
The palace is located in the district of Ciutat Vella in Barcelona. It is bounded by the Carrer del Bisbe, Carrer de Sant Sever and Carrer de Sant Honorat. Its principal façade gives onto the Plaça de Sant Jaume, across from the City Hall of Barcelona.
The original building was purchased in 1400 by then-president Alfons de Tous. It was located on the Carrer de Sant Honorat, in the former Jewish Quarter, or Call. The first extension (in the year 1416) faced the street and was carried out by Bishop Marc Safont, who also built the chapel of St. George, in 1434.
In 1596, Pere Blai designed the current principal façade on the Plaça de Sant Jaume, in the Renaissance style. This is the first grand façade of this architectural style in Catalonia. Thereafter, several other houses were purchased and integrated into the palace.
History
The Palau de la Generalitat today is not just a public building with historical associations. It is also the seat of the Government of Catalonia and the Presidency of the Generalitat.
One hundred and thirty-one presidents have governed from this house, from Berenguer de Cruïlles (1359) to the current president, Pere Aragonès.
Origins
In 1289, the Catalan 'Corts' or Parliament – considered as of the year 1300 as representing the totality or 'generality' (Generalitat) of Catalonia – formed a commission to collect the taxes that the Corts granted the king. The Corts – or 'General Assembly' of Catalonia, meeting at Cervera in 1359, formalised that commission or Deputation (Diputació) of the General. It consisted of deputies from the three estates: military or noble, ecclesiastical, and popular or royal (representatives of the guilds and citizens of towns directly subject to the king).
15th century
At the start of the 15th century, that Diputació del General, or Generalitat, replaced to some degree royal power by implementing the decisions of the Catalan Corts. The exercise of these functions gave rise to the oldest part of the current Palau de la Generalitat (1403), one of the few mediaeval buildings in Europe that is still today the seat of the institution that originally built it.
First abolition
Centuries later, at the start of the 18th century, King Philip V of Spain fought against Catalonia, as the region had decided to defend the Arch-duke Charles of Austria as pretender to the Spanish throne. This conflict, part of the War of the Spanish Succession, ended on September 11, 1714, when Barcelona fell into the hands of the absolutists of Philip V. The Generalitat and the Corts Catalanes were abolished and the Palau de la Generalitat became the King's Court in Barcelona.
First restoration
The institutions of the Generalitat were not restored until the 20th century, when, as a result of their sweeping victory of the 1931 municipal elections, Francesc Macià formed a pact with the Spanish central government for the re-establishment of the Generalitat, Government of Catalonia. He later became its president (1931–1933). Macià abolished the four Provincial Councils (Diputaciones), and this Palau (palace) became once more the seat of the Generalitat and its Government. The Statute of Autonomy of 1932 granted Catalonia a parliament, its own justice system (with the Tribunal de Cassació or High Court), and its own police force. In 1934, his successor, President Lluís Companys, completed the unification of autonomous political power through the suppression of the provincial civil governors, a role created by the Madrid Government in the 19th century.
Second abolition
After the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Generalitat went into exile. Francisco Franco's new regime repeated the repression of Philip V and also abolished the institutions of the Generalitat. Its president, Lluís Companys, defender of Republican constitutional legality, was tried by a court martial, sentenced to death and shot at Montjuïc Castle (1940).
After Companys' death, Josep Irla, last president of the Catalan parliament, took charge of the Presidency of the Generalitat in exile until in 1954 Josep Tarradellas succeeded him, also in exile.
Centralism once again imposed its civil governors and Provincial Councils, and the Diputación de Barcelona was once again installed in this palace. The division of Catalonia into four provinces ignored the traditional division of Catalonia into comarques.
Second restoration
After democracy was restored to Spain and after the 1977 Spanish general election, the Palau became once again the seat of the Generalitat, which was restored on September 29, 1977, before the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. A new Statute of Autonomy was passed as law in December 1979, and the elections of March 20, 1980 appointed 135 deputies to the Parliament of Catalonia. The Parliament was convened on April 10. Finally, with the election of the president of the Parliament and the president of the Generalitat, so forming the first Government under the Statute, the Generalitat was basically re-established.
Architecture
The current structure actually predates its use as a governmental headquarters, and had to be adapted to its new functions with constructions and renovations from the early 15th century to the mid-17th century. It has Gothic elements, such as its central courtyard with a grand staircase and galleries surrounding it. The original façade of the building, facing the Carrer del Bisbe, was also built in the flamboyant Gothic style, as was the chapel of Sant Jordi. The building's present main façade was built in the Renaissance, and it faces the Plaça de Sant Jaume. The four dark granite columns of the main entrance were originally sculpted in Troy and brought first, together with 45 more, to Tarragona on the occasion of Emperor Hadrian's stay in the city, which took place during the winter of 122–123 DC. Between 1610 and 1630, Pere Ferrer and his son Pere Pau Ferrer carried out the work on the façades on Carrer Sant Honorat and on Carrer Sant Sever. They also constructed a new gate on Carrer Bisbe in the Vignolesc style, similar to the one on the Carrer de Sant Sever.
After the War of Spanish Succession and the Nueva Planta Decree in 1716, the Royal Audience established its headquarters at the Palau, without taking much account of the rich architecture of the building. Partitions were built to divide the various services of the Audiencia. Later, in the 19th century, the architect Miquel Garriga i Roca was commissioned to do some building repairs, mainly on the façade on the Carrer de Sant Honorat and the Gothic gallery. Between the second and fourth decade of the twentieth century, under the direction of the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch in collaboration with Josep Borí and Joan Rubió i Bellver, another great restoration was carried out to recover the original features and spaces. Also, some new neo-Gothic creations were added, such as the famous bridge over Carrer del Bisbe that links the palace with the Casa dels Canonges (which opened on April 23, 1928) and a project to build a large fireplace in alabaster for the Board of the Presidency, made by the sculptor Josep M. i Camps Arnau, later transferred to the Maricel Museum in Sitges in 1935.
First building
In the beginning the meetings of the Generalitat, or "Diputació del General" did not have their own building, so they took place in the monastery of Saint Francis. Subsequently, and as the Generalitat's role gained importance, they decided to obtain their own building and finally, on 3 December 1400, their representatives, Alfons de Tous, Jaume Marc and Ramón Desplà, acquired Pere Brunet's house on the Carrer de Sant Honorat for 38,500 sous. This consisted of a small space with a façade on the Carrer de Sant Francesc, a central courtyard, another space closer to Carrer del Bisbe and a small orchard. This building gave onto Carrer Sant Honorat. On the Sant Honrat façade there was and is doorway with a semi-circular arch, over the centre of which the figure of a beadle is sculpted, and six three-lights windows divided by columns. On the first floor are two rooms that still exist, the Council Chamber for the meetings of the deputies and the Chamber of the Judges.
In the central courtyard there was already a staircase in the same location as the present one, but simpler, with three arcaded galleries on the first floor and lofts above them. Located in the small building near the Carrer del Bisbe, there was an archive.
Present day
The Palau de la Generalitat is one of the Catalonia's most valued symbols, among other reasons because it has managed to survive so many historical and political disasters. Also, it has come to represent, along with the Palau del Parlament, a bastion of democracy in Catalonia.
Gallery
See also
List of carillons
References
Government of Catalonia
Palaces in Barcelona
Government buildings in Spain
Ciutat Vella |
67452864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth%20Cato | Beth Cato | Beth Cato is an American speculative fiction writer and poet, best known for her Clockwork Dagger and Blood of Earth series. She usually writes as Beth Cato, though in one instance she used the byline Beth L. Cato.
Biography
Cato was born Beth Louise Davis on January 13, 1980 in Hanford, California. She married Navy sailor Jason Cato in 2000; in the course of his naval career they traveled the country, living at various times in South Carolina and Washington. They settled in Arizona after Jason left the Navy, where they live in Buckeye, near Phoenix, with their son and three cats.
Literary career
Cato's first published fiction appeared online at Ligonier Valley Writers (lvwonline.org) in 2009. Her fiction has appeared in various periodicals, podcasts and anthologies, including A is for Apocalypse, At Year's End: Holiday SFF Stories, B is for Broken, Beneath Ceaseless Skies, Blue Shift, C is for Chimera, Cast of Wonders, Cats in Space, Clockwork Phoenix 5, Coffee: 14 Caffeinated Tales of the Fantastic, Crossed Genres, Cucurbital 3, D is for Dinosaur, Daily Science Fiction, Decision Points, E is for Evil, Electric Spec, Escape Pod, Every Day Fiction, F is for Fairy, Fae, Fantastic Stories of the Imagination, Fantastique Unfettered #3, Fantasy Scroll Magazine, Far-Fetched Fables, Fireside Magazine, Fireside Quarterly, Future Science Fiction Digest, Futures, Galactic Games, Giftmas 2018 Advent Anthology, Kasma Magazine, Little Green Men—Attack!, Mountain Magic, Mysterion, Nature, Not Just Rockets and Robots, Oomph: A Little Super Goes a Long Way, Orson Scott Card's InterGalactic Medicine Show, The Overcast, The Pedestal Magazine, Penumbra, Perihelion, PodCastle, Rocket Dragons Ignite, Science Fiction Short Stories, Spektrum der Wissenschaft, StarShipSofa, Stupefying Stories, Surviving Tomorrow, Swords and Steam Short Stories, Toasted Cake, 2016 Young Explorer's Adventure Guide, The 2021 Rhysling Anthology: The Best Science Fiction, Fantasy, & Horror Poetry of 2020, Uncanny Magazine, Uncle John's Bathroom Reader presents Flush Fiction, Utopia Science Fiction, Waylines, Year Five, and Year's Best YA Speculative Fiction 2013.
Some of her stories have been translated into Arabic, Chinese, German and Persian.
Recognition
Cato's fiction and poetry has been nominated for a number of literary awards, and in one instance won. The Clockwork Dagger placed fifth in the 2015 Locus Poll Award for Best First Novel. Wings of Sorrow and Bone was nominated for the 2016 Nebula Award for Best Novella. "Fried Okra" was a preliminary nominee for the 2016 Rhysling Award for Best Short Poem. "The Box of Dust and Monsters" placed third in the 2017 Rhysling Award for Best Short Poem. "The Death of the Horse" and "Morning During Migration Season" were both preliminary nominees for the 2017 Rhysling Award for Best Long Poem. Breath of Earth placed nineteenth in the 2017 Locus Poll Award for Best Fantasy Novel and was nominated for the 2017 Dragon Award for Best Alternate History Novel. "A Net to Snare a Unicorn" and "Wayfaring King" were both finalists for the 2018 Rhysling Award for Best Short Poem. "The Library is Open" was a preliminary nominee for the 2018 BSFA Award for Best Short Fiction. "After Her Brother Ripped the Heads from Her Paper Dolls" won the 2019 Rhysling Award for Best Short Poem.
Bibliography
The Clockwork Dagger series
The Deepest Poison (novelette ) (2015)
The Clockwork Dagger (2014)
The Clockwork Crown (2015)
Wings of Sorrow and Bone (novella) (2015)
Final Flight (novelette ) (2016)
Deep Roots (collection) (2016)
Blood of Earth series
Breath of Earth (2016)
Call of Fire (2017)
Roar of Sky (2018)
Collections
Red Dust and Dancing Horses: and Other Stories (2017)
Short fiction
"Brains for Breakfast" (2009)
"Promise in the Dust" (2009)
"Biding Time" (2009)
"Bless This House" (2010)
"A Recipe for Rain and Rainbows" (2010)
"Reading Time" (2011)
"A Dance to End Our Final Day" (2011)
"La Rosa Still in Bloom" (2011)
"A Spectacular Display" (2011)
"Red Dust and Dancing Horses" (2012)
"213 Myrtle Street" (2012)
"Cartographer's Ink" (2012)
"Blue Tag Sale" (2012)
"Toilet Gnomes at War" (2012)
"Overlap" (2012)
"A Unicorn for Christmas" (2012)
"An Echo in the Shell" (2013)
"Maps" (2013)
"American Shadow" (2013)
"Homecoming" (2013)
"Canopy of Skulls" (2013)
"A Lonesome Speck of Home" (2013)
"Clementine, Who Swims with Mermaids" (2013)
"For Want of Stars" (2013)
"The Sweetness of Bitter" (2013)
"Hat Trick" (2013)
"Stitched Wings" (2013)
"The Cartography of Shattered Trees" (2014)
"Measures and Countermeasures" (2014)
"D" (2014)
"Post-Apocalyptic Conversations with a Sidewalk" (2014)
"Hatchlings" (2014)
"A Mother's Touch" (2014)
"My Brother's Keeper" (2015)
"From the Ashes" (2015)
"Bread of Life" (2015)
"Roots, Shallow and Deep" (2015)
"K" (2015)
"Headspace" (2015)
"The Quest You Have Chosen Defies Your Fate" (2015)
"Beat Softly, My Wings of Steel" (2016)
"The Human Is Late to Feed the Cat" (2016)
"The Souls of Horses" (2016)
"S" (2016)
"Bear-bear Speaks" (2016)
"Minor Hockey Gods of Barstow Station" (2016)
"Moon Skin" (2016)
"10 Things Newly Manifested Wizards Should Never Do" (2016)
"Left Hand Awakens" (2017)
"P" (2017)
"With Cardamom I'll Bind Their Lips" (2017)
"A Fine Night for Tea and Bludgeoning" (2017) [also as by Beth L. Cato]
"Excerpts from the 100-Day Food Diary of Angela Meyer" (2017)
"So You Have Been Claimed by a Magical Cat" (2017)
"Powers of Observation" (2017)
"The Library Is Open" (2018)
"R" (2018)
"To This You Cling, with Jagged Fingernails" (2018)
"The 133rd Live Podcast of the Gourmando Resistance" (2018)
"Rootless" (2018)
"The Blighted Godling of Company Town H" (2019)
"The Peculiar Gravity of Home" (2019)
"A Picture Is Worth" (2019)
"Consider the Monsters" (2019)
"Z" (2019)
"Clouds Gleam Across Her Eyes" (2019)
"The Wind Knows All" (2019)
"Sometimes You End Up Where You Are" (2019)
"A Royal Saber's Work is Never Done" (2020)
"Perilous Blooms" (2020)
"A Different Heaven" (2020)
"Apocalypse Playlist" (2020)
"A Consideration of Trees" (2020)
"A Future of Towers Made" (2021)
"What Friends Are For" (2021)
"Shared Pain" (2021)
"Your Cat" (2021)
"Welcome Home" (2021)
"The Recipe Keeper" (2022)
"More Than Nine" (2022)
"How to Hide a Unicorn" (2022)
"The Right Cornbread" (2022)
"To Meet the Death Carriage" (2022)
"How to Creatively Host Cheese Parties During and After the Apocalypse" (2022)
"The 207th Time I Went Back to March 9, 1980" (2022)
"A Light in the Garden" (2022)
"Family Get-Together" (2022)
Verse
"Alone" (with Arnold Emmanuel, Jennie Glenn, Karl Louderback, Rhonda Parrish, Pete Pfau, Clare Revell and Ray Smith) (2010)
"Ever Do They Hunger" (2011)
"Hearts" (2011)
"In Buckeye" (2011)
"Six Months After" (2012)
"A Hairy Issue" (2013)
"Mice" (2013)
"The Truth about Unicorns" (2013)
"What Remains" (2013)
"Cat Lady" (2013)
"The Truth About Fairies" (2013)
"Four Addenda to Home Owner Association Rules" (2013)
"Regarding Portable Unicorns" (2013)
"What We Carry" (2013)
"Worst Enemy" (2013)
"Hunter" (2013)
"Mad Scientist's Lament" (2014)
"Rest Day, in Transit to Centauri Prime" (2014)
"Seeds" (2014)
"Time Traveler's Woe" (2014)
"Cloud Catcher" (2014)
"Bird Girl" (2014)
"Authentic Mother Version 2.6" (2014)
"Barstow" (2014)
"Cogs" (2014)
"Nisei" (2014)
"Unanimous" (2014)
"Quercus California" (2014)
"Advice on Befriending a Siren" (2014)
"Mama Bogey's Advice for Her Young's First Closet" (2014)
"The Time Traveler's Buttonhook" (2014)
"The Time Traveler's Gratitude" (2014)
"The Time Traveler's Pants" (2014)
"Suddenly, a Unicorn" (2014)
"Dragon to Centauri" (2014)
"To Walk Upon Clouds" (2014)
"From Grandma, With Love" (2014)
"Thank Hecate for Insurance" (2014)
"Time Traveler's Seance" (2014)
"How a Modern Green Man Grows" (2014)
"Loophole" (2015)
"Squished Things" (2015)
"The Border Cowboy in Fairyland" (2015)
"The Border Cowboy's Smile" (2015)
"The Time Traveler's Diagnosis" (2015)
"Mama Gonna Fight" (2015)
"After" (2015)
"The Selkie Visits the Beach" (2015)
"Genetic" (2015)
"The Border Cowboy's Horse" (2015)
"The Time Traveler's Illness" (2015)
"The Migration of Winged Jukeboxes" (2015)
"What Happened Among the Stars" (2015)
"The Time Traveler Revisits Childhood" (2015)
"Fried Okra" (2015)
"Obsidian" (2015)
"The City" (2015)
"Why You Will Listen and Drown" (2015)
"Hera Herself, at 8'clock Tonight" (2015)
"Riders of the Apocalypse: Death" (2015)
"A Warning, Flashing in Red Overlaid on Your Visor" (2016)
"The Box of Dust and Monsters" (2016)
"Apology Letter from the Aliens" (2016)
"No more Broomsticks for Me" (2016)
"To Ride the Puca" (2016)
"Window View" (2016)
"Dragon, Bound in Stone" (2016)
"View from Above" (2016)
"Deeper Than Pie" (2016)
"A Sip of Starlight" (2016)
"Footprints" (2016)
"Shopping Spree" (2016)
"Keep This Mystery" (2016)
"The Mermaid, on Display in Phoenix" (2016)
"The Death of the Horse" (2016)
"Horse and Girl" (2016)
"Lamp Beside the Golden Door" (2016)
"Morning During Migration Season" (2016)
"At the Very Least" (2016)
"A Net to Snare a Unicorn" (2017)
"Being Human" (2017)
"Preventative Measures" (2017)
"The Flesh is Weak" (2017)
"Final Portion of Elixir Recipe" (2017)
"No Upgrade Required" (2017)
"Note on the Teachers' Lounge Fridge at the Witches' Academy" (2017)
"When Stones Awaken" (2017)
"A Net to Snare Pegasus" (2017)
"Homes" (2017)
"The Astronaut's Cat" (2017)
"Wayfaring King" (2017)
"Call Me Home Again, Child" (2017)
"The Stars Sing" (2018)
"After Her Brother Ripped the Heads from Her Paper Dolls" (2018)
"This Body Made" (2018)
"The Fairies in the Crawlspace" (2018)
"So Old" (2018)
"The Border Cowboy at the Border" (2018)
"'a GoFundMe account'" (2018)
"Gone" (2018)
"Maybe Tomorrow" (2018)
"Prehistoric Provisions" (2018)
"smile" (2018)
"What You Hear When Your Best Friend Falls for a Supervillain" (2019)
"Childhood Memory from the Old Victorian House on Warner" (2019)
"Consequences of a Stolen Star" (2019)
"My Ghost Will Know the Way" (2019)
"Stranger Danger" (2019)
"Old Coyote" (2019)
"Tree in Drought" (2019)
"Moon Catcher" (2019)
"Mrs. Housekeeper" (2020)
"Other Worlds to Save" (2020)
"he scores" (with Rhonda Parrish) (2020)
"The Girl Who Survived" (2020)
"I Make Myself a Dragon" (2020)
"Great-Great Grandmother's Recipe" (2020)
"Going Home" (2020)
"The Luck Eaters" (with Rhonda Parrish) (2020)
"When the Company Pays" (2020)
"The Way Is Long and Fraught with Perils" (2020)
"A Spider's Love" (2020)
"Don't Panic" (2020)
"Maiden Voyage of the Penelope" (2020)
"My Cat, He" (2020)
"At the End" (2020)
"Least Weird Thing of All" (2020)
"Space Isn't Like the Vids" (2020)
"Express Your Feelings" (2020)
"Dollies" (2021)
"mansplainer" (2021)
"Outcomes of Her Time Travel Efforts to Save Her Husband" (2021)
"Under Tables" (2021)
"How to Find Yourself Again" (2021)
"Out of All the Experiences" (2021)
"Demons" (2021)
"Follow the Meandering Path" (2021)
"The Eye of the Kraken" (2021)
"But You Mustn't Look Back" (with Rhonda Parrish) (2021)
"Field Trip to See the Mermaid" (2021)
"Shapeshifting Isn't Some Party Trick" (2021)
"The Bookstore" (2021)
"Let's Enjoy the Stars One Last Time" (2022)
"Today"(2022)
"Forget That" (2022)
"Timeless Pie" (2022)
"The Ship Is Wrong" (2022)
"Doing Her Part to Combat Sexism in the Sciences" (2022)
"In Spring, We Thanked the Wee Folk" (2022)
"Mother, Grandmother, God" (2022)
"Only Times" (2022)
"When, as an Adult, You Choose to Again Believe in Magic" (2022)
"Better Off" (2022)
"That Monster Beneath the Bed" (2022)
"Following the White Horse" (2022)
"Birthday Cake" (with Rhonda Parrish) (2023)
"The Nothings" (with Rhonda Parrish) (2023)
"The Lying Moon" (2023)
References
1980 births
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American poets
American women novelists
Novelists from California
Poets from California
American speculative fiction writers
Living people
21st-century American women writers |
1040161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism%20%28philosophy%20of%20education%29 | Constructivism (philosophy of education) | Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know (prior knowledge). For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics, and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Background
Constructivism in education has roots in epistemology, a theory of knowledge concerned with the logical categories of knowledge and its justification. Epistemology also focuses on both the warranting of the subjective knowledge of a single knower and conventional knowledge. In constructivism, hence, it is recognized that the learner has prior knowledge and experiences, which are often determined by their social and cultural environment. Learning is therefore done by students' "constructing" knowledge out of their experiences. While the Behaviorist school of learning may help understand what students are doing, educators also need to know what students are thinking, and how to enrich what students are thinking. There are scholars who state that the constructivist view emerged as a reaction to the so-called "transmission model of education", including the realist philosophy that it is based on.
Constructivism can be traced back to educational psychology in the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas. His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is occurring with an individual as distinct from development influenced by other persons. Lev Vygotsky's (1896-1934) theory of social constructivism emphasized the importance of sociocultural learning; how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized by learners to form mental constructs through the zone of proximal development.
Expanding upon Vygotsky's theory Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, whereby the social or informational environment offers supports (or scaffolds) for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.
Views more focused on human development in the context of the social world include the sociocultural or socio-historical perspective of Lev Vygotsky and the situated cognition perspectives of Mikhail Bakhtin, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger; Brown, Collins and Duguid; Newman, Griffin and Cole, and Barbara Rogoff.
The concept of constructivism has influenced a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education and the history of science. During its infancy, constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Piaget called these systems of knowledge "schemes."
Schemes are not to be confused with schemata (schemas), a term that comes from schema theory, which is from information-processing perspectives on human cognition. Whereas Piaget's schemes are content-free, schemata (the plural of schema) are concepts; for example, most humans have a schema for "grandmother", "egg", or "magnet."
Constructivism does not refer to a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused with constructionism, an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert, inspired by constructivist and experiential learning ideas of Piaget.
Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has had wide-ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education, and is an underlying theme of education reform movements in cognitive science and neuroscience.
History
Earlier educational philosophies did not place much value on what would become constructivist ideas; children's play and exploration were seen as aimless and of little importance. Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views; he saw play as an important and necessary part of the student's cognitive development and provided scientific evidence for his views. Today, constructivist theories are influential throughout the formal and informal learning sectors. In museum education, constructivist theories inform exhibit design. One good example of constructivist learning in a non-formal setting is the Investigate Centre at The Natural History Museum, London. Here visitors are encouraged to explore a collection of real natural history specimens, to practice some scientific skills and make discoveries for themselves. Writers who influenced constructivism include:
John Dewey (1859–1952)
Maria Montessori (1870–1952)
Władysław Strzemiński (1893–1952)
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)
Heinz von Foerster (1911–2002)
George Kelly (1905–1967)
Jerome Bruner (1915–2016)
Herbert Simon (1916–2001)
Paul Watzlawick (1921–2007)
Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917–2010)
Edgar Morin (born 1921)
Humberto Maturana (1928–2021)
Paulo Freire (1921-1997)
Individual
The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which information from the environment and ideas from the individual interact and result in internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of assimilation and accommodation that are key in this interaction as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
When individuals assimilate new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations.
According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.
It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.
However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning, or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a. "discovery learning") as an instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below). While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us it would appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies."
Constructivist learning intervention
The nature of the learner
Social constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process.
The importance of the background and culture of the learner
Social constructivisms or socioculturalism encourage the learner or learners to arrive at their version of the truth, influenced by their background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process.
Responsibility for learning
Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the student. Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the student being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.
The Harkness discussion method
It is called the "Harkness" discussion method because it was developed at Phillips Exeter Academy with funds donated in the 1930s by Edward Harkness. This is also named after the Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle, motivating and controlling their own discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible. Perhaps the teacher's only function is to observe, although they might begin or shift or even direct a discussion. The students get it rolling, direct it, and focus it. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work. They all participate, but not in a competitive way. Rather, they all share in the responsibility and the goals, much as any members share in any team sport. Although the goals of any discussion will change depending upon what's under discussion, some goals will always be the same: to illuminate the subject, to unravel its mysteries, to interpret and share and learn from other points of view, to piece together the puzzle using everyone's contribution. Discussion skills are important. Everyone must be aware of how to get this discussion rolling and keep it rolling and interesting. Just as in any sport, a number of skills are necessary to work on and use at appropriate times. Everyone is expected to contribute by using these skills.
The motivation for learning
Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the student concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld, sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the student's confidence of potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more important than any external acknowledgment and motivation. This links up with Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" where students are challenged in close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, students gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges.
The role of the instructor
Instructors as facilitators
According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers. Whereas a teacher gives a didactic lecture that covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the student to get to their own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the student plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the student. This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than that of a teacher. A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at their own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners. A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience 'in mid-air' by taking the initiative to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.
The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the student's thinking. While it is advocated to give the student ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the student in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach.
A few strategies for cooperative learning include:
Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions
Jigsaw Classroom: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and teach it to the others in their group
Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular controversy
Learning is an active process
Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge is first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals. According to social constructivists, the process of sharing individual perspectives — called collaborative elaboration — results in learners constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone.
Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where students should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging guesswork and intuitive thinking in students.
Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is thus a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed. McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further stated that learning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviors that is shaped by external forces. Rather, meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.
Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intra-personal level, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture.
Good relationship between instructor and student
A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the instructor and the students are equally involved in learning from each other as well. This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and requires that the instructor's culture, values and background become an essential part of the interplay between students and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Students compare their version of thought with that of the instructor and fellow students to get to a new, socially tested version of context. The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the student. This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and student. This entails that students and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time.
Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning. The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.
Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, Anchored Instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.
Collaboration among learners
Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field.
Some social constructivist models also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of development. Through a process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process.
If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process of collective knowledge-construction will be set up.
The importance of context
The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself.
Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains". Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because we are not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting. Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship".
Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here, the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes.
According to this viewpoint, instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development.
The selection, scope, and sequencing of the subject matter
Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole
Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be discovered as an integrated whole.
This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented. The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions.
Engaging and challenging the student
Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to enhance student confidence. This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers).
Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role in development.
To fully engage and challenge the student, the task and learning environment should reflect the complexity of the environment that the student should be able to function in at the end of learning. Students must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem itself.
Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form. This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that form topics or subject areas, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been extensively used in curricula.
It is important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their students. Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The emotions and life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the student is central in considering why to learn.
The structuredness of the learning process
It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.
In adult learning
Constructivist ideas have been used to inform adult education. Current trends in higher education push for more "active learning" teaching approaches which are often based on constructivist views.
Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning, diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for achieving the objectives, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests. While adult learning often stresses the importance of personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper understanding of underlying concepts, all of these are principles that may benefit learners of all ages as even children connect their every day experiences to what they learn.
Pedagogies based on constructivism
Various approaches in pedagogy derive from constructivist theory. They usually suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen, and are left to make their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions.
Supportive research and evidence
Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.
Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.
Guthrie et al. (2004) compared three instructional methods for third-grade reading: a traditional approach, a strategies instruction only approach, and an approach with strategies instruction and constructivist motivation techniques including student choices, collaboration, and hands-on activities. The constructivist approach, called CORI (Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction), resulted in better student reading comprehension, cognitive strategies, and motivation.
Jong Suk Kim found that using constructivist teaching methods for 6th graders resulted in better student achievement than traditional teaching methods. This study also found that students preferred constructivist methods over traditional ones. However, Kim did not find any difference in student self-concept or learning strategies between those taught by constructivist or traditional methods.
Doğru and Kalender compared science classrooms using traditional teacher-centered approaches to those using student-centered, constructivist methods. In their initial test of student performance immediately following the lessons, they found no significant difference between traditional and constructivist methods. However, in the follow-up assessment 15 days later, students who learned through constructivist methods showed better retention of knowledge than those who learned through traditional methods.
Criticism
Several cognitive psychologists and educators have questioned the central claims of constructivism. It is argued that constructivist theories are misleading or contradict known findings. Matthews (1993) attempts to sketch the influence of constructivism in current mathematics and science education, aiming to indicate how pervasive Aristotle's empiricist epistemology is within it and what problems constructivism faces on that account.
In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development it is maintained that learning at any age depends upon the processing and representational resources available at this particular age. That is, it is maintained that if the requirements of the concept to be understood exceeds the available processing efficiency and working memory resources then the concept is by definition not learnable. This attitude toward learning impedes the learning from understanding essential theoretical concepts or, in other words, reasoning. Therefore, no matter how active a child is during learning, to learn the child must operate in a learning environment that meets the developmental and individual learning constraints that are characteristic for the child's age and this child's possible deviations from her age's norm. If this condition is not met, construction goes astray.
Several educators have also questioned the effectiveness of this approach toward instructional design, especially as it applies to the development of instruction for novices. While some constructivists argue that "learning by doing" enhances learning, critics of this instructional strategy argue that little empirical evidence exists to support this statement given novice learners. Sweller and his colleagues argue that novices do not possess the underlying mental models, or "schemas" necessary for "learning by doing". Indeed, Mayer (2004) reviewed the literature and found that fifty years of empirical data do not support using the constructivist teaching technique of pure discovery; in those situations requiring discovery, he argues for the use of guided discovery instead.
Mayer (2004) argues that not all teaching techniques based on constructivism are efficient or effective for all learners, suggesting many educators misapply constructivism to use teaching techniques that require learners to be behaviorally active. He describes this inappropriate use of constructivism as the "constructivist teaching fallacy". "I refer to this interpretation as the constructivist teaching fallacy because it equates active learning with active teaching." Instead Mayer proposes learners should be "cognitively active" during learning and that instructors use "guided practice."
In contrast, Kirschner et al. (2006) describe constructivist teaching methods as "unguided methods of instruction." They suggest more structured learning activities for learners with little to no prior knowledge. Slezak states that constructivism "is an example of fashionable but thoroughly problematic doctrines that can have little benefit for practical pedagogy or teacher education." Similar views have been stated by Meyer, Boden, Quale and others.
Kirschner et al. group a number of learning theories together (Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based learning) and stated that highly scaffolded constructivist methods like problem-based learning and inquiry learning are ineffective. Kirschner et al. described several research studies that were favorable to problem-based learning given learners were provided some level of guidance and support.
A rebuttal to the criticisms of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark
While there are critics of the Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark article, Sweller and his associates have written in their articles about:
instructional designs for producing procedural learning (learning as behavior change);
their grouping of seemingly disparate learning theories and;
a continuum of guidance beginning with worked examples that may be followed by practice, or transitioned to practice (Renkl, Atkinson, Maier, and Staley, 2002)
Kirschner et al. (2006) describe worked examples as an instructional design solution for procedural learning. Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller (2006) describe this as a very effective, empirically validated method of teaching learners procedural skill acquisition. Evidence for learning by studying worked-examples, is known as the worked-example effect and has been found to be useful in many domains (e.g. music, chess, athletics) concept mapping, geometry, physics, mathematics, or programming.
Kirschner et al. (2006) describe why they group a series of seemingly disparate learning theories (Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based learning). The reasoning for this grouping is because each learning theory promotes the same constructivist teaching technique—"learning by doing." While they argue "learning by doing" is useful for more knowledgeable learners, they argue this teaching technique is not useful for novices. Mayer states that it promotes behavioral activity too early in the learning process, when learners should be cognitively active.
In addition, Sweller and his associates describe a continuum of guidance, starting with worked examples to slowly fade guidance. This continuum of faded guidance has been tested empirically to produce a series of learning effects: the worked-example effect, the guidance fading effect, and the expertise-reversal effect.
Criticism of discovery-based teaching techniques
Mayer (2004) argues against discovery-based teaching techniques and provides an extensive review to support this argument. Mayer's arguments are against pure discovery, and are not specifically aimed at constructivism: "Nothing in this article should be construed as arguing against the view of learning as knowledge construction or against using hands-on inquiry or group discussion that promotes the process of knowledge construction in learners. The main conclusion I draw from the three research literatures I have reviewed is that it would be a mistake to interpret the current constructivist view of learning as a rationale for reviving pure discovery as a method of instruction."
Mayer's concern is how one applies discovery-based teaching techniques. He provides empirical research as evidence that discovery-based teaching techniques are inadequate. Here he cites this literature and makes his point "For example, a recent replication is research showing that students learn to become better at solving mathematics problems when they study worked-out examples rather than when they solely engage in hands-on problem solving. Today's proponents of discovery methods, who claim to draw their support from constructivist philosophy, are making inroads into educational practice. Yet a dispassionate review of the relevant research literature shows that discovery-based practice is not as effective as guided discovery."
Mayer's point is that people often misuse constructivism to promote pure discovery-based teaching techniques. He proposes that the instructional design recommendations of constructivism are too often aimed at discovery-based practice. Sweller (1988) found evidence that practice by novices during early schema acquisition, distracts these learners with unnecessary search-based activity, when the learner's attention should be focused on understanding (acquiring schemas).
The study by Kirschner et al. from which the quote at the beginning of this section was taken has been widely cited and is important for showing the limits of minimally-guided instruction. Hmelo-Silver et al. responded, pointing out that Kirschner et al. conflated constructivist teaching techniques such as inquiry learning with "discovery learning". (See the preceding two sections of this article.) This would agree with Mayer's viewpoint that even though constructivism as a theory and teaching techniques incorporating guidance are likely valid applications of this theory, nevertheless a tradition of misunderstanding has led to some question "pure discovery" techniques.
The math wars and discovery-based teaching techniques
The math wars controversy in the United States is an example of the type of heated debate that sometimes follows the implementation of constructivist-inspired curricula in schools. In the 1990s, mathematics textbooks based on new standards largely informed by constructivism were developed and promoted with government support. Although constructivist theory does not require eliminating instruction entirely, some textbooks seemed to recommend this extreme. Some parents and mathematicians protested the design of textbooks that omitted or de-emphasized instruction of standard mathematical methods. Supporters responded that the methods were to be eventually discovered under direction by the teacher, but since this was missing or unclear, many insisted the textbooks were designed to deliberately eliminate instruction of standard methods. In one commonly adopted text, the standard formula for the area of a circle is to be derived in the classroom, but not actually printed in the student textbook as is explained by the developers of CMP: "The student role of formulating, representing, clarifying, communicating, and reflecting on ideas leads to an increase in learning. If the format of the texts included many worked examples, the student role would then become merely reproducing these examples with small modifications."
Similarly, this approach has been applied to reading with whole language and inquiry-based science that emphasizes the importance of devising rather than just performing hands-on experiments as early as the elementary grades (traditionally done by research scientists), rather than studying facts. In other areas of curriculum such as social studies and writing are relying more on "higher order thinking skills" rather than memorization of dates, grammar or spelling rules or reciting correct answers. Advocates of this approach counter that the constructivism does not require going to extremes, that in fact teachable moments should regularly infuse the experience with the more traditional teaching. The primary differentiation from the traditional approach being that the engagement of the students in their learning makes them more receptive to learning things at an appropriate time, rather than on a preset schedule.
Importance of structure in constructivist learning environments
During the 1990s, several theorists began to study the cognitive load of novices (those with little or no prior knowledge of the subject matter) during problem solving. Cognitive load theory was applied in several contexts. Based on the results of their research, these authors do not support the idea of allowing novices to interact with ill-structured learning environments. Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner to discover problem solutions. Jonassen (1997) also suggested that novices be taught with "well-structured" learning environments.
Jonassen (1997) also proposed well-designed, well-structured learning environments provide scaffolding for problem-solving. Finally, both Sweller and Jonassen support problem-solving scenarios for more advanced learners.
Sweller and his associates even suggest well-structured learning environments, like those provided by worked examples, are not effective for those with more experience—this was later described as the "expertise reversal effect". Cognitive load theorists suggest worked examples initially, with a gradual introduction of problem solving scenarios; this is described as the "guidance fading effect" Each of these ideas provides more evidence for Anderson's ACT-R framework. This ACT-R framework suggests learning can begin with studying examples.
Finally Mayer states: "Thus, the contribution of psychology is to help move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and unproductive world of educational ideology—which sometimes hides under the banner of various versions of constructivism—to the sharp and productive world of theory-based research on how people learn."
Confusion between constructivist and maturationist views
Many people confuse constructivist with maturationist views. The constructivist (or cognitive-developmental) stream "is based on the idea that the dialectic or interactionist process of development and learning through the student's active construction should be facilitated and promoted by adults". Whereas, "The romantic maturationist stream is based on the idea that the student's naturally occurring development should be allowed to flower without adult interventions in a permissive environment." In other words, adults play an active role in guiding learning in constructivism, while they are expected to allow children to guide themselves in maturationism.
Contextual constructivism
According to William Cobern (1991) Contextual constructivism is "about understanding the fundamental, culturally based beliefs that both students and teachers bring to class, and how these beliefs are supported by culture. Contextual constructivists not only raise new research questions, they also call for a new research paradigm. The focus on contextualization means that qualitative, especially ethnographic, techniques are to be preferred" (p. 3).
Radical constructivism
Ernst von Glasersfeld developed radical constructivism by coupling Piaget's theory of learning and philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge with Kant's rejection of an objective reality independent of human perception or reason. Radical constructivism does not view knowledge as an attempt to generate ideas that match an independent, objective reality. Instead, theories and knowledge about the world, as generated by our senses and reason, either fit within the constraints of whatever reality may exist and, thus, are viable or do not and are not viable. As a theory of education, radical constructivism emphasizes the experiences of the learner, differences between learners and the importance of uncertainty.
Relational constructivism
Björn Kraus' relational constructivism can be perceived as a relational consequence of radical constructivism. In contrast to social constructivism, it picks up the epistemological threads and maintains the radical constructivist idea that humans cannot overcome their limited conditions of reception. Despite the subjectivity of human constructions of reality, relational constructivism focuses on the relational conditions that apply to human perceptional processes.
Social constructivism
In recent decades, constructivist theorists have extended the traditional focus on individual learning to address collaborative and social dimensions of learning. It is possible to see social constructivism as a bringing together of aspects of the work of Piaget with that of Bruner and Vygotsky.
Communal constructivism
The concept Communal constructivism was developed by Leask and Younie in 1995 through their research on the European SchoolNet which demonstrated the value of experts collaborating to push the boundaries of knowledge i.e. communal construction of new knowledge between experts rather than social construction of knowledge as described by Vygotsky where there is a learner to teacher scaffolding relationship. "Communal constructivism" as a concept applies to those situations in which there is currently no expert knowledge or research to underpin knowledge in an area. "Communal constructivism" refers specifically to the process of experts working together to create, record and publish new knowledge in emerging areas. In the seminal European SchoolNet research where for the first time academics were testing out how the internet could support classroom practice and pedagogy, experts from a number of countries set up test situations to generate and understand new possibilities for educational practice.
Bryan Holmes in 2001 applied this to student learning as described in an early paper, "in this model, students will not simply pass through a course like water through a sieve but instead leave their own imprint in the learning process."
Influence on computer science and robotics
Constructivism has influenced the course of programming and computer science. Some famous programming languages have been created, wholly or in part, for educational use, to support the constructionist theory of Seymour Papert. These languages have been dynamically typed, and reflective. Logo and its successor Scratch are the best known of them. Constructivism has also informed the design of interactive machine learning systems, whereas Radical Constructivism has been explored as a paradigm to design experiments in rehabilitation robotics, more precisely in prosthetics.
See also
Autodidactism
Connectivism
Constructivist epistemology
Critical pedagogy
Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT)
Educational psychology
Learning styles
Philosophy of education
Reform mathematics
Situated cognition
Socratic method
Teaching for social justice
Vocational education
References
Further reading
Dalgarno, B. (1996) Constructivist computer assisted learning: theory and technique, ASCILITE Conference, 2–4 December 1996, retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20140902003411/http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide96/papers/21.html
Hilbert, T. S., & Renkl, A. (2007). Learning how to Learn by Concept Mapping: A Worked-Example Effect. Oral presentation at the 12th Biennial Conference EARLI 2007 in Budapest, Hungary
Jeffery, G. (ed) (2005) The creative college: building a successful learning culture in the arts, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.
Jonassen, D., Mayes, T., & McAleese, R. (1993). A manifesto for a constructivist approach to uses of technology in higher education. In T.M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D.H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning (pp. 231–247). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Piaget, Jean. (1950). The Psychology of Intelligence. New York: Routledge.
Jean Piaget (1967). Logique et Connaissance scientifique, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade.
External links
A journey into Constructivism by Martin Dougiamas, 1998–11.
Cognitively Guided Instruction reviewed on the Promising Practices Network
Sample Online Activity Objects Designed with Constructivist Approach (2007)
Liberal Exchange learning resources offering a constructivist approach to learning English as a second/foreign language (2009)
Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2018). "Connecting cognitive development and constructivism." In W. Huitt (Ed.), Becoming a Brilliant Star: Twelve core ideas supporting holistic education (pp. 45–63). IngramSpark.
Definition of Constructivism by Martin Ryder (a footnote to the book chapter The Cyborg and the Noble Savage where Ryder discusses One Laptop Per Child's XO laptop from a constructivist educator's point of view)
Education reform
Alternative education
Educational psychology
Constructivism (psychological school) |
5644788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merycoidodontoidea | Merycoidodontoidea | Merycoidodontoidea, sometimes called "oreodonts" or "ruminating hogs", is an extinct superfamily of prehistoric cud-chewing artiodactyls with short faces and fang-like canine teeth. As their name implies, some of the better known forms were generally hog-like, and the group has traditionally been placed within the Suina (pigs, peccaries and their ancestors), though some recent work suggests they may have been more closely related to camels. "Oreodont" means "mountain teeth", referring to the appearance of the molars. Most oreodonts were sheep-sized, though some genera grew to the size of cattle. They were heavy-bodied, with short four-toed hooves and comparatively long tails.
The animals would have looked rather pig- or sheep-like, but features of their teeth indicate they were more closely related to camelids. They were most likely woodland and grassland browsers, and were widespread in North America during the Oligocene and Miocene. Later forms diversified to suit a range of different habitats. For example, Promerycochoerus had adaptations suggesting a semiamphibious lifestyle, similar to that of modern hippos.
Taxonomy
The two families of oreodonts are the Merycoidodontidae (originally known as Oreodontidae) which contains all of the advanced species, and the Agriochoeridae, smaller, primitive oreodonts. Together they form the now-extinct suborder Oreodonta. Oreodonts may have been distantly related to pigs, hippopotamuses, and the pig-like peccaries. Indeed, some scholars place Merycoidodontidae within the pig-related suborder Suina (Suiformes). Other scholars place oreodonts closer to camels in the suborder Tylopoda. Still, other experts put the oreodonts together with the short-lived cainotheres in the taxonomic suborder Ancodonta comprising these two groups of extinct ancodonts. All scholars agree, however, that the oreodont was an early form of even-toed ungulate, belonging to the order Artiodactyla. Today, most evidence points towards the oreodonts being tylopods, along with camels, xiphodonts, and protoceratids.
Over 50 genera of Oreodonta have been described in the paleozoological literature. However, oreodonts are widely considered to be taxonomically oversplit, and many of these genera may prove to be synonymous. The last researchers to fully review oreodont taxonomy, C. Bertrand Schultz and Charles H. Falkenbach, have been criticized for erecting excessive numbers of genera, based in part on apparent anatomical differences between different specimens that were actually taphonomic deformations due to postburial forces. Undeformed skulls would be placed in one genus, while skulls crushed from side to side would be placed in a second genus and skulls crushed from front to back would be placed in a third genus. Researchers are beginning to restudy oreodonts and synonymize many genera, but only a few groups have been reviewed.
Natural history
This diverse group of stocky prehistoric mammals grazed amid the grasslands, prairies, or savannas of North and Central America throughout much of the Cenozoic era. First appearing 48 million years ago (Mya) during the warm Eocene epoch of the Paleogene period, the oreodonts dominated the American landscape 34 to 23 Mya during the dry Oligocene epoch, but they mysteriously disappeared 4 Mya during the colder Pliocene epoch of the late Neogene period.
Today, fossil jaws and teeth of the Oreodonta are commonly found amid the 'Oreodon beds' (White River Fauna) of the White River badlands in South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado and Wyoming. Many oreodont bones have also been reported at the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument in Oregon. Some oreodonts have been found at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument. In Oligocene/Miocene Florida, oreodonts are surprisingly rare. Instead of the swarms found elsewhere, only six genera of oreodonts are known to have ranged there, and only one, Mesoreodon, is known from a single, good skeleton.
Lifestyle
The majority of oreodonts are presumed to have lived in herds, as suggested by the thousands of individuals in the various mass mortalities seen in the White River Badlands, Nebraska Oreodont beds, or Chula Vista, California.
Diversity
Oreodonts underwent a huge diversification during the Oligocene and Miocene, adapting to a number of ecological niches, including:
Semiaquatic – hippo-like Promerycochoerus
Trunked browser – tapir-like Brachycrus
Large grazer – cow-sized Eporeodon
Medium grazer – goat-like Merycoidodon
Small desert herbivore – goat- to cat-sized Sespia
Medium desert herbivore – Mesoreodon and the ubiquitous Leptauchenia
Classification
The family Merycoidodontidae is divided into eleven subfamilies, with four genera not included in any subfamily (incertae sedis) because they are either regarded as basal oreodonts, or their status within the family remains uncertain.
Family †Merycoidodontidae
subfamily incertae sedis
†Aclistomycter
†Merychyus
†Pseudogenetochoerus
†Pseudoleptauchenia
Subfamily †Oreonetinae
†Bathygenys
†Megabathygenys
†Oreonetes
Subfamily †Leptaucheniinae
Tribe †Leptaucheniini
†Limnenetes
†Leptauchenia
Tribe †Sespiini
†Sespia
Subfamily †Merycoidodontinae (syn. Oreodontinae)
†Merycoidodon (syn. Blickohyus, Genetochoerus, Oreodon, Otionohyus, Paramerycoidodon, Prodesmatochoerus, Promesoreodon, Subdesmatochoerus)
†Mesoreodon
Subfamily †Miniochoerinae
†Miniochoerus (syn. Paraminiochoerus, Parastenopsochoerus, Platyochoerus, Pseudostenopsochoerus, Stenopsochoerus)
Subfamily †Desmatochoerinae
†Desmatochoerus
†Eporeodon
†Megoreodon
Subfamily †Promerycochoerinae
†Promerycochoerus
†Merycoides
Subfamily †Merychyinae
†Oreodontoides
†Paroreodon
†Merycoides
†Merychyus
Subfamily †Eporeodontinae
†Dayohyus (syn. Eucrotaphus deemed nomen dubium)
†Eporeodon
Subfamily †Phenacocoelinae
†Phenacocoelus
†Hypsiops
Subfamily †Ticholeptinae
†Mediochoerus
†Ticholeptus
†Ustatochoerus
Subfamily †Merycochoerinae
†Merycochoerus
†Brachycrus
In Lander (1998) the classification of Oreodontoidea was as follows:
Family Agriochoeridae Leidy, 1869 (syn. Artionychidae, Eomerycidae, Protoreodontidae)
Subfamily Agriochoerinae Gill, 1872 (syn. Diplobunopsinae)
Agriochoerus Leidy, 1850b (syn. Agriomeryx, Artionyx, Coloreodon, Diplobunops, Eomeryx, Merycopater)
"Agriochoerus" maximus (Douglass, 1901)
Subfamily Protoreodontinae Scott, 1890
Protoreodon Scott and Osborn, 1887 (syn. Agriotherium, Chorotherium, Hyomeryx, Mesagriochoerus, Protagriochoerus)
"Protoreodon" petersoni (Gazin, 1955)
"Agriochoerus" minimus (Douglass, 1901)
"Agriochoerus" transmontanus (Stock, 1949)
Family Merycoidodontidae
Subfamily Bathygeniinae Lander, 1998
Bathygenys Douglass, 1901 (syn. Megabathygenys, Parabathygenys)
Subfamily Aclistomycterinae Lander, 1998
Aclistomycter Wilson, 1971
Subfamily Leptaucheniinae Schultz and Falkenbach, 1940
Leptauchenia Leidy, 1856 (syn. Brachymeryx, Cyclopidius, Hadroleptauchenia, Limnenetes, Pithecistes, Pseudocyclopidius, Pseudoleptauchenia)
Sespia Stock, 1930 (syn. Megasespia)
Subfamily Miniochoerinae Schultz and Falkenbach, 1956 (syn. Oreonetinae, ?Cotylopinae, ?Merycoidodontinae, ?Oreodontinae)
Subfamily Eucrotaphinae Lander, 1998
Subfamily Merycochoerinae Schultz and Falkenbach, 1940 (syn. Desmatochoerinae, Eporeodontinae, Promerycochoerinae)
Subfamily Phenacocoelinae Schultz and Falkenbach, 1950
Subfamily Ticholeptinae Schultz and Falkenbach, 1941 (syn. Merychyinae)
References
Mammal superfamilies
Miocene extinctions
White River Fauna
Eocene first appearances
Tylopoda |
25691354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marasmius%20rotula | Marasmius rotula | Marasmius rotula is a common species of agaric fungus in the family Marasmiaceae. Widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, it is commonly known variously as the pinwheel mushroom, the pinwheel marasmius, the little wheel, the collared parachute, or the horse hair fungus. The type species of the genus Marasmius, M. rotula was first described scientifically in 1772 by mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli and assigned its current name in 1838 by Elias Fries.
The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, of M. rotula are characterized by their whitish, thin, and membranous caps up to wide that are sunken in the center, and pleated with scalloped margins. The slender and wiry black hollow stems measure up to long by thick. On the underside of the caps are widely spaced white gills that are attached to a collar encircling the stem. The mushrooms grow in groups or clusters on decaying wood such as fallen twigs and sticks, moss-covered logs, and stumps.
Unlike other mushrooms known to release spores in response to a circadian rhythm, spore release in M. rotula is dependent upon sufficient moisture. Dried mushrooms may revive after rehydrating and continue to release spores for up to three weeks—a sustained spore production of markedly longer duration than other typical agarics. There are several species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused due to somewhat similar overall appearances, but differences in size, gill arrangement, and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish them. M. rotula mushrooms are not generally considered edible. They produce a unique peroxidase enzyme that is attracting research interest for possible use in bioengineering applications.
Taxonomy
The species was first described by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli as Agaricus rotula in 1772. In 1821 Elias Magnus Fries redescribed the mushroom in Systema Mycologicum, and later transferred it to Marasmius in his 1838 Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici. Synonyms include names derived from generic transfers to Androsaceus by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887, and to Chamaeceras by Otto Kuntze in 1898; both of these genera are now obsolete and have since been sunk back into Marasmius.
In his 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants, Samuel Frederick Gray introduced the generic name Micromphale, including the species Micromphale collariatum, which was based on William Withering's 1796 Merulius collariatus. In 1946 Alexander H. Smith and Rolf Singer proposed to conserve the name Marasmius over Micromphale; the latter had nomenclatorial priority as it was published first. The generic name Marasmius, with M. rotula as the lectotype species, was later conserved at the 1954 Paris Congress on Botanical Nomenclature. M. rotula is also the type species of section Marasmius within the genus. This grouping of species is characterized by inamyloid flesh, a cap cuticle with broom cells (finger-like projections common to Marasmius species) ornamented with numerous warts, gills usually attached to a collar surrounding the stem, and the presence of black rhizomorphs on the stem.
Several varieties of M. rotula have been described. Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis named var. fuscus in 1869 for its brown cap. In 1887 Pier Andrea Saccardo described var. microcephalus from Italy, with caps half the normal size. It is now understood that fruit body morphology is variable and dependent upon environmental conditions. Joseph Schröter described var. phyllophyla in 1889, but that taxon is now treated as Marasmius bulliardii.
Marasmius rotula is commonly known as the "pinwheel mushroom", the "pinwheel Marasmius", the "collared parachute", or the "horse hair fungus". This latter name is shared with other Marasmius species, including M. androsaceus and M. crinis-equi. Gray called it the "collared dimple-stool". The name "little wheel fungus" is suggestive of the collar to which the gills are attached like the spokes of a wheel, like the specific epithet, which is a diminutive of rota, the Latin word for "wheel".
Description
The cap of the fruit body is thin and membranous, measuring in diameter. It has a convex shape slightly depressed in the center, conspicuous furrows in an outline of the gills, and scalloped edges. Young, unexpanded caps are yellowish brown; as the cap expands, the color lightens to whitish or light pinkish-white, often with a darker, sometimes brown center. The variety fusca has brown caps. The white or slightly yellowish flesh is very thin, reaching about 0.25–1.5 mm thick in the central part of the cap, and even thinner at the margin.
Gills are attached to a collar, never to the stem, although some specimens have the collar pressed close enough to it that this characteristic may be less obvious. Widely spaced, they have the same whitish to pale yellow color as the flesh, and typically number between 16 and 22. They are initially narrow, but thicken downward to about 1–3 mm at the exposed edge. The stem is long and up to thick, with a smooth, sometimes shiny surface. It is tough, hollow, and either straight or with some curving. The color is blackish-brown up to a lighter, almost translucent apex. The base of the stem may be connected to dark brown or black root-like rhizomorphs 0.1–0.3 mm thick. Mature specimens display no veil.
Details of the fruit bodies' appearance, color in particular, are somewhat variable and dependent on growing conditions. For example, specimens growing on logs in oak and hickory forests in the spring tend to have more yellowish-white, depressed caps than those found in the same location in autumn, which are light yellow brown and more convex in shape. The fruit body development of M. rotula is hemiangiocarpous, with an hymenium that is only partially enclosed by basidiocarp tissues. Robert Kühner showed that a cortina-like tissue covers the young gills before the expanding cap breaks away from the stem. In unfavorable weather conditions, the mushrooms may fail to develop normally and instead produce semi-gasteroid basidiocarps.
Microscopic characteristics
Viewed in deposit, such as with a spore print, the spores of Marasmius rotula appear white or pale yellow. Under an optical microscope, they are hyaline (translucent), teardrop- or pip-shaped, and have dimensions of 7–10 by 3–5 µm. The basidia (spore-producing cells) are four-spored, club-shaped or nearly so, and 21–21 by 4–17 µm. Along the edge of the gill, interspersed among the basidia, are non-reproductive cells, the cheilocystidia; these are club-shaped with rough wart-like protuberances on the surface. The gill edges further feature broom cells, which are variably shaped, thin-walled, and measure 7–32 by 2.5–20 µm. Their apical surfaces are covered with yellowish, blunt, and conical warts or incrustations 0.2–1.5 by 0.1–1 µm.
Similar species
There are several less-common species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused due to somewhat similar overall appearances, but differences in size, gill arrangement, and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish between them. For example, Marasmius capillaris has a pale tan cap with a white center, and grows on oak leaves without forming clusters. Furthermore, its cap is evenly rounded, unlike the pleated and furrowed cap of M. rotula, and its stem is somewhat thinner (usually less than 0.3 mm) and slightly darker in color.
M. rotula is distinguished from M. bulliardii by its larger size, and greater number of gills. M. limosus is found in marshes, where it fruits on the dead stems of reeds and rushes. Tetrapyrgos nigripes (formerly treated in Marasmius) has white caps that are in diameter, attached gills that are sometimes slightly decurrent, a dark stem covered with tiny white hairs that give it a powdered appearance, and triangular to star-shaped spores. M. neorotula, described from Brazil, was considered by its discoverer Rolf Singer to be closely related to M. rotula. In addition to its tropical distribution, it can distinguished from M. rotula by its smaller size and more widely spaced gills. M. rotuloides, known only from montane forests of Trinidad, can only be reliably distinguished from M. rotula by microscopic characteristics: it has smaller, ovoid spores measuring 5 by 2.5 µm.
Other Marasmius species with a pinwheel arrangement of gills are readily distinguished from M. rotula by differences in color, including the orange M. siccus, the pink M. pulcherripes, and the rust M. fulvoferrugineus. Mycena corticola is smaller than Marasmius rotula, has a pale pink-brown cap, and is usually found growing singly or in small groups on bark near the base of living trees.
Ecology and distribution
Marasmius rotula is a saprobic species and as such obtains nutrients by decomposing dead organic matter. It grows in deciduous forests and fruits in groups or clusters on dead wood (especially beech), woody debris such as twigs or sticks, and occasionally on rotting leaves. The fruit bodies, which are easily overlooked because of their diminutive size, are often present in abundance after rains. The species is relatively intolerant of low water potentials, and will grow poorly or not at all under water stress conditions. It is unable to degrade leaf litter until it becomes more fragmented and more compacted so that the water-holding capacity increases in the deeper layers of the soil. The magnolia warbler has been noted to line its nests with the fruit bodies' stems.
In 1975 American mycologist Martina S. Gilliam investigated the periodicity of spore release in M. rotula and concluded that spore discharge did not follow a regular circadian rhythm, as is typical of agaric and bolete mushrooms, but rather was dependent on rain. A threshold of rainfall is required to elicit a spore discharge response and the duration of peak spore discharge correlates with the amount of rainfall, rather than its duration. Furthermore, Gilliam noted that spore prints were more readily obtained if the stem ends were placed in water, suggesting that water must enter through the fruit body for discharge to occur.
Like those of many other species of Marasmius, the fruit bodies of M. rotula can desiccate and shrivel in dry periods, then revive when sufficient moisture is available again in the form of rain or high humidity. Gilliam's study demonstrated that revived fruit bodies were capable of discharging spores over a period of at least three weeks, whereas previous studies using similar methods with other Agaricomycetes showed spore discharge occurred over a shorter period of up to six days after revival. The potential for sustained spore production and discharge may be due to the growth of new basidioles (immature basidia) during periods of growth, which then complete maturation when the mushroom revives. This may also explain why the gills become thicker as the mushroom matures.
The fungus is widespread and common in its preferred habitats in North America, Europe, and northern Asia. Although far less common in southerly locations, isolated collections have been reported from Africa (Congo, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania) and South Asia (India). In North America M. rotula is most common in the eastern part of the continent.
Uses
Marasmius rotula is generally considered inedible, but is not poisonous. The mushroom has no distinguishable odor, and its flavor varies from bland or bitter. Louis Krieger, writing in National Geographic in the 1920s, noted that the mushroom was used as an addition to gravies and, when used to garnish venison, "adds the appropriate touch of the wild woodlands." The fruit bodies will bioaccumulate cadmium: a study of the metal concentration of 15 wild mushroom species of India showed that M. rotula accumulated the highest concentration of that metal.
A peroxidase enzyme known as MroAPO (Marasmius rotula aromatic peroxygenase) is attracting research interest for possible applications in biocatalysis. In general, enzymes that catalyze oxygen-transfer reactions are of great utility in chemical synthesis since they work selectively and under ambient conditions. Fungal peroxidases can catalyze oxidations that are difficult for the organic chemist, including those involving aromatic substrates such as aniline, 4-aminophenol, hydroquinone, resorcinol, catechol, and paracetamol. The M. rotula enzyme is the first fungal peroxygenase that can be produced in high yields. It is highly stable over a wide pH range, and in a variety of organic solvents. The enzyme has other potential for use as a biosensor for aromatic substances in environmental analysis and drug monitoring.
See also
List of Marasmius species
References
Cited literature
External links
Fungi described in 1772
Fungi of Africa
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America
Inedible fungi
rotula
Taxa named by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli |
36044631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Spanish%20Wedding | The Spanish Wedding | The Spanish Wedding or La Vicaría (1868–1870) is a masterwork by Marià Fortuny i Marsal, also known as Marià Fortuny or Mariano Fortuny. La Vicaría exemplifies genre painting of the 19th century. The use of jewel tones, contrasts between light and dark, and the virtuosity of the work attest to Fortuny's talent. It resides at Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain.
Marià Fortuny
Marià Fortuny (1838–1874), a Catalan and Spanish artist, was known during the 19th century for his oil paintings, etchings, and watercolors. Fortuny was a master artist of genre painting; these show scenes from everyday life. The subject matter can be from any social class and have historical elements. Fortuny was a prodigy, completing other master works when he was 12 years old. The Spanish Wedding was completed when he was just 32. It exemplifies the genre style in three ways. First, a wedding is a typical part of life, and was an especially important celebration in 19th century Spain and Catalonia. Second, the painting tells a story, which needs no outside information. Finally, the mixing of historical and contemporary elements is typical of genre paintings.
History
The Spanish Wedding was painted from 1868 to 1870. It was started in Rome and completed when the artist moved to Paris. Fortuny's working style is characterized by extensive research. Many test sketches and watercolors survive. These practice works show Fortuny's artistic process. Each sketch becomes more sophisticated, and refines his extensive research, prior to putting brush to canvass. Fortuny was known for using family and friends, as well as professionals, as models for his paintings. In The Spanish Wedding, his wife, Cecilia de Madrazo, and sister in law, Isabel de Madrazo, daughters of Federico de Madrazo the director of the Museo del Prado, modeled for the painting, as well as the artist, Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier.
It is believed that The Spanish Wedding was inspired by a visit to a parish church in Madrid in preparation for his marriage to Cecilia de Madrazo. When the painting was displayed in 1870, it brought Fortuny international praise by both the general public and by the art community. Instead of being shown at the Paris Salon, the painting was exhibited at the gallery belonging to Adolph Goupil at No. 9 Rue Chaptral, Paris. Goupil was a major art dealer in the 19th century. The Spanish Wedding was quickly sold to Adèle Cassin, for 70,000 francs. This was one of the highest prices a painting had commanded to date, excepting Meissonier's 1814, la Campagne de France, which sold in 1866 for 85,000 francs. The Spanish Wedding catapulted Fortuny to international fame and his paintings were in high demand the rest of his career.
The painting remained in private hands until 1922. At that time, it was purchased by the Municipal Museum of Barcelona along with the Museum Board of Barcelona. Due to a misunderstanding, it became urgent for the museum to purchase the piece. It was believed the owner was moving to America and taking the painting with him. The Barcelona government decided that it would be best for the art work to come back to Spain and the funds for this endeavor were raised by subscription. It arrived at the museum in 1922 and is now cared for and displayed by Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, in Barcelona.
Description and Art Historical Analysis
The Spanish Wedding is a painting of the signing of the wedding license or registry after the marriage ceremony. Weddings and church scenes were a popular subject during the 19th century. The Spanish Wedding highlights Fortuny's abilities. Central to the action are the bride and groom, surrounded by friends and family. The priest; two gentlemen at the end of the table; and the older couple, on the bench to the right, look on as the groom signs the documents, thereby creating emphasis on the center of the painting.
Fortuny's use of color and light illustrates his inspiration by the artist Goya. The contrast of the dark interior with the light colors of the wedding party contrast sharply, much like the 17th century Dutch masters that Fortuny examined as a student.
While the painting was created in 1870, the clothing, like many genre paintings, is inspired by an historical time period. In this case, Fortuny references the 18th century, in the style of the men's clothing, and the women's accessories. The women's dresses follow the silhouette of the late 19th century. Fortuny renders silk and lace with exceptional ability. The viewer can almost hear the rustle of fabrics. The painting is decidedly Spanish in inspiration with the inclusion of peinetas on the women, the enormous iron grill work, typical of Spanish churches, and bull fighters. The painting is filled with objects that, some experts say, were from Fortuny's personal collection. The metal heating element in the left corner, known as a brazier, is used in a number of his paintings, and may have been from his extensive personal collection of antiquities. This collection of antiques contributed to the research that Fortuny undertook prior to the creation of any of his paintings.
The technique, which creates warmth and depth, is called preciosismo. This technique leads to fine brush work, which, when observed closely, looks like dashes and daubs of paint. When the viewer stands back from the painting, it comes together to create a wondrous whole, that is light and airy. This use of color also shows how Goya inspired Fortuny. In Goya's Charles IV of Spain and His Family there is a similar quality of light and color. Art Historians also attribute Fortuny's inspiration to Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier.
Just as Fortuny, and The Spanish Wedding, were influenced by Goya and Meissonier, he also influenced other artists. His brother-in-law, Raimundo de Madrazo, borrows heavily from The Spanish Wedding in his genre painting Coming Out of Church. Van Gogh also was inspired by this work, as were contemporary Spanish artists. Art historians believe that had Fortuny lived longer, his work would have grown and influenced artists for many years to come. Unfortunately, due to the revolution in the arts by the French Impressionists, Fortuny, and other genre artists like him, are largely unknown.
Exhibition history
References
Bibliography
Beaumont, E. de.; Davillier, C; DuPont-Auberville, A., Atelier de Fortuny. Oeuvre poshume. Objects d'Art et de curiosite, Paris, 1875, p. 5.
Boronat, M.J, La politica d'adquisicions de la Junta de Museus, Barcelona, 1999, p. 532–533, 588–589 and 738–745.
Cataleg de Pintura segles XIX i XX. Fons del Museu d'Art Modern, 2 vol., Barcelona, 1987, I, p. 408–409, cat. num. 897, fig.
Catalunya Grafica, Barcelona, 6/1922, 15, fig.
Cataluna en la Espana Moderna 1714–1983, Madrid, 1983, p. 176, cat. s/num. [exhibition catalog].
Ciervo, J., (Mariano Fortuny, Hojas Selectas, Barcelona, 2/1920, 218, p.101.
De Greco a Picasso. Cinc siecles d'art espagnol/1/, Paris, 1987, fig. p. 26 [exhibition catalog].
Donate, M.; Mendoza, C.; Quilez, F., Fortuny (1838–1874), Barcelona, 2003, p. 218–224, fig. p. [221], 225, cat. num. 76 [exhibition catalog].
El cami de dotze artistes catalans 1960–1980. Barcelona, Paris, New York, Barcelona, 1985, p. 16, fig. 4 [exhibition catalog].
Exposicion Fortuny. Catalogo, Barcelona, 1940, p. 67, cat. num. 223 [exhibition catalog].
Exposition de Peinture Espagnole Moderne sous le haut patronage de la municipalite parisienne, Paris, 1919, p. 13, cat. num. 101 [exhibition catalog].
Falgueres, L., (El nou Museu de l'Art Modern a Barcelona), D'Aci i D'Alla, Barcelona, 12/1924, XIV, 84, fig. p. 223 (detail).
Folch, LL., El pinto Fortuny, home d'ofici, Barcelona, 7/1919, III, 7, fig. p. 604.
Folch i Torres, J., Fortuny, Reus, 1962, num. 28, p. 142–145, 151–153 and 167–170.
Fonbona, F., Del Neoclassicisme a la Restauracio 1808–1888, Barcelona, 1983, p. 198, fig. 198-199 (Historia de l'Art Catala, VI).
Fortuny i Madrazo, M., Fortuny 1838–1874, Bologna, 1933, fig. 21, 22 and 23.
Goupil, Fortuny, Paris, 1875, fig. XXVII.
Guasch, F.; Batlle, E., Catalogo del Museo de Arte Contemporaneo, Barcelona, 1926, p. 107, cat. num. 10.
Guia del Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, 2004, p. 228–229, fig.
Hempel Lipschutz, I., (Legendaire Espagne: myth depeint mythe danse d'un tableau de Mariano Fortuny au dernier Ballet de Theophile Gautier), Theophile Gautier en sons temps. Butlletin de la Societe
(Homenaje a Mariano Fortuny), Mercurio. Revista comercial Ibero-Americana, Barcelona, 3 June 1920, 360, fig. p. 142.
Jardi, E., Cataluna, Madrid, 1978, fig. p. 147, (Tierras de Espana, II).
Jardi, E., Cincuenta anos de luz gas. Barcelona en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, Barcelona, 1978, fig. p. 128.
La Paraula figurada. La presencia del llibre a les colleccions del MNAC, Barcelona, 2005, p. 125, cat num. 66 [exhibition catalog].
(La Vicaría de Fortuny), La Publicidad, Barcelona, 16 May 1922 (edicion mati), 15326.
Mestres, A., La Vicaría de Fortuny. Notas historicas, Barcelona, [1927]
Miquel y Badia, F., Fortuny su vida y obras. Estudio biografico-critico, Barcelona, 1887, p. 39–40 and 45.
Miquel i Badia, F., El Arte en España. Pintura i Esculturas modernas, Barcelona, s/a., p. 315–317.
Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya. Mnac & SCALA GROUP S.p.A., 2009. .
(Nostres grabats), La Ilustracio Catalana, Barcelona, 30 November 1880, 15, p. 114.
(Novas), La Gramalla, Barcelona, 11 June 1870, 5, p. 4.
Primer Centenario de la Muerte de Fortuny, Madrid, 1974, s/p., cat. num. 815 [exhibition catalog].
Riquer, B. de., (Burgesos, politics i cacics a la Catalunya de la Restauracio), L'Avenc, Barcelona, 9/1985, 85, fig. p. 17.
Rossello, V., Fortuny. Apuntes Biograficos, Barcelona, 1874, p. 12.
Sampere i Miquel, Sl, Mariano Fortuny. Album, Barcelona, 1880, p. 52–54, 55 and 60–65, cat. num. 65.
Theophile Gautier, 1993, II, 15, p.446-480.
Valles, E., (De l'Assemblea de parlamenaris al 14 d'abril de 1931), Historia Grafica de la Catalunya contemporanea 1888–1931, Barcelona, 1976, III,fig. p. 347.
Yxart, J., Fortuny ensayo biografico-critico, Barcelona, 1882, p. 94–97.
External links
Museum's website
YouTube: MNAC – Marià Fortuny, The Spanish Wedding
Google Art Project: The Spanish Wedding
Works of the Modern Art Collection
Paintings in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya
1870 paintings
Paintings by Marià Fortuny
Books in art
Marriage in Spain |
26921172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine%20Black%20Bears%20baseball | Maine Black Bears baseball | The Maine Black Bears baseball team is the varsity intercollegiate baseball program of the University of Maine, located in Orono, Maine. It is the university's oldest athletic program, having begun play in 1881. It has been a member of the NCAA Division I America East Conference since its founding (as the North Atlantic Conference) at the start of the 1990 season. Its home venue is Mahaney Diamond, located on the university's campus. Nick Derba is the head coach. He was named interim head coach prior to the 2017 season. The program has appeared in 16 NCAA tournaments and seven College World Series. In conference postseason play, it has won eight ECAC Tournaments and five America East tournaments. In conference regular season play, it has won five America East titles (three of those when the league was known as the North Atlantic Conference). 19 former Black Bears have appeared in Major League Baseball.
History
Early history
The University of Maine opened in fall 1868 as the Maine College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. The baseball program, founded in 1881, was the school's first intercollegiate athletic program. It went 3–3 in its first season. The program continued to play a handful of games each season during the 1880s; during this time, Irv Ray, Maine's first alumnus to play in Major League Baseball, played for the program. It played its first 10-game schedule in 1886 and won 10 games for the first time in 1888. The university did not sponsor a baseball team in 1892, but the team resumed in 1893.
From the program's inception through the 1893 season, student coaches coached the team. For the 1894 season, the school hired Harry Miller as its first faculty head coach. In two seasons under Miller (1894 and 1895), the team went 5–7 and 8–4, respectively. Jack Abbott, the program's second head coach, led the team to a 5–4 record in 1896. Under W. W. Bustard, Maine had consecutive 9–4 seasons in 1897 and 1898. The university changed its name from the Maine College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts to its current name following the 1897 season.
Through the end of the 1923 season, Maine competed as an independent school. During this time, its highest single-season win total was 11, a mark reached three times (twice under head coach William Magill). Eight future major leaguers played for the program: Clarence Blethen, Harvey Cushman, Michael Driscoll, Pat French, Otis Lawry, Marty McHale, Ralph Pond, and Harland Rowe. In 1902, the team played an exhibition game against the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds.
The longest-tenured head coach of the period was former Philadelphia Athletics player Monte Cross, who coached the team for six seasons (1916–1921) and had an overall record of 33–33–3. An April 1916 Lewiston Daily Sun article said of Cross, "His easy-going, but nevertheless strict instructions and discipline, together with the knowledge of the inside features of the National game, and the manner in which he teaches them, make an everlasting impression on the students, players, and managers." In 1919, Cross became the first Maine baseball coach to receive the "M" award from the university's president.
After Joseph Murphy coached the program from 1924 to 1925, a total of two coaches led the team until 1949. Murphy assistant Fred Brice was the program's head coach for 10 seasons (1926–1935), and William Kenyon held the position for 13 seasons (1936–1943, 1945–1949). Under Brice, Maine had a 67–60 record; its best single-season record during his tenure was 9–5 in 1932. For the previous season, 1931, the baseball team had moved to a location behind Memorial Gym after previously playing at Alumni Field. In the mid-1930s, 1936 Olympian Clarence Keegan played for Brice. Under Kenyon, Maine went 61–91–1. It went 11–7 in 1938 to tie the program record for wins and won Maine State Series championships in 1937 and 1942.
From 1937 to 1943, Maine played in the New England Conference, along with Connecticut, Rhode Island State, New Hampshire, and Northeastern. Maine won the conference championship in 1938, but in the conference's seven seasons of baseball competition, it had the worst overall record among the five teams.
Yankee Conference
From 1949 to 1979, Maine played in the Yankee Conference. For the majority of its time in the conference, its fellow members were Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. In 31 seasons in the league, Maine had the third-highest winning percentage (.548), behind Connecticut and Massachusetts.
Maine won its first Yankee championship in 1950 under head coach Mike Lude but did not win another in that decade. It began to have more success after Jack Butterfield was named head coach for the start of the 1957 season. Butterfield had played at Maine in the early 1950s and served as an assistant in 1956. In his fourth season, 1960, Maine shared the Yankee title with Connecticut after both went 8–2 in conference. Baseball executive Bill Livesey featured on the 1960 championship team.
In 1964, the Black Bears went 21–8, won the Yankee Conference, and reached their first College World Series (CWS). Maine swept Northeastern in the best-of-three District 1 Regional to reach Omaha. Maine began the tournament 1–1, beating Seton Hall in the opener but losing to Minnesota in the 1–0 game. In the losers bracket, Maine defeated Arizona State (also playing in its first CWS) and defending champion USC. In the semi-finals, Maine was eliminated by a 2–1 loss to Missouri. Pitcher Joe Ferris was named the Most Outstanding Player.
Butterfield led the team through the end of the 1974 season, when he left to coach South Florida, in part because of disagreements with Maine's administration about the program's funding. In his final decade, Maine shared two more Yankee titles and had another 20-win season, but it did not return to the NCAA tournament. Butterfield finished with an overall Maine record of 240–169–2.
Maine hired Colby head coach John Winkin as Butterfield's replacement. Winkin went on to lead the team for 22 seasons (1975–1996) and was Maine's most successful head coach. He had an overall record of 642–430–3 and led Maine to 10 NCAA tournaments and 6 College World Series. His teams included nine future Major League Baseball players: Mike Bordick, Kevin Buckley, Fred Howard, Joe Johnson, Jeff Plympton, Bert Roberge, Mark Sweeney, Bill Swift, and Larry Thomas.
After making an NCAA Regional in Winkin's first season, Maine reached the 1976 College World Series. There, it went 2–2. After losing its opener, 3–2, to Eastern Michigan, the team knocked out Auburn and Washington State before being eliminated. Maine returned to the CWS in 1981, when it had its first 30-win season. After defeating St. John's in the Northeast Regional finals, the Black Bears went 0–2 in Omaha.
The 1981 appearance was the first of four consecutive trips to Omaha, winning the Northeast Regional (which it often hosted) on several occasions. The Black Bears also reached the CWS in 1986, their first 40-win season. At the CWS, the team went 0–2 in 1983, 1984, and 1986, but finished tied for third in 1982. After losing its opener to Miami, it notched losers bracket wins against Cal State Fullerton, Wichita State, and Stanford before being knocked out by Miami. Bob Whalen, who went on to become the head coach at Dartmouth, was an assistant to Winkin during these four appearances.
America East Conference
Maine joined the North Atlantic Conference for the 1990 season. In its first four seasons in the conference, it reached three NCAA tournaments (1990, 1991, 1993), losing to Clemson in the regional final in 1991. Maine players won several major conference awards in the early 1990s, including a sweep of the Pitcher and Player of the Year (by Larry Thomas and Mark Sweeney) in 1991.
Winkin's contract was not renewed after the 1996 season, and the school hired Providence head coach Paul Kostacopoulos to replace him. (The North Atlantic was also renamed the America East after the 1996 season.) Kostacopoulos led the team for nine seasons (1997–2005). Maine's best season under him came in 2002, when the Black Bears went 40–17 (16–6 America East), won the conference's regular season and tournament titles, and reached the Los Angeles Regional. The team also reached the 2005 NCAA tournament under Kostacopoulos, who was twice named the America East Coach of the Year.
When Kostacopoulos left for Navy after the 2005 season, Maine hired Manhattan head coach Steve Trimper to replace him. Trimper had previously coached in the America East as an assistant at Vermont in the 1990s. Under him, Maine returned to the NCAA tournament in 2006 and 2011, playing in the Chapel Hill Regional both times and winning a game in 2011. In 2013, Trimper was named America East Coach of the Year, and the Black Bears won three of four major conference awards after winning the regular season title. In the America East Tournament, the team lost to Binghamton in the championship game.
Conference membership
Independent (1881–1891, 1893–1936, 1945–1948, 1980–1981)
New England Conference (1937–1943)
Yankee Conference (1949–1979)
Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference (1982–1989)
North Division (1982–1989)
America East Conference (1990–present)
Known as the North Atlantic Conference from 1990 to 1997
Venues
Early venues
The program played at several locations on Maine's campus in its early seasons. During the 1910s and 1920s, it played at Alumni Field. In 1931, it moved to "a section directly behind Memorial gym."
Mahaney Diamond
The program currently plays at Mahaney Diamond, which opened in the early 1980s and is located on the northern end of the university's campus. It has a capacity of 4,400 spectators and is named for Maine alumnus and donor Larry Mahaney, who graduated from the university in 1951. The field has a FieldTurf surface, and the facility has been renovated many times since the mid 1980s.
The facility hosted NCAA Regionals in 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, and 1991. It has also hosted four AEC tournaments (1996, 2002, 2004 and 2018).
Coaches
Head coaches
Since Harry Miller became the program's first record head coach for the 1894 season, Maine has had 24 head coaches. John Winkin, who was Maine's head coach from 1975 to 1996, is both the program's longest tenured and winningest head coach. He coached for 22 seasons and won 642 games. |
25156386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20Nebraska%20Cornhuskers%20football%20team | 2013 Nebraska Cornhuskers football team | The 2013 Nebraska Cornhuskers football team represented the University of Nebraska in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The team was coached by Bo Pelini and played their home games at Memorial Stadium in Lincoln, Nebraska.
Before the season
Recruiting
Scholarship recruits
Walk-on recruits
Schedule
Roster and coaching staff
Depth chart
Game summaries
Wyoming
This was the Cowboys' first visit to Lincoln since 1994, when Nebraska defeated the Cowboys 42–32 en route to a national championship. The two teams last played in 2011, when Nebraska defeated the Cowboys 38–14 in Laramie. In the week leading up to the game, Pelini handed out seven Blackshirts to his defense. This was the first time during Pelini's tenure that he has handed them out prior to the start of the season. In the game, both Ameer Abdullah and Imani Cross rushed for more than 100 yards. Despite the victory, the Nebraska defense allowed Wyoming to accumulate 602 yards of offense, the second-most allowed ever by Nebraska in a win. With Nebraska's victory they now lead the all-time series 7–0.
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Wyoming Game starters
Southern Miss
The Huskers hosted the Golden Eagles for the second straight year, with the Huskers winning 49–20 in 2012. This game was originally scheduled to be hosted by Southern Miss in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, but the game was sold back to Lincoln to make more money for the visiting team after considering playing the game in New Orleans or Kansas City. Following this year's win, Nebraska now leads the series 4–1. USM won in Lincoln in 2004.
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Southern Miss Game starters
UCLA
The UCLA Bruins traveled to Memorial Stadium for the first time since a 49–21 loss in 1994. This was the second game in a home-home series, with the Bruins winning in Pasadena 36–30 in 2012. Nebraska led 21–3 midway through the second quarter before UCLA scored a touchdown before halftime. In the third quarter, UCLA scored 28 straight points to take a 38–21 lead against Nebraska before adding a field goal late in the game. UCLA's win tied the series 6–6, until Nebraska took the lead after defeating the Bruins in the 2015 Foster Farms Bowl. Nebraska wore alternate uniforms in this game created by Adidas. The game set a Memorial Stadium attendance record with 91,471 in attendance. The record was broken the next season in the Miami at Nebraska game, with 91,585 in attendance.
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UCLA Game starters
South Dakota State
The South Dakota State Jackrabbits made their third trip ever to Lincoln, falling to the Huskers previously in 1963 and 2010. After trailing 17–14, Nebraska scored 38 straight points en route to a 59–20 win over South Dakota State. The Huskers amassed 645 yards of total offense with 310 yards passing and 335 rushing, the first time in school history that Nebraska broke the 300-yard barrier in both rushing and passing. Starting quarterback Taylor Martinez sat out this game with a turf toe injury, so backups Tommy Armstrong Jr. and Ron Kellogg III took his place. Tommy Armstrong went 12-of-15 for 169 yards with a TD in the win, while teammate Ron Kellog was 8-of-9 for 136 yards and a 1 TD of his own. Ameer Abdullah was the top Husker rusher with 139 yards and a TD on 15 carries while Imani Cross added 60 yards rushing and 2 TDs on 10 carries. Quincy Enunwa was the top receiving target with 6 catches for 78 yards, while Tyler Wullenwaber added 47 yards and a TD on two catches. For SDSU, Austin Sumner was 19-of-29 for 238 yards with 2 INTs. Zach Zenner had 21 carries for 202 yards, the 10th most individual rushing yards ever allowed by the Huskers, and 2 TDs. Cam Jones had 6 catches for 68 yards in the loss.
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SDSU Game starters
Illinois
Illinois made their first trip to Memorial Stadium since 1985. This was the first year of back to back trips to Lincoln for the Fighting Illini. Following this win the Huskers now lead the all-time series 8–2–1.
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Illinois Game starters
Purdue
This was the second meeting ever between the schools. Purdue won the only other meeting, 28–0, in 1958 in West Lafayette. Purdue scored in the final minute of the game to avoid being shut out in a 44–7 Nebraska win. Nebraska's defense held Purdue to 216 total yards of offense while recording five sacks and forcing a pair of turnovers. The Boilermakers gained 32 yards rushing in the contest. Nebraska gained 435 total yards with 184 through the air and 251 on the ground. Ron Kellogg III was the top passer for the Huskers, going 10-of-13 for 141 yards and a TD. Ameer Abdullah added 126 yards rushing on 20 carries with a TD and Quincy Enunwa was the top Husker receiver with four catches for 72 yards and a score. David Santos led the Huskers in tackles with five while Randy Gregory had two sacks and a fumble recovery.
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Purdue Game starters
Minnesota
Nebraska and Minnesota met for the 54th time in a series that began in 1900. Nebraska has played Minnesota more times than any other Big Ten Conference member. Coming into the game the Golden Gophers led the all-time series 29–22–2, but Nebraska had won the last 16 games in the series, including the last two since joining the Big Ten Conference.
In the game, after jumping out to a 10–0 lead, Minnesota used its run game to beat Nebraska for the first time since 1960, ending a streak of 16 straight losses to the Huskers. The Gophers outgained the Huskers in total offense 430–328 and gained 271 yards on the ground. The game saw the return of Taylor Martinez to the starting lineup. He went 16-of-30 for 139 yards with 1 TD and 1 INT. Ameer Abdullah added 165 yards rushing on 19 carries in the loss.
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Minnesota Game starters
Northwestern
This was the third straight year as Big 10 members against each other, with Northwestern winning 28–25 in 2011 and Nebraska winning in 2012, 29–28.
Jordan Westerkamp caught a tipped hail mary pass in the end zone as time expired from Ron Kellogg III to give Nebraska a 27–24 win over the Northwestern Wildcats. The Huskers outgained the Wildcats in the contest 472 yards to 326. Tommy Armstrong was 15-of-29 for 173 yards with 1 TD and 3 INTs in the win. Ameer Abdullah had 127 yards rushing on 24 carries and Jordan Westerkamp had four catches for 104 yards and a TD. Nebraska moves to 5–2 all-time against Northwestern.
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Northwestern Game starters
Michigan
Nebraska mounted a late fourth quarter drive to win 17–13, tying the all-time series with Michigan at 4–4–1. The loss snaps a 19-game home winning streak under coach Brady Hoke at Michigan Stadium. The Huskers scored the first 10 points of the game in the first quarter, then Michigan scored the next 13 before Nebraska would come back with the game-winning touchdown with just over two minutes left in the game. The Huskers outgained the Wolverines in total offense 273 yards to 175 while holding Michigan to minus-21 yards rushing in the contest. Tommy Armstrong was 11-of-19 for 139 yards with a TD, Ameer Abdullah had 27 carries for 105 yards with one rushing and one receiving TD and Quincy Enunwa had 7 catches for 69 yards to lead the Huskers offensively. Defensively, Randy Gregory came up with three sacks of Michigan QB Devin Gardner to lead a Blackshirt defense that produced seven sacks on the day.
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Michigan Game starters
Michigan State
Michigan State, previously 0–7 against Nebraska, won their first ever game in the series with a 41–28 win over the Huskers. Nebraska outgained the Spartans in total offense 392 yards to 361 but was unable to overcome five turnovers, which resulted in 24 Michigan State points. MSU also held an advantage in time of possession at 38:37 to 21:23. Ameer Abdullah was the first runner this season to gain 100 yards on the Spartans, the number one ranked defense in the country coming into the game, with 123 yards on 22 carries.
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Michigan State Game starters
Penn State
Nebraska was able to convert a field goal in overtime to give Nebraska a 23–20 win on the road over the Nittany Lions. The Huskers tied the game at 20–20 late in the fourth quarter on a 19-yard field goal by Pat Smith to force overtime. Penn State missed a 37-yard attempt in their overtime period while Smith connected on a 42-yarder for the win. Nebraska was outgained in total offense by Penn State 387 to 360 yards. Ron Kellogg III was 20-of-34 for 191 yards with a TD. Ameer Abdullah had 25 carries for 147 yards rushing and the receiving corps was led by Jordan Westerkamp with five catches for 62 yards and Quincy Enunwa who had three catches for 42 yards and a TD.
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Penn State Game starters
Iowa
Meeting for the Heroes Trophy. Following the Husker's loss Nebraska now leads the series by a mark of 28–13–3.
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Iowa Game starters
Gator Bowl
This year's Gator Bowl was a rematch of last year's Capital One Bowl that was won by Georgia. The Huskers led the contest en route to a 24–19 victory. UGA outgained Nebraska in total offense 416 to 307 but committed one more turnover. Nebraska was led by Tommy Armstrong who went 6-of-14 for 163 yards with two TDs and one INT. Included in that performance was a school-record 99-yard TD pass to Quincy Enunwa in the third quarter. Ameer Abdullah had 27 carries for 122 yards and a TD, his 11th 100-yard rushing performance of the season. Enunwa led in the receiving department with four catches for 129 yards and two TDs. For his efforts, Quincy Enunwa was named Gator Bowl MVP.
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Georgia Game starters
Individual honors
Big Ten Players of the Week
Week 6 – Ameer Abdullah (Offensive Player of the Week)
Week 10 – Jordan Westerkamp (Freshman of the Week)
Week 11 – Randy Gregory (Defensive Player of the Week)
Week 11 – Tommy Armstrong Jr. (Freshman of the Week)
Week 13 – Pat Smith (Special Teams Player of the Week)
Big Ten All-Conference honors
All-Conference selections
All-Americans
Ameer Abdullah (Associated Press – Third Team; Sports Illustrated – Honorable Mention; Phil Steele – Third Team)
Spencer Long (CBS Sports – Third Team)
Academic All-Americans
Spencer Long (First Team)
Jake Long (Second Team)
C.J. Zimmerer (Second Team)
Nebraska team awards
Year-end annual team awards:
Team MVP: Ameer Abdullah
Offensive MVP: Quincy Enunwa
Defensive MVP: Randy Gregory
Special Teams MVP: Pat Smith
Offensive Captains: Quincy Enunwa, Spencer Long, Taylor Martinez, Ameer Abdullah
Defensive Captains: Jason Ankrah, Ciante Evans
Chamberlain Trophy: Jeremiah Sirles (Senior player that lives up to Cornhusker tradition)
Novak Trophy: Ron Kellogg III (Senior player who exemplifies courage despite all odds)
Fischer Native Son Award: Cole Pensick (Senior Nebraska native player)
Bobby Reynolds Award: Jake Long
Lifter of the Year: Ameer Abdullah
Walk-On of the Year: Sam Burtch
Offensive Scout Team MVP: Adam Taylor
Defensive Scout Team MVP: Courtney Love
Character Award: Taariq Allen, Mike Moudy, Scott Criss
Pat Clare Award: Taariq Allen
Husker Heart Award: Brandon Chapek
Rankings
Notes
September 14, 2013 – A record crowd of 91,471 attended the game against UCLA
References
External links
Nebraska
Nebraska Cornhuskers football seasons
Gator Bowl champion seasons
Nebraska Cornhuskers football |
73823199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Altaussee | Lake Altaussee | Lake Altaussee, also known as Altausseersee, is a mountain lake located at the southwestern foot of the Totes Gebirge in the Styrian part of the Salzkammergut. It lies at 712 m above sea level. The center of the municipality of Altaussee is located on the western shore. The Altaussee Traun, which flows into the Danube via the Traun, serves as the outlet of the lake. The largely undeveloped shores and adjacent wetlands of Lake Altaussee provide habitats for numerous animal and plant species and have been under nature conservation since 1959. The Austrian Federal Forests own Lake Altaussee, which is a popular excursion destination due to its beautiful location. Every third year, the lake hosts the Daffodil Festival, Austria's largest flower festival.
Geography
The Totes Gebirge surround Lake Altaussee in a horseshoe shape. The Loser (1873m above sea level ) lies to the north, with steep flanks that drop sharply to the lakeshore. To the east, the Trisselwand (1754m sea level) features a rock face that rises approximately 600 meters high. On the northeastern shore, the Seewiese marks the beginning of a trough valley that leads over the Hochklapfsattel to the plateau of the Totes Gebirge. To the south, the Tressenstein (1201m above sea level) follows, while the village of Altaussee in the hilly area of the Aussee Basin is situated to the west. The shores are rocky and steep, particularly in the north, while in other areas, they are partly pebbly, flat and largely undeveloped.
The lake stretches from west-southwest to east-northeast, covering a length of 2.6 km with a maximum width of 1 km, and a surface area of around 2.1 km2. With an average depth of 35 m, the lake basin has steep slopes, except for the northeastern part, where the slope gradually decreases from approximately 40m depth, leading to a relatively large bottom zone with a maximum depth of 53m. The deepest point is a spring funnel near the north bank, which reaches a depth of 73m, while the water volume measures 72.7 million cubic meters.
The lake can be reached via the Altausseerstraße L702. The lake is surrounded by a 7.4 km long circular hiking trail Uferpromenade.
Hydrology
The hydrological catchment area of Lake Altaussee encompasses a total area of 54 km2, entirely located within the Totes Gebirge. The lake's primary source of water is from karst springs located at the lake's bottom, which receive underground flow from debris and rock crevices. These springs have an average total discharge of 3750 L/s. Additionally, there are a few small spring outlets along the shores with a combined discharge of approximately 20 L/s. Lake Altaussee demonstrates typical fluctuations in discharge commonly associated with karst springs. In the northeast, there is a small dead ice hole called Lake Osterseen, which is filled by groundwater corresponding to the water level of Lake Altaussee. The Altaussee Traun, the lake's outlet, exits in the southwest at the Seeklause, where a bridge spans the outflow. It carves its path between the rock barrier of the Plattenkogel and the alluvial fan of the Augstbach, which acts as a natural dam for the lake.
Originally, the Augstbach stream flowed into Lake Altaussee 250m north of the lake outlet. However, due to the issue of saline water from the nearby salt mine repeatedly reaching the lake through this stream, the stream bed was artificially relocated before 1530. Since then, the Augstbach has been redirected to flow westward, past Lake Altaussee, and into the Traun River approximately 150m downstream from the lake outlet.
After heavy and prolonged rainfalls, a hydrological karst phenomenon known as "the Liagern" can be witnessed in the Seewiese area. This event occurs due to the presence of two cave entrances situated at different elevations. During this spectacle, vast amounts of water accumulate within a cave in the middle section of the Loserwand. The resulting overpressure causes a large jet of water to shoot out of the cave portal of the Liager hole in a high arc. The process, with some interruptions, only takes about an hour, and the bulk quantities can reach 3000 L/s. The waterfall turns into a torrent in the area of the wall, which tumbles down to the lake and, together with the strong underground inflow, causes the lake level to rise by up to 60 cm within just 12 hours.
Geology
Tectonic
Lake Altaussee is a component of the Northern Limestone Alps, which lies on the southwestern edge of the Totengebirge cover (Tirolic period), characterized by its abundance of Mesozoic limestones and dolomites from the Triassic and Jurassic periods. Within the western part of the Totes Gebirge, lies the Schönberg group, which is geologically distinct from the Priel group due to a deep incursion furrow. The Wildensee line is a geological structure that stretches from Lake Altaussee, traverses the Hochklapfsattel, extends to Wildensandee Lake, and continues over the Rinnerboden to Offensee Lake. The base of the Loser mountain is composed predominantly of Dachstein limestone, while the Plattenkogel showcases Pedata limestone or dolomite formations, both originating from the Triassic period. The Trisselwand and Tressenstein areas exhibit the presence of Oberalmer Formation and Tressensteinkalk, which formed during the Jurassic period. Scattered around the lake, one can observe remnants of terminal and lateral moraines, offering glimpses into the region's glacial history and the shaping of its surrounding landscape.
Former glaciation and formation
During the ice ages, the Altaussee glacier flowed from the Totes Gebirge plateau, flowing over the Aussee basin and reaching the Traun glacier near Bad Goisern. The glacier's movement was instrumental in sculpting the valley's over-deepened basin of Lake Altaussee. About 16,000 years ago, a powerful readvance of the glacier occurred and filled the basin once again, giving it its current form. Simultaneously, as the over-deepened basin was being freed from the ice, a lake began to form at the edge of the ice body. This phase, marked by the presence of a high debris formation around Lake Altaussee's basin, indicates the interaction between the ice body and the lake basin. As the ice eventually disappeared entirely, the alluvial cone adjusted to accommodate the present lake level. Originally, the lake area was likely more extensive, stretching over the Seewiese and reaching the Osterseen. Over the course of the post-glacial period, the lake basin constantly changed its shape as a result of silting up. It is expected that, over tens of thousands of years, the lake basin will eventually vanish once again, further transforming the landscape.
Climate
The climate data show a temperature and precipitation distribution typically found in the Northern Limestone Alps: Cool and precipitation-rich summers, with a maximum of 16.2 °C and 220mm in July, respectively, and winters with low precipitation, with a minimum temperature of -2.2 °C in January. Precipitation shows a secondary maximum from December to January. Overall, the annual precipitation was 2041mm with an annual average temperature of 7.1 °C. The Schönberg group, located at the edge of the Totes Gebirge, benefits from frequent cloud accumulation, resulting in above-average precipitation in that area. A comparison with Bad Mitterndorf, situated on the southern side of the Totes Gebirge and approximately 12 km away, highlights the barrier effect of the Totes Gebirge at a similar altitude. Bad Mitterndorf receives annual precipitation of 1222mm at an elevation of 803m above sea level. In terms of snow cover duration, the nearby town of Bad Aussee, located 3 km away, experiences approximately 126 days of winter snow cover.
Limnology
Circulation
Lake Altaussee is classified as a dimictic lake. In spring after the ice melts, the water body mixes and brings oxygen-rich water into the depths. In the summer half-year, a distinct thermocline forms, and only the surface layer warms up, in autumn mixing occurs again, followed by ice formation. Strict stratification conditions are present in Lake Altaussee. The epilimnion has only a very small thickness of about two meters. The metalimnion lies at a depth of about five meters. The uniformly temperate hypolimnion begins at 10 meters. The strikingly high position of the metalimnion is due to the relatively wind-protected location and only moderate flooding of the lake. After the spring circulation, surface water temperatures gradually increase, reaching a long-term average of 16.3 °C in August. However, between 2000 and 2006, the mean August temperature was higher at 18.4 °C, nearly 2 °C above the long-term average. The highest recorded water temperature in the lake was 21.8 °C during the summer of 2003. At depths below 15 meters, temperatures average around 4.6 °C. Throughout the summer stagnation phase, the hypolimnion warms up by an average of only 0.3 °C. The lake is typically covered by ice for an average of 57 days each year.
Trophy
The lake has a low concentration of nutrients and is thus oligotrophic. Measurements in the years 2000 to 2006 showed an average phosphorus content of 6.7 µg/L. Due to the discharge of untreated wastewater, a eutrophication trend could be detected in the years 1963 to 1973 and the oxygen saturation above ground was already decreasing. In addition, bacteriological tests revealed the presence of salmonella. As a result, remediation measures began, which were completed in 1980 with the construction of a regional association sewage treatment plant with a third treatment stage in the municipal area of Bad Aussee. The hygienic situation of the bathing areas improved rapidly and the oligotrophic condition of the lake could be maintained. Several supply and disposal pipes run through the lake, connecting the rest areas at the Seewiese and the beach café located on the southern shore to the sewage system. Due to the low phytoplankton concentration and low algae growth, the average summer visibility depth is 8.9 meters.
Plankton
According to chlorophyll studies, algae growth in Lake Altaussee is relatively low. Cryptophyceae and diatoms are the principal phytoplankton community components, with species from the genus Cyclotella standing out. In particular, Cyclotella Styria is a unique species found exclusively in Lake Altaussee and Lake Grundlsee. The zooplankton community, on the other hand, exhibits significantly higher biomass. Among the rotifers, the species Kellicottia longispina, Keratella cochlearis, and Keratella hiemalis were frequently observed. The crustacean plankton in Lake Altaussee is largely composed of species such as Cyclops abyssorum, Eudiaptomus gracilis, Daphnia hyalina, and Eubosmina longispina.
Flora and vegetation
The potential natural vegetation on the riparian slopes is a spruce-fir-beech forest (Aposerido-Fagetum). However, centuries of prioritizing spruce as a fuel source for the salt flats have led to a significant depletion and displacement of fir and beech trees. Snow heath-red pine forests (Erico-Pinetum) can only be found in the rockiest, driest regions. In the Seewiese, a treeless area created by mowing and grazing, there are tall perennials such as meadowsweet ( Filipendula ulmaria ), ring thistle ( Carduus personata ), and monkshood (Aconitum napellus ). In the meadow around the hunting lodge, many star daffodils (Narcissus radiiflorus) bloom in the second half of May. On the shore edge of the lake meadow grows the very rare shore buttercup (Ranunculus reptans). It is found in Austria and on the shores of Lake Constance. On the very dry, steep, and south-exposed slopes of the “Bumpy Stone Walls” in the shore area grows the mountain laserwort (Laserpitium siler), the only host plant of the mountain cumin summer work (Orobanche laserpitii-sileris), which is highly uncommon in Austria. This full parasite reaches flowering there only in wet years.
In Lake Altaussee, mirror pondweed (Potamogeton lucens), alpine pondweed (Potamogeton alpinus), crested pondweed (Stuckenia pectinate), Berchtold's dwarf pondweed (Potamogeton berchtoldii) and hairy-leaved water crowfoot (Ranunculus trichophyllus) occur in larger stands in places in the shallower shore areas. Grass pondweed (Potamogeton gramineus) grows only locally in the reed stand (Phragmites australis) on the north bank and marsh pond thread (Zannichellia palustris) on the bank near the church. Dense stonewort algae lawns on the former alluvial cone of the Augstbach are conspicuous.
Fauna
The fish population of Lake Altaussee is composed of the following species: burbot (Lota lota), chub (Squalius cephalus), minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), perch (Perca fluviatilis), lake Trout (Salmo trutta) and arctic Char (Salvelinus alpinus). The perch is not native to the lake. The common pond mussel (Anodonta anatina) lives sporadically on the former alluvial cone of the Augstbach. The green jelly spherule (Ophrydium versatile) is also common.
About 6 species of waterfowl have been recorded in the area. In addition to the common annual birds’ coot (Fulica atra), mute swan (Cygnus olor), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), the great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) is also among the breeding birds. The great egret (Ardea alba) also lives at the lake.
Nature Conservation
With its largely undeveloped shores with nearby marshes and wooded steep slopes, the lake provides habitats for many animal and plant species and the area has been under nature protection since 1959. The Altaussee Nature Reserve (NSG-a03) spans 242 hectares and extends to an altitude of 1600m above sea level. In 2006, the Totes Gebirge European Protected Area with Lake Altaussee European Protected Area No. 35 was designated under the Habitats and Birds Directives as part of the Natura 2000 network.
Research
The Walter Munk Foundation for the Oceans supports research projects in the field of limnology, ecology, and underwater archaeology at Lake Altaussee. Together with the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, a high-resolution multibeam echo sounder was used to create a detailed 3D model of the lake bottom in 2019. It shows, among other things, sediment formations of various kinds, large boulders, crater-shaped underwater springs, and around 100 standing tree trunks with heights of one to about fifteen meters distributed over the entire lake. In the summer of 2022, a 10-meter-tall white fir (Abies alba) was recovered from the lake. By combining dendrochronology and radiocarbon methods, the age could be accurately determined. The tree has 247 annual rings and died in 859 AD. The rootstock of the fir can be visited on the north bank. How the approximately 100 tree trunks got into the lake - for example, through a tectonic event, or whether they grew in the site - require further investigation.
Economy
Fishing
Lake fishing in Altaussee has a documented history dating back to the 13th century. The fishing activities were under the authority of the sovereign lordship of Pflindsberg, and only a selected group of residents from the village of Fischerndorf had the privilege to engage in fishing. These individuals were obligated to pay fishing fees, which granted them the right to fish. The fishing operations were organized by guilds, as indicated by the name Fischerndorf. The allocation of fishing rights was based on the size of the land owned by the entitled farmers. In Altaussee, fishing rights are passed down through generations and are considered hereditary. The Austrian Federal Forests hold the lake, but the rights of the fishermen are registered in the land register and have been owned by the local families for generations. Fishing in the lake is still conducted professionally to this day.
Lake Altaussee is renowned for its large char and trout populations, with Arctic char accounting for approximately 90% of the total catch. The shallow and flowing water on the lake side of the Seeklause serves as a crucial spawning area for lake trout, which spawn from October to December. To prevent the fish from migrating into the Traun River, grids are installed under the bridge during the spawning season. Additionally, there is a spawning sanctuary (Laichschonstätte) located at the Lechthütte on the southeast bank. The char in Lake Altaussee spawn from October to November on gravel banks that are free of silt, typically at a depth of around 20 meters. To support the char population, a portion of the fish is captured using nets during what is known as "leaching batches." The eggs are then stripped and fertilized to cultivate young fish. During the summer, these young fish are released back into the lake. The fishermen's cross, located on the western shore, used to serve as a guide to locate the spawning grounds and the best fishing spots for Arctic char. Fishermen would navigate with a flatboat to a specific point where the alignment of the Granzling, the tip of the flatboat, the fisherman's cross, and the Dietrichskogel formed a line. The cross needed to be positioned on the horizon of the Dietrichskogel. In the past, the fisherman's cross was a freestanding structure easily visible from all directions. However, it is now obscured by tall trees.
The perch (Perca fluviatilis) was not originally native to the lake but entered the water body at the end of the 1980s for yet unexplained reasons. As a foreign fish species, it changed the aquatic ecosystem and caused damage to the population of minnows and Arctic char, on whose spawn it feeds. To restore the balance, attempts are being made to reduce the population of the perch. One method involves placing submerged spruce branches, where the perch lay their eggs, and then removing the branches to destroy the fish eggs.
Shipping
The company Stern Schifffahrt GmbH, based in Gmunden, operates shipping on Lake Altaussee. Boats run regularly between the Madlmaier landing stage in Altaussee and the Seewiese landing stage on the northeast shore. On May 7, 2011, the Altaussee, Austria's first solar-electric powered catamaran, began operating on the lake. The boat has room for 80 passengers. Since 2018, the company has also been offering flatboat trips including skippers. Combustion engines are prohibited on ships and boats in Lake Altaussee, as well as on all lakes in the inner Salzkammergut region. However, there are some exceptions to this rule, including professional fishing, liner shipping, and vehicles used by rescue and fire departments.
Tourism
Lake Altaussee is a popular destination for excursions because of its beautiful location. In Altaussee exists a distinctive tourist infrastructure with accommodation and catering establishments. The hunting lodge Seewiese on the northeast shore was originally owned by the Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst family and is now run as an inn. It contains a small natural history museum on the second floor, which focuses on Lake Altaussee and the numerous fossils found in the region. To the south of the Seewiese, an inn dating from the 1900s was purchased by Dietrich Mateschitz and rebuilt in local style in May 2018. Most of the shore is freely accessible. Public bathing jetties are located at the Seeklausanger parking lot and at the Seepark in Altaussee. Lake Altaussee is also suitable for ice skating and curling, as it often freezes over completely in winter. During the Daffodil Festival at the end of May/beginning of June, which lasts several days, a boat parade takes place every third year on Lake Altaussee. Here, sculptures decorated with star daffodils are put on display.
History
At the outlet of Lake Altaussee, like other lakes in the inner Salzkammergut, there existed a hermitage specifically used for wood drifting. With relatively modest means, this location allowed for the storage of large quantities of water. The first mention of this hermitage dates back to the forest survey of 1561. In 1633, a new building was constructed, entirely made of wood at the time. The reconstruction of the Seeklause using ashlars began in 1781. Additionally, an external rake was built around 1300 to gather the floated wood. However, after the brewing operation in Aussee market in 1867, the rake fell into disuse. The final wood drifting event on the Altaussee Traun occurred in 1882. Presumably, the Klause was destroyed during a flood in 1899. Subsequent to the catastrophic floods of 1897 and 1899, the remaining traces of the rake were eliminated as part of the shore reinforcement measures.
In the last days of the Second World War, a truck was sunk on the north bank. Today, this consists only of fragments scattered over an area of about 20 × 40 m.
Lake Altaussee in Art
As the nobility began to settle in Ausseerland, Altaussee also attracted more and more writers, painters, and musicians. From the middle of the 19th century, Altaussee developed into a "home of writers". Raoul Auernheimer, in his autobiography "Das Wirtshaus zur verlorenen Zeit", compares the lake to an inkwell into which “the poets sitting around in circles dipped their quills”. The influence of the lake is documented in the Altaussee Literature Museum.
The lake and the hunting lodge Seewiese were filming locations for the James Bond film Spectre in 2015.
References
Further reading
Wolfgang Adler, Alexander Mrkvicka: Hrsg.: Naturhistorisches Museum Wien. Wien 2005.
External links
Commons: Altausseer See - Collection of images, videos, and audio files
Research projects at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
Lakes of Styria
Danube |
7673774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp%20Joe%20Scherman | Camp Joe Scherman | Camp Joe Scherman (often abbreviated Camp Scherman) is a camping and recreation facility owned and operated by the Girl Scout Council of Orange County (GSCOC) located off the Pines to Palms Highway in Riverside County in Southern California.
The camp is in the southern San Jacinto Mountains, at in elevation. The scenic property features rolling foothills of California montane chaparral and woodlands habitats below Pine Mountain, a junior Olympic-size pool, two ponds, and miles of trails for hiking and exploring.
Campers' activities include backpacking, sailing, canoeing, archery, horseback riding, swimming, arts and crafts, nature exploration, camping skills, games, drama, rock climbing, campfires, and outdoor cooking.
History
The land was originally the homeland the Cahuilla Indians, and many locations in the camp have names derived from the Cahuilla language.
Joe Scherman (born 1902) was California's first state ranger and was intimately involved in GSCOC's purchase of the property upon which Camp Scherman was established. All were originally owned by James Wellman, a somewhat legendary big-game hunter and good friend of Joe Scherman's. Scherman helped negotiate with Wellman for the property, and in 1959, the first were purchased for $96,500. Eighteen years later, in 1977, the final were purchased from the Wellman family to complete the property within Camp Scherman today.
Units
Upper Camp
Upper Camp refers to the part of camp up the hill from Morris Ranch Road, the main road through camp. The Upper Camp portion contains the main kitchen that serves the entire camp.
Keeway
Keeway means "North Wind". The unit consists of two-sided rustic cabins with six bunks on each side. It shares a biffy and a shelter with Wabanino. The shelter is unenclosed. Keeway borders the dirt road from TC-4, making it very easy to access from anywhere in camp. Two trailheads lead away from Keeway; one goes to Kitchiwani and the other goes to Adoette.
Kitchiwani
Kitchiwani is a portmanteau of "Kitchino" and "Shawani", which mean South and West Wind. Kitchiwani, often called Kitchi, is the only unit in camp that has both tents and cabins. The cabins are rustic, two-sided cabins with six bunks on each side. The tents are platform tents which sleep eight campers in cots with mattresses. The Kitchi shelter is unenclosed. It also contains a costume closet, which is used for theater units. A stage is set up on the grass and props and costumes from the Kitchi closet are used. Kitchiwani is adjacent to TC-4, and is the first unit campers see upon arrival there. It is very centrally located and provides easy access to the rest of camp. Two trailheads lead away from Kitchiwani: one goes to Keeway/Wabanino and the other goes to Morris Ranch Rd., the main road through camp.
Pa Solé
Pa Solé means "Sitters on the Hill". Pa Solé, often called Paso, is made up of rustic cabins with four bunks. The shelter is unenclosed. Due to a lack of water pressure, Paso is not currently being used as a unit for campers, but is sometimes used for special events. Pa Solé sits at the top of the steepest hill in camp, just up the hill from the Dining Hall, Health Center, Holly Tree, and the Ark, as well as Ribbonwood and Snoqualamie. Despite its proximity to these buildings, Pa Solé is not easily accessible from the rest of camp due to the hill one must climb to reach it. A major trailhead leads away from Paso, which splits into the Sr. Loop Trail, 6064, and Red Rock.
Ribbonwood
Ribbonwood is named for the tree of the same name, which is very prevalent in the area, whose bark peels away in long ribbons. Ribbonwood consists of platform tents with four beds each. Ribbonwood shares its fully enclosed shelter with Snoqualamie, and the biffy is attached to the shelter. Ribbonwood is just past the flagpole, near the Dining Hall, Holly Tree, and Health Center. A trailhead leads away from Ribbonwood to an off-property rock-climbing program area.
Snoqualmie
Snoqualmie means "Moon People". Snoqualmie, often referred to as Snoq, is made up of rustic cabins with eight bunks each. The shelter, which it shares with Ribbonwood, is fully enclosed, and the biffy is attached. Snoqualamie is very close to the Dining Hall, Health Center, and Holly Tree, as well as the main dirt road which runs through Upper Camp. Because of its accessibility and convenience to the rest of camp, Snoqualmie is usually used for younger campers. Campers who stay there are often referred to as "Snoqers".
Wabanino
Wabanino means "East Wind", and is often referred to as Waba. The unit consists of two-sided rustic cabins with six bunks on each side. It shares a biffy and a shelter with Keeway. The shelter is unenclosed. Wabanino borders the dirt road from TC-4, making it very easy to access from anywhere in camp. Two trailheads lead away from Wabanino: one goes to Kitchiwani and the other goes to Adoette.
Whispering Winds
Whispering Winds is made up of eight-person rustic cabins. The shelter is enclosed, and the biffy is attached. It lies just off the main road, downhill a bit from the Dining Hall. Its accessibility to the road makes it very easy to get anywhere in camp very quickly.
Wyeena
Wyeena is a platform tent unit, with four girls to a tent. It has a small unenclosed shelter. Wyeena is past Whispering Winds, set far back in the canyon. It is not very accessible, and therefore it takes a while to get most places in camp. Rattlesnake Trail leads away from Wyeena towards the Dining Hall.
Lower Camp
Lower Camp refers to the part of camp downhill from Morris Ranch Rd., the main road through camp. It contains most of the program areas.
Adoette
Adoette means "Big Trees". The unit consists of two-sided rustic cabins with six bunks on each side. Adoette, often referred to as Ado, has its own enclosed shelter, but shares a biffy with nearby Tawasi. Ado is mainly used for horseback riding units, due to its proximity to the Tack House and Arena. Adoette is a bit far back from the road, but is very convenient to the nearby program areas. A trail leads away from Ado towards the 101 Meadow.
Prim
Prim is the primitive unit in camp. Girls sleep outside on mattresses on tarps. Prim was originally in a clearing past the Ranch House Cabins, although recently it has been in the 101 Meadow. The old Prim had a steel frame shelter with a canvas over it, a fire pit, and Porta-Biffs. The new Prim, however, does not have a shelter, but has its own biffy. Two tents are put up each session: one for the campers' gear and changing, and the other for the counselors' gear and changing. If weather is poor, campers in Prim are relocated to another unit, often Tawasi.
Ranch House Cabins
The Ranch House Cabins are very different from the other units in camp. The cabins have heating and electricity, as well as attached biffies. Each cabin typically has four bedrooms, each with six bunks. The unit is very close to Massey Hall, although a bit far from the rest of camp. Due to its higher-end accommodations, the Ranch House Cabins are usually used for younger, new campers. Many weekend camps also use the Ranch House Cabins.
Tawasi
Tawasi is the newest and smallest unit in camp. It is made up of two-sided rustic cabins with six bunks each. The shelter is enclosed, and Tawasi shares a biffy with the adjacent Adoette. A trailhead leads away from Tawasi towards the 101 meadow.
Wanish
Wanish means "Stream". It consists of two-sided rustic cabins with six bunks on each side. The shelter is enclosed, and the biffy is at the top of a small hill. Wanish is very close to Promise Lake, and is therefore usually used by waterfront units. Wanish is very close to all the program areas, as well as Adoette and Tawasi, and is therefore extremely convenient to the rest of camp.
Program Areas
Program Areas refer to the various locations in camp where campers can participate in recreational activities specific to that area.
Archery
Arena and Tack House
The Arena and Tack House area is between Adoette and Wellman Road. It consists of the tack house, riding arena, and stables. All the horses at camp live here, and all the tack is stored here. Girls learn to ride in the arena before advancing to trail rides. Tack House Parties and Rodeos are also held here. Tack House Parties are an all-camp activity where girls from different units can play games or have a dance in the arena and eat desserts, and Rodeos are an all-camp activity that allows the girls in the horseback riding units an opportunity to demonstrate what they learned that session.
Arts and Crafts
Arts and Crafts is the located just across the road from the museum. Camper can participate in numerous art projects here, from candle dipping to pet-rocks. There is also a rack of lanyard string that anyone can use for lanyards and other various projects. The Arts and Crafts building has an indoor space with tables, as well as an outdoor area with picnic tables. All Camp Dinner is often served from these picnic tables. It also has a large refrigerator where extra food can be taken and stored. Arts and Crafts used to be located on the other side of the road, in a building which has not been used for many years due to safety concerns. It is now in the BOMB (Big Old Maintenance Building), which used to hold maintenance equipment downstairs and campers upstairs.
Honor Lake
The smaller of the two lakes at camp, Honor Lake is located just downhill from the pool, on the way to OCR and Archery. It is used primarily for canoeing, and campers are not allowed to swim in this lake. Due to the recent drought conditions, camp is no longer pumping extra water into the lake, and the water level has steadily been getting lower. Because of this, the lake has not been used much in recent summers. The lake was named for Honor E. Haynes, a Girl Scout volunteer who helped purchase the land for camp.
Pooh Corner
Pooh Corner is a small area in the trees behind the Dining Hall where Pooh and his friends live. This is a great place for younger campers to have Pooh Parties, where they read stories and eat Pooh Food (graham crackers and frosting).
Pool
The Pool area is located next to the Golf Course and the Meadow, across the road from Promise Lake. It consists of a junior-olympic sized pool, cubbies, a biffy, a picnic area, camper changing area and showers, pool house, and staff changing room and showers. Summer resident campers go swimming at the pool every day. The pool is also available for other programs, such as night swims, polar bear swims, and swamping. Certified lifeguards are always on duty when anyone is on the pool deck. The pool consists of a deep end, middle end, and shallow end. Campers must pass a basic swim test to swim in the deep or middle ends during summer resident camp.
Ropes Course
New as of Summer 2016, the Ropes Course is located just past Wanish and Promise Lake. It consists of a shaded picnic area as well as several structures related to each challenge in the course. The Ropes Course at Camp Scherman is a low-ropes course. The elements are focused mostly on teamwork rather than heights. Elements rage greatly in difficulty in order to make the course suitable for both younger and older campers. Some of the major elements include the Team Wall, Spiderwebs, and tightropes. Scherman Helmets must be worn any time a person is being lifted in any way.
See also
Scouting in California
Girl Scouts of the USA
External links
Official Camp Scherman website
Gscoc.org: Camp Glossary + Schermanisms
Gscoc.org: Girl Scout Council of Orange County website
Youtube.com: 2006 Camp Scherman Staff slideshow
Youtube.com: Camp Scherman 50th Anniversary Slide Show
Scherman
San Jacinto Mountains
Joe Scherman
Buildings and structures in Riverside County, California |
66258616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin%20Higgs | Dustin Higgs | Dustin John Higgs (March 10, 1972 – January 16, 2021) was an American man who was executed by the United States federal government, having been convicted and sentenced to death for the January 1996 murders of three women in Maryland. Tamika Black, Tanji Jackson, and Mishann Chinn were all shot and killed near the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, on the Patuxent Research Refuge in Prince George's County, Maryland. Because this is classed as federal land, he was tried by the federal government rather than by the state of Maryland. His case, conviction, and execution were the subject of multiple controversies.
The main contention was that Higgs did not personally kill any of the three victims, but waited in a vehicle nearby. The man who shot them, Willis Mark Haynes, was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole plus 45 years. The prosecution argued that although Higgs did not kill anyone, he was the ringleader, ordering and bullying Haynes. Higgs and his defense team maintained his innocence to the end, arguing that he was merely a witness, and was set up by Haynes and another witness, Victor Gloria. In 2012, Haynes swore in an affidavit that Higgs did not force or threaten him into killing any of the victims.
Higgs was executed via lethal injection on January 16, 2021, becoming the thirteenth and final person executed by the federal government during the presidency of Donald Trump, when federal executions returned after a 17-year hiatus. Trump's presidency ended only four days later. Higgs remains the most recent person executed by the United States federal government. A moratorium on federal executions is currently in place. It was imposed by President Joe Biden's
Attorney General Merrick Garland in 2021.
Early life
Higgs was born in Poughkeepsie, New York on March 10, 1972, to Alfonso Higgs and Marilyn M. Bennett Higgs (1945–1982). When Dustin was 8, his mother was diagnosed with cancer. She died two years later, in 1982. Friends and relatives saw a big change in his mood after this. He moved to Laurel, Maryland in 1991. By 1996, he was married and had a son.
Murders
On the evening of January 26, 1996, Higgs, Willis Haynes, and Victor Gloria drove from Higgs' apartment in Laurel, Maryland, to Washington, D.C., to pick up Tamika Black, Tanji Jackson, and Mishann Chinn. Dates had been arranged for each of the men and women and the groups had agreed to meet and hang out together. The six of them traveled in Higgs' vehicle, a blue Mazda MPV van, and returned to his apartment to drink alcohol, smoke marijuana, and listen to music. The partying continued into the early hours of January 27.
At some point during the night, an argument broke out and the women left the apartment. Higgs, Haynes, and Gloria then headed out after them, with Higgs driving his own vehicle and Haynes sitting in the front passenger seat. Gloria was sitting in the back of the van behind Higgs. Higgs drove his van to the side of the road where the women were walking. They offered the women a ride home, which they willingly accepted. The women got into the back of the vehicle and Higgs drove out of Laurel. Neighbors in the area reported hearing and seeing the three women laughing and talking in the early hours of that morning.
Higgs drove his van along a state road on to the Patuxent Research Refuge and stopped the vehicle near the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. The women got out of the van and Haynes exited the vehicle. Haynes then fatally shot each of the three women with a silver .38 caliber pistol before returning to the van and closing the door. The gun was then thrown into the Anacostia River. Early on January 27, a passing motorist found the women's bodies and contacted the Park Police. Jackson's day planner was found at the scene with Higgs' nickname and telephone number recorded in it. According to the medical examiner, Jackson and Black had each been shot once in the chest and once in the back. Chinn had been shot once in the back of the head.
Fraud investigation and drug trafficking conviction
The murders went unsolved for nearly three years. Higgs was first questioned about them in March 1996 at his apartment. He acknowledged that he had known Jackson and had talked to her the night before she died. He was arrested and his apartment searched, as he was suspected of an unrelated bank fraud violation. Police found cocaine and firearms in his apartment. On May 12, 1997, he pleaded guilty to possession with intent to distribute cocaine. He was sentenced to 17 years in a federal prison.
Revelation and murder trial
In October 1998, Gloria and Haynes were arrested on unrelated drug charges. After being questioned, police learned of more details surrounding the murders. On December 21, Higgs and Haynes were indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of first degree murder, kidnapping resulting in death, and use of a firearm during a crime of violence. Higgs was already in custody at the time, serving his 17-year trafficking sentence. The government announced they would seek death sentences for both Higgs and Haynes.
After this revelation, Higgs and Haynes were tried separately in 2000. Gloria pleaded guilty to being an accessory-after-the-fact to the killings and, in exchange for testimony against Higgs and Haynes, was sentenced to seven years in prison. His testimony was the main piece of evidence presented during Higgs' trial.
Prosecution's argument
The prosecution's version of events was that Higgs got into a heated argument with Tanji Jackson at his apartment on the evening of January 26, 1996. Jackson had supposedly taken a knife from the kitchen and threatened Higgs after she rejected his alleged sexual advances towards her. After the argument, the women left the apartment enraged. According to Gloria, Jackson made some kind of threat as she left the apartment. As Higgs watched the women leave, he saw Jackson appear to write down his license plate number. According to Gloria, this angered Higgs, who was concerned that she knew people who might retaliate against him.
The men then left the apartment and headed after them in Higgs' van. They pulled over and offered the women a ride home, which they accepted. The prosecution accepts that they were not forced into the vehicle or taken against their will. Higgs did not drive the correct way back to Washington, D.C., and instead drove to the Patuxent Research Refuge. Higgs pulled over at a secluded location and ordered the women out of the van. The women then asked if they were being forced to walk home to which Higgs responded, "something like that." As the women got out of the van, Higgs took out a handgun and handed it to Haynes. According to Haynes' testimony, Higgs then said to him "better make sure they're dead." Haynes then exited the van and Gloria heard gunshots. He witnessed Haynes shoot one of the women in the chest. After the women were killed and the gun was disposed of, Higgs drove back to his apartment with Haynes and Gloria. Gloria was later dropped off at a fast-food restaurant, where he was told to keep his mouth shut.
Defense's argument
The defense argued that Higgs' alleged reason for wanting the women killed — Jackson rejecting his sexual advances and possibly knowing people who may have retaliated against him — was a very weak motive for ordering three murders. They said the idea that the women willingly got into the van for a lift home also contradicted the idea that Jackson was angry at Higgs and would seek revenge. The defense claims that the real reason the women were killed was because they owed Haynes and some of his associates drug money. Two inmates at the Charles County Detention Center said Haynes had claimed to them to have a much bigger role in the killings. One argued Haynes was more of a partner to Higgs than someone who followed orders. One said the victims owed him drug money and that Haynes "had to kill" one of the women because she had been trying to set him up.
Higgs' lawyer said he only learned of the witnesses after reviewing Haynes' trial record, by which time Higgs had already been sentenced to death. The evidence would supposedly have made both Haynes and Higgs equally culpable in the eyes of the jury, and the failure to provide the statements violated the Brady rule. According to the defense, both Gloria and Haynes repeatedly changed their stories, with Haynes admitting in 2012 in a sworn affidavit that Higgs had not forced or bullied him into doing anything, something the prosecution had claimed at Higgs' trial.
Verdict
Ultimately, Higgs and Haynes were found guilty of all of the charges. The jury spared Haynes' life. On August 24, 2000, he was sentenced to nine concurrent life terms without parole, plus 45 years. The federal judge at Haynes' trial claimed he had shown no remorse for the killings. As of June 2022, he was incarcerated at United States Penitentiary, Beaumont.
On October 26, 2000, Higgs was sentenced to death by an all-male jury, becoming the first person from Maryland to be sentenced to death in the federal court system. He was formally sentenced to death by a federal judge on January 3, 2001. Higgs was incarcerated at United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute.
On November 22, 2000, Gloria was sentenced to eighty-four months in a federal prison. He was released on February 4, 2006, serving a total of just over five years and two months in prison.
Disapproval of result
Multiple controversies surround Higgs' case. Firstly, he was sentenced to death despite not personally shooting or killing any of the three women. The case against him was mainly built on the testimonies of Gloria and Haynes, who had both cut deals and changed their stories multiple times. The fact the murders were committed on federal land further complicated things. Higgs was tried by the federal government rather than by the state of Maryland. Had the murders occurred farther down the same road, the women would not have been killed on the Patuxent Research Refuge, and Higgs would have been tried by the state of Maryland instead of by the federal government. If he had been tried by the state of Maryland, based on state law, he would not have been eligible for the death penalty. The state of Maryland also abolished the death penalty in 2013, with all remaining death row inmates resentenced to life without parole. Prior to the abolition, the last execution in Maryland occurred in 2005, when Wesley Baker was executed for the June 1991 murder of 49-year-old Jane Tyson.
Execution
The execution was controversial, in part because Higgs was executed during a lame-duck period. He had also tested positive for COVID-19 a few weeks prior. Higgs' attorney raised the concern that COVID-19 had caused him lung damage, and that during the execution, he would experience "a sensation of drowning akin to waterboarding." The execution was postponed by a federal judge's ruling on January 12. The Supreme Court voted 6–3, late on January 15, to let it proceed.
At 1:23 a.m. on January 16, 2021, Higgs, 48, was executed by lethal injection of pentobarbital at the United States Penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana. His last words were "I'd like to say I am an innocent man. I did not order the murders." He mentioned each of the three murder victims by name. He became the third and last inmate to be executed by the U.S. federal government in January, after convicted murderers Lisa Marie Montgomery and Corey Johnson, who were executed on January 13 and 14, respectively.
Higgs was the thirteenth and final person executed by the United States federal government during the presidency of Donald Trump. He also remains the most recent person executed by the federal government as a whole. He is buried at Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery in his hometown of Poughkeepsie, New York.
See also
Brandon Bernard
Execution of Nathaniel Woods
Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States
List of most recent executions by jurisdiction
Capital punishment by the United States federal government
List of people executed by the United States federal government
List of people executed in the United States in 2021
References
1972 births
2021 deaths
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1748549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rookie%20%281990%20film%29 | The Rookie (1990 film) | The Rookie is a 1990 American buddy cop action drama thriller film directed by Clint Eastwood and produced by Howard G. Kazanjian, Steven Siebert and David Valdes. It was written from a screenplay conceived by Boaz Yakin and Scott Spiegel. The film stars Charlie Sheen, Clint Eastwood, Raul Julia, Sônia Braga, Lara Flynn Boyle, and Tom Skerritt. Eastwood plays a veteran police officer teamed up with a younger detective played by Sheen (the rookie), whose intent is to take down a German crime lord in downtown Los Angeles, following months of investigation into an exotic car theft ring.
The Rookie premiered in the United States and Canada on December 7, 1990, grossing $21,633,874 in ticket receipts, just under its budget of $30 million. The film was overshadowed by the continuing success of Home Alone, which opened three weeks earlier and ended up being one of the top 100 highest-grossing films of all time. A financial disappointment, The Rookie was met with generally lackluster reviews. Critics considered it formulaic and shallow, and questioned the casting of the Puerto Rican Julia and the Brazilian Braga as Germans; a scene in which Eastwood was raped by Braga also generated some controversy. The stunts and special effects, however, were met with praise.
Plot
Nick Pulovski (Clint Eastwood) and his partner Powell attempt to bust some criminals loading a truck with stolen luxury vehicles; in the gunfight, Powell is killed. Nick pursues the fleeing truck, but the gang detaches the trailer with him on it. Now classified as a homicide case, Nick is taken off of it and assigned a new partner, "rookie" cop David Ackerman (Charlie Sheen).
Nick and a confused David continue investigating the gang; they go to a country club for lunch and see the criminals' leader, Strom. Nick confronts him and gives him Powell's broken and bloodied badge. Later, they go to a bar so Nick can talk to his informant, Felix. David gets in a brawl at the bar during which his badge is stolen; Nick, a regular, defuses the fight. Nick moves to enlist another gangster, Morales, by destroying his car at a junkyard. Morales succeeds in placing a bug in Strom's apartment but, upset at his earlier failure with the truck of stolen cars, Strom and his girlfriend Liesl kill him.
Now desperate for money, Strom holds up a casino. When the manager opens the safe, David and Nick emerge, having heard his plan through Morales' bug. Nick attempts to arrest them, but when David refuses to shoot an unarmed Liesl, they manage to kidnap Nick and shoot David. Strom demands $2,000,000 ransom and takes Nick to his chop shop. David emerges, having survived the ordeal thanks to his body armor. The police believe they cannot get the ransom money and consider Nick lost.
Determined to help Nick, David returns to the bar and demands information. He ends up starting a huge brawl and several fires, terrorizing the customers. He decides to visit the original informant, Felix, at his dry cleaner, but arrives to find another gangster, Loco, has killed him. Loco then assaults David, but escapes. David goes to his wealthy father for the $2,000,000 before informing his wife he has the money. She tells him the cops are looking for him since he has not checked in and that his Lieutenant is at their house. He promises to return but is arrested by two other officers who tell him the Lieutenant is looking for him; he realizes the "lieutenant" in his house must be an imposter and eludes the cops to rush home.
David crashes his motorcycle through his own front door to find Loco attacking his wife; in the fight, she ends up shooting Loco. His car reminds him of Strom's garage, where he goes to find Nick. After a strange scene in which Liesl films herself having sex with Nick, he manages to overpower her but falls into an elevator shaft and plays dead. Alerted by dripping blood, Strom sees Nick and tries to kill him. David arrives in time to run them off and save Nick. Nick then drives a convertible out the window of the upper floor to escape a bomb planted inside to destroy evidence and they continue their pursuit.
Nick and David manage to hijack a van Strom sends to exchange the money; they take it and follow Strom to the airport. David pursues and eventually kills Liesl while Nick pursues Strom. Strom eventually shoots Nick; David shoots Strom who also shoots David; ultimately, Nick gets his revenge on Strom. Some time later at the police station, David is finally considered a veteran cop, and Nick has been promoted to Lieutenant. Nick assigns David a new "rookie."
Cast
Clint Eastwood as Sergeant Nick Pulovski
Charlie Sheen as Detective David Ackerman
Seth Allen as Young David Ackerman
Raul Julia as Ulrich Sigmund Strom
Sônia Braga as Liesl Strom; Braga previously co-starred with Julia as his lover in Kiss of the Spider Woman
Tom Skerritt as Eugene Ackerman
Lara Flynn Boyle as Sarah Ackerman
Pepe Serna as Lieutenant Raymond Garcia
Donna Mitchell as Laura Ackerman
Coleby Lombardo as Joey Ackerman
Marco Rodriguez as "Loco" Martinez
Xander Berkeley as Ken Blackwell
Roberta Vasquez as Officer Heather Torres
Hal Williams as Detective Powell
Paul Ben-Victor as Felix "Little Felix"
Tony Plana as Morales
David Sherrill as Max
Pete Randall as Cruz
Matt McKenzie as Detective Wang
Joel Polis as Detective Lance
Robert Harvey as Detective Whalen
George Orrison as Detective Orrison
Paul Butler as Captain Hargate
Anthony Charnota as Romano
Nick Ballo as Vito
Jay Boryea as Sal
Anthony Alexander as Alphonse
Jeanne Mori as Reporter Connie Ling
Jordan Lund as The Bartender
Kyle Eastwood as Band Member At Ackerman's House Party (uncredited)
Production
Sets and equipment
Within California, filming was done primarily on location in Saratoga, San Jose and Los Angeles. Various filming sites included Interstate 680 and State Route 87 in San Jose for the opening chase sequence featuring the semi-tractor trailer, the famous Villa Montalvo mansion for the henchmen meeting scene in the Santa Cruz Mountains of Saratoga, and the San Jose International Airport as well as the Mojave Air & Space Port for the final action climax scene, which author Laurence F. Knapp described as "both purgative and objectionable—a vivid, personal exchange of camera angles and vantage points that complicate, rather than conclude." A furniture warehouse on the corner of 4th and Hewitt streets in downtown Los Angeles, stood in as the hideaway for Strom's illegal theft operation. But in relation to same hideaway's demise later in the film, a different building was used in the City of Commerce. A warehouse previously occupied by an auto agency slated for demolition on Flower near 12th Street, stood in for the impending explosion-filled destruction. During an introductory scene, where Eastwood's character pulls up in an unmarked squad car to foil the plans of the car thieves, a z-shaped thoroughfare called Santa Fe Street, provided the perfect secluded background at night which also happened to overlook the Los Angeles skyline. For the action sequences involving aircraft at the San Jose airport, a Hansa twin-engine jet was used to collide with a Convair 880 that was briefly disguised as a 150-passenger Evergreen International Airlines Boeing 727.
In keeping with the continuity of the subject matter and storyline, the filming was punctuated with the use—and in some cases the destruction—of expensive and alluring foreign automobiles; including a Ferrari Daytona, a Porsche 928, a Jaguar XJ, as well as brief appearances of a Cadillac Allanté and a Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit. A vintage gull-wing Mercedes-Benz 300SL is also presented in the film, being personally driven by Braga's character in an introductory sequence before a large-scale climactic car chase scene. In addition to driving a newly redesigned Mercedes-Benz 500SL for the 1990 model year, Eastwood's character is also seen conveying his distaste for the Lime Green color on the Lotus Esprit and later driving said vehicle during a criminal pursuit. Sheen's character also takes part in a scene involving an older, rare Harley-Davidson, riding head-on through the front door of a residential home.
Filming
Coordination of the lighting along with the capturing of all other photographic elements in the film were achieved by cinematographer Jack N. Green. Stunt coordinator Terry Leonard and second unit director Buddy Van Horn, oversaw the task of integrating the scope of stunt people working to produce the action which numbered over twice as many actors in the film (said to be over 80 stuntmen), while supervisor John Frazier controlled the special effects. Green, Van Horn, Leonard, Frazier, and production manager Valdez began close pre-production discussions three months before principal photography. To meet his stylistic lighting objectives in shaping the scenery environment, Green utilized powerful Musco Lighting developed during the 1980s. Commenting on a production scene surrounding the character of Pulovski at his residence, Green noted the home was characteristic of "359 degrees" of accessible turns of the camera. He detailed how the crew would "go in with these little ceiling units, as close to the ceiling as we could get them, little accent lights onto the place the actors would be. It would look like it was coming from those practicals but, again, at a dramatic angle." Describing a stunt-related sequence early in the film performed by Eastwood himself, Van Horn, who had been a stunt associate for almost 35 years, took the opportunity to commend the actor on his contributions saying, "Clint likes to do everything live, ... When you read the script, you know everything is going to be pretty much live action. Sometimes you have to talk him out of something that just might be a little too risky. Not that he couldn't do it, but if something even minor should happen, you couldn't afford to suspend the production." The sequence which Van Horn alluded to, was a scene that involved Eastwood behind the driver's seat racing a Chevrolet Blazer through stop-and-go traffic, while swerving to avoid oncoming cars from the opposite direction. The scene included 20 other stunt drivers operating a carefully rehearsed formation through a head-on collision course. According to Van Horn, who engineered the sequence with Leonard, he noted, "The whole thing is like a football play, ... We all sit down and figure out where the cars are, where Clint makes the break out of traffic, where the other cars are going, and just the whole cause and effect for how and why he pulls into (the intersection) and decides to head on through. That's all worked out ahead of time." Leonard added, "In a situation where your rehearsal time is extremely limited, it becomes that old expression: experience, ... It becomes a seat of the pants kind of thing, about 20 drivers and Clint who know where the close calls are going to be and who's going to be in what position when. But once you get going, there's always the element of surprise, where maybe a car is 10 feet closer than it was expected to be, and a driver must react to that."
Certain critics such as author Daniel O'Brien, failed to understand why director Eastwood used Hispanic actors Julia and Braga, to portray German villains. Puzzled, he mused, "Why Eastwood thought that the Puerto Rican Julia and the Brazilian Braga would make convincing German schweinehund is difficult to determine, with Braga in particular suffering the indignities of awful dialogue ..." In summing up the filming experience, Frazier said, "You know, things went really well, but you have to give credit to everyone involved. Clint Eastwood and David Valdez really gave us the time and their confidence to do it right. We were never really rushed, which is so important. We were able to do every one of the major shots in one take: the car out of the building, the carrier turning over and the planes colliding. That says something. These guys respect the crew and every job being done. It makes a big difference."
In an interview with Orange Coast Magazine, co-star Braga confessed she had "never done action before" in film, while also stating, "I had to learn running and kicking and hitting." Under Eastwood's direction, Braga commented, "When you act with the director, you don't have any barriers because you're giving and taking at the same time." On a separate note, author Marc Eliot described the graphic rape scene in the film that gained much publicity as being, "an explosive sequence, and the only one in the film that people talked about. As obviously provocative and exploitative as it was, ars gratia artis the scene may also be read as conveying Clint's feeling victimized at the hands of a beautiful but bad woman." Offering another take on the scene, author John H. Foote noticed, "Braga looks somewhat embarrassed during the rape sequence, leaving us to wonder why Eastwood the director did not handle the sequence in a different manner. Was he hoping that the film would offer audiences something new?" Author Douglas Thompson bluntly referred to the rape scene as "sadomasochistic" and Braga as a "kinky nymphomaniac" while adding, "before she rapes Eastwood she plays around his chest with a razor blade, then gets into torrid action." Author Howard Hughes indicated that the event was one of Eastwood's "most distasteful scenes in [his] entire career". (Ironically, while the rape scene attracted considerable attention, little apparent notice was paid to the scene in which protagonist Pulovski commits murder by summarily executing Strom.
Stunts
The major stunt scenes were executed before the camera with no miniatures, no blue screens, while mostly being shot at night. Completed during May 1990, the centerpiece stunt of the film involved a Mercedes-Benz convertible driving through the fourth-floor window of an exploding warehouse. For the scene, a 1,500 pound Mercedes auto mock-up was connected by 150 feet of quarter-inch pulleyed cable to a Ford 4×4 pickup on the ground. The truck would drive straight ahead and pull the Mercedes through the windows as the cable that connected the two vehicles exhibited a tensile strength of 8,000 pounds. Once the pull on the cable started, both vehicles would move in precise proportion to one another. After the mock-up launched through the windows, the hook connecting the Mercedes would drop. As Frazier explained, "The hook is very similar to the kind used to launch jets on aircraft carriers, ... Once the hook falls away, the Mercedes is propelled by its own momentum." Aerodynamics played a key role in the execution, as Frazier referred to the stunt saying, "When the car left the building it was very important that it exit and travel flat, ... A lot of times it doesn't matter. In this case, if the car didn't travel flat, you would know that the car could not have survived into the next sequence where it landed on the rooftop. We had to set up aerodynamics on that car, so that every time it went out the window, including the tests, it flew out without the nose dipping down." The explosion filled destruction of the warehouse was produced by 9 separate 18-inch steel mortars on each of the 4 floors. When fully discharged, all 36 mortars produced the largest orchestrated explosion ever allowed in Los Angeles city limits permitted at the time.
Another major stunt sequence consisted of a , 21-ton two-tiered automobile carrier flipping over on its side, flinging its automotive cargo onto a freeway of traffic. In the sequence, the carrier is scripted to disconnect from the primary cab at highway speed, so that the carrier veers off to one side while eventually flipping over. Frazier explained how "Clint did not want the car carrier rolling over and over down the freeway, ... He just wanted it to go over on its side and then slide until it stopped. It would have been easier to load that thing up (with cars), get up to speed and 'barrel' roll it down the freeway. But it wouldn't have looked realistic for his character to have survived it." A semi-truck which was trailing 150 feet behind the carrier, held on to it by means of a cable. After the carrier became detached from the passenger cab, the semi-truck came to a stop yanking the carrier from the cab. Frazier demonstrated how gravity played a significant and key role during the scene. He noted, "By itself, the carrier would not have come off the (cab), ... It could ride there forever, even though it's been released, just due to the weight of the carrier. So we needed the 'holdback' cable to the truck behind, and on cue, the driver locked his brakes." After the carrier disengaged from the cab, steel castor wheels attached to the underside of the carrier directed it to the center embankment. A stuntman who was riding in the carrier fired 3 cannons to physically lift it over on its side.
A small jet aircraft, (Hansa-Jet), pursuing the lead characters played by Eastwood and Sheen, complements another tightly coordinated stunt scene (aerial coordinators James W. Gavin and Eric W. Gray). After chasing the two detectives through a grassy area, the Hansa-Jet is hit by a Convair 880 depicted as landing, (the initial sequence showing the aircraft on approach uses a BAe 146). Both the San Jose and Mojave airports were scripted as LA International Airport during filming of the scene. Right before the impact, the Hansa-Jet was actually stationary being pulled by a 150-foot steel cable attached to a 4-wheel drive pickup truck right before the explosion erupted. Frazier explained, "The reason we did that is because if the planes collide first, it's likely they'll upend all our wires and the explosion wouldn't occur at all. Another reason is that had the Hansa-Jet not demolished before impact, it could have spun the other plane around, and we might have ended up with the 880 in our shot instead. The ensuing explosion after the Convair dissects the Hansa-Jet was powered by 10 gallons of gasoline and 4 separate 18-inch mortars. The detonation device included a 125-foot electrical cable set off by a bull switch to help achieve the desired effect.
Music
The score for the film which included elements of jazz music and considerable use of the trumpet, was originally composed by American saxophonist Lennie Niehaus. The music score was mixed by Robert Fernandez and edited by Donald Harris. The sound effects in the film were supervised by Robert G. Henderson and Alan Robert Murray. The mixing of the sound effects were orchestrated by Donald F. Johnson and Michael Evje. Although not officially released, music from the soundtrack included songs entitled "All The Things You Are" written by Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II as well as the "Red Zone" written by Kyle Eastwood and Michael Stevens.
Reception
Critical response
The film received mostly negative reviews from critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Among the reviews, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times, mildly complimented the stunts and special effects mentioning, "There are some good ones, including a chase down an expressway, with Eastwood driving his car right up the loading ramp of a semi auto-carrier" and noting that the film was "... jammed with material and the budget was obviously large, but somehow not much pays off. It's all there on the screen, but lifeless." On another negative front, Ebert also criticized Sheen's performance, saying he kept "a poker face and laconic voice through much of the movie, and doesn't generate the kind of vigor and intensity the role needs; a more nervous actor might have been a better choice." Ebert's partner Gene Siskel voiced his agreement; "It's a very depressing experience. Everyone's wasted in the film. The Latino stereotypes, when they get out on the street, are just awful." He went on to state, "... nobody has a good role. Raul Julia is wasted, Sônia Braga is tawdry. This was gonna be a classy international star, it's a joke." Hal Hinson of the Washington Post solidly concurred saying, "Eastwood runs his patented American macho numbers, plays the same limited repertoire of squints, but he's gotten way too long in the tooth to pull them off and the thrill is long gone." Incidentally, another Washington Post staff writer Desson Howe, dismissed the film as well. He openly wondered whether the film "will have something original about it. Maybe there's a twist somewhere, something to set it apart from the 20,595 other buddies-in-uniform movies made in recent years." In contrast with the buddy film genre though, Pat Collins of WWOR-TV, enthusiastically proclaimed the film to be "The best buddy cop movie of the year." The Variety staff however, added to the general dismay with the film saying, "Overlong, sadistic and stale even by the conventions of the buddy pic genre, Clint Eastwood's The Rookie is actually Dirty Harry 5 since Eastwood's tough-as-nails cop Nick Pulovski could just as easily be named Harry Callahan, ..."
Vincent Canby of The New York Times, expressed his dissatisfaction with the film too. He mused, "The Rookie is an astonishingly empty movie to come from Mr. Eastwood. The screenplay for The Rookie seems to have been pumped up from a script originally intended as a segment for a half-hour television series. There's not much of a story." He wasn't impressed with the special effects either saying, "the movie devotes itself to extended set pieces, mostly chases, which are so lazily thought out and edited that the audience is always ready for the twists that are supposed to surprise." Also in regards to the stunt work, author MK of Time Out in London commented, the "movie is full of caricatured cops and robbers, and punctuated with interminably dull car-chases."
Alternatively though, Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune felt the quality of the stunt work was superb, commenting that they were, "the most spectacular action sequences Eastwood has ever filmed." Noted critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a star and a half, somewhat approving of the stuntwork by figuratively mentioning, "there's one good freeway crackup" but in the end, felt the theme amounted to "Formula filmmaking that even bored its intended audience."
Other movie critics, like Jeffrey Lyons of WPIX, applauded the performances of the lead characters and called the film "Tough and gritty. Fires with a full clip. Eastwood and Sheen are terrific together." Equally swayed in opinion was film critic Susan Granger of American Movie Classics: "This slam-bam, action-packed thriller packs a wallop." Giving the film a C+ rating, critic Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly posted, "The Rookie is like a series of garish exploitation set pieces jammed into the shape of a buddy movie." He went further in his criticism saying, "as moviemaking goes, The Rookie is on the slovenly side. The plot makes almost no sense, and Eastwood directs in his usual toneless fashion." But on a lighter note, relating to the film's comedic appeal, he stated, "in this case, the fact that you can't always tell the intentional comedy from the unintentional isn't necessarily a drawback." In agreement on the lack of plausibility surrounding the plot, author Marshall Julius still offered though an almost entirely positive review, giving the film three and a half guns, exclaiming, "As directed by Eastwood, The Rookie is a deliberately silly, knockabout adventure which aims for outrageous and hits a bullseye. We're talking good, dumb, fun. Get your brains out and the beers in, and you're all set."
Box office
The film premiered in cinemas on December 7, 1990. At its widest distribution in the U.S., the film was screened at 1,862 theaters grossing $5,510,056 in its opening weekend. During that first weekend in release, the film opened in third place behind Home Alone and Misery. The film's revenue dropped by 36% in its second week of release, earning $3,512,765. During its final weekend showing in theaters, the film grossed $1,224,696. The film went on to top out at $21,633,874 in total ticket sales through a 5-week theatrical run. For 1990 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 56.
Home media
The film was initially released in VHS video format on May 27, 1992. The Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on September 2, 2003 and includes a digital transfer soundtrack remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1, interactive menus, Eastwood film highlights, scene access, and the theatrical trailer. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc on June 1, 2010.
Novelization
In January 1991, a novelization based on the screenplay was released. Distributed by Warner Books, it was written by Tom Philbin.
References
External links
The Rookie at the Movie Review Query Engine
1990s buddy cop films
1990 comedy films
1990 drama films
1990 films
Films shot in San Jose, California
1990s action comedy-drama films
1990s gang films
American buddy cop films
American action comedy-drama films
American gang films
Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department
Films about kidnapping
Films directed by Clint Eastwood
Films produced by Howard Kazanjian
Films scored by Lennie Niehaus
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films with screenplays by Boaz Yakin
Malpaso Productions films
American police detective films
Warner Bros. films
Films produced by David Valdes
1990s English-language films
1990s American films |
5505410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay%20Lossky | Nikolay Lossky | Nikolay Onufriyevich Lossky (; – 24 January 1965), also known as N. O. Lossky, was a Russian philosopher, representative of Russian idealism, intuitionist epistemology, personalism, libertarianism, ethics and axiology (value theory). He gave his philosophical system the name intuitive-personalism. Born in Latvia, he spent his working life in St. Petersburg, New York, and Paris. He was the father of the influential Christian theologian Vladimir Lossky.
Life
Lossky was born in Krāslava then in the Russian Empire. His father, Onufry Lossky, had Belarusian roots (his grandfather was a Greek-Catholic Uniate priest) and was an Eastern Orthodox Christian; his mother Adelajda Przylenicka was Polish and Roman Catholic. He was expelled from school for propagating atheism.
Lossky undertook postgraduate studies in Germany under Wilhelm Windelband, Wilhelm Wundt and G. E. Müller, receiving a master's degree in 1903 and a doctorate in 1907.
Returning to Russia, he became a lecturer and subsequently assistant professor of philosophy in Saint Petersburg.
Lossky called for a Russian religious and spiritual reawakening while pointing out post-revolution excesses. At the same time, Lossky survived an elevator accident that nearly killed him, which caused him to turn back to the Russian Orthodox Church under the direction of Fr. Pavel Florensky. These criticisms and conversion cost Lossky his professorship of philosophy and led to his exile abroad, on the famed Philosophers' ship (in 1922) from the Soviet Union as a counter-revolutionary.
Lossky was invited to Prague by Tomáš Masaryk and became professor at the Russian University of Prague at Bratislava, in Czechoslovakia. Being part of a group of ex-Marxists, including Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergei Bulgakov, Gershenzon, Peter Berngardovich Struve, Semyon Frank, Lossky, though a Fabian socialist, contributed to the group's symposium named Vekhi or Signposts. He also helped the Harvard sociologist Pitirim Sorokin with his Social and Cultural Dynamics
In 1947 N. O. Lossky took a position teaching theology at Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, an Orthodox Christian seminary in Crestwood, New York.
In 1961, after the death of his famous son, theologian Vladimir Lossky, N. O. Lossky went to France. The last four years of his life were spent in illness there.
Philosophy
Intuitivism
Lossky was one of the preeminent Russian neo-idealists of his day. Lossky's Гносеология or gnosiology is called Intuitivist-Personalism and had in part adapted the Hegelian dialectical approach of first addressing a problem in thought in terms of its expression as a duality or dichotomy. Once the problem is expressed as a dichotomy the two opposing ideas are fused in order to transcend the dichotomy. This transition is expressed in the concept of sobornost, integrality or mystical communal union. Lossky also followed and developed his ontological and gnosiological interpretation of objective reality from Christian neoplatonism based on the Patristic Fathers. This along with Origen and the works of Russian mystics Kireevsky and Khomyakov and the later works of V. Solovyov among many others. Understanding and comprehension coming from addressing an object, as though part of the external world, something that joins the consciousness of the perceiving subject directly (noesis, insight), then becoming memory, intuitionism as the foundation of all noema or processes of consciousness. In that human consciousness comprehends the essence or noumena of an object and the object's external phenomenon which are then assembled into a complete organic whole called experience. Much of an object's defining and understanding in consciousness is not derived discursively but rather intuitively or instinctively as an object has no meaning outside of the whole of existence. Lossky summed up this concept in the term "all is imminent in all". As such much of reality as uncreated or uncaused is irrational, or random (see libertarianism below) and can not be validated rationally (i.e. freedom and love as energy are uncaused, uncreated). Therefore, consciousness in its interaction with reality operates not strictly as rational (only partially) much of consciousness operates intuitively. This is intuitively done by the nous. The nous, consciousness or the focal point of the psyche as the "organic connection" to the object and therefore the material world as a whole. The psyche here is the sensory input from the physical body to the inner being, mind or consciousness. This interaction causing different levels of maturing consciousness over time (reinterpretation). As a dynamic retention, experience constitutes the process of learning i.e. reflective differentiation.
Phenomenology and axiology
Consequently, the existence of objects can not be completely expressed with logic or words, nor validated with knowledge, due to objects having a supernatural essence or substance as their composition (supernatural in an ancient Greek philosophy or Orthodox Christian understanding of supernatural as uncreated or uncaused). Following an Orthodox Christian substance theory (see Gregory Palamas) energy and potential do not have ontology without a sentient agent (i.e. idealism), Lossky coined the term "substantive agent" to validate that matter as well as energy are uncreated in substance, essence. This validation as part of gnosiology or Christian mysticism (Orthodoxy) as opposed to the Russian Materialist and nihilist position that states that objects have no "thing in itself" or no essence, substance behind their phenomenon (as in Positivism). Lossky based his intuitivism on gnosiology in that he taught first principles as uncreated or uncaused. Lossky's Axiology was the teaching of first principles dialectically. Russian philosophy based on Soloviev is expressed metaphysically in that the essence of an object can be akin to Noumenon (opposed to its appearance or phenomenon), but it can have random characteristics to its being or essence, characteristically sumbebekos. This is the basis of V Soloviev's arguments against Positivism which are the cornerstone of Russian philosophy contained in Soloviev's "Against the Positivists".
The validation (immediate apprehension) of truth, value and existence all being intuitive as expressed by Aristotle's Noesis. Each event having value or existence because of substantive agents being engaged in the event, (via Neo-idealism) giving the event value and existence.
Sobornost and the world as an organic whole
One of the main points of Lossky's онтология or ontology is, the world is an organic whole as understood by human consciousness. Intuition, insight (noesis in Greek) is the direct contemplation of objects, and furthermore the assembling of the entire set of cognition from sensory perception into a complete and undivided organic whole, i.e. experience. This expression of consciousness as without thought, raw and uninterpreted by the rational faculty in the mind. Thus the mind's dianoia (rational or logical faculty) in its deficiency, finiteness or inconclusiveness (due to logic's incompleteness) causes the perceived conflict between the objectivism (materialism, external world) and idealism (spiritual, inner experience) forms of philosophy. Where intuitive or instinctual re-action is without rational processing of the rational faculty of the mind. It is outside of comprehension via the dianoia faculty of the mind, consciousness (Nous). Intuition being analogous with instinctual consciousness. Intuition functions without rational or logical thought in its absorption of experience (called contemplation). Rational or logical thought via the dianoia of the nous, then works in reflection as hindsight to organize experience into a comprehensible order i.e. ontology. The memory, knowledge derived from the rationalizing faculty of the mind is called epistemological knowledge. Intuitive knowledge or Gnosis (preprocessed knowledge or uninterpreted) then being made by the logical facility in the mind into history or memory. Intuition rather than a rationalization (also see Henri Bergson whom influenced Lossky) determining factor it manifests as an integral factor of or during an actual conscious experience. Lossky's ontology being consistent with Leibniz's optimism expressed as the Best of all possible worlds in contrast to the pessimism and nihilism of more pro-Western Russian philosophers. Lossky's work is also opposed to the pagan elements of the pagan philosophers that were an influence on his work. In that the logical faculty of the mind was only finite in a temporal sense and will eventually become infinite (by theosis), as such it seeks the infinite rather than opposes it. Lossky believed that philosophy would transcend its rational limits and manifest a mystical understanding of experience. This would include an understanding that encompasses the intuitive, irrational, philosophically (as done in stochastics) rather than the strictly pagan approach of a good deterministic force opposed to an evil irrational indeterminate force. This of course being the teaching of Christian faith as a philosophical principle (called free will) and intrinsic component to conscious existence, one that manifests sobornost in the transcending of the pagan dichotomy of reason versus superstition or determinism versus in-determinism.
Knowledge and memory
Once knowledge is abstracted from conscious experience it becomes epistemological knowledge and is then stored in an ontological format in the mind (the format itself a priori). The manipulation of memory and or reapplication of memory as knowledge as post-processed knowledge i.e. Epistemology. Lossky's Ontology as an agent's Сущность (the "essence") expressed as being and or becoming is possible as both the person transcends time and space while being closely connected with the whole world, while in this world. Much of Lossky's working out of an ontological theory of knowledge was done in collaboration with his close friend Semen L. Frank.
Metaphysical libertarianism
Lossky as a metaphysical libertarian taught that all people have uncreated energy (Aristotle) or potential (Plotinus). This being very much inline with the vitalism of his day. Though Lossky did not strictly adhere to vitalism but rather to its predecessor Monadology and its living forces (dynamis) theory. This is to contrast Leibniz's theory of Monadology against Cartesian mind-body dualism. This as a rejection of vitalism in its dualism of mind and body being of different substances. For Lossky's Substantive Agents have potential (dynamis) and they can act (beings have energy) upon, from this potential. All power or potential comes from the individual. That spontaneous or organic reality structures or orders itself to reconcile opposing forces (sobornost), doing so while maintaining order and freewill. Each pole of existence (the created and uncreated of gnosiology) or opposing ideologies, reaching compromise through value and existence and manifesting in a complete organic whole (sobornost). Lossky's argument that determinism can not account for the cause of energy in the Universe. Energy being a substance that can not be created or destroyed (see the law of conservation of energy). Each agent accounting for their existence as their own dynamistic manifestation. Dynamistic manifestation as being that of act or energy derived from a Neoplatonic interpretation.
{{cquote|First section: Determinists deny freedom of the will on the ground that every event has a cause. They mean by causality the order of temporal sequence of one event after other events and the uniformity of that sequence. Causation, generation, creation and all other dynamic aspects of causality are ruled out. Lossky proves that the will is free, taking as his starting point the law of causality but defending a dynamistic interpretation of it. Every event arises not out of itself, but is created by someone: it cannot be created by other events: having a temporal form events fall away every instant into the realm of the past and have no creative power to generate the future. Only supertemporal substantival agents – i.e., actual and potential personalities – are bearers of creative power: they create events as their own vital manifestations. According to the dynamistic interpretation of causality it is necessary to distinguish among the conditions under which an event takes place the cause from the occasion of its happening. The cause is always the substantival agent himself as the bearer of creative power, and the other circumstances are merely occasions for its manifestations, which are neither forced nor predetermined by them. The agents' creative power is superqualitative and does not therefore predetermine which particular values an agent will select as his final end. From History of Russian Philosophy section on N. Lossky in chapter on Intuitivists p. 260.
}}
Theology and Neoplatonism
Much of the theology that Lossky covers (as his own) in the book History of Russian Philosophy is inline with the idealism of Origen. Lossky's idealism is based on Origen's. In that the relationship between the mystic, religious understanding of God and a philosophical one there have been various stages of development in the history of the Roman East. The nous as mind (rational and intuitive understanding) in Greek Christian philosophy is given the central role of understanding only when it is placed or reconciled with the heart or soul of the person. Earlier versions of Christian and Greek philosophical syncretism are in modern times referred to as Neoplatonic. An example of this can be seen in the works of Origen and his teaching on the nous as to Origen, all souls pre-existed with their Creator in a perfect, spiritual (non-material) state as "nous," that these minds then fell away so to pursue an individual and independent existence apart from God. Because all beings were created with absolute freedom and free will, God, not being a tyrant, would not force his creations to return to Him. According to Origen, God's infinite love and respect for His creatures allowed for this. Instead, God created the material world, universe or cosmos. God then initiated the aeons or history. God did this for the purpose of, through love and compassion, guiding his creations back to contemplation of His infinite, limitless mind. This was according to Origen, the perfect state. Though the specifics of this are not necessarily what Lossky taught in his theology courses, since dogma in a general sense, is what is taught as theology. N. O. Lossky also was inline with the common distinctions of Orthodox Christian theology. Like the Essence-Energies distinction for example. Though Lossky did pursue a position of reconciliation based on mutual cooperation between East and West. Lossky taught this co-operation as organic and or spontaneous order, integrality, and unity called sobornost. Sobornost can also be translated to mean catholic.
Influence
In biographical reminiscences recorded in the early 1960s, philosophical novelist and Objectivism founder Ayn Rand recalled only Lossky among her teachers at the University of Petrograd or University of St. Petersburg, reporting that she studied classical philosophy with him prior to his removal from his teaching post by the Soviet regime.Sciabarra, Chris Matthew, Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical, 1995, Pennsylvania State University Press, pp. 84–91, .
N.O. Lossky also influenced the theologian-philosopher, Professor Joseph Papin, whose work Doctrina De Bono Perfecto, Eiusque Systemate N.O. Losskij Personalistico Applicatio (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1946) was listed among the 100 leading scholarly works of the 20th Century. Papin's volume is the most profound study of Lossky's work in relation to Christian teachings in Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. After teaching at the University of Notre Dame, Papin founded the Theology Institute at Villanova University. He edited publications from the first six symposia (1968–1974). The idea of Sobornost was prominent in the VI volume: The Church and Human Society at the Threshold of the Third Millenium (Villanova University Press, 1974). His own in depth scholarly contribution was entitled: "From Collegiality and Sobornost to Church Unity." The Dean of Harvard Divinity School, Krister Stendahl, gave his highest praise to Papin for his efforts in overcoming the divisions separating Christians: "It gladdens me that you will be honored at the time of having completed a quarter century of teaching us all. Your vision of and your dogged insistence on a truly catholic i.e. ecumenical future of the church and theology has been one of the forces that have broken through the man-made walls of partition. . ." [Transcendence and Immanence, Reconstruction in the Light of Process Thinking, ed. Joseph Armenti, St. Meinrad: The Abbey Press, 1972, p. 5). At the time of his death, United States President Ronald Reagan along with theologians, philosophers, poets, and dignitaries from around the world wrote to Dr. Joseph Armenti praising the life and work of Reverend Joseph Papin. See: “President Reagan Leads International Homage to Fr. Papin in Memorial,” JEDNOTA, 1983, p. 8).
Quotes
From the introduction of Value and Existence:
Selected bibliography
The Fundamental Doctrines of Psychology from the Point of View of Voluntarism «Фундаментальные Доктрины Психологии с Точки зрения Волюнтаризма»(1903)
The Intuitive Basis of Knowledge «Обоснование интуитивизма»(1906)
"Недостатки гносеологiи Бергсона и влiянiе ихъ на его метафизику" (1913) (English translation by Frederic Tremblay, "The Defects of Bergson's Epistemology and Their Consequences on His Metaphysics", 2017)
"Мир как органическое целое" (1917) (English translation by Natalie Duddington, The World as an Organic Whole, 1928)
The Fundamental Problems of Epistemology «Основные вопросы гносеологии» (1919)
Logics (1923) (German translation 1927)
The Foundation of Intuition (1923)
Свобода воли (1927) (English translation by Natalie Duddington, Freedom of Will, 1932)
L'Intuition, la Matiere et la Vie (1928)
"Ученiе Лейбница о перевоплощенiи какъ метаморфозѣ" (1931) (English translation by Frederic Tremblay, "Leibniz's Doctrine of Reincarnation as Metamorphosis", 2020 )
"Ценность и существование" (1931) (on Axiology) by N. O. Lossky and J. S. Marshall (English translation, Value and Existence, 1935)
Dialectical Materialism in the U.S.S.R. «Диалектический Материализм в СССР» (1934)
"Tpaнcцeндeнтaльнo-фeнoмeнoлoгичecкiй идeaлизмъ Гyccepля" (1939) (English translation by Frederic Tremblay & Maria Cherba, "Husserl's Transcendental-Phenomenological Idealism", 2016 )
"Чувственная, интеллектуальная и мистическая интуиция" (1938) (English translation, Sensuous, intellectual and mystical intuition, 1941)
Intellectual Intuition, Ideal Existence and Creative Activity «Интеллектуальная интуиция и идеальное бытие, творческая активность» (1941)
Mystical Intuition «Мистическая интуиция» (1941)
Evolution and Ideal Life «Эволюция и идеальное бытие» (1941)
God and Suffering «Бог и всемирное зло» (1941)
Absolute Good «Условия абсолютного добра»(1944)
Les Conditions de la Morale Absolue (1949)
History of Russian Philosophy «История российской Философии»(1951)
The World as the Realization of Beauty «Мир как осуществление красоты»(1945)
History of Russian Philosophy (1952)
Dostoevsky and his Christian Understanding of the World «Достоевский и его христианское мировоззрение»(1953)
Popular introduction to philosophy [in Russian] (1957)
The Character of the Russian people'' [in Russian] (1957)
See also
Fyodor Dostoevsky
Georgy Chulkov
Mikhail Epstein
Ammonius Saccas
List of Russian Philosophers
Heuristic
theophilos – Love of God
Georges Florovsky
John Meyendorff
Alexander Schmemann
Subjective idealism
Objective idealism
Philosophers' ship
Panpsychism
Subjunctive possibility
Phenomenology
Voluntarism
Gestalt psychology
cognitive psychology
perceptual psychology
demiurge as the consciousness (nous), creative energy (urge), in mankind.
Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences
Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic ecclesiastical differences
Notes
References
Further reading
Link to article
Link to article
Link to article
External links
Historical Biography
Philosophical Biography
N. O. Lossky's Bio of Berdyaev
Professor Sciabarra's investigation into Ayn Rand's ties to N. O. Lossky 1st transcript
Professor Sciabarra's investigation into Ayn Rand's ties to N. O. Lossky 2nd transcript contains Lossky photo
N. O. Lossky about character of Russian people
1870 births
1965 deaths
19th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
20th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
Philosophers from the Russian Empire
Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery
Christian libertarians
Members of the Russian Orthodox Church
Neoplatonists
People from Dvinsky Uyezd
People from Krāslava
Libertarians from the Russian Empire
Theologians from the Russian Empire
Scholars in Eastern Orthodoxy
Soviet dissidents
Soviet expellees
Soviet emigrants to Czechoslovakia |
20002750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93Estonia%20relations | Australia–Estonia relations | Foreign relations exist between Australia and Estonia. Australia first recognised Estonia on 22 September 1921. Australia was among the first countries to re-recognise Estonia's independence on 27 August 1991. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 21 November 1991.
Australia is represented in Estonia through a part-time embassy (since 2018) and Honorary Consulate in Tallinn (since 1995). Estonia has had an embassy in Canberra since 18 February 2015, which is also responsible for relations with New Zealand, Indonesia and ASEAN, and also has Honorary Consulates in every state capital.
History
Early diplomatic representation of Estonia as part of the Russian Empire (within the Governorates of Estonia and Livonia) in Australia dates back to 1894, when the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire sent its first permanent consular representatives to Australia, based in Melbourne, and Estonians were counted in official statistics as part of the Russian community. The second Russian Consul in Australia from 1895 to 1898, Robert von Ungern-Sternberg Freiherr von Pirkel was an Estonian of Baltic German nobility, born in 1845 on the island of Dagö (now known as Hiiumaa). Following the Estonian Declaration of Independence in 1918, from 1919 to 1935, Estonia was represented in Australia by the Finnish Consulate in Sydney, another country that had emerged from the dissolution of the Russian Empire. Formal relations between the two countries began when Australia recognised Estonia on its admission to the League of Nations on 22 September 1921. In 1922, Finnish Consul Harald Tanner was named Honorary Consul of Estonia in Sydney, and served until Estonia sent their own representative in 1935. In 1935 Estonia appointed its own honorary consul, Johannes Kaiv, who served until his promotion to Consul-General in New York in 1939. Kaiv was succeeded as acting Honorary Consul and later Honorary Vice-Consul (from October 1939) by prominent local Estonian Arvid Mielen. In October 1940, the Estonian government-in-exile directed the closure of the consulate and its records were given to the Swedish Consulate for storage.
Relations during the Soviet occupation
With the Soviet Occupation of the Baltic States in June 1940, the Australian Government of Robert Menzies, like the British Government, did not recognise this action but the Minister for External Affairs, Sir Frederick Stewart, later confirmed in June 1941 that informal discussions had occurred that implied a "readiness on the part of the United Kingdom Government to settle on a practical basis various questions arising out of the Soviet annexation of the Baltic States." In 1948, the Soviet Embassy in Canberra made the announcement that "all persons from the Baltic States now resident in Australia would be registered as Soviet citizens", which met the response from the Australian Government of Ben Chifley that Australia did not recognise the Soviet annexation of the Baltic States and any citizens of those states resident in Australia would not be compelled to undertake any action in this regard.
By March 1949, in a Senate debate on the United Nations General Assembly's Third Session, the Minister for Health and Social Services, Senator Nick McKenna, noted the status quo of the situation: In March 1970 the Minister for External Affairs in the Gorton Government, William McMahon, noted in Parliament: "The legal position is that Australia has never withdrawn recognition from the Governments of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania which were forced into exile by the U.S.S.R.'s invasion and occupation of those States in 1940. Australia has not explicitly extended recognition to any particular Government which may regard itself as a successor to one of those Governments which Australia recognised in 1940."
Australia was the only Western country to break ranks and briefly recognise the Soviet annexation of Estonia (and the other Baltic states) as de jure for 17 months between July 1974 to December 1975 by the Whitlam Labor government, while most other countries continued to recognise the independent Estonian diplomatic missions. In explaining the change of position, the Minister for Repatriation and Compensation and prominent critic of Soviet foreign policy, Senator John Wheeldon, noted to the Senate in September 1974:
Following the election of the new conservative Coalition government of Malcolm Fraser in November 1975, the new government withdrew de jure recognition of the incorporation of Estonia into the Soviet Union. On 17 December of that year the Australian government instructed the Australian ambassador in Moscow that he and his staff were not to make any official visits to the Estonian SSR. Independent Estonian consular representatives returned and were maintained until the restoration of independence in 1991. On 27 August 1991, Prime Minister Bob Hawke, announced Australia's decision to re-establish full diplomatic relations with Estonia. The Australian Ambassador to Sweden, Robert Merrillees, received non-resident accreditation as Australia's first Ambassador to Estonia from 21 November 1991.
Relations after 1991
As part of a significant expansion of Australian Honorary Consulates, Foreign Minister Gareth Evans announced the appointment of Mati Peekma as Australia's Honorary Consul in Tallinn in June 1995. Peekma still serves as honorary consul today. Australia signed a Working Holiday Visas arrangement with Estonia in May 2005. In 2007, the Estonian Government appointed Peeter Miller as the first ambassador to Australia, receiving non-resident accreditation as the residents Ambassador to Japan; Miller presented his credentials to the Governor-General of Australia, Michael Jeffery on 30 November 2007. From 2010 to 2012, the second Estonian ambassador, Andres Rundu, was resident in Tallinn. In November 2011, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs opened a Consulate-General in Sydney, headed by Consul-General Triinu Rajasalu. Consul-General Rajasalu was succeeded by Katrin Kanarik on 1 August 2013, who served until the consulate's closure in July 2016.
In July 1998 Estonian Prime Minister Mart Siimann visited Australia. An Australian Parliamentary delegation, led by the former Deputy President of the Senate, Senator Sue West, visited Tallinn in October 1999. Estonian Parliamentary delegation, led by the Speaker of Riigikogu Ene Ergma visited Australia in 2008. In 2009 Estonian Foreign Minister Urmas Paet visited Australia and opened Estonian Honorary Consulate in Perth. In April 2010 Australian Foreign Minister Stephen Smith participated in the Meeting of ISAF Foreign Ministers in Tallinn, Estonia. The President of the Senate John Hogg paid an official visit to Estonia in October 2013. The Embassy of Estonia in Canberra was opened in February 2015, with the first ambassador appointed, Andres Unga, who presented his credentials to Governor-General Quentin Bryce on 28 March 2013. In February 2016, Estonian Foreign Minister Marina Kaljurand officially opened the Estonian Embassy in Canberra, co-located with the Embassy of Finland to Australia, and held talks with various Federal Ministers.
In 2015, Australia and Estonia signed a new social security agreement. On 7 March 2018, Foreign Minister Julie Bishop announced the opening of the Australian Embassy in Estonia, which would function on a "pop-up" basis, with the new ambassador resident in Tallinn for two months of the year and the embassy having a virtual presence for the remainder of the year. In response, the Estonian Foreign Minister, Sven Mikser, noted that the new embassy "will doubtlessly make Australia more prominent in Estonia and in our region on the whole". From 1991 to 2018, Australia's relations with Estonia were the responsibility of the Australian Embassy in Stockholm. With the severe effects of the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season upon the City of Canberra, the Estonian Embassy was temporarily closed and moved to Sydney.
Australian Ambassadors
Estonian Ambassadors
Migration
The first Estonians settled in Australia in 1853 and the first Estonian Society was established in Melbourne in 1914. People settled primarily around Sydney. After Soviet occupation of Estonia in 1940 and again in 1944, numerous Estonian exiles settled in Australia, contributing to development of Estonian culture in Australia. Estonian Houses were set up in Sydney (1940), Thirlmere (1952), Melbourne (1955), Adelaide (1957) and Perth (1966). Australia has the fifth largest Estonian community after Russia, Canada, Sweden and the USA. Sir Arvi Parbo, chairman of three of Australia's largest companies, is one of the best-known Estonians in Australia.
Australia is host to one of the largest communities of Estonians abroad, with 8,232 people identifying as Estonian in the 2006 Australian Census. In the 2016 Australian census, over 9,500 people identified as being of Estonian ancestry.
Cultural and educational
Australia has multiple arrangements with Estonia involving the Estonian Business School, Monash University and Swinburne University of Technology. Tallinn University has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Victoria University for cooperation in youth work education.
Estonian culture has been presented in Australia by many Estonian artists and musicians, including the Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir and composer Arvo Pärt – honorary doctor of Sydney University. Arvo Volmer has been the principal conductor of the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra since 2004. The Estonian Archives in Sydney were established in 1952 and hold the majority of all printed Estonian works that were published outside of Estonia following World War II.
Economic
Trade between Australia and Estonia was a modest A$ 60 million in 2013–14. Merchandise trade between Australia and Estonia has been unstable, partly due to a big distance between the countries. Estonia's biggest import are alcoholic beverages (wines) and Australia's are wood and wood products.
Treaties
The following is a list of international bilateral treaties
Early treaties were extended to Australia by the British Empire, however they are still generally in force.
European Union treaties, extended to Estonia are not included below.
See also
Foreign relations of Australia
Foreign relations of Estonia
Australia–EU relations
References
External links
Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Estonia
estonia.org.au Connecting Australia with Estonians
Estonians in Australia webpage
Australian embassy in Tallinn homepage
Estonian Embassy in Canberra webpage |
64651288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Rodriguez%20%28fighter%29 | Daniel Rodriguez (fighter) | Daniel Rodriguez (born December 31, 1986) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the Welterweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. A professional mixed martial artist since 2015, Rodriguez has also competed in Bellator, King of the Cage, and Combate Americas.
Background
According to Rodriguez, he grew up in Los Angeles in a gang affiliated family, alternating between the hood and jail system while continuously getting into fights in both. Without any sports background, Rodriguez began training boxing and eventually mixed martial arts in his mid-twenties.
Mixed martial arts career
Early career
Rodriguez compiled a 7–0 amateur record as a Welterweight from late 2013 to 2015. Rodriguez later began his professional career in 2015, competing mainly in Combate Americas, with a one off fight at Bellator 170. Eventually racking up an 8–1 record, he competed on Dana White's Contender Series 22, however he did not earn a UFC contract through his unanimous decision win against Rico Farrington. Afterwards, he won the Smash Global Welterweight Championship, before he was given a UFC contract.
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Rodriguez made his promotional debut on February 15, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 167 as a late replacement for Ramazan Emeev against Tim Means. Rodriguez won the fight via submission in the second round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.
Rodriguez was expected to face Kevin Holland on May 30, 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Woodley vs. Burns .However, On May 26, Holland was forced to withdraw from his scheduled bout with Daniel Rodriguez due to an injury and he was replaced by promotional newcomer Gabriel Green Rodriguez won the fight via unanimous decision.
Rodriguez was expected to face Takashi Sato on August 22, 2020 at UFC on ESPN 15. Despite making the required weight, Sato was not cleared to fight by Nevada State Athletic Commission medical personnel and he was replaced by Dwight Grant whose opponent, Calen Born, was pulled from the same event for undisclosed reason. After being knocked down in the beginning of the fight, Rodriguez knocked Grant down multiple times en route to a first-round knockout win.
Rodriguez was expected to face Bryan Barberena on November 14, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 183. However, Barberena underwent an emergency laparotomy a week before the event, resulting in the fight being cancelled.
Rodriguez instead faced Nicolas Dalby, replacing Orion Cosce, on November 21, 2020 at UFC 255. He lost the close fight via unanimous decision. 9 out of 20 media outlets scored the fight for Rodriguez.
Rodriguez faced Mike Perry on April 10, 2021 at UFC on ABC 2. He won the bout via unanimous decision.
Rodriguez was scheduled to face Abubakar Nurmagomedov on July 17, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 26. However, Nurmagomedov was forced to withdraw from the event, citing injury. He was replaced by promotional newcomer Preston Parsons. Rodriguez won the fight via technical knockout in round one.
Rodriguez faced Kevin Lee on August 28, 2021, at UFC on ESPN: Barboza vs. Chikadze. He won the fight via unanimous decision.
Rodriguez was scheduled to face Kevin Holland on September 10, 2022, at UFC 279 in a 180-pound catchweight bout. However, the day of the weigh-ins, Khamzat Chimaev missed weight for his welterweight main event bout with Nate Diaz by seven-and-a-half pounds. As a result, the UFC was forced to change the card around. Rodriguez instead faced Li Jingliang, who was originally scheduled to face Tony Ferguson in the co-main event in a welterweight bout. Rodriguez's bout with Jingliang remained at a 180-pound catchweight. He won the back-and-forth fight via split decision. 21 out of 23 media scores gave it to Jingliang.
Rodriguez was scheduled to face Neil Magny on October 15, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 212. However, Rodriguez withdrew from the bout due to elbow infection. The bout was rescheduled for UFC Fight Night 214 on November 5. He lost the fight via D'Arce choke submission in the third round.
Rodriguez was scheduled to face Gunnar Nelson on March 18, 2023, at UFC 286. However, Rodriguez withdrew from the event for undisclosed reasons and he was replaced by Bryan Barberena.
Rodriguez faced Ian Garry on May 13, 2023, at UFC on ABC 4. He lost the bout via technical knockout in the first round.
Rodriguez was scheduled to face Santiago Ponzinibbio on September 16, 2023, at UFC Fight Night 227. However, Rodriguez was pulled from the bout by USADA after testing positive for the banned substance ostarine. He was given a 6-month suspension and will be eligible to fight again on January 28, 2024.
Championships and accomplishments
Mixed martial arts
Smash Global
Smash Global Welterweight Championship (One time)
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Performance of the Night (One time)
Mixed martial arts record
|-
|Loss
|align=center|17–4
|Ian Machado Garry
|TKO (head kick and punches)
|UFC on ABC: Rozenstruik vs. Almeida
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|2:57
|Charlotte, North Carolina, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|17–3
|Neil Magny
|Submission (D'Arce choke)
|UFC Fight Night: Rodriguez vs. Lemos
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|3:32
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|17–2
|Li Jingliang
|Decision (split)
|UFC 279
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|16–2
|Kevin Lee
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC on ESPN: Barboza vs. Chikadze
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|15–2
|Preston Parsons
|TKO (punches)
|UFC on ESPN: Makhachev vs. Moisés
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|3:47
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|14–2
|Mike Perry
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC on ABC: Vettori vs. Holland
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|13–2
|Nicolas Dalby
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 255
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|13–1
|Dwight Grant
|KO (punches)
|UFC on ESPN: Munhoz vs. Edgar
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|2:24
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|12–1
|Gabriel Green
| Decision (unanimous)
|UFC on ESPN: Woodley vs. Burns
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|11–1
|Tim Means
|Submission (guillotine choke)
|UFC Fight Night: Anderson vs. Błachowicz 2
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|3:37
|Rio Rancho, New Mexico, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 10–1
|Quinton McCottrell
|TKO (punches)
|SMASH Global 9: Black Tie Fight Night
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|1:48
|Hollywood, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 9–1
|Rico Farrington
|Decision (unanimous)
| Dana White's Contender Series 22
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 8–1
| Ivan Castillo
| KO (knee)
| Combate 31: México vs. USA
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:31
| Fresno, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 7–1
| Ozzie Alvarez
| TKO (punches)
| Combate 25: Camino a Copa Combate
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 2:41
| Long Beach, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 6–1
| Alex Velasco
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Combate 23: México vs. El Mundo
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 2:41
| Tijuana, Mexico
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 5–1
| Justin Baesman
| TKO (punches)
| CXF 11: Alpha Dog
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:17
| Studio City, California, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 4–1
| Victor Reyna
| Decision (split)
| Combate 19: Queen Warriors
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| San Antonio, Texas, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 4–0
| Joel Champion
| TKO (punches)
| Combate 13
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:55
| Tucson, Arizona, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 3–0
| Christian Gonzalez
| TKO (punches)
| Bellator 170
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 3:55
| Inglewood, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 2–0
| Hector Saldaña
| Submission (arm-triangle choke)
| Combate 8
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:45
| Los Angeles, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–0
| Christopher Gates
| Submission (armbar)
| KOTC: Sanctioned
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:54
| San Jacinto, California, United States
|
Professional boxing record
See also
List of current UFC fighters
List of male mixed martial artists
References
External links
1986 births
Living people
American male mixed martial artists
American mixed martial artists of Mexican descent
Welterweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing
Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Mixed martial artists from California
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972208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other%20%28philosophy%29 | Other (philosophy) | Other is a term used to define another person or people as separate from oneself. In phenomenology, the terms the Other and the Constitutive Other distinguish other people from the Self, as a cumulative, constituting factor in the self-image of a person; as acknowledgement of being real; hence, the Other is dissimilar to and the opposite of the Self, of Us, and of the Same. The Constitutive Other is the relation between the personality (essential nature) and the person (body) of a human being; the relation of essential and superficial characteristics of personal identity that corresponds to the relationship between opposite, but correlative, characteristics of the Self, because the difference is inner-difference, within the Self.
The condition and quality of Otherness (the characteristics of the Other) is the state of being different from and alien to the social identity of a person and to the identity of the Self. In the discourse of philosophy, the term Otherness identifies and refers to the characteristics of Who? and What? of the Other, which are distinct and separate from the Symbolic order of things; from the Real (the authentic and unchangeable); from the æsthetic (art, beauty, taste); from political philosophy; from social norms and social identity; and from the Self. Therefore, the condition of Otherness is a person's non-conformity to and with the social norms of society; and Otherness is the condition of disenfranchisement (political exclusion), effected either by the State or by the social institutions (e.g., the professions) invested with the corresponding socio-political power. Therefore, the imposition of Otherness alienates the person labelled as "the Other" from the centre of society, and places him or her at the margins of society, for being the Other.
The term Othering or Otherizing describes the reductive action of labelling and defining a person as a subaltern native, as someone who belongs to the socially subordinate category of the Other. The practice of Othering excludes persons who do not fit the norm of the social group, which is a version of the Self; likewise, in human geography, the practice of othering persons means to exclude and displace them from the social group to the margins of society, where mainstream social norms do not apply to them, for being the Other.
Background
Philosophy
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) introduced the idea of the other mind in 1865 in An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy, the first formulation of the other after René Descartes (1596–1650).
The concept of the Self requires the existence of the constitutive Other as the counterpart entity required for defining the Self; in the late 18th century, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept of the Other as a constituent part of self-consciousness (preoccupation with the Self), which complements the propositions about self-awareness (capacity for introspection) proffered by Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814).
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) applied the concept of the Other as the basis for intersubjectivity, the psychological relations among people. In Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology (1931), Husserl said that the Other is constituted as an alter ego, as an other self. As such, the Other person posed and was an epistemological problem—of being only a perception of the consciousness of the Self.
In Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1943), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) applied the dialectic of intersubjectivity to describe how the world is altered by the appearance of the Other, of how the world then appears to be oriented to the Other person, and not to the Self. The Other appears as a psychological phenomenon in the course of a person's life, and not as a radical threat to the existence of the Self. In that mode, in The Second Sex (1949), Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) applied the concept of Otherness to Hegel's dialectic of the "Lord and Bondsman" (Herrschaft und Knechtschaft, 1807) and found it to be like the dialectic of the Man–Woman relationship, thus a true explanation for society's treatment and mistreatment of women.
Psychology
The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981) and the philosopher of ethics Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995) established the contemporary definitions, usages, and applications of the constitutive Other, as the radical counterpart of the Self. Lacan associated the Other with language and with the symbolic order of things. Levinas associated the Other with the ethical metaphysics of scripture and tradition; the ethical proposition is that the Other is superior and prior to the Self.
In the event, Levinas re-formulated the face-to-face encounter (wherein a person is morally responsible to the Other person) to include the propositions of Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) about the impossibility of the Other (person) being an entirely metaphysical pure-presence. That the Other could be an entity of pure Otherness (of alterity) personified in a representation created and depicted with language that identifies, describes, and classifies. The conceptual re-formulation of the nature of the Other also included Levinas's analysis of the distinction between "the saying and the said"; nonetheless, the nature of the Other retained the priority of ethics over metaphysics.
In the psychology of the mind (e.g. R. D. Laing), the Other identifies and refers to the unconscious mind, to silence, to insanity, and to language ("to what is referred and to what is unsaid"). Nonetheless, in such psychologic and analytic usages, there might arise a tendency to relativism if the Other person (as a being of pure, abstract alterity) leads to ignoring the commonality of truth. Likewise, problems arise from unethical usages of the terms The Other, Otherness, and Othering to reinforce ontological divisions of reality: of being, of becoming, and of existence.
Ethics
In Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority (1961), Emmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced the constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute alterity — the innate condition of otherness, by which the Other radically transcends the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed. As a challenge to self-assurance, the existence of the Other is a matter of ethics, because the ethical priority of the Other equals the primacy of ethics over ontology in real life.
From that perspective, Lévinas described the nature of the Other as "insomnia and wakefulness"; an ecstasy (an exteriority) towards the Other that forever remains beyond any attempt at fully capturing the Other, whose Otherness is infinite; even in the murder of an Other, the Otherness of the person remains uncontrolled and not negated. The infinity of the Other allowed Lévinas to derive other aspects of philosophy and science as secondary to that ethic; thus:
Critical theory
Jacques Derrida said that the absolute alterity of the Other is compromised, because the Other person is other than the Self and the group. The logic of alterity (otherness) is especially negative in the realm of human geography, wherein the native Other is denied ethical priority as a person with the right to participate in the geopolitical discourse with an empire who decides the colonial fate of the homeland of the Other. In that vein, the language of Otherness used in Oriental Studies perpetuates the cultural perspective of the dominantor–dominated relation, which is characteristic of hegemony; likewise, the sociologic misrepresentation of the feminine as the sexual Other to man reasserts male privilege as the primary voice in social discourse between women and men.
In The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq (2004), the geographer Derek Gregory said that the US government's ideologic answers to questions about reasons for the terrorist attacks against the U.S. (i.e. 11 September 2001) reinforced the imperial purpose of the negative representations of the Middle-Eastern Other; especially when President G. W. Bush (2001–2009) rhetorically asked: "Why do they hate us?" as political prelude to the War on Terror (2001). Bush's rhetorical interrogation of armed resistance to empire, by the non–Western Other, produced an Us-and-Them mentality in American relations with the non-white peoples of the Middle East; hence, as foreign policy, the War on Terror is fought for control of imaginary geographies, which originated from the fetishised cultural representations of the Other invented by Orientalists; the cultural critic Edward Saïd said that:
Imperialism and colonialism
The contemporary, post-colonial world system of nation-states (with interdependent politics and economies) was preceded by the European imperial system of economic and settler colonies in which "the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states, and often in the form of an empire, [was] based on domination and subordination." In the imperialist world system, political and economic affairs were fragmented, and the discrete empires "provided for most of their own needs ... [and disseminated] their influence solely through conquest [empire] or the threat of conquest [hegemony]."
Racism
The racialist perspective of the Western world during the 18th and 19th centuries was invented with the Othering of non-white peoples, which also was supported with the fabrications of scientific racism, such as the pseudo-science of phrenology, which claimed that, in relation to a white-man's head, the head-size of the non-European Other indicated inferior intelligence; e.g. the apartheid-era cultural representations of coloured people in South Africa (1948–94).
Consequent to the Holocaust (1941–1945), with documents such as The Race Question (1950) and the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1963), the United Nations officially declared that racial differences are insignificant to anthropological likeness among human beings. Despite the United Nations' factual dismissal of racialism, institutional Othering in the United States produces the cultural misrepresentation of political refugees as illegal immigrants (from overseas) and of immigrants as illegal aliens (usually from México).
Orientalism
To European peoples, imperialism (military conquest of non-white peoples, annexation, and economic integration of their countries to the motherland) was intellectually justified by (among other reasons) orientalism, the study and fetishization of the Eastern world as "primitive peoples" requiring modernisation the civilising mission. Colonial empires were justified and realised with essentialist and reductive representations (of people, places and cultures) in books and pictures and fashion, which conflated different cultures and peoples into the binary relation of The Orient and The Occident. Orientalism created the artificial existence of the Western Self and the non–western Other. Orientalists rationalised the cultural artifice of a difference of essence between white and non-white peoples to fetishize (identify, classify, subordinate) the peoples and cultures of Asia into "the Oriental Other" — who exists in opposition to the Western Self. As a function of imperial ideology, Orientalism fetishizes people and things in three actions of cultural imperialism: (i) Homogenization (all Oriental peoples are one folk); (ii) Feminization (the Oriental always is subordinate in the East–West relation); and (iii) Essentialization (a people possess universal characteristics); thus established by Othering, the empire's cultural hegemony reduces to inferiority the people, places, and things of the Eastern world, as measured against the West, the standard of superior civilisation.
The subaltern native
Colonial stability requires the cultural subordination of the non-white Other for transformation into the subaltern native; a colonised people who facilitate the exploitation of their labour, of their lands, and of the natural resources of their country. The practise of Othering justifies the physical domination and cultural subordination of the native people by degrading them — first from being a national-citizen to being a colonial-subject — and then by displacing them to the periphery of the colony, and of geopolitical enterprise that is imperialism.
Using the false dichotomy of "colonial strength" (imperial power) against "native weakness" (military, social, and economic), the coloniser invents the non-white Other in an artificial dominator-dominated relationship that can be resolved only through racialist noblesse oblige, the "moral responsibility" that psychologically allows the colonialist Self to believe that imperialism is a civilising mission to educate, convert, and then culturally assimilate the Other into the empire — thus transforming the "civilised" Other into the Self.
In establishing a colony, Othering a non-white people allowed the colonisers to physically subdue and "civilise" the natives to establish the hierarchies of domination (political and social) required for exploiting the subordinated natives and their country. As a function of empire, a settler colony is an economic means for profitably disposing of two demographic groups: (i) the colonists (surplus population of the motherland) and (ii) the colonised (the subaltern native to be exploited) who antagonistically define and represent the Other as separate and apart from the colonial Self.
Othering establishes unequal relationships of power between the colonised natives and the colonisers, who believe themselves essentially superior to the natives whom they othered into racial inferiority, as the non-white Other. That dehumanisation maintains the false binary-relations of social class, caste, and race, of sex and gender, and of nation and religion. The profitable functioning of a colony (economic or settler) requires continual protection of the cultural demarcations that are basic to the unequal socio-economic relation between the "civilised man" (the colonist) and the "savage man", thus the transformation of the Other into the colonial subaltern.
Gender and sex
LGBT identities
The social exclusion function of Othering a person or a social group from mainstream society to the social marginsfor being essentially different from the societal norm (the plural Self)is a socio-economic function of gender. In a society wherein man–woman heterosexuality is the sexual norm, the Other refers to and identifies lesbians (women who love women) and gays (men who love men) as people of same-sex orientation whom society has othered as "sexually deviant" from the norms of binary-gender heterosexuality. In practise, sexual Othering is realised by applying the negative denotations and connotations of the terms that describe lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people, in order to diminish their personal social status and political power, and so displace their LGBT communities to the legal margin of society. To neutralise such cultural Othering, LGBT communities queer a city by creating social spaces that use the spatial and temporal plans of the city to allow the LGBT communities free expression of their social identities, e.g. a boystown, a gay-pride parade, etc.; as such, queering urban spaces is a political means for the non-binary sexual Other to establish themselves as citizens integral to the reality (cultural and socio-economic) of their city's body politic.
Woman as identity
The philosopher of feminism, Cheshire Calhoun identified the female Other as the female-half of the binary-gender relation that is the Man and Woman relation. The deconstruction of the word Woman (the subordinate party in the Man and Woman relation) produced a conceptual reconstruction of the female Other as the Woman who exists independently of male definition, as rationalised by patriarchy. That the female Other is a self-aware Woman who is autonomous and independent of the patriarchy's formal subordination of the female sex with the institutional limitations of social convention, tradition, and customary law; the social subordination of women is communicated (denoted and connoted) in the sexist usages of the word Woman.
In 1949, the philosopher of existentialism, Simone de Beauvoir applied Hegel's conception of "the Other" (as a constituent part of Self-awareness) to describe a male-dominated culture that represents Woman as the sexual Other to Man. In a patriarchal culture, the Man–Woman relation is society's normative binary-gender relation, wherein the sexual Other is a social minority with the least socio-political agency, usually the women of the community, because patriarchal semantics established that "a man represents both the positive and the neutral, as indicated by the common use of [the word] Man to designate human beings in general; whereas [the word] Woman represents only the negative, defined by limiting criteria, without reciprocity" from the first sex, from Man.
In 1957, Betty Friedan reported that a woman's social identity is formally established by the sexual politics of the Ordinate–Subordinate nature of the Man–Woman sexual relation, the social norm in the patriarchal West. When queried about their post-graduate lives, the majority of women interviewed at a university-class reunion, used binary gender language, and referred to and identified themselves by their social roles (wife, mother, lover) in the private sphere of life; and did not identify themselves by their own achievements (job, career, business) in the public sphere of life. Unawares, the women had acted conventionally, and automatically identified and referred to themselves as the social Other to men.
Although the nature of the social Other is influenced by the society's social constructs (social class, sex, gender), as a human organisation, society holds the socio-political power to formally change the social relation between the male-defined Self and Woman, the sexual Other, who is not male.
In feminist definition, women are the Other to men (but not the Other proposed by Hegel) and are not existentially defined by masculine demands; and also are the social Other who unknowingly accepts social subjugation as part of subjectivity, because the gender identity of woman is constitutionally different from the gender identity of man. The harm of Othering is in the asymmetric nature of unequal roles in sexual and gender relations; the inequality arises from the social mechanics of intersubjectivity.
Knowledge
Cultural representations
About the production of knowledge of the Other who is not the Self, the philosopher Michel Foucault said that Othering is the creation and maintenance of imaginary “knowledge of the Other” — which comprises cultural representations in service to socio-political power and the establishment of hierarchies of domination. That cultural representations of the Other (as a metaphor, as a metonym, and as an anthropomorphism) are manifestations of the xenophobia inherent to the European historiographies that defined and labelled non–European peoples as the Other who is not the European Self. Supported by the reductive discourses (academic and commercial, geopolitical and military) of the empire's dominant ideology, the colonialist misrepresentations of the Other explain the Eastern world to the Western world as a binary relation of native weakness against colonial strength.
In the 19th-century historiographies of the Orient as a cultural region, the Orientalists studied only what they said was the high culture (languages and literatures, arts and philologies) of the Middle East, but did not study that geographic space as a place inhabited by different nations and societies. About that Western version of the Orient, Edward Saïd said that:
In so far as The Orient occurred in the existential awareness of the Western world, as a term, The Orient later accrued many meanings and associations, denotations and connotations that did not refer to the real peoples, cultures, and geography of the Eastern world, but to Oriental Studies, the academic field about The Orient as a word.
The Academy
In the Eastern world, the field of Occidentalism, the investigation programme and academic curriculum of and about the essence of The West — Europe as a culturally homogeneous place — did not exist as a counterpart to Orientalism. In the postmodern era, the Orientalist practices of historical negationism, the writing of distorted histories about the places and peoples of "The East", continues in contemporary journalism; e.g. in the Third World, political parties practice Othering with fabricated facts about threat-reports and non-existent threats (political, social, military) that are meant to politically delegitimise opponent political parties composed of people from the social and ethnic groups designated as the Other in that society.
The Othering of a person or of a social group — by means of an ideal ethnocentricity (the ethnic group of the Self) that evaluates and assigns negative, cultural meaning to the ethnic Other — is realised through cartography; hence, the maps of Western cartographers emphasised and bolstered artificial representations of the national-identities, the natural resources, and the cultures of the native inhabitants, as culturally inferior to the West.
Historically, Western cartography often featured distortions (proportionate, proximate, and commercial) of places and true distances by placing the cartographer's homeland in the centre of the mapamundi; these ideas were often utilized to support imperialistic expansion. In contemporary cartography, the polar-perspective maps of the northern hemisphere, drawn by U.S. cartographers, also frequently feature distorted spatial relations (distance, size, mass) of and between the U.S. and Russia which according to historian Jerome D. Fellman emphasise the perceived inferiority (military, cultural, geopolitical) of the Russian Other.
Practical perspectives
In Key Concepts in Political Geography (2009), Alison Mountz proposed concrete definitions of the Other as a philosophic concept and as a term within phenomenology; as a noun, the Other identifies and refers to a person and to a group of persons; as a verb, the Other identifies and refers to a category and a label for persons and things.
Post-colonial scholarship demonstrated that, in pursuit of empire, "the colonizing powers narrated an 'Other' whom they set out to save, dominate, control, [and] civilize . . . [in order to] extract resources through colonization" of the country whose people the colonial power designated as the Other. As facilitated by Orientalist representations of the non–Western Other, colonization — the economic exploitation of a people and their land – is misrepresented as a civilizing mission launched for the material, cultural, and spiritual benefit of the colonized peoples.
Counter to the post-colonial perspective of the Other as part of a Dominator–Dominated binary relationship, postmodern philosophy presents the Other and Otherness as phenomenological and ontological progress for Man and Society. Public knowledge of the social identity of peoples classified as "Outsiders" is de facto acknowledgement of their being real, thus they are part of the body politic, especially in the cities. As such, "the post-modern city is a geographical celebration of difference that moves sites once conceived of as 'marginal' to the [social] centre of discussion and analysis" of the human relations between the Outsiders and the Establishment.
See also
References
Sources
Thomas, Calvin, ed. (2000). "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality. University of Illinois Press. .
Cahoone, Lawrence (1996). From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.
Colwill, Elizabeth. (2005). Reader—Wmnst 590: Feminist Thought. KB Books.
Haslanger, Sally. Feminism and Metaphysics: Unmasking Hidden Ontologies. 28 November 2005.
McCann, Carole. Kim, Seung-Kyung. (2003). Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives. Routledge. New York, NY.
Rimbaud, Arthur (1966). "Letter to Georges Izambard", Complete Works and Selected Letters. Trans. Wallace Fowlie. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nietzsche, Friedrich (1974). The Gay Science. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage.
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1986). Course in General Linguistics. Eds. Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye. Trans. Roy Harris. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court.
Lacan, Jacques (1977). Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton.
Althusser, Louis (1973). Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Trans. Ben Brewster. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Warner, Michael (1990). "Homo-Narcissism; or, Heterosexuality", Engendering Men, p. 191. Eds. Boone and Cadden, London UK: Routledge.
Tuttle, Howard (1996). The Crowd is Untruth, Peter Lang Publishing, .
Further reading
Levinas, Emmanuel (1974). Autrement qu'être ou au-delà de l'essence. (Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence).
Levinas, Emmanuel (1972). Humanism de l'autre homme. Fata Morgana.
Lacan, Jacques (1966). Ecrits. London: Tavistock, 1977.
Lacan, Jacques (1964). The Four Fondamental Concepts of Psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth Press, 1977.
Foucault, Michel (1990). The History of Sexuality vol. 1: An Introduction. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
Derrida, Jacques (1973). Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs. Trans. David B. Allison. Evanston: Ill.: Northwestern University Press.
Kristeva, Julia (1982). Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Trans. Leon S. Roudiez. New York: Columbia University Press.
Butler, Judith (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
Butler, Judith (1993). Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex". New York: Routledge.
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237–258.
External links
The Centre for Studies in Otherness
Concepts in metaphysics
Phenomenology
Conceptions of self
Identity (philosophy) |
31816199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20compositions%20for%20viola%3A%20I%20to%20K | List of compositions for viola: I to K | This article lists compositions written for the viola. The list includes works in which the viola is a featured instrument: viola solo, viola and piano, viola and orchestra, ensemble of violas, etc. Catalogue number, date of composition and publisher (for copyrighted works) are also included. Ordering is by composer surname.
This pages lists composers whose surname falls into the I to K alphabetic range. For others, see respective pages:
List of compositions for viola: A to B
List of compositions for viola: C to E
List of compositions for viola: F to H
List of compositions for viola: L to N
List of compositions for viola: O to R
List of compositions for viola: S
List of compositions for viola: T to Z
I
Anthony Iannaccone (b. 1943)
Remembrance for viola and piano (1968); Tritone Press
Sonata for viola and piano (1961)
Jacques Ibert (1890–1962)
Aria for viola and piano (1930); original for voice and piano, published in various versions; transcription by Paul-Louis Neuberth; Éditions Alphonse Leduc
Le petit âne blanc (The Little White Donkey) for viola and piano; original for piano; transcription by Alan H. Arnold; Éditions Alphonse Leduc
Toshi Ichiyanagi (1933–2022)
Duet for piano and string instrument (1961); C.F. Peters
Airat Ichmouratov (b. 1973)
Concerto No. 1 for viola and orchestra, Op.7 (2004); Canadian Music Centre
Concerto No. 2 "in Baroque Style" for viola and orchestra, Op. 41 (2015); Canadian Music Centre
Fantasy on D. Shostakovich's Opera "Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk" for viola and orchestra, Op. 12 (2006)
Three Romances for viola, string orchestra and harp, Op. 22 (2009); Canadian Music Centre
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 10 (2005)
Akira Ifukube (1914–2006)
La Fontaine sacrée (聖なる泉) for soprano, viola, bassoon and harp (1964, 2000); arrangement by the composer from the 1964 film score Mothra vs. Godzilla
for soprano, viola and harp or piano (1992)
Shin'ichirō Ikebe (b. 1943)
Bivalence III for 2 violas (1999); Zen-On Music Company
Emerald Colored Haze: In the Cold Morning (瑠璃色の靄 – 冷たい朝に) for ondes Martenot and viola (1997)
Alexander Ilyinsky (1859–1920)
Berceuse (Колыбельная песня) from Noure and Anitra (Нур и Анитра) for viola and piano, Op. 13 (1907); original for orchestra; transcription by Watson Forbes; Chester Music
Kamran İnce (b. 1960)
Road to Memphis for viola and harpsichord (2008)
Vincent d'Indy (1851–1931)
Choral varié for saxophone or viola and orchestra, Op. 55 (1903)
Lied for cello or viola and orchestra, Op. 19 (1884)
Richard Ingham (b. 1954)
Nature Morte au Panier for viola solo (2009)
Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht (1880–1965)
Impromptu in F minor for viola and piano (1922); Éditions Alphonse Leduc
Nocturne for cello (or violin, or viola) and piano (1922); A.Z. Mathot
Prélude et Saltarelle for viola and piano (1907); A.Z. Mathot
Atli Ingólfsson (b. 1962)
Annað sjálf álfsins (The Elves' Other Self) for viola solo (1994); Iceland Music Information Centre
Pedro Ipuche-Riva (1924–1996)
Sonata en re for viola and piano (1959–1961)
Gabriel Iranyi (b. 1946)
Hommage à György Kurtág, 3 Pieces for viola solo (1999)
Sonata for violin or viola solo (2010–2011)
John Ireland (1879–1962)
The Holy Boy for viola and piano; transcription by Lionel Tertis (published 1918)
Sonata in G minor for viola and piano (1923); original for cello and piano; transcription by Lionel Tertis (1941); Augener
Yoshirō Irino (1921–1980)
Suite (無伴奏ヴィオラのための組曲) for viola solo (1971)
Regina Irman (b. 1957)
Hügel bei Céret for 2 violas and double bass (1983); Musikedition Nepomuk Rupperswil; Édition Musicale Suisse
Mark Isaacs (b. 1958)
Night Songs for viola and piano (2004); Australian Music Centre
Kan Ishii (1921–2009)
Sonata for viola and piano (1962); Ongaku-no-tomo Edition
Timur Ismagilov (b. 1982)
Novella (Новелла) for viola solo, Op. 23 (2010)
Fantasia (Фантазия) for viola and piano, Op. 46 (2019–2020)
André Isoir (1935–2016)
3 Pièces for viola and piano (2006); Editions Delatour
Miloslav Ištvan (1928–1990)
Canto No. 1 for viola solo (1978–1979); Český Hudební Fond
Canto No. 2 for prepared violas and female voice (1980)
Fantasie for clarinet, viola and piano (1949); Český Hudební Fond
Mikrosvěty mého města (Micro-Worlds of My Town) for 2 violas, oboe and clarinet (1977); Český Hudební Fond
Písně (Songs) for soprano, viola and piano (1949); Český Hudební Fond
Ronda (Rondos) for viola and piano (1950); Editio Bärenreiter Praha; Český Hudební Fond
Rotace a návraty (Rotations and Returns), 4 Movements for English horn, viola and cello (1988); Český Hudební Fond
Jean Eichelberger Ivey (1923–2010)
Aldébaran for viola and tape (1972); Carl Fischer
Music for viola and piano (1976); Carl Fischer
J
Gabriel Jackson (b. 1962)
Lunae glaciales for piccolo (flute), viola and harp (1996, revised 1999)
Gordon Jacob (1895–1984)
Adagio and Allegro by Antonio Vivaldi; arrangement for viola and piano (1939) by Gordon Jacob
Air and Dance for viola and piano (1957); Oxford University Press
Concert Piece for viola and orchestra (1977); Corda Music Publications
Concerto No. 1 in C minor (in One Movement) for viola and orchestra (1925, revised 1976); Boosey & Hawkes; Oxford University Press
Concerto No. 2 in G major for viola and string orchestra (1979); Boosey & Hawkes
Hearken Unto Me for soprano, viola and organ (1978)
A Little Minuet for viola and piano (1972); in New Pieces for Viola, Book 1; Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music
Miniature Suite for clarinet and viola (1956); Breitkopf & Härtel; Musica Rara
Nocturne for viola and cello (1959); Corda Music Publications
Prelude, Passacaglia and Fugue for violin and viola (1948); Stainer & Bell
Rigadoon for viola and piano (1972); in New Pieces for Viola, Book 1; Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music
Sonata No. 1 for viola and piano (1949); Anglo-American Music Publishers
Sonata No. 2 for viola and piano (1978); Anglo-American Music Publishers
Sonatina for 2 violas (1973); Oxford University Press
Sonatina for viola or clarinet and piano (1946); Novello & Co.
Suite for 8 violas (1976); Anglo-American Music Publishers
Three Pieces (Elegy, Ostinato, Scherzo) for viola and piano (1930); J. Curwen & Sons
Trio for clarinet, viola and piano (1969); Breitkopf & Härtel; Musica Rara
Trotting Tune for viola and piano (1972); in New Pieces for Viola, Book 1; Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music
Variations for solo viola (1975); Breitkopf & Härtel; Musica Rara
When Autumn Comes for viola and piano (1972); in New Pieces for Viola, Book 1; Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music
Frederick Jacobi (1891–1952)
Fantasy for viola and piano (1941); Carl Fischer
Penelope for viola and piano (1943); Independent Music Publishers
Maurice Jacobson (1896–1976)
Berceuse for viola and piano (1946); Oxford University Press
Humoreske for viola and piano (1948); Alfred Lengnick
Lament for viola and piano (1941)
Salcey Lawn for viola and piano (1946); Augener
Hanoch Jacoby (1909–1990)
Concertino for viola and orchestra (1939); Israeli Music Institute
King David's Lyre (כינור היה לדוד) for viola and piano (1948) or viola and string orchestra (1978); Israeli Music Institute
Three Songs (שלושה שירים) for mezzo-soprano, viola and piano (1938); words by Rainer Maria Rilke; Israeli Music Institute
Leoš Janáček (1854–1928)
Říkadla (Nursery Rhymes) for voice(s), viola and piano; Universal Edition
Nino Janjgava (b. 1964)
E-flat and D-sharp (მი ბემოლი და რე დიეზი; Mi bémol et ré dièse; Es und Dis) for guitar and 6 violas, Op. 37 (2002)
Karel Janovický (b. 1930)
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 12 (1955); Český Hudební Fond
Sonata for viola and piano (2008)
Terzina for viola and piano (1978)
Leopold Jansa (1795–1875)
Cantilène for viola and piano, Op. 84 (1867); Laurentius-Musikverlag
6 Duos for violin and viola, Op. 70 (1845)
Pierre Jansen (1930–2015)
3 Caractères (3 Characters) for viola and piano (2003); Editions Delatour
Duo for violin and viola (2006); Editions Delatour
Concerto for viola and chamber orchestra (1988); Éditions Salabert
Robert Janssens (b. 1939)
Ballade for viola and piano (2002); Fibonacci Publishing
Mutatis mutandis for viola and piano (1991); Alain Van Kerckhoven Editeur
Sonata for viola and piano; Éditions J. Maurer
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865–1950)
Chant mélancholique et romance for violin (or viola) and piano, Op. 2 (1892)
Larmes, Pièce lyrique for soprano, viola (or cello) and piano (1902)
Armas Järnefelt (1869–1958)
Kehtolaulu (Berceuse) for viola and piano (1904); original for orchestra
Michael Jarrell (b. 1958)
Assonance IV for tuba, viola and live electronics (1990); Éditions Henry Lemoine
Émergences-Résurgences for viola and orchestra (2016); Éditions Henry Lemoine
From the Leaves of Shadow for viola and orchestra (1991); Éditions Henry Lemoine
...more leaves... for viola, 5 instruments and electronics (2000); Éditions Henry Lemoine
...some leaves II... for viola solo (1998); Éditions Henry Lemoine
Keith Jarrett (b. 1945)
Bridge of Light for viola and orchestra (1990); Edition Schott
Sándor Jemnitz (1890–1963)
Duo-Sonata for viola and cello, Op. 25 (1927); Edition Schott
Sonata for viola solo, Op. 46 (1941); Rózsavölgyi; Editio Musica Budapest
Zoltán Jeney (1943–2019)
Aritmíe – Ritmiche for flute, viola and cello (1967)
A Leaf Falls: Brackets to e. e. cummings for violin or viola (with contact microphone) and prepared piano (1975); Editio Musica Budapest
Joseph Willcox Jenkins (1928–2014)
Sonata (in One Movement) No. 1 in D minor for viola and piano, Op. 7 (1950)
Donald Martin Jenni (1937–2006)
Musica dell'estate for viola alone (1974); Associated Music Publishers
Willem Jeths (b. 1959)
Capriccio for violin or viola solo (2009)
Elegia for viola solo (2002); Donemus
Meme for 2 violas and orchestra (2006); Donemus
Ivan Jevtić (b. 1947)
Grand Trio for violin, viola and piano (1992)
Préludes for viola and piano (1987); Éditions Gérard Billaudot; United Music Publishers
Soleil, soleil!! La nuit tombe... for 4 violas (1997)
Sonata for viola solo (1996)
Vers Byzance... (To Byzantium), Concerto for viola and string orchestra (1984); Éditions Gérard Billaudot; United Music Publishers
Marta Jiráčková (b. 1932)
Růžová pivoňka (The Pink Peony; Die Rosa Pfingstrose), Fantasie on the Painting by Bohumil Klimeš-Kozina for viola and piano, Op. 56 (2000); Český Hudební Fond
Svatý Václave (Saint Wenceslas), Evocation of the Ancient Choral Manuscript for soprano, viola and piano, Op. 39 (1991); Český Hudební Fond
Karel Boleslav Jirák (1891–1972)
Smuteční hudba (Funeral Music) for viola and organ, Op. 58 (1946) for viola and orchestra (1962); Český Hudební Fond
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 26 (1925); N. Simrock, Leipzig
Joseph Joachim (1831–1907)
Drei Stücke (3 Pieces) for violin or viola and piano, Op. 2 (c.1848–1852)
Romanze
Fantasiestück
Eine Frühlingsfantasie
Hebräische Melodien, nach Eindrücken der Byron'schen Gesänge (Hebrew Melodies, after Impressions of Byron's Songs) for viola and piano, Op. 9 (1854–1855)
Variationen über ein eigenes Thema (Variations on an Original Theme) in E major for viola and piano, Op. 10 (1854)
Otto Joachim (1910–2010)
Dialogue for viola and piano (1964); Canadian Music Centre
Music for Violin and Viola (1953); Canadian Music Centre
Petite œuvre for flute, viola and cello (2000); Canadian Music Centre
Requiem for viola solo (1976); Canadian Music Centre
Bertil Palmar Johansen (b. 1954)
Capriccio for viola solo (1993); Music Information Centre Norway
David Johnson (1942–2009)
The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer, Concerto for viola and chamber orchestra (1972); Scottish Music Centre
Tom Johnson (b. 1939)
Action Music IV for viola solo (1968); Two-Eighteen Press; Editions 75
Tilework: Canon in Three Tempos (2:3:4) for viola solo (2003); Two-Eighteen Press; Editions 75
Verses for viola solo (1976); Two-Eighteen Press
Betsy Jolas (b. 1926)
L'ardente for viola and piano (1978); Éditions Heugel
Come Follow for bassoon and viola (2001)
Episode sixième for viola solo (1984); Alphonse Leduc
Frauenleben for viola and orchestra (1992); Éditions Billaudot
Frauenliebe for viola and piano (2011)
Music to Go for viola and cello (1995); Éditions Salabert
Points d'aube for viola and 13 wind instruments (1968); Éditions Heugel
Quatre Duos for viola and piano (1979); Éditions Heugel
Remember for English horn or viola and cello (1971); Éditions Heugel
Ruht wohl for viola and piano (2011)
André Jolivet (1905–1974)
Chant d'oppression for viola and piano (1935); Éditions Salabert
Cinq églogues for viola solo (1967); Gérard Billaudot
Petite suite for flute, viola and harp (1941); Éditions Musicales Transatlantiques
Jens Joneleit (b. 1968)
Sonata Semplice for viola solo, Op. 98 (1998); Alliance Publications
Vers Divin for viola solo, Op. 91 (1995); Alliance Publications
Charles Jones (1910–1997)
Threemody for viola solo (1947)
Triptychon for violin, viola and piano (1975)
Daniel Jones (1912–1993)
8 Pieces for viola and piano (1948)
Sonata for viola and piano (1937)
Suite: 6 Movements from a Twelve-tone Row for viola and cello (1949); Robert Lienau; C.F. Peters
Matthew Jones (b. 1974)
Fantasia on "My Welsh Home" for viola solo (2002)
Robert W. Jones (1932–1997)
Airs and Fancies, Some Pleasant Music for 2 violas
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1984)
A Joyful Noise for high voice and viola
Sonata da chiesa (Words of Praise) for solo viola and mixed chorus
Sonata for Worship No. 8 for viola and organ
Sonatina for viola and piano
Songs and Dances for viola and cello (1985); Latham Music
Tower Sonatina for viola and piano
Twogether for flute and viola (1989)
Marinus De Jong (1891–1984)
Blancifloer's klacht (Blancifloer's Complaint) for mezzo-soprano, viola and piano, Op. 70 (1947); CeBeDeM
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 111 (1958); CeBeDeM
Epische Ballade "Mitsanoboe" for viola and piano, Op. 65 (1957); CeBeDeM
Sonata for viola solo, Op. 106 (1973); Metropolis Music Publishers
Joseph Jongen (1873–1953)
Adagio for violin and viola, Op. 22 No. 1 (1901); CeBeDeM
Allegro Appassionato for viola and piano or orchestra, Op. 79 (1925); Masters Music
Andante Espressivo for viola and piano (1900); CeBeDeM
Andantino grazioso for viola and piano; CeBeDeM
Carnaval for viola and orchestra
Concertino for viola and piano, Op. 111 (1940); Éditions Max Eschig
Introduction et Danse for viola and piano or orchestra, Op. 102 (1935); Éditions Max Eschig; Associated Music Publishers
Lecture for double bass or viola (1927); CeBeDeM
Prélude, variations et finale, Trio for violin, viola and piano, Op. 30 (1906–1907); Éditions Durand
Suite in D major for viola and piano or orchestra, Op. 48 (1915); Henry Lemoine
Léon Jongen (1884–1969)
Aria for viola solo (1957); CeBeDeM
Lecture for viola solo (1956); CeBeDeM
Pastorale et gigue for viola and piano (1955); Éditions Musicale Brogneaux; CeBeDeM
Mihail Jora (1891–1971)
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 32 (1956); Editura de Stat Pentru Literatură şi Artă, București
Wilfred Josephs (1927–1997)
Concerto for viola and small orchestra, Op. 131 (1983); Mornington Music; Novello & Co.
Meditatio de Beommundo, Concertante for viola and small orchestra, Op. 30 (1960–1961); Edition Eulenburg; Josef Weinberger
Christian Jost (b. 1963)
Hamlet Echoes for voice, viola and piano (2008); Schott Music
Mozarts 13097. Tag, Sinfonia Concertante for violin, viola and orchestra (2005); Schott Music
Werner Josten (1885–1963)
Sonata for cello (or viola, or clarinet) and piano (1938); Associated Music Publishers
John Joubert (1927–2019)
Four Images for oboe, viola and harp, Op. 149 (2003); Maecenas Music
Six Miniatures after Kilvert for violin and viola, Op. 140 (1997); Novello & Co.
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 6 (1952); Novello & Co.
Paul Juon (1872–1940)
Divertimento in C major for clarinet and 2 violas, Op. 34 (1906); Robert Lienau; Edition Peters
Romanze in F minor for viola (or cello) and piano (1898, 1899); adaptation from movement II of the Violin Sonata, Op. 7; Schlesinger
Wiegenliedchen (Slumber Song) for viola and piano, Op. 38, No. 6 (1926); original for piano; Schlesinger, E.C. Schirmer
Sonata in D major for viola and piano, Op. 15 (1901)
Sonata in F minor for viola and piano, Op. 82a (1923)
Liis Jürgens (b. 1983)
Ämbliktektoonika (Spidertectonics) for viola solo (2007)
K
Ričardas Kabelis (b. 1957)
Dasonata for violin, viola and piano (1980)
Ląstelė (Cell; Zelle) for violin, viola and piano (1992); Sema Edition; Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
Syrtium for soprano, viola and bassoon (1985); words by Leonardas Gutauskas
Schattenspiel for soprano and viola (1981); words by Leonardas Gutauskas
Viola for viola and live electronics (1994)
Pál Kadosa (1903–1983)
Concertino for viola and orchestra, Op. 27 (1936); Editio Musica; Zeneműkiadó Vállalat, Budapest
Jouni Kaipainen (1956–2015)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 56 (1997); Edition Wilhelm Hansen
Inno for viola and piano or harp, Op. 91g (2010–2013)
Sonata for viola and piano or harp, Op. 91e/f (2010–2013)
Viktor Kalabis (1923–2006)
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 84 (1997); Český Hudební Fond
Tristium, Concerto Fantasia for viola and string orchestra, Op. 56 (1981); Český Hudební Fond
Vakhtang Kakhidze (b. 1959)
Brüderschaft (Брудершафт) for viola, piano and string orchestra (1996)
Johannes Kalitzke (b. 1959)
Flucht im Gewölbe (Escape the Vault), Spiral for solo viola and digital space simulation (1987)
Labyrinth (Kafka-Komplex I), Spiral for solo viola and digital space simulation (1989); Boosey & Hawkes
Trio infernal, Gespenstermechanik in 5 Kapiteln (Ghosts Mechanics in 5 Parts) for viola, cello and double bass (1985); Edition Gravis
Jan Kalivoda (1801–1866)
2 Duos for violin and viola, Op. 208 (1855)
Fantaisie: Souvenir de Cherubini in F major for viola and piano, Op. 204 (1855)
6 Nocturnes for viola and piano, Op. 186 (1851); published 1882
Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785–1849)
Duos for violin, viola or cello and piano, Op. 11
Grand Duo in D minor for flute (or cello, or viola, or violin) and piano, Op. 63 (c.1824)
Sándor Kallós (b. 1935)
3 Ricercari (Три ричеркара) for viola solo; Sovetsky Kompozitor
Edvin Kallstenius (1881–1967)
Cavatina for viola and chamber orchestra, Op. 30 (1943); STIM; Swedish Music Information Centre
Visa (Canzone) from Dalarapsodi (Dalecarlia Rhapsody) for cello (or viola) and organ, Op. 18 (1931); original for orchestra; Eriks Musikandel och Förlag
László Kalmár (1931–1995)
Terzina for violin, viola and harp (1976); Editio Musica Budapest
Heinrich Kaminski (1886–1946)
Magnificat for solo soprano, solo viola, small off-stage chorus and orchestra (1925); Universal Edition
Präludium und Fuge (Prelude and Fugue) in C major for viola solo (1931–1932); C.F. Peters
Arthur Kampela (b. 1960)
Bridges for solo viola (1994)
Giya Kancheli (1935–2019)
Abii Ne Viderem (Left In Order Not To See) for viola solo, piano, bass-guitar and string orchestra (1992); G. Schirmer
Caris Mere for soprano and viola (1994); G. Schirmer
Styx for viola, mixed choir and orchestra (1999); G. Schirmer
Vom Winde Beweint (Mourned by the Wind), Liturgy for solo viola and orchestra (1989); G. Schirmer
Sukhi Kang (1934–2020)
Dialog for viola and piano (1978); Edition Modern, München
Shigeru Kan-no (b. 1959)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, WVE 236 (2006)
Der Cid Suite for flute, viola and harp, WVE 181e (2001)
Der Cid Suite for viola and piano, WVE 181j (2002)
Four Elemente for clarinet, violin and viola, WVE 82 (1994)
Iikangen-Trio for alto saxophone, viola and piano, WVE 261 (2008)
Image for viola and piano, WVE 208e (2005)
Kleines Stück (Little Piece) for 2 metal percussionists and 4 violas (1987, revised 1996)
Kyosou for tenor saxophone and viola, WVE 80 (1994)
Semi-Kyosou for bass saxophone and viola, WVE 80a (1994)
Super Solo for viola solo, WVE 180d (2001)
Jan Kapr (1914–1988)
Fantasie for viola and piano (1937); Hudební Matice Umělecké Besedy
String Quartet No. 8 for viola (as the main instrument), two violins and cello (1976); Panton
Nikolai Kapustin (1937–2020)
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 69 (1992); Schott Music
Sonatina for viola and piano, Op. 158 (2015); Schott Music
Ivan Karabyts (1945–2002)
Impromptu (Експромт) for viola and piano (1976)
Valse (Вальс) for viola solo (1995); Duma Music
Louis Karchin (b. 1951)
Fantasy for violin or viola solo (1972); American Composers Alliance
Viola Variations for viola and piano (1981); C.F. Peters
Sigfrid Karg-Elert (1877–1933)
Sonata No. 2 in B major for clarinet or viola and piano, Op. 139b (1919); Musikverlage Zimmermann
Kjell Mørk Karlsen (b. 1947)
Concerto for viola and string orchestra, Op. 159 (2007); Music Information Centre Norway
Partita brevis over en norsk folketone for viola and organ (or piano), Op. 7 No. 5 (1993); Norsk Musikforlag
Sonata Nova for viola and piano, Op. 101 (1992); Music Information Centre Norway
Jurgis Karnavičius (1884–1941)
Daina (Song) for voice and viola (published 1924); words by Percy Bysshe Shelley; Muzsektor gosudarstvennoe izdatelstva; Vaga, Vilnius
Gluosnį linguoja (Swinging Willow) for voice and viola (1916); words by Konstantin Balmont; Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
Serenada (Serenade) for voice and viola (1916); words by Afanasy Fet; Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
To for voice and viola (published 1924); words by Percy Bysshe Shelley; Muzsektor gosudarstvennoe izdatelstva; Vaga, Vilnius
Žiedlapėliai putokšlio (Milkwort Petals) for voice and viola (1916); words by Konstantin Balmont; Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
Richard Karpen (b. 1957)
Aperture for amplified viola and interactive electronics (2006)
Solo/Tutti: Variations on an Irrational Number for amplified viola and real-time computer processing (2002)
Laura Karpman (b. 1959)
About Joshua for flute, viola and harp (2003); Fat Rock Inc.
Common Tone for 5-string electric viola and electronics (2003); MMB Music
...For Viola and Piano (1983); MMB Music
Rounds for viola and piano (2000); MMB Music
Elena Kats-Chernin (b. 1957)
For Alex No. 2 (Robyn's Request) for viola and piano (2004); Australian Music Centre
Gypsy Ramble for viola, cello and piano (1996); Boosey & Hawkes; Australian Music Centre
Still Life for viola and piano (2001); Boosey & Hawkes; Australian Music Centre
Three Interludes for solo viola (2000, 2003); Boosey & Hawkes; Australian Music Centre
Rag Interlude
Tranquil Interlude
Naive Interlude
Dick Kattenburg (1919–1944)
Allegro Moderato (Movement I of a Viola Sonata) for viola and piano (1944)
Georg Katzer (1935–2019)
Kette (Chain) for viola solo (1986); Deutscher Verlag für Musik
Mi for flute, viola and harp (1987)
Miteinander–Gegeneinander (Cooperation–Conflict), Duo concertante for English horn and viola (1982); Deutscher Verlag für Musik; Breitkopf & Härtel
Wiedergänge (Recourses) for oboe, horn and viola (2003)
Hugo Kauder (1888–1972)
Kleine Suite (Little Suite) in A minor for viola solo (1924); Universal Edition; Seesaw Music
Kleine Suite (Little Suite) for viola and piano (1939); Seesaw Music
Serenade for flute, violin and viola (1947); Seesaw Music
Sonata No. 1 in F major for viola and piano (1918); Seesaw Music
Sonata No. 2 in G for viola and piano (1938); Seesaw Music
Sonata No. 3 in D for viola and piano (1953); Seesaw Music
Sonata No. 4 in D for viola and piano (1958); Seesaw Music
Sonata for cello or viola and harp (1955); Seesaw Music
Sonatina for cello or viola and piano (1953); Seesaw Music
Suite No. 1 for flute, violin and viola (1971); Seesaw Music
Suite No. 2 for flute, violin and viola (1972); Seesaw Music
Trio for flute, violin and viola (1969); Seesaw Music
Trio for oboe, viola and piano (1916); Universal Edition; Seesaw Music
Trio for clarinet, viola and piano (1957); Seesaw Music
Trio No. 1 for flute, oboe and viola (1936); Seesaw Music
Trio No. 2 for flute, oboe and viola (1960); Seesaw Music
Walter Kaufmann (1907–1984)
Partita for viola solo
Sonata for 3 violas (1980)
Suite for 3 violas (c.1965)
Masaru Kawasaki (1924–2018)
La Preghiera (祈り Inori), Prayer Music No. 4 for viola solo (2006); Academia Music (アカデミア・ミュージック)
Don Kay (b. 1933)
Canzona I for flute and viola (1974); Australian Music Centre
Canzona II for flute and viola (1972); Australian Music Centre
Canzona III for flute and viola (1974); Australian Music Centre
Cloud Patterns for solo viola (1988); Australian Music Centre
Concert Music for viola and string orchestra (1973); Australian Music Centre
Earth Forms for solo viola (1989); Australian Music Centre
Ulysses Kay (1917–1995)
Sonatina (in 1 Movement) for viola and piano, W2 (1939); American Composers Alliance
Heinrich Ernst Kayser (1815–1888)
Grand duo concertant in B major for clarinet (or violin) and viola, Op. 2
Duo concertant for clarinet and viola, Op. 27 (1865)
Nouvelle méthode d'alto (New Viola Method), Op. 54 (published c.1880)
Minna Keal (1909–1999)
Ballade in F minor for viola (or cello) and piano (1929); Corda Music Publications
Nigel Keay (b. 1955)
Adagietto Antique, Trio for clarinet, viola and piano (2009)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (2000); Centre for New Zealand Music
Double Jeu for 2 violas (2012); Centre for New Zealand Music
Labyrinthe for flute and viola (2018)
Moderato à cent d'huîtres for viola and piano (2014); Centre for New Zealand Music
Terrestrial Mirror for flute, viola and harp (2004)
Visconti Variations, Duo for violin and viola (2008); Centre for New Zealand Music
Andrew Keeling (b. 1955)
Meditatio (Rosa) for solo viola, harp, cimbalom and string orchestra (1989, revised 1992)
Off the Beaten Track for viola and prepared piano (1999)
Milko Kelemen (1924–2018)
Phantasmen for viola and orchestra (1985); Hans Sikorski
Trois Danses (Three Dances) for viola and string orchestra (1957); London Universal Edition
Homer Keller (1915–1996)
Sonata for viola and piano (1951); American Composers Alliance
Max E. Keller (b. 1947)
Inseln for viola and cello (2002); Édition Musicale Suisse
Kreisen in den Tiefen for viola, cello and double bass (1988); Édition Musicale Suisse
Unione e tremolo for violin and viola (2002); Édition Musicale Suisse
Robert Kelly (1916–2007)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 53 (1976); American Composers Alliance
Concerto for violin, viola and orchestra, Op. 57 (1980); American Composers Alliance
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 16 (1950); American Composers Alliance
Suite for solo viola, Op. 28 (1955); transcription of the Cello Suite; American Composers Alliance
Theme and Variations for violin, viola and piano, Op. 11 (1947); American Composers Alliance
Three Expressions for violin and cello (or viola), Op. 49 (1971); American Composers Alliance
Rudolf Kelterborn (1931–2021)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (2009); Tre Media Musikverlage
Duett for viola and contrabass clarinet (1989); Tre Media Musikverlage
Kammermusik (Chamber Music) for flute, viola and piano (1957); Edition Modern
Monodie II for flute, viola and harp (1977–1990); Hug Musikverlage
Neun Momente (Nine Moments) for viola and piano (1973); Bote & Bock; Boosey & Hawkes
Six Short Pieces for flute, viola and guitar (1984); Bote & Bock
Wilhelm Kempff (1895–1991)
Abendphantasie (Evening Fantasy) for voice, viola and organ, Op. 27 (1926); words by Hans Peter Eisenmann; Edition Walhall
Tālivaldis Ķeniņš (1919–2008)
Adagio and Fugue for viola, cello and organ (1985); Canadian Music Centre
Canzona Sonata for solo viola and string orchestra (1986); Canadian Music Centre
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1998)
Elegy and Rondo for viola and piano (1979); Canadian Music Centre
Fantasy-Variations on an Eskimo Lullaby for flute and viola (1967–1972); Canadian Music Centre
Partita Breve for viola and piano (1971); Canadian Music Centre
Sonata for viola and piano (1995); Canadian Music Centre
Kent Wheeler Kennan (1913–2003)
Nocturne for viola and orchestra (No. 2 of Three Pieces for orchestra) (1937); Eastman Rochester Archives; Prairie Dawg Press
Oliver Kentish (b. 1954)
Draumar og dansar (Dreams and Dances) for viola and chamber orchestra (2002); Íslenzk Tónverkamiðstöð
Jakobslag, Little Duet for viola and marimba (1999); Íslenzk Tónverkamiðstöð
Kvinnan fróma for viola and piano (2008); Íslenzk Tónverkamiðstöð
Prelúdía og fúga (Prelude and Fugue) for 10 violas (2005); Íslenzk Tónverkamiðstöð
Mihkel Kerem (b. 1981)
Bullocks to That for viola solo (2014)
Carmina Contrita for viola and cello (2020)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1994)
Lament (Lamento) for cello or viola and string orchestra (2008, 2009); Fennica Gehrman
Max's Spider for viola solo (2015)
Nimetud lood (Nameless Pieces) for clarinet, viola and piano (2006)
Sonata for viola and piano (2007)
Aaron Jay Kernis (b. 1960)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (2014); AJK Music
Passacaglia-Variations for viola and piano (1985); Associated Music Publishers
Louise Lincoln Kerr (1892–1977)
Berceuse for viola and piano; Classic Unlimited Music
Etude for violin and violin (1969); American Viola Society Publications
Habañera for viola and piano; Classic Unlimited Music
Lament for viola and piano; Classic Unlimited Music
Las Fatigas del Querer (The Sorrows of Loving) for viola and piano; Classic Unlimited Music
Orientale for violin and violin
Toccata for viola and piano; Classic Unlimited Music
Gordon Kerry (b. 1961)
Antiphon for solo viola (2000); Australian Music Centre
Caritas for viola and piano (2001); Australian Music Centre
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1992); Australian Music Centre
Etude for solo viola (1999); Australian Music Centre
He Wishes for the Cloths of Heaven for mezzo-soprano and viola (1999); Australian Music Centre
Nocturne for clarinet, viola and piano (2008); Australian Music Centre
Parardi (Rain) for viola and piano (1988); Grevillea Editions
Sinfonia for viola, cello and string orchestra (1993); Australian Music Centre
Solitary Birds for 6 violas (2008); Australian Music Centre
Willem Kersters (1929–1998)
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 6 (1954); CeBeDeM
Aram Khachaturian (1903–1978)
Sonata-Song (Соната-Песня) for viola solo (1976); Soviet Music; G. Schirmer
Suite for viola and piano (1929); published 2011 in Khachaturian: Works for Viola and Piano and Viola Solo (Хачатурян: Произведения для альта и фортепиано и альта соло); Muzyka; Boosey & Hawkes
Ivan Khandoshkin (1747–1804)
Concerto in C major for viola and orchestra (1801); now thought to be written by Mikhail Goldstein; See musical hoax.
Variations on the Russian Song "I Lost What I Loved" (Вариации на русскую песню "То теряю, что люблю") for viola and piano; transcription by Vadim Borisovsky (published 1955); (State Music Publishing House)
Quddus Khojamyarov (1918–1994)
3 Pieces (Три пьесы) for viola and piano (1976); Sovetsky Kompozitor
Michael Kibbe (b. 1945)
Ariam Duo for viola and English horn or clarinet, Op. 123
Duo Sonata for 2 violas, Op. 15
Duo Sonata for viola and double bass, Op. 86 (1985)
Lyric Duo for violin and viola or English horn, Op. 79 (1984)
Malibu Music for violin and viola, Op. 113 (1991)
Partita for viola solo, Op. 118
Pastoral Trio for flute, viola or clarinet and bassoon, Op. 3 (1967); Seesaw Music Corporation
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 29 (1977)
Trio for flute, viola and harp, Op. 99 (1989); Fatrock Ink
Views of Atlantis for oboe, viola and piano, Op. 136 (2001)
Friedrich Kiel (1821–1885)
Sonata in G minor for viola and piano, Op. 67 (1870)
3 Romanzen for viola and piano, Op. 69 (1871)
Peter Kiesewetter (1945–2012)
Bereshit (בראשית), Azione sacra for soprano, viola, zither, percussion and tape, Op. 70 (1995–1996)
Sancti Francisci Laudes Creaturarum for soprano, viola and string orchestra (or organ), Op. 45 (1991); Klangmueller-Edition
Shir (שיר) for viola solo, Op. 62 No. 1 (1990); Vierdreiunddreissig Musikverlag
Shoshanim (שושנים) for viola and zither, Op. 61 No. 1 (1993); Vierdreiunddreissig Musikverlag
Valeri Kikta (b. 1941)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1974)
Nocturne (Ноктюрн) for flute, viola and harp (1979)
Sonata for viola and harp (2001)
Sonata for viola and harp (2002)
Trio in Honor of M. N. Yermolova (Трио в честь М. Н. Ермоловой) for flute, viola and harp (1985)
Wilhelm Killmayer (1927–2017)
Die Schönheit des Morgens (The Beauty of Morning), 5 Romances for viola and piano (1994); Edition Schott
Alastair King (b. 1967)
Claire's Three Piece Suite for clarinet or viola (1997); Chester Music Ltd
John Kinsella (1932–2021)
Dialogue for viola solo (1991); Contemporary Music Centre Ireland
Rhapsody on a Poem of Joseph Campbell for viola solo (1975); Contemporary Music Centre Irelan
Theodor Kirchner (1823–1903)
Acht Stücke (8 Pieces) for viola and piano, Op. 79 (1886); original for piano solo
Volker David Kirchner (1942–2020)
Nachtstück: Varianten über eine Wagnersche Akkordverbindung (Nocturne: Variants on a Wagnerian Chord Progression) for viola and chamber orchestra (1980–1981, revised 1983); Schott Music
Schibboleth, Poème Concertante for viola and orchestra (1989); Schott Music
Victor Kissine (b. 1953)
Duo (after Osip Mandelstam) for viola and cello (1998); M.P. Belaieff
Cyrill Kistler (1848–1907)
Serenade in D minor for violin, or viola (viola alta), or cello and orchestra, Op. 72 (1903)
Uuno Klami (1900–1961)
Sonata in B minor for viola and piano, Op. 6 (1920); Fennica Gehrman
Peter Klatzow (1945–2021)
Sonata In Memory of Oleg for viola solo (2009)
The World of Paul Klee for flute, viola and harp (1972)
The World of Paul Klee III for mezzo-soprano, flute, viola and harp (1972)
Dmitri Klebanov (1907–1987)
Concerto for viola and string orchestra (1983)
Ståle Kleiberg (b. 1958)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (2019–2020); Norsk Musikforlag
Trio Luna for flute (alto flute), viola and harp (2016); Norsk Musikforlag
Gideon Klein (1919–1945)
Duo v systému čtvrttónovém (Duo in Quarter-tone System) for violin and viola (1939–1940); Bote & Bock; Boosey & Hawkes
Preludium for viola solo (1940); Bote & Bock; Boosey & Hawkes
Richard Rudolf Klein (1921–2011)
Choral-Triptychon for viola and organ (1998); Edition P.J. Tonger
Memorial for viola solo (1996); Edition P.J. Tonger
Sonatina for viola and piano (1965); Möseler Verlag
Paul Klengel (1854–1935)
Drei Romanzen (3 Romances) for viola and piano, Op. 46 (1912)
Sechs Stücke (6 Pieces) for viola and piano, Op. 39 (1910)
Serenade for violin and viola, Op. 45 (1911)
Vier Phantasiestücke (4 Fantasy Pieces) for viola and piano, Op. 48 (1912)
John Klenner (1899–1955)
Fantasia for viola and orchestra; Sprague-Coleman
Karl Klingler (1879–1971)
Phantasie-Sonate in C minor for viola solo (1953)
Sonata in D minor for viola and piano (1909); N. Simrock
Friedrich Klose (1862–1942)
Elegie for violin or viola and piano, Op. 7 (1889)
August Klughardt (1847–1902)
Schilflieder (Songs of the Reeds), 5 Fantasy Pieces for oboe (or violin), viola and piano, Op. 28 (1872); after poems of Nikolaus Lenau
Julia Klumpkey (1870–1961)
Lullaby in F major for viola and piano (published 1937); Wesley Webster; American Viola Society Publications
Quatre pièces (4 Pieces) for viola and piano (published 1932); Éditions M. Senart
San Francisco Bay, Suite for viola and piano (published 1951); Wesley Webster
Second Suite for viola and piano (published 1935); George Austin
Jan Klusák (b. 1934)
Monolog "Ubi vult" (Monologue "Ubi vult") for viola solo (1987)
Partita for viola solo (1954)
Rejdovák for bass clarinet, viola and double bass (1965); Český Hudební Fond
Armin Knab (1881–1951)
Rosa Mystica for alto and viola (1949); Edition Schott
Adrian Knight (b. 1987)
Livet Innanför Väggarna (Life inside Walls) for 2 violas, cello and double bass (2008–2009); Swedish Music Information Centre
Edward Knight (b. 1961)
Beneath a Cinnamon Moon for clarinet, viola and piano (2007); Subito Music
Inbox for flute, viola and piano (2010); Subito Music
Milan Knížák (b. 1940)
Sonata for viola solo (2005); Český Hudební Fond
Charles Knox (1929–2019)
Music for Viola and Percussion (1989); C. Alan Publications
Garth Knox (b. 1956)
Fuga libre for viola solo (2008); Schott Music
Jonah and the Whale for viola and tuba (2009)
Ockeghem Fantasy for viola d'amore and 5 violas (2009)
Viola Spaces, Contemporary Viola Studies for viola solo (2004, 2007); Schott Music
Marcelo Koc (1918–2006)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 35 (1986); audio link
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 40 (1989)
Diálogos for viola and piano, Op. 31c (1979, 1980); original for violin and piano
Erland von Koch (1910–2009)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 33 (1946, revised 1966); STIM; Swedish Music Information Centre
Larghetto for viola (or cello) and piano (1937, revised 1966); Peer Music Classical; Southern Music Publishing
Lyrisk episod (Lyrical Episode) for viola and piano, Op. 29 (1944); STIM; Swedish Music Information Centre
Monolog Nr. 16 (On a Swedish Folk Tune) for viola solo (1978); Carl Gehrmans Musikförlag
Scherzo for viola (or cello) and piano (1937, revised 1966); Peer Music Classical; Southern Music Publishing
Günter Kochan (1930–2009)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1973–1974); Verlag Neue Musik
Sonata for viola and piano (1984–1985); Verlag Neue Musik
Miklós Kocsár (1933–2019)
Concerto lirico for viola and orchestra (2000); Editio Musica Budapest
Duó-Szerenád (Duo Serenade) for violin and viola (1955)
Hét változat mélyhegedűre (7 Variations) for viola solo (1983); Editio Musica Budapest
František Kočvara (1730?–1791)
3 Sonatas for viola with basso continuo, Op. 1 (published c.1780)
4 Sonatas for viola with basso continuo, Op. 2 (published c.1775)
Trio Sonata VI in C major for 2 violas with basso continuo (published c.1777)
Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)
Adagio for violin or viola and piano (1905, revised 1916); transcription for viola and string orchestra by Imre Sulyok (1984); Editio Musica Budapest
Szerenád (Serenade) for 2 violins and viola, Op. 12 (1919–1920); Universal Edition
Charles Koechlin (1867–1950)
Idylle for 2 clarinets or violin and viola, Op. 155b (1936); Le Chant du Monde
Quatre petites pièces (4 Little Pieces) for horn, violin (or viola) and piano, Op. 32 (1894–1907); Éditions Max Eschig
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 53 (1911–1913); Editions Maurice Senart
René Koering (b. 1940)
Symphonie Concertante for violin, viola and string orchestra (2003); Éditions Salabert
Hans von Koessler (1853–1926)
Trio Suite for violin, viola and piano (c.1919); N. Simrock
Jan Koetsier (1911–2006)
Concertino for viola and orchestra, Op. 21 (1940, revised 1955); Heinrichshofen Verlag
Concertino Drammatico for violin, viola and string orchestra, Op. 88 (1981); Donemus
Duo Giocoso for trumpet (or oboe) and viola, Op. 69 (1979); Donemus
Introduction and Variations on a Theme from the Opera "Die Zaubergeige" by Werner Egk for viola and piano, Op. 82 No. 3 (1978); Donemus
Trio Romantico for viola, cello and piano, Op. 111 (1987); Donemus
Ctirad Kohoutek (1929–2011)
Panychida letní noci (Prayer for the Dead), Music in Two Sound Layers for viola, piano, percussion and tape (1968); Český Hudební Fond
Suita romantica for viola and piano (1957); Český Hudební Fond
Ellis Kohs (1916–2000)
Burlesca II for clarinet, viola and horn (1945); American Composers Alliance
Chamber Concerto for viola and string nonet (1949); Mercury Music
Elegy and Credo for flute, viola and piano (1951–1952)
Rezső Kókai (1906–1962)
Verbunkos rapszódia (Verbunkos Rhapsody) for violin, or viola, or clarinet, and piano (1952); arrangement by Árpád Kígyósi; Editio Musica Budapest
Barbara Kolb (b. 1939)
Cavatina for violin or viola solo (1983, revised 1985); Boosey & Hawkes
Related Characters for viola and piano (1982); Boosey & Hawkes
Mikhail Kollontay (b. 1952)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 8 (1979–1980)
Sonata "Eight Psalms" (Восемь псалмов) for viola solo, Op. 7 (1977)
Jō Kondō (b. 1947)
Falling for 2 violas, double bass and electric piano (1973); University of York Music Press
The Moor, Trio for viola, bassoon and piano (1982); University of York Music Press
Res sonorae for oboe, viola and 12 instruments (1987); University of York Music Press
Eva Noer Kondrup (b. 1964)
Ulvemælk for viola and orchestra (2002); Edition Samfundet
Štěpán Koníček (1928–2006)
Eine kleine Trauermusik, Quarter-Tone Composition for viola solo (1980); Filmkunst Musikverlag
Duo microtonale, Quarter-Tone Composition for viola and cello (1989); Filmkunst Musikverlag
Servaes de Koninck (c.1654–c.1701)
Sonata in D minor for viola and harpsichord (c.1700); Broekmans & Van Poppel
Marek Kopelent (1932–2023)
Toccata for viola and piano (1978); Breitkopf & Härtel
Herman David Koppel (1908–1998)
Concertino for violin, viola and cello soli with orchestra, Op. 110 (1983); Edition Samfundet
Concerto for violin, viola and orchestra, Op. 43 (1947); Edition Wilhelm Hansen
Divertimento pastorale for oboe, viola and cello, Op. 61 (1955); Edition Samfundet
Patchwork for flute, viola and harp, Op. 106 (1981); Edition Samfundet
Peter Paul Koprowski (b. 1947)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1995); Canadian Music Centre
Mark Kopytman (1929–2011)
Dedication (הקדשה) for viola solo (1986); Israeli Music Publications
Cantus V (V קאנטוס), Concerto for viola and orchestra (1990); Israeli Music Publications
Kaddish (קדיש) for viola and string orchestra (or piano) (1981); Israeli Music Publications
Peter Jona Korn (1922–1998)
Duo for viola and piano, Op. 66 (1978, 1986); Filmkunst-Musikverlag; Edition Korn
Egon Kornauth (1891–1959)
Drei Stücke (Three Pieces) for viola and piano, Op. 47 (1954); Ludwig Doblinger
Notturno (Andante) for viola and chamber orchestra, Op. 3b (1912); movement II from the Viola Sonata
Sonata in C minor for viola and piano, Op. 3 (1912); Ludwig Doblinger
Sonatine for viola and piano, Op. 46a (1952); Ludwig Doblinger
Valse triste (from Trio-Suite, Op. 45) for viola and piano (1948); Ludwig Doblinger
Nikolai Korndorf (1947–2001)
Concerto for viola and string orchestra (1970)
Sonata for viola solo (1970)
Karl Korte (1928–2022)
Viola Redux, Viola Dance for viola and piano (2000, revised 2006); K-note Press
Tõnu Kõrvits (b. 1969)
Chaconne for viola solo (2008)
György Kósa (1897–1984)
Az éj zsoltára (Psalm of the Night) for voice and viola (1964); words by Endre Ady; manuscript lost
Duo for violin and viola (1943); Editio Musica Budapest
Hat új miniatűr (Six New Miniatures) for viola and harp (1969)
Megemlékezés... (In Memoriam...) for viola solo (1977); Editio Musica Budapest
Istenes énekek (Sacred Songs) for tenor, baritone and viola (1936); words by Mihály Babits
Szálkák (Splinters) for voice, viola and cello (1972); words by János Pilinszky
Viktor Kosenko (1896–1938)
Sonata for viola and piano (1928)
Pekka Kostiainen (b. 1944)
Sonatina for viola and piano (1980); Edition Fazer; Fennica Gehrman; Warner/Chappell Music Finland; Finnish Music Information Centre
Péter Kőszeghy (b. 1971)
ENTROPIE/beta for (amplified) viola and percussion (2005)
Mirror for (amplified) viola and CD (2004–2009)
Weibliche Hörbilder, 10 Aphorisms for alto voice and viola (2003)
Boris Koutzen (1901–1966)
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1949)
Leo Kraft (1922–2014)
Partita No. 2 for violin and viola (1961); Seesaw Music
Heinz Kratochwil (1933–1995)
Concerto for viola and chamber orchestra, Op. 67 (1970); Verlag Doblinger
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 21 (1961); Verlag Doblinger
Spiegelungen (Reflections) for viola, cello and piano, Op. 120 (1980)
Joseph Martin Kraus (1756–1792)
Concerto in C major for viola and chamber orchestra, VB 153b; attributed to Roman Hoffstetter (1742–1815); Edition Schott
Concerto in E major for viola and chamber orchestra, VB 153c (1785–1787); attributed to Roman Hoffstetter (1742–1815); Willy Müller, Süddeutscher Musikverlag
Concerto in G major for viola and chamber orchestra with cello obbligato, VB 153a (1785–1787); attributed to Roman Hoffstetter (1742–1815); Möseler Verlag
Sonata (Duo) in D major for flute and viola, VB 158 (1778); Amadeus Verlag; Musikverlage Zimmermann
Veronika Krausas (b. 1963)
Inside the Stone for viola solo (1997); Canadian Music Centre
Jaroslav Krček (b. 1939)
Hudba (Music) for viola and piano (1968)
Hudba (Music) for viola, bassoon and piano (1977); Český Hudební Fond
Alexander Krein (1883–1951)
Prologue (Пролог) in F major for viola and piano, Op. 2 (1902–1911, 1927); Sovetsky Kompozitor; Universal Edition
Ernst Krenek (1900–1991)
Sonata for viola solo, Op. 92 No. 3 (1942); Bomart Music Publications
Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 117 (1948); Affiliated Musicians
Sonatina for flute and viola, Op. 92 No. 2a (1942); Independent Music Publishers
Sonatina for violin and viola (1921)
Emil Kreuz (1867–1932)
Concerto in C minor for viola and orchestra, Op. 20 (1885); Augener
Der Violaspieler: Sammlung von progressiv geordneten Stücken für Viola und Klavier (The Viola Player: A Series of Progressive Pieces for Viola and Piano), Op. 13
No. 1 – 12 Very Easy Pieces
No. 2 – Progressive and Easy Pieces
Nos. 3 & 4 – 20 Progressive Melodies
Sketch; Augener
No. 5 – 3 Easy Sketches
No. 6 – Sonata in A minor; Amadeus Verlag
4 Duos for violin and viola, Op. 39; Amadeus Verlag
Frühlingsgedanken, 3 Pieces for viola and piano, Op. 9; Augener
Liebesbilder (Pictures of Love), 3 Pieces for viola and piano, Op. 5 (1885); Amadeus Verlag
Suite de pièces for viola and piano, Op. 45 (1897); Augener
Trio in C major for violin, viola and piano, Op. 21 (published 1892); Augener
Trio facile in C for violin, viola and piano, Op. 32; Amadeus Verlag
Jaroslav Křička (1882–1969)
Sonatina for violin and viola, Op. 48 (1926); Hudební Matice Praha
Edino Krieger (1928–2022)
Brasiliana for viola and piano (or string orchestra) (1983); L K Produções Artísticas, Rio de Janeiro; Academia Brasileira de Música
Milan Křížek (1926–2018)
Concerto grosso for violin, viola and orchestra (1989); Český Hudební Fond
Diferencias for viola solo (2014)
Koláž III (Collage III) for 2 violins and viola; Český Hudební Fond
Lyrické fragmenty (Lyric Fragments) for mezzo-soprano, flute and viola (1990); Český Hudební Fond
Sonata for viola solo (1994); Český Hudební Fond
Karl Kroeger (b. 1932)
Sonata for viola and piano (1951); American Composers Alliance
Franz Krommer (1759–1831)
13 Pieces for 2 clarinets and viola, Op. 47
Sonata in D major for violin with viola accompaniment, Op. 27
Sonata in A major for violin with viola accompaniment, Op. 29
Sonata for violin with viola accompaniment, Op. 42
Sonata in F major for viola, cello and piano, Op. 32 (1802); also seen as Op. 34
Gail Kubik (1914–1984)
Symphony Concertante for trumpet, viola, piano and orchestra (1952, revised 1953); Ricordi
Ladislav Kubík (1946–2017)
Sonata for viola solo (1978); Český Hudební Fond
Augustin Kubizek (1918–2009)
Concerto for viola and orchestra, Op. 48 (1980)
Es liegt ein Schloß in Österreich, Variations for viola (or clarinet, or violin, or cello) and orchestra, Op. 43c (1982); Verlag Doblinger
Kleine Suite (Little Suite) for violin and viola, Op. 5 No. 2 (1953); Verlag Doblinger
Sonatine for viola (or clarinet or cello) and piano, Op. 5 No. 1 (1953); Verlag Doblinger
Joseph Küffner (1776–1856)
Concerto in A major for viola and orchestra, Op. 139 (1823)
Divertissement in F major for horn or viola and piano, Op. 231 (1831)
Potpourri in D major for viola and orchestra, Op. 57 (1816)
Michael Kugel (b. 1946)
Il Carnevale di Venezia for viola and piano (2001); Alain Van Kerckhoven Éditeur
Classical Preludes for viola and piano (1999); Alain Van Kerckhoven Éditeur
Sonata-Poem for viola solo (1987); Alain Van Kerckhoven Éditeur
Suite in Memoriam Shostakovich for viola and piano (1988); Alain Van Kerckhoven Éditeur
Claus Kühnl (b. 1957)
Gewendete Figur for flute(s), viola and double bass (2003)
Morceau '95 for viola and piano (1995); Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag
Felicitas Kukuck (1914–2001)
Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (1964); Hänssler-Verlag Stuttgart
Partita for viola and organ (or piano)
Geistliches Konzert (Sacred Concerto) for baritone, viola, organ and chorus
Der 6. Psalm (Psalm 6), Cantata for tenor and viola (1991)
Der 13. Psalm (Psalm 13), Cantata for tenor and viola (1991)
Die Tänze der Mirjam (The Dances of Miriam), 10 Dances for viola solo (1988); Furore Edition
Fantasie for viola and piano (1951); Möseler Verlag; Schott Music
Volkslieder-Variationen (Folk Song Variations) for viola and piano (1942)
Zaubersprüche, Cantata for female voice, viola and piano (c.1955)
Hanna Kulenty (b. 1961)
A Fourth Circle for viola (or violin, or cello) and piano (1994); Donemus
Gary Kulesha (b. 1954)
"...and dark time flowed by her like a river..." for viola (or violin, or cello) and piano (1993); Canadian Music Centre
Concerto for viola and chamber orchestra (1992)
Friedrich August Kummer (1797–1879)
Fantaisie sur les motifs de l'opéra "Lucia di Lammermoor" de G. Donizetti for cello or viola and piano, Op. 68 (1841)
Kaspar Kummer (1795–1870)
Trio in C major for flute, viola (or violin) and piano, Op. 75 (1832)
Sérénade in D major for flute, viola (or violin) and guitar, Op. 81 (1835)
Sérénade in C major for flute, viola (or violin) and guitar, Op. 83 (1835)
Pierre Kunc (1865–1941)
Rapsodie for viola and piano (1940); Éditions Max Eschig
Sonata in B minor for viola and piano (or orchestra) (1919–1921); Buffet-Crampon
Luigi von Kunits (1870–1931)
Sonata for viola and piano (1917)
Meyer Kupferman (1926–2003)
Among the Windy Places for violin, viola and bassoon (1994); Soundspells Productions
Aspen Duo for trumpet and viola (1982); Soundspells Productions; Subito Music
Concerto for Six Instruments (flute, oboe, horn, violin, viola and cello) and Orchestra (1978)
Duo Arsenalas for flute and viola (1996)
Icarus for viola, cello and guitar (1976)
Ich Bin der Eine for speaker and viola (1984); words by Stefan George
Image I for clarinet and viola (1984); Soundspells Productions
Image II for clarinet and viola (1985); Soundspells Productions
Image of the Third Garden for clarinet and viola (1986); Soundspells Productions
Infinities No. 2 for viola solo
A Little Bit for clarinet and viola (1988); Soundspells Productions
Little Fantasy for viola and piano (1980); General Music Publishing
Phantom Episodes for clarinet and viola (1989); Soundspells Productions
Phantom Sonata for viola and piano (1979); Soundspells Productions
Poetics No. 6 for clarinet, viola and piano (1983)
Quiet Play for viola and piano (1987); Soundspells Productions; Subito Music
Romanza d'Amore for viola and double bass (1986); Soundspells Productions
Serenade for guitar and viola (1995); Soundspells Productions
Sound Objects No. 8 for clarinet, viola and double bass (1978)
Sound Phantoms No. 1 "On Beauty and the Beast" for viola and piano (1979)
Two for One for viola solo (1990); Soundspells Productions; Subito Music
Giedrius Kuprevičius (b. 1944)
Pirmieji šeši žodžiai arba viskas iš vandens (The Six First Words or All from Aquatic) for flute, viola and piano (2006)
Maži pokalbiai (Small Conversations) for violin and viola (1994); Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
György Kurtág (b. 1926)
...Concertante... for violin solo, viola solo and orchestra, Op. 42 (2003); winner of the 2006 Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition; Editio Musica Budapest
Concerto for viola and orchestra (1954); Editio Musica Budapest
Hommage à R. Sch. for clarinet (also bass drum), viola and piano, Op. 15d (1990); Editio Musica Budapest
Jelek (Signs) for viola, Op. 5 (1961; revised 1992); Editio Musica Budapest
Jelek, játékok és üzenetek (Signs, Games and Messages) for viola solo (1961, 1987, 1992–2001; revised 1991–2005); Editio Musica Budapest
Jelek, játékok és üzenetek (Signs, Games and Messages) for string duo (2 violas; viola and violin, or cello, or double bass) (1983, 1986, 1990–2006; revised 1991, 1993, 2003); Editio Musica Budapest
Tétel (Movement) for viola and orchestra (1953–1954); Editio Musica Budapest
Bronius Kutavičius (1932–2021)
Ant kranto (On the Shore) for soprano and 4 violas (1972); words by Jonas Mekas; Vaga, Vilnius; Lithuanian Music Information and Publishing Centre
Sonata for viola and piano (1968); Sovetsky Kompozitor; Edition Peters
Mati Kuulberg (1947–2001)
Viis eesti rahvaviisi (Five Estonian Folk Tunes; Fünf estnische Volksweisen) for clarinet, viola and double bass (1969, 1988); Bella Musica; Antes Edition; Edition 49
Vyacheslav Kuznetsov (b. 1955)
Capriccio (Капрыччио) for viola solo (1988)
Heterophony (Гетэрафонія) for oboe, violin and viola (1993)
Johan Kvandal (1919–1999)
Elegi og Capriccio (Elegy and Capriccio) for viola solo, Op. 47 (1977); Norsk Musikforlag
Sonata "Elgsonaten" (The Elk Sonata) for viola and piano, Op. 81 (1995); Norsk Musikforlag
Jaroslav Kvapil (1892–1958)
Duo for violin and viola (1949)
Suita (Suite) for viola and chamber orchestra (1955); Český Hudební Fond
Otomar Kvěch (1950–2018)
Haiku o Praze (Haiku of Prague), Melodrama for recitor and viola (or violin) (2007); words by Karel Trinkewitz
Missa con Viola Obligata for mixed chorus, viola solo, percussion and organ (1998)
Sonata for viola and piano (1989); Český Hudební Fond
Yannis Kyriakides (b. 1969)
Four Maggots for viola and double bass (1992)
References
External links
Free scores featuring the viola at the International Music Score Library Project
Viola I-K |
6545010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Lawrence%20Iroquoians | St. Lawrence Iroquoians | The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were an Iroquoian Indigenous people who existed from the 14th century to about 1580. They concentrated along the shores of the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the American states of New York and northernmost Vermont. They spoke Laurentian languages, a branch of the Iroquoian family.
The Pointe-à-Callière Museum estimated their numbers as 120,000 people in 25 nations occupying an area of . However, many scholars believe that estimate of the number of St. Lawrence Iroquoians and the area they controlled is too expansive. The current archaeological evidence indicates that the largest known village had a population of about 1,000 and their total population was 8,000–10,000. The traditional view is that they disappeared because of late 16th-century warfare by the Mohawk nation of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois League, which wanted to control trade with Europeans in the valley.
Knowledge about the St. Lawrence Iroquoians has been constructed from the studies of surviving oral accounts of the historical past from the current Native people, writings of the French explorer Jacques Cartier, earlier histories, and anthropologists' and other scholars' work with archaeological and linguistic studies since the 1950s.
Archaeological evidence has established that the St. Lawrence Iroquoians were a people distinct from the other regional Iroquoian peoples, the Five Nations of the Haudenosaunee and the Wendat (Huron). However, recent archaeological finds suggest distinctly separate groups may have existed among the St. Lawrence Iroquoians as well. The name "St Lawrence Iroquoians" refers to a geographic area in which the inhabitants shared some cultural traits, including a common language, but were not politically united.
The name of the country of Canada is probably derived from the Iroquoian word kanata, which means village or settlement.
Historical issues
For years historians, archeologists and related scholars debated the identity of the Iroquoian cultural group in the St. Lawrence valley which Jacques Cartier and his crew recorded encountering in 1535–36 at the villages of Stadacona and Hochelaga. An increasing amount of archaeological evidence collected since the 1950s has settled some of the debate. Since the 1950s, anthropologists and some historians have used definitive linguistic and archaeological studies to reach consensus that the St. Lawrence Iroquoians were peoples distinct from nations of the Iroquois Confederacy or the Huron. Since the 1990s, they have concluded that there may have been as many as 25 tribes among the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, who numbered anywhere from 8000 to 10,000 people. They lived in the river lowlands and east of the Great Lakes, including in present-day northern New York and Vermont.
Before this, some scholars argued that the people were the ancestors or direct relations of historic Iroquoian groups in the greater region, such as the Huron or Mohawk, Onondaga or Oneida of the Five Nations of the Haudenosaunee encountered by later explorer Samuel de Champlain. Since the 18th century, several theories have been proposed for the identity of the St. Lawrence River peoples. The issue is important not only for historical understanding but because of Iroquois and other indigenous land claims.
In 1998 James F. Pendergast, a Canadian archeologist, summarized the four major theories with an overview of evidence:
Huron-Mohawk Option:
Several historians combined data from early French reports, vocabulary lists, and oral histories of accounts by Native tribes to theorize the early inhabitants were Iroquoian-speaking Huron or Mohawk, two tribes well known in later colonial history. There has not been sufficient documentation to support this conclusion according to 20th-century standards. In addition, archaeological finds and linguistic studies since the 1950s have discredited this theory.
Mohawk Identity Option:
Based in part on material from the 18th century, Mark Cleland Baker and Lars Sweenburg developed a theory that the Mohawk (in some cases, they also postulated Onondaga and Oneida) had migrated and settled in the St. Lawrence River valley before relocating to their historic territory of present-day New York. Pendergast says that attribution of Stadacona or Hochelaga as Mohawk, Onondaga or Oneida has not been supported by the archaeological data.
"Since the 1950s a vast accumulation of archaeological material from Ontario, Quebec, Vermont, Pennsylvania and New York State consistently has provided compelling evidence to demonstrate that neither the Mohawk, the Onondaga, nor the Oneida homelands originated in the St Lawrence Valley."
Laurentian Iroquoian and Laurentian Iroquois Identity: based on language studies, with material added since 1940;
and
St. Lawrence Iroquoian and St. Lawrence Iroquois Identity:
Since the 1950s, anthropologists, archaeologists, linguists and ethnohistorians have combined multidisciplinary research to conclude that "a wholly indigenous and discrete Iroquoian people were present in the St Lawrence Valley when Cartier arrived. The current anthropological convention is to designate these people St Lawrence Iroquoians, all the while being aware that on-going archaeological research indicates that several discrete Iroquoian political entities were present in a number of widely dispersed geographical regions on the St Lawrence River axis."
As noted, anthropologists and some historians have used definitive linguistic and archaeological studies to reach consensus that the St. Lawrence Iroquoians were a people distinct from nations of the Iroquois Confederacy or the Huron, and likely consisted of numerous groups. Pendergast notes that while Iroquoians and topical academics have mostly reached consensus on this theory, some historians have continued to publish other theories and ignore the archaeological evidence. The St. Lawrence Iroquoians did share many cultural, historical, and linguistic aspects with other Iroquoian groups; for example, their Laurentian languages were part of the Iroquoian family and aspects of culture and societal structure were similar.
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians appear to have disappeared from the St. Lawrence valley some time prior to 1580. Champlain reported no evidence of Native habitation in the valley. By then the Haudenosaunee used it as a hunting ground and avenue for war parties.
As the historian Pendergast argues, the determination of identity for the St. Lawrence Iroquoians is important because, "our understanding of relations between Europeans and Iroquoians during the contact era throughout Iroquoia hinges largely upon the tribe or confederacy to which Stadacona and Hochelaga are attributed."
Culture and subsistence
Prehistoric Iroquoian culture and maize agriculture in Canada is first detected by archaeologists in 500 CE at the Princess Point site in Hamilton, Ontario. Iroquoian culture is detected in the Saguenay River region of Quebec in about 1000 CE. By 1250 or 1300 maize was being grown in what would become the Quebec City area. By about 1300, four distinct subculture areas of St. Lawrence Iroquoian culture existed: (1) Jefferson County, New York with a population of about 2,500; Grenville County, Ontario with a population of 2,500; the Lake St. Francis basin west of Montreal with a population of 1,000; and the Montreal and Quebec city areas with a population of 2,000 to 3,000. There were also settlements in northernmost Vermont and neighboring Ontario near Lake Champlain.
Most of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian villages were located in inland locations a few kilometers from the river itself. By the end of the 15th century they were encircled by earthworks and palisades, indicating a need for defense. The villages usually were to in area. Inside the palisades the St. Lawrence people lived in longhouses, typical of other neighboring Iroquoian peoples. The longhouses were to in length and each housed several families. Archaeologists have estimated that villages had an average population of 150-250 people although a few larger villages housed considerably more.
The Iroquoians occupied their villages for ten or more years until their longhouses deteriorated and the fertility of the soil for their crops declined. Then, they built a new village and cleared land for crops, usually only a few miles from their previous home. The frequent changes of location has given problems to archaeologists in estimating the numbers on the St. Lawrence Iroquoian people. Dating techniques may not be precise enough to determine whether villages were occupied simultaneously or sequentially.
In addition to the characteristic villages, the St. Lawrence Iroquoian peoples had "a mixed economy, in which they drew their subsistence from growing maize, squash, and beans, hunting, fishing, and gathering. These nations also had in common a matrilineal, clan-based social organization, and a political system sufficiently structured to permit confederation at times. Most of them engaged in guerrilla warfare, grew and used tobacco, and produced pottery vessels." Sunflowers were also grown for their oily seeds. Investigations at several former settlements have indicated that their most important foods were maize and fish. They hunted white-tailed deer and other game.
In 1535, French explorer Jacques Cartier commented on cultural differences between the people of Hochelaga (Montreal area) and Stadacona (Quebec area). Cartier described the large and productive maize fields surrounding Hochelaga, and said its inhabitants were sedentary, as compared to the people of Stadacona who were migratory. The Stadaconans were closer to the salt-water resources (fish, seals, and whales) of the lower St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of St Lawrence and ranged widely in their birch bark canoes in search of marine animals. Moreover, the Quebec area was the most northerly location in northeastern North America in which agriculture was practiced, especially during the cooler temperatures of the Little Ice Age in the 16th century. For Stadaconans, depending on agriculture was a riskier subsistence strategy than for the people of Hochelaga and they probably relied less on agriculture and more on exploitation of sea mammals, fishing, and hunting.
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were not united politically and villages and cultural groups may have been unfriendly and competitive with each other, as well as being hostile to the neighboring Algonquian peoples and other Iroquoian groups.
European contacts
Breton, Basque, and English fishermen may have come into contact with the St. Lawrence Iroquoians early in the 16th century. French navigator Thomas Aubert visited the area in 1508 and sailed 80 leagues, perhaps , through the Gulf of St Lawrence and into the St. Lawrence River. He took back to France seven natives, possibly Iroquoians, whom he had captured during his voyage.
Jacques Cartier was the first European definitively known to have come in contact with the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. In July 1534, during his first voyage to the Americas, Cartier met a group of more than 200 Iroquoians, men, women, and children, camped on the north shore of Gaspe Bay in the Gulf of St Lawrence. They had traveled in 40 canoes to Gaspé to fish for Atlantic mackerel which abounded in the area. They were more than from their home of Stadacona, on the site of present day Quebec City. The Stadaconians met the French "very familiarly" probably indicating previous trading contacts with Europeans.
In his follow-up expedition of 1535 and 1536, Cartier visited several Iroquoian villages north of Île d'Orléans (near present-day Quebec), including the villages of Stadacona and Hochelaga in the vicinity of modern-day Montreal. Archaeologists in the 20th century have unearthed similar villages further southwest, near the eastern end of Lake Ontario and are finding evidence of additional discrete groups of St. Lawrence Iroquoians.
At just about the period Jacques Cartier contacted them, Basque whalers started to frequent the area in yearly campaigns (peaking at around 1570–80), holding friendly commercial relations with Saint Lawrence Iroquoians and other natives. The Basques referred to them as Canaleses, probably derived from the Iroquoian word "kanata" which means settlement or village. Basques and American natives of the Labrador-Saint Lawrence area developed a simplified language for the mutual understanding, but it shows a strong Mi'kmaq imprint.
Demise
The archaeologist Anthony Wonderley found 500-year-old ceramic pipes in present-day Jefferson County, New York that were associated with the St. Lawrence Iroquoians and the tribes of the Haudenosaunee. Their use appear to have been related to diplomatic visits among the peoples, and he suggests they indicate a territory of interaction that may have preceded the Iroquois confederacy. Related design elements and long recounting in Iroquois oral histories have been significant.
By the time the explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived and founded Quebec in 1608, he found no trace of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians and settlements visited by Cartier some 75 years earlier. Historians and other scholars have developed several theories about their disappearance: devastating wars with the Iroquois tribes to the south or with the Hurons to the west, the impact of epidemics of Old World diseases, or their migration westward toward the shores of the Great Lakes. Innis guessed that the northern hunting Indians around Tadoussac traded furs for European weapons and used these to push the farming Indians south.
Archaeological evidence and the historical context of the time point most strongly to wars with the neighbouring Iroquois tribes, particularly the Mohawk. Located in eastern and central New York, they had the most to gain in war against the St. Lawrence Iroquians, as they had the least advantageous territorial position in the area in relation to hunting and the fur trade along the St. Lawrence River. French trading was then based at Tadoussac, downstream at the mouth of the Saguenay River, within the territory of the Innu. The Mohawk wanted to get more control of the St. Lawrence trade routes connecting to the Europeans. During this period, Champlain reported that the Algonquian peoples were fearful of the powerful Iroquois. The anthropologist Bruce G. Trigger believes the political dynamics were such that the Huron were unlikely to enter Iroquois territory to carry out an attack against the St. Lawrence people to the north. In the mid- to late-16th century, the St. Lawrence Valley was likely an area of open conflict among tribes closer to the river. Because nothing remained of their settlements, the St. Lawrence Iroquoians appeared to have been overwhelmed by other groups. Some St. Lawrence Iroquoian survivors may have joined the neighbouring Mohawk and Algonquin tribes, by force or by mutual agreement.
By the time Champlain arrived, the Algonquins and Mohawks were both using the Saint-Lawrence Valley for hunting grounds, as well as a route for war parties and raiding. Neither nation had any permanent settlements upriver above Tadoussac, the trading post in the lower St. Lawrence Valley which had been important for years in the fur trade.
Historical debates
Although historians and other scholars have been studying the St. Lawrence Iroquoians for some time, such knowledge has been slower to be part of common historical understanding. The hypothesis about the St. Lawrence Iroquoians helps explain apparent contradictions in the historical record about French encounters with natives in this area.
The origins of the word canada, from which the nation derived its name, offers an example of the changes in historical understanding required by new evidence. By canada, the St. Lawrence Iroquoians of Stadacona meant "village" in their language. Cartier wrote, "[I]lz (sic) appellent une ville Canada (they call a village 'Canada')". Cartier applied the word to both the region near Stadacona and the St. Lawrence River that flows nearby.
Both the Canadian Encyclopedia (1985) and various publications of the Government of Canada, such as "The Origin of the Name Canada" published by the Department of Canadian Heritage, suggest instead the former theory that the word "Canada" stems from a Huron-Iroquois word, kanata, that also meant "village" or settlement.
Historians now know that Cartier could not have encountered either the Iroquois or Huron, as neither group lived in the St. Lawrence valley in the 16th century. The account of Canada's name origin reflects theories first advanced in the 18th and 19th centuries. General texts have not kept up with the discrediting of such earlier theories by the linguistic comparative studies of the later 20th century. For instance, the "Huron-Iroquois theory" of word origin appeared in the article on "Canada" in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1996.
The earlier mystery of annedda also shows how historical understanding has been changed by recent research. When Cartier's crew suffered scurvy during their first winter in Canada, the St. Lawrence Iroquoians provided them with a remedy, an herbal infusion made of the annedda. The French recorded this as the St. Lawrence Iroquoian name of the white cedar of the region. Cartier noted the word in his journal. On a later expedition when Champlain asked for the same remedy, the natives he met did not know the word annedda. This fact confused many historians. Given new evidence, it appears that Champlain met Five Nations Iroquois who, although related, did not speak the same language dialects as the St. Lawrence Iroquoians—thus, they did not know the word annedda and its reference.
Archaeologists have not determined the exact location of Hochelaga. In the early 20th century historians debated this vigorously and the reasons for its disappearance, but changing interests in the field led in other directions. In the late 20th century, First Nations activism, as well as increased interest in history of indigenous peoples renewed attention to the early St. Lawrence Iroquoian villages.
Language
Linguistic studies indicate that the St. Lawrence Iroquoians probably spoke several distinct dialects of their language, often referred to as Laurentian. It is one of several languages of the Iroquoian language family, which includes Mohawk, Huron-Wyandot and Cherokee. Jacques Cartier made sparse records during his voyage in 1535-1536. He compiled two vocabulary lists totaling about 200 words. The St. Lawrence Iroquoians may have spoken two or more distinct languages in a territory stretching over 600 km, from Lake Ontario to east of Île d'Orléans.
Legacy and honours
Extensive archaeological work in Montreal has revealed the 1,000-year history of human habitation on the site. In 1992 a new museum, Pointe-à-Callière (Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History), opened here to preserve the archaeology and mark new understandings of the city and the St. Lawrence Iroquoians.
Major exhibits have displayed the increasing knowledge about the St. Lawrence Iroquoians:
1992, Wrapped in the Colours of the Earth: Cultural Heritage of the First Nations, McCord Museum, Montreal, Quebec
2006-2007, The Saint Lawrence Iroquoians: Corn People, Pointe à Callière, Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History, Montreal, Quebec. (The exhibition catalogue was published as a book under the same name.)
See also
Iroquois settlement of the north shore of Lake Ontario
Notes
References
Jacques Cartier. (1545). Relation originale de Jacques Cartier. Paris: Tross (1863 edition). (Vocabulary list on pages 46 to 48)
Pendergast, James F, and Bruce G. Trigger. Cartier's Hochelaga and the Dawson Site. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1972.
James F. Pendergast. (1998). "The Confusing Identities Attributed to Stadacona and Hochelaga", Journal of Canadian Studies, Volume 32, pp. 149–167.
Roland Tremblay. (1999). "Regards sur le passé: réflexions sur l'identité des habitants de la vallée du Saint-Laurent au XVIe siècle", Recherches amérindiennes au Québec, Volume 29, No.1, pp. 41–52.
Roland Tremblay. (2006). The Saint Lawrence Iroquoians: Corn People, Montréal, Qc, Les Éditions de l'Homme (Published in association with exhibit by same name, 2006-2007)
"Book Review: Roland Tremblay. (2006) The Saint Lawrence Iroquoians: Corn People", Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d’Archéologie, 2007.
Bruce G. Trigger and James F. Pendergast. (1978). "Saint Lawrence Iroquoians", in Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 357–361.
Bruce G. Trigger. (1976) "The Disappearance of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians", in The Children of Aataentsic: a History of the Huron People to 1660. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, pp. 214–228.
Juan Francisco Maura. “Nuevas aportaciones al estudio de la toponimia ibérica en la América Septentrional en el siglo XVI”. Bulletin of Spanish Studies 86. 5 (2009): 577-603.
Juan Francisco Maura. “Sobre el origen hispánico del nombre ‘Canadá’”. Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento) 20 (2016): 17-52. http://parnaseo.uv.es/Lemir/Revista/Revista20/02_Maura_Juan.pdf
External links
Virtual Museum of Canada, The St. Lawrence Iroquoians — a virtual exhibit on the people's culture
Further reading
Jamieson, J.B. "The Archaeology of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians." The Archaeology of Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, Occasional Publication of the London Chapter, OAS, No.5:385-404, 1990.
Junker-Andersen, Christen. Faunal Resource Exploitation Among the St. Lawrence Iroquoians: the Zooarchaeology of the Steward (BfFt-2) Site, Morrisburg, Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1984.
Examines the relationship between the Basques and the St. Lawrence Iroquoians.
Pendergast, James F., "The Significance of a Huron Archaeological Presence in Jefferson County, New York," a paper read at McMaster University, 20 February 1982, vide Trigger (1985) 351.
Pendergast, James F. "The St.Lawrence Iroquoians: Their Past, Present and Immediate Future," The Bulletin (Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association), 102:47-74, 1991.
Pendergast, James F., Claude Chapdelaine, and J. V. Wright. "Essays in St. Lawrence Iroquoian Archaeology", Occasional Papers in Northeastern Archaeology, no. 8. Dundas, Ontario: Copetown Press, 1993.
Trigger, Bruce G., Native and Newcomers: Canada's 'Heroic Age' Reconsidered, (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1985) 144-8, 351
Extinct Native American tribes
Iroquois
Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands
Native American history of New York (state)
First Nations history in Quebec
First Nations history in Ontario
Native American tribes in New York (state)
Saint Lawrence River |
5865593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Corinnidae%20species | List of Corinnidae species | This page lists all described genera and species of the spider family Corinnidae. , the World Spider Catalog accepts 872 species in 68 genera:
A
Abapeba
Abapeba Bonaldo, 2000
Abapeba abalosi (Mello-Leitão, 1942) — Paraguay, Argentina
Abapeba brevis (Taczanowski, 1874) — French Guiana
Abapeba cayana (Taczanowski, 1874) — French Guiana
Abapeba cleonei (Petrunkevitch, 1926) — St. Thomas
Abapeba echinus (Simon, 1896) — Brazil
Abapeba grassima (Chickering, 1972) — Panama
Abapeba guanicae (Petrunkevitch, 1930) — Puerto Rico
Abapeba hirta (Taczanowski, 1874) — French Guiana
Abapeba hoeferi Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Abapeba kochi (Petrunkevitch, 1911) — South America
Abapeba lacertosa (Simon, 1898) (type) — St. Vincent, Trinidad, northern South America
Abapeba luctuosa (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Abapeba lugubris (Schenkel, 1953) — Venezuela
Abapeba pennata (Caporiacco, 1947) — Guyana
Abapeba rioclaro Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Abapeba rufipes (Taczanowski, 1874) — French Guiana
Abapeba saga (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Abapeba sicarioides (Mello-Leitão, 1935) — Brazil
Abapeba taruma Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Abapeba wheeleri (Petrunkevitch, 1930) — Puerto Rico
Aetius
Aetius O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897
Aetius decollatus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897 (type) — India, Sri Lanka
Aetius nocturnus Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Thailand, Indonesia (Borneo)
Aetius tuberculatus (Haddad, 2013) — Ivory Coast
Allomedmassa
Allomedmassa Dankittipakul & Singtripop, 2014
Allomedmassa bifurca Jin, H. Zhang & F. Zhang, 2019 — China
Allomedmassa crassa Jin, H. Zhang & F. Zhang, 2019 — China
Allomedmassa deelemanae Dankittipakul & Singtripop, 2014 — Malaysia (Borneo)
Allomedmassa mae Dankittipakul & Singtripop, 2014 (type) — Thailand, China
Allomedmassa matertera Jin, H. Zhang & F. Zhang, 2019 — China
Apochinomma
Apochinomma Pavesi, 1881
Apochinomma acanthaspis Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Apochinomma armatum Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Apochinomma bilineatum Mello-Leitão, 1939 — Brazil
Apochinomma constrictum Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Apochinomma dacetonoides Mello-Leitão, 1948 — Guyana
Apochinomma decepta Haddad, 2013 — Mozambique, South Africa
Apochinomma dolosum Simon, 1897 — India
Apochinomma elongata Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania, Malawi, Botswana
Apochinomma formica Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Apochinomma formicaeforme Pavesi, 1881 (type) — West, Central, East, Southern Africa
Apochinomma formicoides Mello-Leitão, 1939 — Brazil
Apochinomma malkini Haddad, 2013 — Nigeria
Apochinomma myrmecioides Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Apochinomma nitidum (Thorell, 1895) — India, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia (Borneo, Sulawesi)
Apochinomma parva Haddad, 2013 — Guinea
Apochinomma pyriforme (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Arushina
Arushina Caporiacco, 1947
Arushina dentichelis Caporiacco, 1947 (type) — Tanzania
Attacobius
Attacobius Mello-Leitão, 1925
Attacobius attarum (Roewer, 1935) — Brazil
Attacobius blakei Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius carimbo Pereira-Filho, Saturnino & Bonaldo, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius carranca Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius demiguise Pereira-Filho, Saturnino & Bonaldo, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius kitae Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius lamellatus Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius lauricae Pereira-Filho, Saturnino & Bonaldo, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius lavape Bonaldo, Pesquero & Brescovit, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius luederwaldti (Mello-Leitão, 1923) (type) — Brazil
Attacobius nigripes (Mello-Leitão, 1942) — Argentina
Attacobius thalitae Pereira-Filho, Saturnino & Bonaldo, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius tremembe Pereira-Filho, Saturnino & Bonaldo, 2018 — Brazil
Attacobius tucurui Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius uiriri Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2005 — Brazil
Attacobius verhaaghi Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1998 — Brazil
Austrophaea
Austrophaea Lawrence, 1952
Austrophaea zebra Lawrence, 1952 (type) — South Africa
B
Battalus
Battalus Karsch, 1878
Battalus adamparsonsi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria)
Battalus baehrae Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia)
Battalus bidgemia Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia, Queensland)
Battalus boolathana Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Battalus byrneae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Tasmania)
Battalus diadens Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria)
Battalus helenstarkae Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia)
Battalus microspinosus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia, South Australia)
Battalus rugosus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia, South Australia)
Battalus semiflavus (Simon, 1896) — Australia (Queensland)
Battalus spinipes Karsch, 1878 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Battalus wallum Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Battalus zuytdorp Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Brachyphaea
Brachyphaea Simon, 1895
Brachyphaea berlandi Lessert, 1915 — East Africa
Brachyphaea castanea Simon, 1896 — Tanzania (Zanzibar)
Brachyphaea hulli Lessert, 1921 — East Africa
Brachyphaea proxima Lessert, 1921 — East Africa
Brachyphaea simoni Simon, 1895 (type) — East Africa
Brachyphaea simpliciaculeata Caporiacco, 1949 — Kenya
Brachyphaea vulpina Simon, 1896 — Mozambique
C
Cambalida
Cambalida Simon, 1910
Cambalida compressa Haddad, 2012 — West Africa
Cambalida coriacea Simon, 1910 — West, Central Africa
Cambalida deminuta (Simon, 1910) — West, Central Africa
Cambalida deorsa Murthappa, Prajapati, Sankaran & Sebastian, 2016 — India
Cambalida dhupgadensis Bodkhe, Uniyal & Kamble, 2016 — India
Cambalida dippenaarae Haddad, 2012 — Southern Africa
Cambalida fagei (Caporiacco, 1939) — Ethiopia
Cambalida flavipes (Gravely, 1931) — India
Cambalida fulvipes (Simon, 1896) — Africa
Cambalida griswoldi Haddad, 2012 — Madagascar
Cambalida lineata Haddad, 2012 — Madagascar
Cambalida loricifera (Simon, 1886) — Senegal
Cambalida tuma Murthappa, Prajapati, Sankaran & Sebastian, 2016 — India
Cambalida unica Haddad, 2012 — Cameroon
Castianeira
Castianeira Keyserling, 1879
Castianeira abuelita Reiskind, 1969 — Panama
Castianeira adhartali Gajbe, 2003 — India
Castianeira alata Muma, 1945 — USA
Castianeira alba Reiskind, 1969 — Costa Rica, Panama
Castianeira albivulvae Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Castianeira albomaculata Berland, 1922 — Kenya
Castianeira albopicta Gravely, 1931 — India
Castianeira alfa Reiskind, 1969 — USA
Castianeira alteranda Gertsch, 1942 — USA, Canada
Castianeira amiantis Butt & Beg, 2001 — Pakistan
Castianeira amoena (C. L. Koch, 1841) — USA, Mexico
Castianeira antinorii (Pavesi, 1880) — Algeria, Tunisia, Sudan, Egypt
Castianeira arcistriata Yin, Xie, Gong & Kim, 1996 — China
Castianeira argentina Mello-Leitão, 1942 — Argentina
Castianeira arnoldii Charitonov, 1946 — Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Castianeira athena Reiskind, 1969 — USA, Mexico
Castianeira atypica Mello-Leitão, 1929 — Brazil
Castianeira azteca Reiskind, 1969 — Mexico
Castianeira badia (Simon, 1877) — Portugal, Spain
Castianeira bartholini Simon, 1901 — East Africa
Castianeira bengalensis Biswas, 1984 — India
Castianeira bicolor (Simon, 1890) — East Africa
Castianeira brevis Keyserling, 1891 — Brazil
Castianeira brunellii Caporiacco, 1940 — Ethiopia
Castianeira buelowae Mello-Leitão, 1946 — Paraguay
Castianeira carvalhoi Mello-Leitão, 1947 — Brazil
Castianeira cecchii (Pavesi, 1883) — Ethiopia, East Africa
Castianeira chrysura Mello-Leitão, 1943 — Brazil
Castianeira cincta (Banks, 1929) — Panama
Castianeira cingulata (C. L. Koch, 1841) — USA, Canada
Castianeira claveroensis Mello-Leitão, 1943 — Argentina
Castianeira coquito Rubio, Zapata & Grismado, 2015 — Argentina
Castianeira crocata (Hentz, 1847) — USA
Castianeira crucigera (Hentz, 1847) — USA
Castianeira cubana (Banks, 1926) — USA, Cuba, Panama
Castianeira cyclindracea Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Castianeira daoxianensis Yin, Xie, Gong & Kim, 1996 — China
Castianeira delicatula Simon, 1910 — Sierra Leone
Castianeira dentata Chickering, 1937 — Panama
Castianeira descripta (Hentz, 1847) — USA, Canada
Castianeira dorsata (Banks, 1898) — USA, Mexico
Castianeira drassodidoides Strand, 1915 — Israel
Castianeira dubia (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898) — Mexico to Panama
Castianeira dubia Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Castianeira dugesi (Becker, 1879) — Mexico
Castianeira flavimaculata Hu, Song & Zheng, 1985 — China
Castianeira flavipatellata Yin, Xie, Gong & Kim, 1996 — China
Castianeira flebilis O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898 — Mexico
Castianeira floridana (Banks, 1904) — USA, Cuba
Castianeira formosula Simon, 1910 — Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Castianeira furva Sankaran, Malamel, Joseph & Sebastian, 2015 — India
Castianeira fusconigra Berland, 1922 — Kenya
Castianeira gaucha Mello-Leitão, 1943 — Brazil
Castianeira gertschi Kaston, 1945 — USA, Canada
Castianeira guapa Reiskind, 1969 — Panama
Castianeira himalayensis Gravely, 1931 — India
Castianeira hongkong Song, Zhu & Wu, 1997 — China
Castianeira indica Tikader, 1981 — India
Castianeira inquinata (Thorell, 1890) — Indonesia (Sumatra)
Castianeira insulicola Strand, 1916 — East Africa
Castianeira isophthalma Mello-Leitão, 1930 — Brazil
Castianeira lachrymosa (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898) — Mexico
Castianeira leptopoda Mello-Leitão, 1929 — Brazil
Castianeira littoralis Mello-Leitão, 1926 — Brazil
Castianeira longipalpa (Hentz, 1847) — USA, Canada
Castianeira luctifera Petrunkevitch, 1911 — USA
Castianeira luctuosa O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898 — Mexico
Castianeira luteipes Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Castianeira maculata Keyserling, 1891 — Brazil
Castianeira majungae Simon, 1896 — Madagascar
Castianeira memnonia (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Panama
Castianeira mexicana (Banks, 1898) — USA, Mexico
Castianeira micaria (Simon, 1886) — Senegal
Castianeira minensis Mello-Leitão, 1926 — Brazil
Castianeira munieri (Simon, 1877) — Morocco, Algeria
Castianeira nanella Gertsch, 1933 — USA, Mexico
Castianeira obscura Keyserling, 1891 — Brazil
Castianeira occidens Reiskind, 1969 — USA, Mexico
Castianeira onerosa (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Castianeira patellaris Mello-Leitão, 1943 — Brazil
Castianeira peregrina (Gertsch, 1935) — USA
Castianeira phaeochroa Simon, 1910 — Guinea-Bissau
Castianeira pictipes Mello-Leitão, 1942 — Argentina
Castianeira plorans (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898) — Mexico
Castianeira polyacantha Mello-Leitão, 1929 — Brazil
Castianeira pugnax Mello-Leitão, 1948 — Guyana
Castianeira pulcherrima (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1874) — Andes
Castianeira quadrimaculata Reimoser, 1934 — India
Castianeira quadritaeniata (Simon, 1905) — Indonesia (Java), Philippines
Castianeira quechua Chamberlin, 1916 — Peru
Castianeira rica Reiskind, 1969 — Mexico to Costa Rica
Castianeira rothi Reiskind, 1969 — USA
Castianeira rubicunda Keyserling, 1879 (type) — Colombia
Castianeira rugosa Denis, 1958 — Afghanistan
Castianeira russellsmithi Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Indonesia (Sulawesi)
Castianeira rutilans Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Castianeira salticina (Taczanowski, 1874) — French Guiana
Castianeira scutata Schmidt, 1971 — Brazil
Castianeira setosa Mello-Leitão, 1947 — Brazil
Castianeira sexmaculata Mello-Leitão, 1926 — Brazil
Castianeira shaxianensis Gong, 1983 — China, Korea, Japan
Castianeira similis (Banks, 1929) — Mexico to Panama
Castianeira soyauxi (Karsch, 1879) — Congo
Castianeira spinipalpis Mello-Leitão, 1945 — Argentina
Castianeira stylifera Kraus, 1955 — El Salvador
Castianeira tenuiformis Simon, 1896 — Bolivia, Paraguay
Castianeira tenuis Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Castianeira teres Simon, 1897 — Paraguay
Castianeira thalia Reiskind, 1969 — USA
Castianeira thomensis Simon, 1910 — São Tomé and Príncipe
Castianeira tinae Patel & Patel, 1973 — India, China
Castianeira trifasciata Yin, Xie, Gong & Kim, 1996 — China
Castianeira trilineata (Hentz, 1847) — USA, Canada
Castianeira trimac Reiskind, 1969 — Panama
Castianeira truncata Kraus, 1955 — El Salvador
Castianeira valida Keyserling, 1891 — Brazil
Castianeira variata Gertsch, 1942 — USA, Canada
Castianeira venusta (Banks, 1898) — Mexico, Guatemala
Castianeira venustula (Pavesi, 1895) — Ethiopia
Castianeira virgulifera Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Castianeira vittatula Roewer, 1951 — Brazil
Castianeira vulnerea Gertsch, 1942 — USA
Castianeira walsinghami (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1874) — USA, Canada
Castianeira xanthomela Mello-Leitão, 1941 — Argentina
Castianeira zembla Reiskind, 1969 — Mexico
Castianeira zetes Simon, 1897 — Pakistan, India, Bangladesh
Castianeira zionis (Chamberlin & Woodbury, 1929) — USA
Castoponera
Castoponera Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Castoponera christae Yamasaki, 2016 — Borneo
Castoponera ciliata (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993) (type) — Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra)
Castoponera lecythus Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Borneo
Castoponera scotopoda (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993) — Borneo
Coenoptychus
Coenoptychus Simon, 1885
Coenoptychus mutillicus (Haddad, 2004) — Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Tanzania, South Africa
Coenoptychus pulcher Simon, 1885 (type) — India, Sri Lanka
Coenoptychus tropicalis (Haddad, 2004) — Ivory Coast, DR Congo, Tanzania, South Africa
Copa
Copa Simon, 1886
Copa annulata Simon, 1896 — Sri Lanka
Copa auroplumosa Strand, 1907 — Madagascar
Copa flavoplumosa Simon, 1886 (type) — West, Central, East, South Africa
Copa kabana Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Copa kei Haddad, 2013 — South Africa
Copa lineata Simon, 1903 — Madagascar
Copa spinosa Simon, 1896 — Sri Lanka
Copuetta
Copuetta Haddad, 2013
Copuetta comorica Haddad, 2013 — Comoros
Copuetta erecta Haddad, 2013 — Mozambique, South Africa
Copuetta kakamega Haddad, 2013 — Kenya
Copuetta kwamgumi Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania
Copuetta lacustris (Strand, 1916) — Central, East, Southern Africa
Copuetta lesnei Haddad, 2013 — Mozambique
Copuetta litipo Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania
Copuetta lotzi Haddad, 2013 — South Africa
Copuetta magna Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa
Copuetta maputa Haddad, 2013 (type) — Mozambique, South Africa
Copuetta naja Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania
Copuetta uzungwa Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania
Copuetta wagneri Haddad, 2013 — Uganda
Corinna
Corinna C. L. Koch, 1841
Corinna aberrans Franganillo, 1926 — Cuba
Corinna aechmea Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna aenea Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Corinna alticeps (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Corinna andina (Simon, 1898) — Ecuador
Corinna annulipes (Taczanowski, 1874) — Brazil, French Guiana, Peru
Corinna anomala Schmidt, 1971 — Ecuador
Corinna areolata Thorell, 1899 — Cameroon
Corinna balacobaco Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna bicincta Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Corinna bonneti Caporiacco, 1947 — Guyana
Corinna botucatensis (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Corinna bristoweana Mello-Leitão, 1926 — Brazil
Corinna brunneipeltula Strand, 1911 — New Guinea
Corinna buccosa Simon, 1896 — Brazil (Amazonas)
Corinna bulbosa F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899 — Mexico to Panama
Corinna bulbula F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899 — Panama
Corinna caatinga Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna capito (Lucas, 1857) — Brazil
Corinna chickeringi (Caporiacco, 1955) — Venezuela
Corinna colombo Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil, Argentina
Corinna corvina Simon, 1896 — Paraguay
Corinna cribrata (Simon, 1886) — Tanzania (Zanzibar)
Corinna cruenta (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil
Corinna demersa Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna ducke Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Corinna eresiformis Simon, 1896 — Brazil (Amazonas)
Corinna escalvada Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna ferox Simon, 1896 — Brazil, Peru
Corinna galeata Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Corinna granadensis (L. Koch, 1866) — Colombia
Corinna grandis (Simon, 1898) — Brazil, Guyana
Corinna haemorrhoa (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil
Corinna hyalina Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna ignota Mello-Leitão, 1922 — Brazil
Corinna inermis (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil
Corinna javuyae Petrunkevitch, 1930 — Puerto Rico
Corinna jecatatu Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna kochi (Simon, 1898) — Colombia
Corinna kuryi Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna loiolai Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna longitarsis Strand, 1906 — São Tomé and Príncipe
Corinna loricata (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina
Corinna macra (L. Koch, 1866) — Colombia
Corinna major Berland, 1922 — Kenya
Corinna mandibulata Strand, 1906 — Ethiopia
Corinna maracas Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna mexicana (Banks, 1898) — Mexico
Corinna modesta Banks, 1909 — Costa Rica
Corinna mourai Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Corinna napaea Simon, 1898 — St. Vincent
Corinna nitens (Keyserling, 1891) — Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina
Corinna nossibeensis Strand, 1907 — Madagascar
Corinna octodentata Franganillo, 1946 — Cuba
Corinna olivacea Strand, 1906 — Ethiopia
Corinna parva (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Corinna parvula Bryant, 1940 — Cuba, Hispaniola
Corinna peninsulana Banks, 1898 — Mexico
Corinna perida Chickering, 1972 — Panama
Corinna phalerata Simon, 1896 — Brazil
Corinna pictipes Banks, 1909 — Costa Rica
Corinna plumipes (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil
Corinna propera (Dyal, 1935) — Pakistan
Corinna pulchella (Bryant, 1948) — Dominican Rep.
Corinna punicea Simon, 1898 — St. Vincent
Corinna recurva Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Corinna regii Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna rubripes C. L. Koch, 1841 (type) — Brazil, Guyana
Corinna sanguinea Strand, 1906 — Ethiopia
Corinna sanguinea inquirenda Strand, 1906 — Ethiopia
Corinna selysi (Bertkau, 1880) — Brazil
Corinna spinifera (Keyserling, 1887) — Nicaragua
Corinna tatei Gertsch, 1942 — Venezuela
Corinna telecoteco Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna testacea (Banks, 1898) — Mexico
Corinna toussainti Bryant, 1948 — Hispaniola
Corinna tranquilla Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna travassosi Mello-Leitão, 1939 — Brazil
Corinna urbanae Soares & Camargo, 1948 — Brazil
Corinna variegata F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899 — Guatemala, Guyana
Corinna venezuelica (Caporiacco, 1955) — Venezuela
Corinna vesperata Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna vilanovae Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna zecarioca Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinna ziriguidum Rodrigues & Bonaldo, 2014 — Brazil
Corinnomma
Corinnomma Karsch, 1880
Corinnomma afghanicum Roewer, 1962 — Afghanistan
Corinnomma albobarbatum Simon, 1898 — St. Vincent
Corinnomma comulatum Thorell, 1891 — India (Nicobar Is.)
Corinnomma javanum Simon, 1905 — Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia (Java, Borneo)
Corinnomma lawrencei Haddad, 2006 — Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa
Corinnomma moerens Thorell, 1890 — Indonesia (Sumatra)
Corinnomma olivaceum Simon, 1896 — Ethiopia
Corinnomma plumosa (Thorell, 1881) — Indonesia (Moluccas)
Corinnomma rapax Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993 — Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo)
Corinnomma rufofuscum Reimoser, 1934 — India
Corinnomma semiglabrum (Simon, 1896) — Zimbabwe, South Africa, Swaziland
Corinnomma severum (Thorell, 1877) (type) — India to China, Philippines, Indonesia (Sumatra, Sulawesi)
Corinnomma thorelli Simon, 1905 — Indonesia (Java)
Corinnomma yulinguana Barrion, Barrion-Dupo & Heong, 2013 — China
Creugas
Creugas Thorell, 1878
Creugas annamae (Gertsch & Davis, 1940) — Mexico
Creugas apophysarius (Caporiacco, 1947) — Guyana
Creugas bajulus (Gertsch, 1942) — Mexico
Creugas bellator (L. Koch, 1866) — Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador
Creugas berlandi Bonaldo, 2000 — Ecuador
Creugas bicuspis (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Creugas cinnamius Simon, 1888 — Mexico
Creugas comondensis Jiménez, 2007 — Mexico
Creugas epicureanus (Chamberlin, 1924) — Mexico
Creugas falculus (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Creugas guaycura Jiménez, 2008 — Mexico
Creugas gulosus Thorell, 1878 (type) — Southern America. Introduced to Africa, Myanmar, Australia, Pacific islands
Creugas lisei Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina
Creugas mucronatus (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Costa Rica, Panama
Creugas navus (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Creugas nigricans (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Mexico, Colombia
Creugas plumatus (L. Koch, 1866) — Colombia
Creugas praeceps (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Creugas silvaticus (Chickering, 1937) — Panama
Creugas uncatus (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico
Crinopseudoa
Crinopseudoa Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011
Crinopseudoa billeni Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Crinopseudoa bong Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 (type) — Liberia
Crinopseudoa bongella Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Liberia
Crinopseudoa caligula Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Liberia
Crinopseudoa catharinae Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea, Liberia
Crinopseudoa ephialtes Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Crinopseudoa flomoi Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Liberia
Crinopseudoa leiothorax Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Crinopseudoa otus Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Crinopseudoa paucigranulata Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Crinopseudoa titan Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea
Cycais
Cycais Thorell, 1877
Cycais cylindrata Thorell, 1877 (type) — Indonesia (Sulawesi)
Cycais gracilis Karsch, 1879 — Japan
D
Disnyssus
Disnyssus Raven, 2015
Disnyssus helenmirrenae Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Disnyssus judidenchae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
E
Echinax
Echinax Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Echinax anlongensis Yang, Song & Zhu, 2004 — China
Echinax bosmansi (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1995) — Indonesia (Sulawesi)
Echinax clara Haddad, 2012 — Ghana, Congo
Echinax hesperis Haddad, 2012 — Ivory Coast
Echinax javana (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1995) — Indonesia (Java)
Echinax longespina (Simon, 1910) — West, Central, East Africa
Echinax natalensis Haddad, 2012 — South Africa
Echinax oxyopoides (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1995) (type) — China, Indonesia (Sumatra), Borneo
Echinax panache Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — China, India, Thailand
Echinax scharffi Haddad, 2012 — Tanzania
Echinax similis Haddad, 2012 — South Africa
Echinax spatulata Haddad, 2012 — West, Central, East Africa
Ecitocobius
Ecitocobius Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1998
Ecitocobius comissator Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1998 (type) — Brazil
Erendira
Erendira Bonaldo, 2000
Erendira atrox (Caporiacco, 1955) — Venezuela
Erendira luteomaculata (Petrunkevitch, 1925) — Panama
Erendira pallidoguttata (Simon, 1898) (type) — Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles
Erendira pictithorax (Caporiacco, 1955) — Venezuela
Erendira subsignata (Simon, 1898) — St. Vincent
F
Falconina
Falconina Brignoli, 1985
Falconina albomaculosa (Schmidt, 1971) — Ecuador
Falconina crassipalpis (Chickering, 1937) — Panama, Cuba
Falconina gracilis (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina. Introduced to USA
Falconina melloi (Schenkel, 1953) (type) — Colombia, Venezuela
G
Graptartia
Graptartia Simon, 1896
Graptartia granulosa Simon, 1896 (type) — Central, East, Southern Africa
Graptartia scabra (Simon, 1878) — Morocco, Algeria
H
Hortipes
Hortipes Bosselaers & Ledoux, 1998
Hortipes abucoletus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes aelurisiepae Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes alderweireldti Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Equatorial Guinea
Hortipes amphibolus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes anansiodatus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes angariopsis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes arboricola Ledoux & Emerit, 1998 — Gabon
Hortipes architelones Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes atalante Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes auriga Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes aurora Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes baerti Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Ivory Coast
Hortipes bjorni Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes bosmansi Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes calliblepharus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes castor Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes centralis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes chrysothemis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes coccinatus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes contubernalis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes creber Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes cucurbita Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes delphinus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes depravator Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes echo Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes exoptans Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes falcatus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo, Rwanda, Uganda
Hortipes fastigiensis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes fortipes Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Equatorial Guinea
Hortipes gigapophysalis Jocqué, Bosselaers & Henrard, 2012 — Guinea
Hortipes griswoldi Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes hastatus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo, Uganda
Hortipes hesperoecius Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Sierra Leone
Hortipes hormigricola Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes horta Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes hyakutake Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes irimus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes klumpkeae Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes lejeunei Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo, Rwanda
Hortipes leno Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes libidinosus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes licnophorus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes limicola Ledoux & Emerit, 1998 — Gabon
Hortipes luytenae Bosselaers & Ledoux, 1998 (type) — South Africa
Hortipes machaeropolion Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Nigeria
Hortipes marginatus Ledoux & Emerit, 1998 — Ivory Coast
Hortipes merwei Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes mesembrinus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes mulciber Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes narcissus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes orchatocnemis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Malawi
Hortipes oronesiotes Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Malawi
Hortipes ostiovolutus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes paludigena Ledoux & Emerit, 1998 — Gabon
Hortipes penthesileia Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Malawi
Hortipes platnicki Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes pollux Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Malawi
Hortipes puylaerti Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes robertus Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes rothorum Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes salticola Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes sceptrum Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Cameroon
Hortipes scharffi Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes schoemanae Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes silvarum Ledoux & Emerit, 1998 — Ivory Coast
Hortipes stoltzei Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Tanzania
Hortipes tarachodes Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes terminator Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Congo
Hortipes wimmertensi Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — South Africa
Hortipes zombaensis Bosselaers & Jocqué, 2000 — Malawi
Humua
Humua Ono, 1987
Humua takeuchii Ono, 1987 (type) — Japan (Ryukyu Is.)
I
Ianduba
Ianduba Bonaldo, 1997
Ianduba abara Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2007 — Brazil
Ianduba acaraje Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba angeloi Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba apururuca Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba beaga Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba benjori Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba capixaba Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba caxixe Bonaldo, 1997 — Brazil
Ianduba dabadu Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba liberta Magalhaes, Fernandes, Ramírez & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Ianduba mugunza Bonaldo & Brescovit, 2007 — Brazil
Ianduba patua Bonaldo, 1997 — Brazil
Ianduba paubrasil Bonaldo, 1997 — Brazil
Ianduba varia (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil, Argentina
Ianduba vatapa Bonaldo, 1997 (type) — Brazil
Iridonyssus
Iridonyssus Raven, 2015
Iridonyssus auripilosus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Iridonyssus formicans Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland to Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia)
Iridonyssus kohouti Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Iridonyssus leucostaurus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
K
Kolora
Kolora Raven, 2015
Kolora cooloola Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Kolora cushingae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Kolora lynneae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Kolora suaverubens (Simon, 1896) — Australia (Queensland)
L
Leichhardteus
Leichhardteus Raven & Baehr, 2013
Leichhardteus albofasciatus Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Leichhardteus badius Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland)
Leichhardteus bimaculatus Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland)
Leichhardteus conopalpis Baehr & Raven, 2013 (type) — Eastern Australia
Leichhardteus evschlingeri Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Leichhardteus garretti Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland)
Leichhardteus kroombit Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Leichhardteus reinhardi Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland)
Leichhardteus strzelecki Raven, 2015 — Australia (Victoria)
Leichhardteus terriirwinae Baehr & Raven, 2013 — Australia (Queensland)
Leichhardteus yagan Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Leptopicia
Leptopicia Raven, 2015
Leptopicia bimaculata (Simon, 1896) (type) — Australia (Queensland)
M
Mandaneta
Mandaneta Strand, 1932
Mandaneta sudana (Karsch, 1880) (type) — Ghana, Congo
Mazax
Mazax O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898
Mazax ajax Reiskind, 1969 — Mexico
Mazax chickeringi Reiskind, 1969 — Jamaica
Mazax kaspari Cokendolpher, 1978 — USA
Mazax pax Reiskind, 1969 (type) — USA to Panama
Mazax ramirezi Rubio & Danişman, 2014 — Argentina
Mazax spinosa (Simon, 1898) — Central America, Lesser Antilles
Mazax xerxes Reiskind, 1969 — Costa Rica
Medmassa
Medmassa Simon, 1887
Medmassa celebensis (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1995) — Indonesia (Sulawesi)
Medmassa christae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Medmassa diplogale Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Borneo
Medmassa frenata (Simon, 1877) (type) — Philippines
Medmassa insignis (Thorell, 1890) — Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo)
Medmassa kltina (Barrion & Litsinger, 1995) — Philippines
Medmassa pulchra (Thorell, 1881) — New Guinea
Medmassa semiaurantiaca Simon, 1910 — Africa
Medmassa tigris (Deeleman-Reinhold, 1995) — Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo)
Medmassa torta Jin, H. Zhang & F. Zhang, 2019 — China (Hainan)
Megalostrata
Megalostrata Karsch, 1880
Megalostrata bruneri (Bryant, 1936) — Cuba
Megalostrata depicta (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1895) — Mexico
Megalostrata monistica (Chamberlin, 1924) — Mexico
Megalostrata raptor (L. Koch, 1866) (type) — Mexico to Panama
Melanesotypus
Melanesotypus Raven, 2015
Melanesotypus guadal Raven, 2015 (type) — Solomon Is.
Merenius
Merenius Simon, 1910
Merenius alberti Lessert, 1923 — Southern Africa
Merenius concolor Caporiacco, 1947 — Tanzania
Merenius myrmex Simon, 1910 — Guinea-Bissau
Merenius plumosus Simon, 1910 (type) — Guinea-Bissau
Merenius proximus Lessert, 1929 — Congo
Merenius proximus quadrimaculatus Lessert, 1946 — Congo
Merenius recurvatus (Strand, 1906) — Ethiopia, East Africa
Merenius secundus (Strand, 1907) — Tanzania
Merenius simoni Lessert, 1921 — Congo, East Africa
Merenius solitarius Lessert, 1946 — Congo
Merenius tenuiculus Simon, 1910 — Sierra Leone
Merenius yemenensis Denis, 1953 — Yemen
Messapus
Messapus Simon, 1898
Messapus martini Simon, 1898 (type) — Zambia, South Africa
Messapus megae Haddad & Mbo, 2015 — Zimbabwe
Messapus meridionalis Haddad & Mbo, 2015 — South Africa
Messapus natalis (Pocock, 1898) — Mozambique, South Africa
Messapus seiugatus Haddad & Mbo, 2015 — Guinea
Messapus tigris Haddad & Mbo, 2015 — Botswana, Namibia
Messapus tropicus Haddad & Mbo, 2015 — Congo
Methesis
Methesis Simon, 1896
Methesis brevitarsa Caporiacco, 1954 — French Guiana
Methesis semirufa Simon, 1896 (type) — Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
Myrmecium
Myrmecium Latreille, 1824
Myrmecium amphora Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Venezuela
Myrmecium bifasciatum Taczanowski, 1874 — Bolivia, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil
Myrmecium bolivari Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Venezuela, Colombia
Myrmecium bonaerense Holmberg, 1881 — Argentina
Myrmecium camponotoides Mello-Leitão, 1932 — Brazil
Myrmecium carajas Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium carvalhoi Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium catuxy Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Colombia, Brazil
Myrmecium chikish Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Peru
Myrmecium cizauskasi Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium dacetoniforme Mello-Leitão, 1932 — Brazil
Myrmecium deladanta Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Ecuador
Myrmecium diasi Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium erici Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Guyana
Myrmecium ferro Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium fuscum Dahl, 1907 — Peru, Bolivia, Brazil
Myrmecium indicattii Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium latreillei (Lucas, 1857) — Brazil
Myrmecium lomanhungae Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium luepa Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Venezuela
Myrmecium machetero Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Bolivia, Peru
Myrmecium malleum Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Venezuela, Colombia
Myrmecium monacanthum Simon, 1897 — Colombia
Myrmecium nogueirai Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Peru, Brazil
Myrmecium oliveirai Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium oompaloompa Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil, Guyana
Myrmecium otti Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Peru, Brazil
Myrmecium pakpaka Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Peru
Myrmecium raveni Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium reticulatum Dahl, 1907 — Peru
Myrmecium ricettii Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Colombia, Brazil
Myrmecium rufum Latreille, 1824 (type) — Brazil
Myrmecium souzai Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium tanguro Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium tikuna Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium trifasciatum Caporiacco, 1947 — Guyana, Brazil
Myrmecium urucu Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Brazil
Myrmecium viehmeyeri Dahl, 1907 — Peru, Bolivia, Brazil
Myrmecium yamamotoi Candiani & Bonaldo, 2017 — Suriname, Brazil
Myrmecotypus
Myrmecotypus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894
Myrmecotypus fuliginosus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894 (type) — Mexico
Myrmecotypus iguazu Rubio & Arbino, 2009 — Argentina
Myrmecotypus jasmineae Leister & Miller, 2014 — Nicaragua
Myrmecotypus lineatipes Chickering, 1937 — Panama
Myrmecotypus lineatus (Emerton, 1909) — USA
Myrmecotypus niger Chickering, 1937 — Panama
Myrmecotypus olympus Reiskind, 1969 — Panama
Myrmecotypus orpheus Reiskind, 1969 — Panama
Myrmecotypus pilosus (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898) — Mexico to Panama
Myrmecotypus rettenmeyeri Unzicker, 1965 — Panama
N
Nucastia
Nucastia Raven, 2015
Nucastia culburra Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia)
Nucastia eneabba Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Nucastia muncoonie Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nucastia supunnoides Raven, 2015 — Australia (Victoria)
Nucastia virewoods Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia (Victoria)
Nyssus
Nyssus Walckenaer, 1805
Nyssus albopunctatus (Hogg, 1896) — Australia (Northern Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania), New Zealand
Nyssus avidus (Thorell, 1881) — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus coloripes Walckenaer, 1805 (type) — Australia (mainland, Tasmania). Introduced to New Zealand
Nyssus emu Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus insularis (L. Koch, 1873) — Fiji, Solomon Is.
Nyssus jaredwardeni Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus jonraveni Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia, Queensland)
Nyssus loureedi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Lord Howe Is.)
Nyssus luteofinis Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus paradoxus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus pseudomaculatus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Nyssus robertsi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus semifuscus Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus wendyae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Nyssus yuggera Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
O
Olbus
Olbus Simon, 1880
Olbus eryngiophilus Ramírez, Lopardo & Bonaldo, 2001 — Chile
Olbus jaguar Ramírez, Lopardo & Bonaldo, 2001 — Chile
Olbus krypto Ramírez, Lopardo & Bonaldo, 2001 — Chile
Olbus nahuelbuta Ramírez, Lopardo & Bonaldo, 2001 — Chile
Olbus sparassoides (Nicolet, 1849) (type) — Chile
Ozcopa
Ozcopa Raven, 2015
Ozcopa chiunei Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ozcopa colloffi Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Ozcopa margotandersenae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ozcopa mcdonaldi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ozcopa monteithi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ozcopa zborowskii Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
P
Parachemmis
Parachemmis Chickering, 1937
Parachemmis fuscus Chickering, 1937 (type) — Panama
Parachemmis hassleri (Gertsch, 1942) — Guyana
Parachemmis julioblancoi Martinez-G & Villarreal, 2017 — Colombia
Parachemmis manauara Bonaldo, 2000 — Brazil
Paradiestus
Paradiestus Mello-Leitão, 1915
Paradiestus aurantiacus Mello-Leitão, 1915 (type) — Brazil
Paradiestus egregius (Simon, 1896) — Brazil
Paradiestus giganteus (Karsch, 1880) — Brazil
Paradiestus penicillatus (Mello-Leitão, 1939) — Brazil
Paradiestus vitiosus (Keyserling, 1891) — Brazil
Paramedmassa
Paramedmassa Jin, H. Zhang & F. Zhang, 2019
Paramedmassa day (Dankittipakul & Singtripop, 2014) (type) — Thailand, Laos, China
Poecilipta
Poecilipta Simon, 1897
Poecilipta carnarvon Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta contorqua Raven, 2015 — Australia (New South Wales)
Poecilipta davidi Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia)
Poecilipta elvis Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta formiciforme (Rainbow, 1904) — Australia (New South Wales)
Poecilipta gloverae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta harveyi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta janthina Simon, 1896 (type) — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta jilbadji Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta kgari Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta kohouti Raven, 2015 — Australia (Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales)
Poecilipta lugubris Raven, 2015 — Australia (New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory)
Poecilipta mandjelia Raven, 2015 — New Caledonia
Poecilipta marengo Raven, 2015 — Australia (New South Wales)
Poecilipta metallica Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta micaelae Raven, 2015 — Australia (New South Wales)
Poecilipta qunats Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta rawlinsonae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta ruthae Santana & Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta samueli Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Poecilipta smaragdinea (Simon, 1909) — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta tinda Raven, 2015 — Australia (South Australia)
Poecilipta venusta Rainbow, 1904 — Australia (Queensland to Victoria, South Australia)
Poecilipta waldockae Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Poecilipta wallacei Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia to Queensland)
Poecilipta yambuna Raven, 2015 — Australia (Victoria)
Poecilipta zbigniewi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Tasmania)
Pranburia
Pranburia Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993
Pranburia mahannopi Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993 (type) — Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia
Procopius
Procopius Thorell, 1899
Procopius aeneolus Simon, 1903 — Equatorial Guinea
Procopius aethiops Thorell, 1899 (type) — Cameroon
Procopius affinis Lessert, 1946 — Congo
Procopius ensifer Simon, 1910 — West Africa, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Procopius gentilis Simon, 1910 — West Africa
Procopius granulosus Simon, 1903 — Equatorial Guinea (Bioko, Mbini), Cameroon
Procopius granulosus helluo Simon, 1910 — Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Procopius laticeps Simon, 1910 — Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Procopius lesserti (Strand, 1916) — Congo, Rwanda
Procopius luteifemur Schmidt, 1956 — Cameroon
Procopius vittatus Thorell, 1899 — Cameroon
Pronophaea
Pronophaea Simon, 1897
Pronophaea natalica Simon, 1897 (type) — South Africa
Pronophaea proxima (Lessert, 1923) — South Africa
Pronophaea vidua (Lessert, 1923) — South Africa
Psellocoptus
Psellocoptus Simon, 1896
Psellocoptus buchlii Reiskind, 1971 — Venezuela
Psellocoptus flavostriatus Simon, 1896 (type) — Venezuela
Psellocoptus prodontus Reiskind, 1971 — Venezuela
Pseudocorinna
Pseudocorinna Simon, 1910
Pseudocorinna alligator Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna amicorum Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
Pseudocorinna amphibia Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna banco Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea, Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna bilobata Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Togo
Pseudocorinna brianeno Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna celisi Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna christae Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna cymarum Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Ghana
Pseudocorinna doutreleponti Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
Pseudocorinna eruca Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna evertsi Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna febe Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
Pseudocorinna felix Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna gevaertsi Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna incisa Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Gabon
Pseudocorinna juakalyi Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna lanius Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Liberia, Ivory Coast
Pseudocorinna lobelia Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna natalis Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna naufraga Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna okupe Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
Pseudocorinna orientalis Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Congo
Pseudocorinna perplexa Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Nigeria
Pseudocorinna personata Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
Pseudocorinna rutila Simon, 1910 (type) — Guinea-Bissau
Pseudocorinna septemaculeata Simon, 1910 — Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Pseudocorinna ubicki Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Equatorial Guinea (Bioko)
Pseudocorinna victoria Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011 — Cameroon
S
Scorteccia
Scorteccia Caporiacco, 1936
Scorteccia termitarum Caporiacco, 1936 (type) — Libya
Septentrinna
Septentrinna Bonaldo, 2000
Septentrinna bicalcarata (Simon, 1896) (type) — USA, Mexico
Septentrinna paradoxa (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Guatemala
Septentrinna potosi Bonaldo, 2000 — Mexico
Septentrinna retusa (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Guatemala
Septentrinna steckleri (Gertsch, 1936) — USA, Mexico
Septentrinna yucatan Bonaldo, 2000 — Mexico
Serendib
Serendib Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Serendib muadai Jäger, Nophaseud & Praxaysombath, 2012 — Laos
Serendib suthepica Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Thailand, Indonesia (Bali)
Serendib volans Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 (type) — Thailand, Indonesia (Borneo)
Simonestus
Simonestus Bonaldo, 2000
Simonestus occidentalis (Schenkel, 1953) — Venezuela
Simonestus pseudobulbulus (Caporiacco, 1938) — Guatemala
Simonestus robustus (Chickering, 1937) — Panama
Simonestus semiluna (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899) — Mexico, Guatemala
Simonestus separatus (Schmidt, 1971) — Guatemala to Peru
Simonestus validus (Simon, 1898) (type) — Venezuela
Sphecotypus
Sphecotypus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1895
Sphecotypus birmanicus (Thorell, 1897) — Myanmar
Sphecotypus borneensis Yamasaki, 2017 — Malaysia (Borneo)
Sphecotypus niger (Perty, 1833) (type) — Nicaragua to Brazil
Sphecotypus taprobanicus Simon, 1897 — Sri Lanka
Stethorrhagus
Stethorrhagus Simon, 1896
Stethorrhagus archangelus Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Brazil
Stethorrhagus chalybeius (L. Koch, 1866) — Colombia
Stethorrhagus duidae Gertsch, 1942 — Venezuela
Stethorrhagus hyula Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Colombia
Stethorrhagus latoma Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Venezuela
Stethorrhagus limbatus Simon, 1896 (type) — Brazil, Guyana
Stethorrhagus lupulus Simon, 1896 — Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil
Stethorrhagus maculatus (L. Koch, 1866) — Colombia
Stethorrhagus nigrinus (Berland, 1913) — Ecuador
Stethorrhagus oxossi Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Brazil
Stethorrhagus peckorum Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Venezuela
Stethorrhagus penai Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Ecuador
Stethorrhagus planada Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1994 — Colombia
Stethorrhagus roraimae Gertsch, 1942 — Brazil
Stethorrhagus tridentatus Caporiacco, 1955 — Venezuela
T
Tapixaua
Tapixaua Bonaldo, 2000
Tapixaua callida Bonaldo, 2000 (type) — Brazil, Peru
Ticopa
Ticopa Raven, 2015
Ticopa australis Raven, 2015 (type) — Australia
Ticopa carnarvon Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Ticopa chinchilla Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ticopa dingo Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland)
Ticopa hudsoni Raven, 2015 — Australia (Queensland, New South Wales)
Ticopa longbottomi Raven, 2015 — Australia (Western Australia)
Tupirinna
Tupirinna Bonaldo, 2000
Tupirinna albofasciata (Mello-Leitão, 1943) — Brazil
Tupirinna rosae Bonaldo, 2000 (type) — Venezuela, Brazil
Tupirinna trilineata (Chickering, 1937) — Panama
V
Vendaphaea
Vendaphaea Haddad, 2009
Vendaphaea lajuma Haddad, 2009 (type) — South Africa
W
Wasaka
Wasaka Haddad, 2013
Wasaka imitatrix Haddad, 2013 — Tanzania
Wasaka montana Haddad, 2013 — Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda
Wasaka occulta Haddad, 2013 (type) — Tanzania
Wasaka ventralis Haddad, 2013 — Cameroon
X
Xeropigo
Xeropigo O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882
Xeropigo aitatu Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo brescoviti De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Bolivia
Xeropigo cajuina Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo camilae De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Brazil
Xeropigo candango De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Brazil
Xeropigo canga Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo cotijuba De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Guiana, Brazil
Xeropigo crispim Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo oxente Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo pachitea De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Peru, Brazil
Xeropigo perene De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Peru, Brazil
Xeropigo piripiri Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
Xeropigo rheimsae De Souza & Bonaldo, 2007 — Brazil
Xeropigo smedigari (Caporiacco, 1955) — Venezuela, Trinidad
Xeropigo tridentiger (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1870) (type) — USA, Caribbean to Brazil, St. Helena
Xeropigo tridentiger reichardti (Strand, 1916) — Cayman Is. (Grand Cayman)
Xeropigo ufo Carvalho, Shimano, Candiani & Bonaldo, 2016 — Brazil
References
Corinnidae
Corinnidae |
2505234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Concert%20for%20Bangladesh%20%28album%29 | The Concert for Bangladesh (album) | The Concert for Bangladesh (originally spelt The Concert for Bangla Desh) is a live triple album credited to "George Harrison & Friends" and released on Apple Records in December 1971 in America and January 1972 in Britain. The album followed the two concerts of the same name, held on 1 August 1971 at New York's Madison Square Garden, featuring Harrison, Bob Dylan, Ravi Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan, Ringo Starr, Billy Preston, Leon Russell and Eric Clapton. The shows were a pioneering charity event, in aid of the homeless Bengali refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War, and set the model for future multi-artist rock benefits such as Live Aid (1985) and the Concert for New York City (2001). The event brought Harrison and Starr together on a concert stage for the first time since 1966, when the Beatles retired from live performance, and represented Dylan's first major concert appearance in the US in five years.
Co-produced by Phil Spector, The Concert for Bangladesh features his Wall of Sound approach in a live setting. Besides the main performers, the musicians and singers include Badfinger, Jim Horn, Klaus Voormann, Alla Rakha, Jim Keltner, Jesse Ed Davis and Claudia Lennear. Minimal post-production was carried out on the recordings, ensuring that the album was a faithful document of the event. The box set's packaging included a 64-page book containing photos from the concerts; the album cover, designed by Tom Wilkes, consisted of an image of a malnourished child sitting beside an empty food bowl. The album was delayed for three months due to protracted negotiations between Harrison and two record companies keen to protect their business interests, Capitol and Columbia/CBS.
On release, The Concert for Bangladesh was a major critical and commercial success. It topped albums charts in several countries and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in March 1973. Together with the 1972 Apple concert film directed by Saul Swimmer, the album gained Indian classical music its largest Western audience up until that time. It was reissued in 2005, four years after Harrison's death, with revised artwork. As of 2011, sales of the album continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF, which raised $1.2 million for children in the Horn of Africa, in a campaign marking the album's 40th anniversary.
Concerts
While in Los Angeles in June 1971, and after being made aware of the gravity of the situation in what was then known as East Pakistan by friend and musician Ravi Shankar, George Harrison set about organising two fundraising concerts at Madison Square Garden, New York, to aid the war-ravaged and disaster-stricken country. In the middle of these hurried preparations, he composed the song "Bangla Desh" in order to call further attention to the Bengalis' cause, and rush-released it as a charity single four days before the shows. The recent success of his All Things Must Pass triple album allowed Harrison to headline the all-star UNICEF benefit concerts, backed by a 24-piece band of musicians and singers, on Sunday, 1 August 1971. The shows marked the first time that Harrison and Ringo Starr had performed on stage together since the Beatles quit touring in 1966; since then, they, like Bob Dylan, had been mostly unavailable to concert audiences. In Dylan's case, it was his first appearance at a major US concert in five years, although his participation had been uncertain until he walked on for his segment midway through the afternoon show.
The concerts were highly successful in raising international awareness of the plight of the refugees – thought to number up to 10 million – and a cheque for over US$243,000 was soon sent to UNICEF for relief. The media lavished praise on Harrison as an ambassador for rock altruism; Rolling Stone magazine hailed the event as proof that "the Utopian spirit of the Sixties was still flickering". With concert recording having been carried out at Madison Square Garden by Gary Kellgren, using the Record Plant's 16-track mobile unit, Harrison intended to raise significantly more money via a live album of the event, to be issued on the Beatles' Apple Records label, followed by Apple Films' concert documentary, also to be titled The Concert for Bangladesh.
Album preparation
Concert recordings
Speaking in 2011, Spector identified two issues that prolonged the live album's preparation, both of them reflective of the haste with which the concerts came together: "It was chaos [setting up at Madison Square Garden] – we had three hours to mic the band, then the audience came in, and we didn't know how to mic the audience." Rather than a standard band, this was a full Wall of Sound orchestra, as Spector re-created his Wall of Sound approach in concert. The large ensemble consisted of two drummers (Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner), two keyboard players (Billy Preston and Leon Russell), six horn players (led by Jim Horn), three electric guitarists (Harrison, Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis), a trio of acoustic guitars to be "felt but not heard" (Badfinger's Pete Ham, Tom Evans and Joey Molland), the seven members of Don Nix's "Soul Choir", together with bassist Klaus Voormann and a dedicated percussion player, Mike Gibbins of Badfinger. In his review of the Concert for Bangladesh film, John Pidgeon described the scene as "a roadie's nightmare of instruments, mikes, amps and speakers".
Before the Western portion of the concerts, there were the traditionally hard-to-record Indian string instruments of Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan to amplify, together with Alla Rakha's tabla and the drone-enhancing tambura, played by Kamala Chakravarty – each offering natural musical tones so easily lost in the "cavernous Garden". An additional challenge for Kellgren had been the need to capture the dynamics of a well-paced show designed around professionally presented hit songs, rather than a loose superstar jam.
Post-production
During his and Shankar's press conference in New York on 27 July, Harrison had stated that a live album might be ready for release within ten days of the shows. Although this estimate would turn out to be highly optimistic, the following year, in an effort to foil concert bootleggers, Elvis Presley succeeded in delivering a live album just eight days after his own, much-publicised Madison Square Garden shows.
Harrison and co-producer Phil Spector began working on the Bangladesh recordings on 2 August, and work continued there at the Record Plant for around a week. Spector later talked of them spending "six months" mixing what amounted to a total of four hours of music; Harrison later claimed to talk-show host Dick Cavett that the process took just over a month. In their book Eight Arms to Hold You, Chip Madinger and Mark Easter question the extent of Spector's involvement, citing Harrison's subsequent lauding of Kellgren's role in "capturing the performances" on 1 August, as well as the fact that Spector was "in and out of hospital" during this time, similar to his erratic attendance at the All Things Must Pass sessions in 1970.
With ongoing friendships a priority, Harrison had promised the main participants that, should things turn out badly on 1 August, they could be excluded from any album or film release. According to Madinger and Easter, he took early mixes of the concert tapes to Dylan for the latter's approval. Of all the featured performers, only Leon Russell chose to intervene, necessitating a reworking of his "Jumpin' Jack Flash/Youngblood" medley, which he apparently remixed himself. Post-production on the Madison Square Garden recordings was minimal, the known examples being Harrison's double-tracked lead vocal on the bridges of "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", and a composite edit of his opening song, "Wah-Wah", which was assembled from both the shows. In addition, it is possible that Shankar and Khan's "Bangla Dhun" was severely edited down: Harrison later described their set as having lasted 45 minutes, yet the running time on the album is under 17 minutes and in the film just 15 minutes.
The final mix down of the recordings, for album and film use, was carried out in Los Angeles in September, by A&M Studios engineers Norman Kinney and Steve Mitchell. In their joint interview for the 2005 Concert for Bangladesh Revisited documentary, Kinney and Mitchell confirm that music from both the afternoon (matinee) and evening performances was used for the concert film and live album; they also state that Spector repeatedly instructed them to increase the volume of the audience in the mixes, in a search for more "feel of the room" in the result. The second show was preferred when it came to selecting the best concert audio. The exceptions are as follows: "Wah-Wah", which starts off with the evening version but cuts to the matinee at 2:53; Harrison's band introduction and "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", both sourced from the first show; and Russell's medley, which is also from the matinee on the album, but in the concert film, the audio cuts to the evening show during "Youngblood".
Harrison's geniality as a host was well represented on the recordings. As with Shankar's pre-"Bangla Dhun" address, Harrison's band introductions, with Russell and Voormann breaking into "Yellow Submarine" when Starr's name is mentioned, and his other on-stage dialogue would become as integral to the legacy of the event as the music itself.
Record company obstruction
On 23 August, press reports appeared citing "legal problems" as the reason behind the delaying of the much-anticipated live album – problems that would turn out to be a disagreement between EMI-owned Capitol Records (Apple's US distributor) and Columbia Records (Dylan's label) over who had a rightful claim to release the album. Columbia/CBS were eventually mollified with the granting of tape distribution rights in North America, and record and tape distribution in the rest of the world. Another stumbling block was Capitol's insistence that they receive monetary compensation, thought to be around $400,000, for what the company perceived to be vast production and distribution costs for the boxed three-record set. It was a position from which EMI chairman Bhaskar Menon refused to budge, while Harrison was equally adamant that, since all the artists were providing their services for free and Apple was supplying the album packaging at no charge, the record company "must give up something" also.
With the sound mix being completed in LA, Harrison spent most of September 1971 in New York working on the problematic film footage of the concert, before heading to London. There he attended the re-opening of Apple Studio on 30 September and produced new signing Lon & Derrek Van Eaton's debut single, as well as enduring a fruitless meeting with the British Treasury's financial secretary – the latter activity in an attempt to have the government waive its standard purchase tax, and so keep the album affordable to record-buyers. Harrison returned to New York on 5 October and announced that the Bangladesh live album would be issued during the following month. At this time, with concert bootlegs now on the market, posters were placed in record shops bearing the slogan: "Save a starving child. Don't buy a bootleg!"
In the fourth week of November – well into the lucrative Christmas sales period and close to four months after the concerts – Harrison voiced his frustration at the stalemate with Capitol on ABC's late-night chat show, The Dick Cavett Show. Harrison was on the program to promote the Raga documentary with Shankar, but after making a surprise guest performance with Gary Wright's new band Wonderwheel, he launched into a complaint about his US record company's interference and threatened to take the whole album package to Columbia. With the outburst attracting unfavourable attention in the press, where Capitol were viewed as "profiteering on the backs of famine victims", the company eventually backed down and agreed to release the album on Harrison's terms. Of all the labels involved, only Columbia would make any money from The Concert for Bangladesh – 25 cents on every copy sold. Although none of these royalties went to the artist, Dylan and his record company were already benefiting from the exposure provided by the Bangladesh concerts, through the timely release of Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Vol. II. Of the other featured artists at the Concert for Bangladesh, the careers of both Preston (A&M Records) and Russell (Shelter) likewise prospered as a result of their participation, but their record companies imposed no such conditions on Apple and Capitol. In January 1972, Melody Makers Richard Williams remarked in his Concert for Bangladesh album review: "Between them, Capitol and CBS have proved that, when it comes to awareness and enlightenment, the business is still several years behind the musicians."
Once the album had been granted a release date, Apple's financial terms ensured that as much money as possible would be raised from each copy sold, but that it would be difficult for retailers to profit financially. Some retailers responded with "shameless price gouging" on the three-record set, apparently at Capitol's recommendation. Following the protracted negotiations surrounding the live album's distribution, Harrison's disaffection with EMI/Capitol was a key factor in his leaving the company.
Artwork
The album's packaging was designed by Camouflage Productions partners Tom Wilkes and Barry Feinstein, the same team responsible for All Things Must Pass, rock music's first boxed triple album. Along with Alan Pariser, both Wilkes and Feinstein had taken stills photographs at Madison Square Garden, at the soundcheck on 31 July and during the concerts the next day, the results filling the 64-page full-colour booklet accompanying the original album. Also used as the Concert for Bangladesh film poster, the album-cover photograph – the "haunting" image of a malnourished young child sitting naked behind a wide, empty food bowl, author Bruce Spizer writes – was a still taken from news agency film footage and airbrushed extensively by Wilkes. Having created the provocative, headline-filled picture sleeve for Harrison's "Bangla Desh" single earlier in the year, Wilkes was keen to capture "real human compassion" in this cover and poster image.
The booklet's back-cover picture showed an open guitar case filled with food and medical supplies, below a copy of the cheque for the Madison Square Garden box-office takings. Wilkes intended this image to convey a sense of hope, signifying the completion of the task that the participants had set out to achieve for the refugees from East Pakistan. The record's liner note essay accused the Pakistani Army of undertaking "a deliberate reign of terror" that represented "undoubtedly the greatest atrocity since Hitler's extermination of the Jews".
The three LPs and booklet were housed inside a deep orange-coloured box. According to Jon Taplin, who served as production manager at the Madison Square concerts, Capitol executives were concerned that the cover image was too "depressing" and uncommercial. Harrison was resolute, however, and so Wilkes's design was used.
Release
The Concert for Bangladesh was released in the United States on 20 December 1971, and in Britain on 10 January 1972, with the same Apple Records catalogue number (STCX 3385) in both territories. The retail price for the lavishly packaged triple album was set at $12.98 in America and an extraordinarily high £5.50 in the UK, due to the purchase tax surcharge there. The prices drew some criticism, from Harrison for one, even if it was accepted that the proceeds were going to those in desperate need – or, as Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977, to "a nation still viewed as the worst pocket of misery on earth". Similarly, the relief project's funds controversy and tax problems, which came to light shortly after the release of the live album, were a source of frustration to Harrison, but commentators have noted that these problems took nothing away from the "resounding success" of Harrison and Shankar's Bangladesh relief project.
Despite the cost, the album was an immediate commercial success. In America, it spent six weeks at number 2 on the Billboard Top LPs chart. On the other US charts, compiled by Cash Box and Record World, the live album peaked at number 2 and number 1, respectively. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 4 January 1972 for sales of over 500,000 units. In the UK, The Concert for Bangladesh became Harrison's second number 1 album, after All Things Must Pass in early 1971. In Melody Makers readers poll for 1972, it was ranked second in the "World" album category.
The album was similarly successful on charts around the world. In Pakistan, the government banned the record. The government also advised its embassies and other foreign diplomatic offices that the album contained "hostile propaganda against Pakistan" and that they should pressure their local contacts to stop the music being played on the radio.
In March 1973, The Concert for Bangladesh won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. In Harrison's absence, Ringo Starr attended the awards ceremony in Nashville and carried off a tray of Grammys, one for each of the featured performers. Author Peter Lavezzoli writes that, with the success of the live album and Saul Swimmer's concert documentary, which opened in US cinemas in March 1972, Indian classical music reached its largest Western audience to date through the Concert for Bangladesh.
Critical reception
Contemporary reviews
Cash Boxs reviewer described The Concert for Bangladesh as "the most eagerly awaited album of 1971" and "every bit as breathtaking as we hoped". The reviewer deemed the sound "flawless" and the booklet "stunning", and concluded: "listen to the records and hear music history." Don Heckman of The New York Times similarly commented that the album lived up to expectation, and that Harrison's statements on The Dick Cavett Show had seemingly had the desired effect. For Heckman, the live album confirmed the concerts' standing as a distillation of pop music's growth and maturity throughout the 1960s, thereby offering "a decade's music in microcosm". In addition to praising the structure and pacing of the live records, he admired Harrison for continuing his post-Beatles "optimism-with‐energy attitude", which Heckman recognised as an effective counter to the Nixon-inspired apathy permeating rock music at the time.
Having attended the concerts in August, Ed Kelleher of Circus magazine wrote that the live album not only conveyed the "magic ... the sheer joy" of the event, but the music "practically jumps right out into your life". He singled out songs by Dylan, Russell and Harrison, along with Shankar's performance, but admitted to the futility of naming "individual highlights" since the album was "one consistent high". Rolling Stone continued its near-deification of the concerts as a defining moment in the evolution of rock 'n' roll. Jon Landau wrote of Harrison: "the spirit he creates through his own demeanor is inspirational. From the personal point of view, Concert for Bangla Desh was George's moment. He put it together; and he pulled it off ..." Landau lauded the pacing and professionalism of the entire show, and recognised the highpoint as the album-closing "Bangla Desh", the lyrics of which were no longer "an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission". In The Village Voices inaugural Pazz & Jop poll, critics voted The Concert for Bangladesh the eighth best album of 1971.
Among UK reviewers, Geoffrey Cannon of The Guardian wrote: "What Woodstock was said to be, the Madison Square Garden Bangladesh concert was. It's on record. The concert will stand as the greatest act of magnanimity rock music has yet achieved." In Melody Maker, Richard Williams began his review by saying, "If you buy only one LP in 1972, make it this one." He likened Shankar and Khan's interplay on "Bangla Dhun" to "Charlie Parker trading licks with Johnny Hodges", and found Harrison's opening trio of All Things Must Pass tracks "[u]nbelievably ... in some ways even better" than the originals, and Preston's "That's the Way God Planned It" "feverishly exciting". Williams named Dylan's "Just Like a Woman" as "the masterpiece".
In a causerie-style piece for New Statesman, Michael Nyman wrote that the music failed to support the claim that the concerts had educated listeners on the plight of the Bangladeshi refugees. He admired many of the performances but detected an "aloofness" in Shankar's sincerity and bemoaned that Dylan's outdated repertoire surpassed some of the more recent pop selections by Harrison and Preston, and that the lavish LP booklet "must have cost money which could have been channelled elsewhere".
The NMEs Roy Carr and Tony Tyler deemed the concerts "probably the greatest indoor rock 'n' roll event ever held", adding that Dylan's five-song set "easily justified" the album's price tag. As at the time of the concerts, much was made by music journalists of the change in Dylan's singing voice, as well as his choice of songs, which harked back to the so-called protest period of 1962–64 and the creative zenith that culminated in his 1966 album Blonde on Blonde. "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was another track that received significant attention, thanks to the guitar "duelling" between Harrison and Clapton.
Retrospective assessments and legacy
In the description of author Ian Inglis, The Concert for Bangladesh "established the artistic legitimacy of the charity album". While the technical imperfections of the concert recordings were overlooked in 1972 – or even applauded for their adding to the "honesty" of the moment, in the case of Starr forgetting the lyrics to "It Don't Come Easy" – reviewers of the first CD-format album remarked on the relatively poor sound quality. In his review for AllMusic in 2001, Bruce Eder commented on the "less-than-perfect sound" while still viewing the album as a "unique live document showcasing Harrison near his best". Paul Du Noyer of Blender wrote that some of the performances are unpolished yet "the occasion still crackles with drama", and he named "Wah-Wah", "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" and "Mr. Tambourine Man" as the standout songs.
Another point of contention, though mainly among Harrison's biographers, concerns Leon Russell. Alan Clayson bristles at the omnipresence of the Oklahoman singer and musician; he describes Russell as "the epitome of the self-satisfied sexism of the Delaney and Bonnie super-sidemen" and rues that his turn in the spotlight so blatantly became "The Leon Russell Show". Leng similarly bemoans Russell's "consciously extreme hollerin'", and finds his delivery pales beside the "unaffected naïveté" of Preston and particularly the "knife-edge emotions" of Harrison and Shankar, which only Dylan can match. By contrast, Paul Evans, writing in the 1992 Rolling Stone Album Guide, gave the record three stars and preferred the Dylan set over Harrison's songs.
Among reviews of the 2005 reissue, Mojo described the remastered sound as "sumptuous" while AllMusic's Richard Ginell wrote: "Hands down, this epochal concert ... was the crowning event of George Harrison's public life, a gesture of great goodwill that captured the moment in history and, not incidentally, produced some rousing music as a permanent legacy." Writing in Rolling Stone that year, Anthony DeCurtis said: "The Concert for Bangladesh is rightly enshrined in rock history as the model for Band Aid, Live Aid, Live 8 and every other superstar benefit concert of the last three decades ... In emphasizing the concert's idealism, however, it's easy to overlook what a musical gem this two-disc set is." Dan Ouellette of Billboard considered that "The star-studded package holds up well as a live greatest-hits collection", before concluding: "But the revelation is the exhilarating concert lift-off, the improv-laced eastern Indian classical tune 'Bangla Dhun,' featuring sitar master Ravi Shankar." Record Collectors Joe Shooman began his review by saying, "Still great, so buy it – again", adding that "the saddest part is that the cash is still badly needed [in Bangladesh]."
In his entry for the album in the book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, Tom Moon recognises the concerts as "the first large-scale example of rock activism", saying that Harrison and his fellow performers provided the blueprint for celebrities to employ their fame for charitable causes. Moon advises listeners to "Pull this out whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane", and suggests Preston's "That's the Way God Planned It" as a primer track. Pitchforks Quinn Moreland deems the Bangladesh relief project "a musical triumph and a momentous collaborative effort". He writes that while subsequent benefit concerts might encourage a suspicion that celebrity musicians merely "play philanthropist for a day", the Concert for Bangladesh was the realisation of Harrison's commitment to the Indian subcontinent, beyond the cultural appropriation suggested by his initial alliance with Shankar in the mid-1960s. Nigel Williamson of Uncut compliments Harrison and Spector for retaining the imperfections of the live recordings and thereby conveying the spirit of the all-star concerts. He views Dylan's set as "spellbinding" and a final reprise of the singer's "mythic voice-of-a-generation image", and concludes of the album: "seldom before or since has rock music sounded so honest, so caring – and so capable of making us smile and cry at the same time."
The Concert for Bangladesh also features in Sean Egan's 2006 book 100 Albums That Changed Music and in The Mojo Collection: The Greatest Albums of All Time. It was ranked number 1 in Spanish Rolling Stones list of "The 30 Greatest Live Albums of All Time", published in 2013.
Reissues
The Concert for Bangladesh was first issued on CD on 30 July 1991 in America and 19 August in Britain. It was presented as a two-disc set, with significant editing of the breaks between songs. The downsizing to CD dimensions meant that much of the effectiveness of the booklet photography was lost; in addition, the contents were trimmed down to 36 pages. Having stated his disappointment in a 1988 interview that the album had been allowed to go out of print, Harrison recorded a promotional interview on the 20th anniversary of the concerts, to accompany the CD release.
Harrison was working on a reissue of the album and film before his death in November 2001. Although the project was due for release the following year, the new editions were not issued until 25 October 2005. The remastered releases appeared with a photo of Harrison on the cover, although the special-edition DVD retained the original image. The reissue was the 1972 concert film's first international release on DVD. It was accompanied by the Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends making-of documentary, which was directed by Claire Ferguson and co-produced by Olivia Harrison.
The revised packaging was credited to Wherefore Art? As a bonus track, the album included "Love Minus Zero/No Limit", which Dylan had performed during the afternoon show (i.e. the matinee performance) at Madison Square Garden.
Sales of the Concert for Bangladesh album and DVD continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF. In 2011, as one of the fund's projects to mark the 40th anniversary of the concerts and the live album's release, and in conjunction with UNICEF's "Month of Giving" campaign, the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF raised over $1.2 million in emergency relief for children in famine- and drought-stricken areas of the Horn of Africa.
Track listing
Original release
2005 remaster
Disc one
The first disc contains the ten tracks from side one to side three of the original release.
Disc two
The second disc contains the nine tracks from side four to side six of the original release, together with:
2011 40th anniversary reissue
A download-only version of the album per the 2005 remaster, with a second bonus track exclusive to iTunes:
Personnel
"The Artists"
George Harrison – vocals, electric and acoustic guitars, backing vocals
Ravi Shankar – sitar
Bob Dylan – vocals, acoustic guitar, harmonica
Leon Russell – piano, vocals, bass, backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums, vocals, tambourine
Billy Preston – Hammond organ, vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar
Ali Akbar Khan – sarod
Alla Rakha – tabla
Kamala Chakravarty – tambura
"The Band"
Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – twelve-string acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Mike Gibbins – tambourine, maracas
Don Preston – electric guitar, vocals (on "Jumpin' Jack Flash"/"Young Blood" and "Bangla Desh" only)
Carl Radle – bass (on "Jumpin' Jack Flash"/"Young Blood" only)
The Hollywood Horns
Jim Horn – saxophones, horn arrangements
Chuck Findley – trumpet
Jackie Kelso – saxophones
Allan Beutler – saxophones
Lou McCreary – trombone
Ollie Mitchell – trumpet
The Soul Choir
Claudia Lennear, Joe Greene, Jeanie Greene, Marlin Greene, Dolores Hall, Don Nix, Don Preston – backing vocals, percussion
Accolades
|-
| style="width:35px; text-align:center;"|1973|| The Concert for Bangladesh || Grammy Award for Album of the Year ||
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Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Original release
2005 reissue
Year-end charts
Certifications
Notes
References
Sources
Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ).
Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra & Stephen Thomas Erlewine (eds), All Music Guide: The Definitive Guide to Popular Music (4th edn), Backbeat Books (San Francisco, CA, 2001; ).
Roy Carr & Tony Tyler, The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Trewin Copplestone Publishing (London, 1978; ).
Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ).
Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ).
The Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends DVD, Apple Corps, 2005 (directed by Claire Ferguson; produced by Olivia Harrison, Jonathan Clyde & Jo Human).
The Editors of Rolling Stone, Harrison, Rolling Stone Press/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2002; ).
Gary Graff & Daniel Durchholz (eds), MusicHound Rock: The Essential Album Guide, Visible Ink Press (Farmington Hills, MI, 1999; ).
Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ).
Paul Guralnick, Careless Love: The Unmaking of Elvis Presley, Abacus (London, 2002; ).
John Harris, "A Quiet Storm", Mojo, July 2001.
George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ).
Olivia Harrison, George Harrison: Living in the Material World, Abrams (New York, NY, 2011; ).
Bill Harry, The George Harrison Encyclopedia, Virgin Books (London, 2003; ).
Clinton Heylin, Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades (20th Anniversary Edition), Faber and Faber (London, 2011; ).
Ian Inglis, The Words and Music of George Harrison, Praeger (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010; ).
Colin Larkin, The Encyclopedia of Popular Music (5th edn), Omnibus Press (London, 2011; ).
Peter Lavezzoli, The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ).
Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ).
Ian MacDonald, Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties, Pimlico (London, 1998; ).
Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ).
Tom Moon, 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, Workman Publishing (New York, NY, 2008; ).
Chris O'Dell with Katherine Ketcham, Miss O'Dell: My Hard Days and Long Nights with The Beatles, The Stones, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, and the Women They Loved, Touchstone (New York, NY, 2009; ).
Srinath Raghavan, 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh , Harvard University Press (Cambridge, MA, 2013; ).
Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ).
Patricia Romanowski & Holly George-Warren (eds), The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, Fireside/Rolling Stone Press (New York, NY, 1995; ).
Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ).
Howard Sounes, Down the Highway: The Life of Bob Dylan, Doubleday (London, 2001; ).
Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ).
Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ).
Bob Woffinden, The Beatles Apart, Proteus (London, 1981; ).
External links
1971 live albums
George Harrison albums
Apple Records live albums
Albums produced by George Harrison
Albums produced by Phil Spector
Albums recorded at Madison Square Garden
Grammy Award for Album of the Year
Badfinger
Charity albums
2005 live albums
2005 video albums
Rhino Records live albums
Live video albums
Live rock albums
Rock video albums
ja:バングラデシュ・コンサート |
25639089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20football%20team | 1930 Michigan Wolverines football team | The 1930 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 1930 college football season. The head coach was former Michigan star, 31-year-old Harry Kipke, in his second year in the position.
The team went through the 1930 season with an undefeated 8–0–1 record, outscored opponents 111 to 23, and tied for the Big Ten Conference championship with Northwestern. The 1930 season marked the debut of Michigan's College Football Hall of Fame quarterback Harry Newman, who became a star in his first season leading the Wolverines' offense. In Newman's three years at Michigan, the Wolverines lost only one game, won three Big Ten Conference championships, and had a combined record of 24–1–2. Further, the 1930 team was the first of four consecutive Michigan teams coached by Harry Kipke to win or tie for the Big Ten championship, losing only one game from 1930 to 1933.
Right halfback James Simrall was the team captain, and left halfback Jack Wheeler was selected as the Most Valuable Player. Six players from the 1930 team were selected to All-Big Ten teams, and five went on to play in the National Football League.
Schedule
Game summaries
Michigan 33, Denison 0
Michigan opened the 1930 football season on September 27, 1930, with an unusual football double-header, playing two games on the same afternoon. In the first game against Denison College, Coach Kipke played his "second team" squad for the entire game. The Wolverines beat Denison by a score of 33 to 0. Michigan's touchdowns against Denison were scored by quarterback Jack Wheeler (2), fullback DuVal Goldsmith, left halfback Ralph Wills, and end William D. O'Neil, Jr.
Michigan's starting lineup against Denison consisted entirely of second-team players: Jay Sikkenga (left end), William Gitman (left tackle), Leslie Douglass (left guard), Carlton Soelberg (center), Leslie Avery (right guard), Carl Castle (right tackle), Ivy Williamson (right end), Jack Wheeler (quarterback), Ralph Wills (left halfback), Claude Stoll (right halfback), and DuVal Goldsmith (fullback).
Michigan 7, Michigan State Normal 0
The second game of the double-header matched the Wolverines against Michigan State Normal (now known as Eastern Michigan University) from nearby Ypsilanti. According to a United Press account of the game, the Hurons "outplayed the Wolves in two quarters, held them even in another, and broke just long enough in the third period to allow Michigan to flash through two forward passes and a lateral pass for a touchdown." Michigan's sole touchdown in the Michigan State Normal game was scored by Charles DeBaker, a "fast-running halfback from Muskegon."
Michigan's starting lineup against Michigan State Normal consisted of Michigan's first-team players: Bill Hewitt (left end), Tom Samuels (left tackle), Omer LaJeunesse (right guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Claire Purdum (right tackle), Norman Daniels (right end), Estel Tessmer (quarterback), William Heston (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback).
Michigan 0, Michigan State 0
In the second week of the season, Michigan played the Michigan State Spartans to a scoreless tie in front of a crowd of 49,900 at Michigan Stadium. The game marked the end of a losing streak for the Spartans against the Wolverines dating back to 1916. Michigan had crossed the goal line near the end of the first half, but the play was called back on an offside penalty; the first half ended before Michigan could conclude the drive. One of Michigan's key players, Bill Hewitt sustained an injured ankle while playing at left end in the game; Hewitt did not play the rest of the season. The Associated Press reported that Michigan's passing attack kept the ball in Michigan State's territory much of the time but the Wolverines "lacked the scoring punch."
The starting lineup for Michigan in the game was Bill Hewitt (left end), Howie Auer (left tackle), Francis Cornwell (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Omer LaJeunesse (right guard), Samuels (right tackle), Norman Daniels (right end), Estel Tessmer (quarterback), William Heston (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback). Substitutions were by Williamson (left end), Hozer and Purdum (right guard), Debaker and Heston (left halfback), and Newman (quarterback).
Michigan 14, Purdue 13
In the third week of the 1930 season, Michigan played the defending Big Ten Conference champion Purdue Boilermakers at Michigan Stadium. The game marked the first start for Harry Newman as Michigan's quarterback, a position he would hold for three seasons. After Purdue took a 13-0 lead at the end of the first quarter, Michigan came back with two touchdowns in the second quarter to win the game by a score of 14 to 13. The first Michigan touchdown came early in the second quarter when Norman Daniels, playing at right end as a substitute for Leo Draveling, caught a long pass from quarterback Newman and sprinted into the end zone. Later in the second quarter, Michigan's center Maynard Morrison recovered a Purdue fumble at the Boilermakers' 25-yard line. After advancing the ball to the five-yard line, Jack Wheeler, playing at left halfback as a substitute for Heston, ran the ball across the goal line for Michigan's second touchdown. Newman converted both point after touchdown kicks, which proved to be the difference in the game, as Purdue had missed on one of its extra point attempts.
Michigan's starting lineup against Purdue was Roderick Cox (left end), Howie Auer (left tackle), Stanley Hozer (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Tom Samuels (right tackle), Leo Draveling (right end), Estel Tessmer (quarterback), William Heston (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback).
Michigan 13, Ohio State 0
In the fourth week of the season, Michigan traveled to Columbus, Ohio to face the Ohio State Buckeyes. In front of a crowd of 68,000, quarterback Newman used the forward passing game to defeat the Buckeyes by a score of 13 to 0. The Associated Press wrote that Michigan dominated the game with its "lightning like attack" consisting of "long deadly passes." Michigan's first touchdown came late in the first half. The drive began with Harry Newman returning a punt to Michigan's 46-yard line. On the next play, Newman threw a long pass to Michigan's captain James Simrall, who caught the ball at the 15-yard line and was tackled at the one-yard line. On the second play of the drive, Newman called a quarterback sneak and carried the ball across the goal line. Newman also kicked the extra point. Michigan's second touchdown came on a 14-yard run by an Ohio native, fullback Roy Hudson. The extra point attempt by Newman was blocked. Newman added to his status as the star of the game with an interception to end a late drive by the Buckeyes. According to the AP account of the game, "the final gun had hardly sounded before Michigan's ninety piece band was parading obliquely down the field blaring 'Hail to the Victors', Michigan's song of triumph and destiny."
Michigan's starting lineup against Ohio State was Ivy Williamson (left end), Claire Purdum (left tackle), Stanley Hozer (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Samuels (right tackle), Roderick Cox (right end), Harry Newman (quarterback), Jack Wheeler (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback). Michigan substitutions were Omer LaJuenesse (left guard), Leo Draveling (right tackle), and Wallace Miller (right tackle).
Michigan 15, Illinois 7
In the fifth week of the season, Michigan returned to Ann Arbor for its homecoming game against Illinois. Michigan won the game by a score of 15 to 7. Quarterback Newman, playing in his third game as Michigan's quarterback, was referred to by the United Press as Michigan's "crack Jewish field general." The UP report praised Newman's performance:"Harry Newman, Michigan's stocky sophomore quarterback, revived memories of his illustrious predecessor, Benny Friedman ... It was Newman's smart generalship, accurate passing and place-kicking which enabled Michigan to continue its undefeated march toward the Big Ten football championship ... Newman, one-time pupil of Friedman, Michigan's great quarterback, had a hand in every point scored by the Wolverines in winning their third straight conference victcry."
Michigan's first touchdown followed an Illinois turnover less than four minutes into the game. Illinois fumbled a punt, and Michigan's guard Omer Lajeunesse recovered the ball on Illinois's 25-yard line. After two running plays advanced the ball five yards, Newman threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to Jack Wheeler. Newman's attempt at the extra point failed. Michigan next score came after an Illinois punt was blocked and recovered at the Illinois 10-yard line. After losing five yards on three plays, Newman kicked a field goal from a difficult angle to give Michigan a 9 to 0 lead at half-time. In the third quarter, Illinois scored on a 60-yard punt return by quarterback Berry. Newman led the final Michigan scoring drive in the fourth quarter. Taking over at the 50-yard line, Newman threw the ball 30 yards to right end Ivy Williamson, who ran another 10 yards before being tackled at the 10-yard line. On third down, Newman dropped back for an apparent place kick, but passed the ball over the goal line to Roy Hudson for a touchdown. Newman's extra point attempt was blocked for a final score of 15 to 7. Newman attempted only four passes in the game, but completed three of them for 72 yards.
Michigan's starting lineup against Illinois was Stanley Hozer (left end), Claude Stoll (left tackle), Omer LaJeunesse (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Claire Purdum (right tackle), Ivy Williamson (right end), Harry Newman (quarterback), Jack Wheeler (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback) and Roy Hudson (fullback). Substitution for Michigan were Norman Daniels (left end), Tom Samuels (left tackle), Robert Morgan (left guard), Wallace Miller (right tackle), Leo Draveling (right tackle), Harry Eastman, Jr. (right halfback,) and Charles DeBaker (right halfback).
Michigan 6, Harvard 3
For its sixth week of competition, Michigan traveled to Cambridge, Massachusetts to face the Harvard Crimson. The game was scoreless after three periods, with Harvard having the best scoring opportunities. Harvard had driven deep into Michigan territory twice, and one field goal attempt was blocked by Maynard Morrison and another was missed. Early in the fourth quarter, Harvard drove the ball to Michigan's 12-yard line. On fourth down, Harvard successfully converted on a field goal attempt to take a 3 to 0 lead. In the closing minutes of the game, Newman led Michigan's final drive. Newman and Roy Hudson began the drive running the ball to Harvard's 35-yard line. It was from that point that Newman threw the winning touchdown pass described by the Associated Press as follows:"Newman then backed up to the 50-yard line, waited until Hudson, whose jersey, fore and aft, bore the supposedly ill-fated number 13, had time to clear the Harvard secondaries. When that speedy fullback gained the open, in the vicinity of the 30-yard marker, Newman tossed him a lofty pass and he out-footed his Harvard pursuers across their goal line."
The United Press described Michigan's late scoring drive as follows:"A mighty march down the field in the closing minutes of play, climaxed by a beautiful 30 yard forward pass from the magic hand of Harry Newman, enabled a suddenly inspired Michigan eleven to come from behind and defeat Harvard on its home gridiron Saturday for the first time in nearly 50 years of rivalry."
Michigan's starting lineup against Harvard was Stanley Hozer (left end), Howie Auer (left tackle), Omer LaJeunesse (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Leo Draveling (right tackle), Ivy Williamson (right end), Harry Newman (quarterback), Jack Wheeler (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback).
Michigan 7, Minnesota 0
In the seventh week of the season, Michigan returned to Michigan Stadium to play the Minnesota Golden Gophers in the annual competition for the Little Brown Jug. The game marked the first appearance by Fritz Crisler as a head coach at Michigan Stadium. Crisler was in his first year as head coach at Minnesota; he took over as Michigan's head coach eight years later after Kipke was fired. Michigan won the game 7 to 0. The game's only score came in the first quarter on a 45-yard punt return by Michigan's left halfback, Jack Wheeler. The return was off of a punt by Minnesota's All-American Biggie Munn, who would later join Crisler's coaching staff at Michigan. A newspaper account of the game described Wheeler's run as follows:"Wheeler's run will go down as one of Michigan's, classics. He got the ball after a low, twisting kick by Munn had traveled to the Minnesota 45-yard line. Wheeler gathered it in and charged. He hit two Minnesota tacklers and knifed his way between them. He staggered a yard or two from the impact and sidestepped another Gopher tackler. Morrison came across like a charging bull to take another from Wheeler's path. He waved away, and slid yards across the goal line on his dive for a touchdown."
Despite the lack of scoring, the Associated Press reported that the game was "a desperately-fought breath-taking football battle."
Michigan's starting lineup against Minnesota was Stanley Hozer (left end), Tom Samuels (left tackle), Omer LaJeunesse (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Leo Draveling (right tackle), Ivy Williamson (right end), Harry Newman (quarterback), Jack Wheeler (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback), and Roy Hudson (fullback).
Michigan 16, Chicago 0
Michigan closed its 1930 football season against the Chicago Maroons coached by football legend Amos Alonzo Stagg. Michigan won the game, played at Michigan Stadium, by a score of 16 to 0. Michigan's fullback Roy Hudson scored two touchdowns in the game, and Stanley Hozer added the extra point and a field goal. In the third quarter, the Michigan captain, James Simrall, threw a touchdown pass to Hudson from mid-field. Michigan's second touchdown capped a seven-play drive in which Jack Wheeler and Hudson alternated running the ball.
Michigan's starting lineup against Chicago was Stanley Hozer (left end), Claire Purdum (left tackle), Omer LaJeunesse (left guard), Maynard Morrison (center), Francis Cornwell (right guard), Leo Draveling (right tackle), Ivy Williamson (right end), Harry Newman (quarterback), Jack Wheeler (left halfback), James Simrall (right halfback) and Roy Hudson (fullback).
Six All-Big Ten players
Six members of the 1930 Michigan team were selected to All-Big Ten teams. All-Big Ten teams were named by the Associated Press ("AP"), the United Press ("UP"), Knute Rockne ("Rockne"), the NEA wire service's Claire Burcky ("Burcky"), and sports writer Hank Casserly ("Casserly").
Maynard Morrison at center - first team selection by AP, UP, Rockne, Burcky and Casserly
Harry Newman at quarterback - first team selection by the AP, UP and Casserly; second team by Burcky
Jack Wheeler at left halfback - first team selection by Burcky; AP second team; third team by UP and Casserly
Leo F. Draveling at right tackle - first team selection by Casserly; UP third team
Ivan Williams at right end - third team selection by UP and Casserly
Roy Hudson at fullback - second-team selection by Casserly
In selecting Newman as its first-team All-Big Ten quarterback, the AP wrote: "Newman was picked by the majority over John White of Purdue for the quarterback post because he undoubtedly was the one big offensive spark that enabled Michigan's comparatively light scoring machine to win a share of the championship porridge. He was one of the best passers in the conference and won game after game for the Wolverines with his tosses. Newman was hailed during the season as a second Bennie Friedman." In announcing his choice of Newman, Knute Rockne wrote: "One or the marks of class that distinguishes a star quarterback from an ordinary number caller is to name the right play in the pinches. When this quarterback not only calls the right play, but, as in the case of Newman of Michigan, himself executes forward passes that click for touchdowns, then this quarterback must be classed with the great, although, he is just a sophomore. Newman did just this." Writing for the United Press, Dixon Stewart noted: "Newman's generalship, kicking and passing was responsible for Michigan winning its three hardest conference games. Not since Benny Friedman was at his hey-dey has the Big Ten produced such a quarterback."
In selecting Morrison as his first-team center, Knute Rockne wrote: "Morrison of Michigan didn't have a bad pass all year, his weight made him absolutely impregnable on line defense, and yet he was shifty enough to go back into the secondary and defend against the forward pass when necessary."
Claire Burcky of the NEA explained his selection of Jack Wheeler as a first-team player as follows: "The reason Jack Wheeler, the Bay City boy, made my team is because he kept Michigan going when Harry Newman failed. Wheeler's punt handling, run-backs and interception of passes provided the brightest bits of ball lugging Michigan showed to the conference this season."
Despite having completed an undefeated season, no Michigan player was selected on the Associated Press All-American first, second or third teams, though honorable mention recognition was given to Francis Cornwell at guard, Maynard Morrison at center, Jack Wheeler at halfback, Harry Newman at quarterback, and Roy Hudson at fullback.
Players
Varsity letter winners
Howie Auer, Bay City, Michigan - started 3 games at left tackle, 1 game at right tackle
Francis Cornwell, Grand Rapids, Michigan - started 7 games at right guard, 1 game at left guard
Roderick Cox, Birmingham, Michigan - started 1 game at left end, 1 game at right end
Norm Daniels, Detroit, Michigan, Southeastern H.S. - started 2 games at right end
Charles DeBaker - halfback
Leslie H. Douglass, Gary, Indiana, Emerson H.S. - started 1 game at left guard
Leo F. Draveling, Port Huron, Michigan - started 3 games at right tackle, 1 game at right end
Harry Eastman, Jr., Detroit, Michigan - halfback
William Heston, Jr., Detroit, Michigan, Northwestern H.S. - started 3 games at left halfback
Bill Hewitt, Bay City, Michigan - started 2 games at left end
Stanley Hozer, Muskegon, Michigan - started 4 games at left end, 2 games at left tackle, 2 games at left guard
Roy Hudson, Girard, Ohio - started 8 games at fullback
Omer LaJeunesse, Iron Mountain, Michigan - started 5 games at left guard, 1 game at right guard
Wallace B. Miller - tackle
Robert C. Morgan - tackle
Maynard Morrison, Royal Oak, Michigan - starter at center
Harry Newman, Detroit, Michigan, Northern H.S. - started 5 games at quarterback
Claire Purdum, Warren, Ohio - started 2 games at left tackle, 2 games at right tackle
Tom Samuels, Canton, Ohio, McKinley H.S. - started 3 games at right tackle, 3 games at left tackle
James Simrall, Lexington, Kentucky - started 7 games at right halfback, 1 game at left halfback
Estel S. Tessmer, Ann Arbor, Michigan - started 3 games at quarterback
William H. Unger - center
Jack Wheeler, Bay City, Michigan - started 2 games at left halfback, 1 game at right halfback, 1 game at quarterback
Ivan Williamson, Toledo, Ohio - started 5 games at right end, 1 game at left end
Varsity reserves
Leslie C. Avery, South Haven, Michigan - started 1 game at right guard
Carl A. Castle - center
Russell Damm - end
William H. Gitman, Dayton, Ohio - started 1 game at left tackle
DuVal P. Goldsmith, Christiansburg, Virginia - started 1 game at fullback
Abe Marcovsky - guard
Ward H. Oehmann - guard
Karl S. Richardson - guard
Sylvester C. Shea - end
Jay H. Sikkenga, Muskegon Heights, Michigan - started 1 game at left end
Carlton Soelberg, Sioux City, Iowa - center
Claude R. Stoll, Ann Arbor, Michigan - started 2 games at left halfback, 1 game at right halfback
Ralph Wills, Flint, Michigan - started 1 game at left halfback
Fielding H. Yost, Jr. - halfback
Players in the NFL
Five starters and two reserve players from the 1930 Wolverines football team later played in the National Football League. End Bill Hewitt played nine years in the NFL for the Chicago Bears and Philadelphia Eagles and was later inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Quarterback Harry Newman played for the New York Giants, set an NFL single-season record for passing yards as a rookie, and threw the first touchdown pass in an NFL championship game in leading the Giants to the 1933 NFL Championship. Other starters from the 1930 Wolverines to play in the NFL are Maynard Morrison, who played for the Brooklyn Dodgers, Leo Draveling who played for the Cincinnati Reds, and Howie Auer who played for the Philadelphia Eagles. In addition, two freshmen who were included on the 1930 roster, Chuck Bernard and Fred Ratterman, also went on to play in the NFL.
Awards and honors
Captain: James Simrall
Most Valuable Player: Jack Wheeler
Meyer Morton Award: Estil Tessmer
Coaching staff
Head coach: Harry Kipke
Assistant coaches: Jack Blott, Franklin Cappon, Ray Courtright, Cliff Keen, Bennie Oosterbaan, Wally Weber
Trainer: Ray Roberts
Manager: Arthur W. Highfield, Austin Humber (assistant), William Burt (assistant), John Sauchuck (assistant), William Belknap (assistant)
References
External links
1930 Football Team -- Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan Athletics History
Michigan
Michigan Wolverines football seasons
Big Ten Conference football champion seasons
College football undefeated seasons
Michigan Wolverines football |
55623166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%20Houston%20Astros%20season | 2018 Houston Astros season | The 2018 Houston Astros season was the 57th season for the Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise in Houston, Texas, their 54th as the Astros, sixth in both the American League (AL) and AL West division, and 19th at Minute Maid Park. The Astros were the defending World Series champions, after winning the 2017 World Series four games to three over the Los Angeles Dodgers. Houston began the season March 29 against the Texas Rangers and finished the season on September 30 against the Baltimore Orioles, capping off an unprecedented second consecutive 100-win season.
They repeated as American League West champions and swept the Cleveland Indians in the Division Series to advance to the American League Championship Series, where they lost in five games to the Boston Red Sox.
The Astros once again sent a league-high six players to the 2018 All-Star Game. Additionally, ace Justin Verlander finished as runner-up for the American League Cy Young Award for the second time in three years.
Previous season
Summary
The Houston Astros entered the 2018 Major League Baseball season as defending World Series champions after defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers in seven games. In addition to achieving their first-ever World Series championship, they claimed both their first American League (AL) pennant and AL West division championship. Center fielder George Springer was named the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) and right-handed starting pitcher Justin Verlander was the American League Championship Series (ALCS) MVP. A number of regular season and multiple-sport awards went to second baseman José Altuve, including the AL MVP, Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year, Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year, and The Sporting News Major League Player of the Year awards, among others.
Offseason
On January 23, 2018, first baseman Jon Singleton and pitcher Dean Deetz were suspended after testing positive for substances violating MLB's drug policy. Singleton, a former Astros' number-one prospect, had tested positive for the third time and was banned for 100 games.
Roster moves
November 2, 2017: The following players became free agents at the conclusion of the World Series:
Carlos Beltrán (DH): Announced retirement from playing career on November 13, 2017.
Tyler Clippard (RHP): Signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays.
Luke Gregerson (RHP): Signed two-year, $11 million contract with the St. Louis Cardinals, with a vesting option for the 2020 season, on December 13, 2017.
Francisco Liriano (LHP): Signed one-year, $4 million contract with the Detroit Tigers.
Cameron Maybin (OF): Signed one-year, $3.25 million contract with the Miami Marlins
December 13: Signed free agent right-handed relief pitcher Joe Smith to a two-year contract worth $14 million.
Regular season
Justin Verlander was the Opening Day starting pitcher for Houston at Globe Life Park in Arlington, versus Cole Hamels of the Texas Rangers. It was Verlander's tenth career Opening Day start and first with Houston, as all nine previous had come as a member of the Detroit Tigers. George Springer led the game off with a home run, becoming the first MLB player to lead off with a home run in consecutive Opening Days. He had homered off Felix Hernandez of the Seattle Mariners in the first inning of Opening Day 2017 at Minute Maid Park. Verlander pitched six shutout innings and struck out five. The Astros won by a final score of 4–1.
Second baseman José Altuve reached 1,000 games played in his career on April 17, 2018, versus the Mariners. He became the 20th player to appear in 1,000 games for the Astros.
Verlander was named AL Player of the Week on April 17. In 15 innings over one start each versus the Rangers and Twins, he struck 20 and allowed a .100 opponents' batting average.
On May 7, 2018, Springer homered versus the Oakland Athletics and became the first player in Astros franchise history to record six hits in a nine-inning game. Joe Morgan had six hits in a twelve-inning game for the Astros on June 8, 1965.
On May 16, 2018, Verlander threw a complete-game shutout against the Los Angeles Angels for his eighth career shutout and 24th complete game. He struck out Shohei Ohtani in the top of the ninth inning for his 2,500th career strikeout, becoming the 33rd pitcher in Major League history to cross that threshold. He was second among active leaders in strikeouts behind CC Sabathia.
Over three games versus the Cleveland Indians spanning May 25–27, Altuve recorded a base hit in each of 10 consecutive at bats, breaking his own club record of eight which he had set the year prior. The streak included three doubles, one triple, and one home run.
Verlander was named AL Pitcher of the Month for May, his fifth career award. In six starts, he produced a 0.86 ERA and .437 OPS against, allowed nine extra base hits, while striking out 50 over innings. He started and ended the month by dominating the Yankees—the only lineup in baseball with an OPS over .800—with 20 strikeouts in innings, eight hits, and one run allowed.
On July 13, 2018, Charlie Morton was added to the American League roster for the 2018 MLB All-Star game making the Astros the only MLB team at the time to have all of their starting pitchers having at least one selection to participate in the MLB All-Star game.
On September 26, 2018, Houston won the American League West division title after the Oakland Athletics were defeated by the Seattle Mariners, following a 4–1 win against the Toronto Blue Jays.
Astros pitchers set a new MLB record by striking out 1,687 opposing batters during the season. The team had 96 games in which they struck out 10 or more batters, also a record. In addition, they were the first team to strike out 5 or more batters in each of 162 games.
Season standings
American League West
American League Wild Card
Record against opponents
Game log
Regular season
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 1 || March 29 || @ Rangers || 4–1 || Verlander (1–0) || Hamels (0–1) || — || 47,253 || 1–0 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 2 || March 30 || @ Rangers || 1–5 || Fister (1–0) || Keuchel (0–1) || — || 35,469 || 1–1 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 3 || March 31 || @ Rangers || 9–3 || McCullers (1–0) || Moore (0–1) || — || 36,892 || 2–1 || W1
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 4 || April 1 || @ Rangers || 8–2 || Cole (1–0) || Minor (0–1) || — || 26,758 || 3–1 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 5 || April 2 || Orioles || 6–1 || Morton (1–0) || Tillman (0–1) || — || 42,675 || 4–1 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 6 || April 3 || Orioles || 10–6 || Rondón (1–0) || Araújo (0–1) || — || 37,106 || 5–1 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 7 || April 4 || Orioles || 3–2 || Peacock (1–0) || Castro (0–1) || — || 27,698 || 6–1 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 8 || April 6 || Padres || 1–4 || Perdomo (1–1) || McCullers (1–1) || Hand (2) || 41,138 || 6–2 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 9 || April 7 || Padres || 1–0 || Devenski (1–0) || Erlin (0–1) || — || 42,306 || 7–2 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 10 || April 8 || Padres || 4–1 || Morton (2–0) || Ross (1–1) || Peacock (1) || 37,093 || 8–2 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 11 || April 9 || @ Twins || 2–0 || Verlander (2–0) || Rogers (1–1) || Giles (1) || 15,521 || 9–2 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 12 || April 10 || @ Twins || 1–4 || Odorizzi (1–0) || Keuchel (0–2) || Rodney (2) || 15,500 || 9–3 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 13 || April 11 || @ Twins || 8–9 || Rodney (1–1) || Peacock (1–1) || — || 15,438 || 9–4 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 14 || April 13 || Rangers || 3–2 || Smith (1–0) || Jepsen (0–2) || Devenski (1) || 32,129 || 10–4 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 15 || April 14 || Rangers || 5–6 (10) || Kela (1–0) || Harris (0–1) || Claudio (1) || 40,679 || 10–5 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 16 || April 15 || Rangers || 1–3 (10) || Kela (2–0) || Rondón (1–1) || Diekman (1) || 31,803 || 10–6 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 17 || April 16 || @ Mariners || 1–2 || Paxton (1–1) || Keuchel (0–3) || Díaz (7) || 12,923 || 10–7 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 18 || April 17 || @ Mariners || 4–1 || McCullers (2–1) || Altavilla (1–2) || Devenski (2) || 15,382 || 11–7 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 19 || April 18 || @ Mariners || 7–1 || Cole (2–0) || Leake (2–1) || — || 14,643 || 12–7 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 20 || April 19 || @ Mariners || 9–2 || Morton (3–0) || Gonzales (1–2) || — || 16,927 || 13–7 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 21 || April 20 || @ White Sox || 10–0 || Verlander (3–0) || Shields (1–2) || — || 14,211 || 14–7 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 22 || April 21 || @ White Sox || 10–1 || Keuchel (1–3) || Giolito (0–3) || — || 23,902 || 15–7 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 23 || April 22 || @ White Sox || 7–1 || McCullers (3–1) || Bummer (0–1) || — || 17,167 || 16–7 || W6
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 24 || April 23 || Angels || 0–2 || Skaggs (3–1) || Cole (2–1) || Middleton (6) || 29,606 || 16–8 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 25 || April 24 || Angels || 7–8 || Johnson (2–0) || Smith (1–1) || Bedrosian (1) || 36,457 || 16–9 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 26 || April 25 || Angels || 5–2 || Verlander (4–0) || Tropeano (1–2) || Giles (2) || 29,777 || 17–9 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 27 || April 27 || Athletics || 1–8 || Manaea (4–2) || Keuchel (1–4) || — || 32,636 || 17–10 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 28 || April 28 || Athletics || 11–0 || McCullers (4–1) || Mengden (2–3) || — || 41,493 || 18–10 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 29 || April 29 || Athletics || 8–4 || Harris (1–1) || Cahill (1–1) || — || 39,131 || 19–10 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 30 || April 30 || Yankees || 2–1 || Morton (4–0) || Gray (1–2) || Giles (3) || 30,061 || 20–10 || W3
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 31 || May 1 || Yankees || 0–4 || Robertson (2–1) || Giles (0–1) || — || 34,386 || 20–11 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 32 || May 2 || Yankees || 0–4 || Severino (5–1) || Keuchel (1–5) || — || 31,617 || 20–12 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 33 || May 3 || Yankees || 5–6 || Shreve (1–0) || Harris (1–2) || Chapman (7) || 34,838 || 20–13 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 34 || May 4 || @ D-backs || 8–0 || Cole (3–1) || Medlen (0–1) || — || 29,463 || 21–13 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 35 || May 5 || @ D-backs || 3–4 || Boxberger (1–2) || Devenski (1–1) || — || 39,154 || 21–14 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 36 || May 6 || @ D-backs || 1–3 || Koch (2–0) || Verlander (4–1) || Boxberger (11) || 35,632 || 21–15 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 37 || May 7 || @ Athletics || 16–2 || Keuchel (2–5) || Anderson (0–1) || — || 7,360 || 22–15 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 38 || May 8 || @ Athletics || 4–2 || McCullers (5–1) || Manaea (4–4) || Giles (4) || 9,675 || 23–15 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 39 || May 9 || @ Athletics || 4–1 || Cole (4–1) || Mengden (2–4) || Giles (5) || 18,044 || 24–15 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 40 || May 11 || Rangers || 0–1 || Hamels (2–4) || Verlander (4–2) || Kela (8) || 34,297 || 24–16 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 41 || May 12 || Rangers || 6–1 || Morton (5–0) || Fister (1–4) || — || 36,482 || 25–16 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 42 || May 13 || Rangers || 6–1 || Keuchel (3–5) || Moore (1–5) || — || 39,405 || 26–16 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 43 || May 14 || @ Angels || 1–2 || Heaney (2-2) || McCullers (5-2) || Anderson (1) || 28,229 || 26–17 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 44 || May 15 || @ Angels || 5–3 || McHugh (1–0) || Álvarez (2–1) || Giles (6) || 28,358 || 27–17 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 45 || May 16 || @ Angels || 2–0 || Verlander (5–2) || Richards (4–2) || — || 28,078 || 28–17 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 46 || May 18 || Indians || 4–1 || Morton (6–0) || Clevinger (3–1) || Giles (7) || 35,959 || 29–17 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 47 || May 19 || Indians || 4–5 || Kluber (7–2) || Keuchel (3–6) || Allen (6) || 39,926 || 29–18 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 48 || May 20 || Indians || 3–1 || McCullers (6–2) || Carrasco (5–3) || Giles (8) || 30,770 || 30–18 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 49 || May 22 || Giants || 11–2 || Cole (5–1) || Suárez (1–4) || — || 35,638 || 31–18 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 50 || May 23 || Giants || 4–1 || Verlander (6–2) || Samardzija (1–3) || Giles (9) || 31,929 || 32–18 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 51 || May 24 || @ Indians || 8–2 || Morton (7–0) || Clevinger (3–2) || — || 19,660 || 33–18 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 52 || May 25 || @ Indians || 11–2 || Smith (2–1) || Miller (1–3) || — || 29,431 || 34–18 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 53 || May 26 || @ Indians || 6–8 || Carrasco (6–3) || McCullers (6–3) || Allen (8) || 30,639 || 34–19 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 54 || May 27 || @ Indians || 9–10 (14) || Otero (1–1) || Peacock (1–2) || — || 27,765 || 34–20 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 55 || May 28 || @ Yankees || 5–1 || Verlander (7–2) || Germán (0–3) || — || 46,583 || 35–20 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 56 || May 29 || @ Yankees || 5–6 (10) || Chapman (2–0) || Peacock (1–3) || — || 45,458 || 35–21 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 57 || May 30 || @ Yankees || 3–5 || Severino (8–1) || Keuchel (3–7) || Chapman (12) || 45,229 || 35–22 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 58 || May 31 || Red Sox || 4–2 || McCullers (7–3) || Pomeranz (1–3) || Giles (10) || 30,658 || 36–22 || W1
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 59 || June 1 || Red Sox || 7–3 || Cole (6–1) || Sale (5–3) || — || 37,244 || 37–22 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 60 || June 2 || Red Sox || 3–5 || Price (6–4) || Harris (1–3) || Kimbrel (19) || 38,640 || 37–23 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 61 || June 3 || Red Sox || 3–9 || Porcello (8–2) || Morton (7–1) || — || 33,431 || 37–24 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 62 || June 5 || Mariners || 1–7 || Paxton (5–1) || Keuchel (3–8) || — || 35,646 || 37–25 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 63 || June 6 || Mariners || 7–5 || Devenski (2–1) || Nicasio (1–3) || Rondón (1) || 30,361 || 38–25 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 64 || June 7 || @ Rangers || 5–2 || Cole (7–1) || Hamels (3–6) || — || 30,236 || 39–25 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 65 || June 8 || @ Rangers || 7–3 || Verlander (8–2) || Fister (1–7) || — || 31,722 || 40–25 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 66 || June 9 || @ Rangers || 4–3 || Sipp (1–0) || Leclerc (1–2) || Rondón (2) || 38,068 || 41–25 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 67 || June 10 || @ Rangers || 8–7 || Harris (2–3) || Kela (3–3) || Rondón (3) || 30,251 || 42–25 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 68 || June 12 || @ Athletics || 6–3 || McCullers (8–3) || Mengden (6–6) || Giles (11) || 11,742 || 43–25 || W6
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 69 || June 13 || @ Athletics || 13–5 || Cole (8–1) || Blackburn (1–1) || — || 9,164 || 44–25 || W7
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 70 || June 14 || @ Athletics || 7–3 || Verlander (9–2) || Montas (3–1) || — || 13,009 || 45–25 || W8
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 71 || June 15 || @ Royals || 7–3 || Morton (8–1) || Junis (5–7) || — || 27,603 || 46–25 || W9
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 72 || June 16 || @ Royals || 10–2 || Keuchel (4–8) || Duffy (3–7) || — || 20,657 || 47–25 || W10
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 73 || June 17 || @ Royals || 7–4 || Sipp (2–0) || Maurer (0–3) || Rondón (4) || 22,326 || 48–25 || W11
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 74 || June 18 || Rays || 5–4 || McHugh (2–0) || Romo (1–2) || — || 34,151 || 49–25 || W12
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 75 || June 19 || Rays || 1–2 || Snell (9–4) || Rondón (1–2) || Romo (4) || 37,414 || 49–26 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 76 || June 20 || Rays || 5–1 || Morton (9–1) || Eovaldi (1–3) || — || 43,409 || 50–26 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 77 || June 22 || Royals || 0–1 || Grimm (1–2) || Giles (0–2) || Hill (1) || 39,357 || 50–27 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 78 || June 23 || Royals || 4–3 (12) || McHugh (3–0) || Grimm (1–3) || — || 40,028 || 51–27 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 79 || June 24 || Royals || 11–3 || Cole (9–1) || Hammel (2–9) || — || 41,823 || 52–27 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 80 || June 25 || Blue Jays || 3–6 || Happ (10–3) || Verlander (9–3) || Oh (2) || 28,791 || 52–28 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 81 || June 26 || Blue Jays || 7–0 || Morton (10–1) || Borucki (0–1) || — || 38,700 || 53–28 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 82 || June 27 || Blue Jays || 7–6 || Harris (3–3) || Tepera (5–3) || — || 39,191 || 54–28 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 83 || June 28 || @ Rays || 1–0 || McCullers (9–3) || Yarbrough (7–4) || Rondón (5) || 12,305 || 55–28 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 84 || June 29 || @ Rays || 2–3 || Font (2–3) || Cole (9–2) || Alvarado (2) || 15,797 || 55–29 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 85 || June 30 || @ Rays || 2–5 || Nuño (2–0) || Verlander (9–4) || Romo (7) || 18,378 || 55–30 || L2
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 86 || July 1 || @ Rays || 2–3 || Snell (11–4) || Morton (10–2) || Romo (8) || 19,334 || 55–31 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 87 || July 3 || @ Rangers || 5–3 || Keuchel (5–8) || Bibens-Dirkx (1–2) || Rondón (6) || 40,165 || 56–31 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 88 || July 4 || @ Rangers || 5–4 (10) || McHugh (4–0) || Martin (1–2) || Giles (12) || 43,592 || 57–31 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 89 || July 5 || White Sox || 4–3 || Smith (3–1) || Soria (0–3)|| — || 34,955 || 58–31 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 90 || July 6 || White Sox || 11–4 || McCullers (10–3) || López (4–6) || Peacock (2) || 38,153 || 59–31 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 91 || July 7 || White Sox || 12–6 || Morton (11–2) || Shields (3–10) || — || 39,568 || 60–31 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 92 || July 8 || White Sox || 2–1 || Keuchel (6–8) || Giolito (5–8) || Rondón (7) || 41,654 || 61–31 || W6
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 93 || July 9 || Athletics || 0–2 || Montas (5–2) || Peacock (1–4) || Treinen (23) || 28,301 || 61–32 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 94 || July 10 || Athletics || 6–5 (11) || McHugh (5–0) || Treinen (5–2) || — || 34,585 || 62–32 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 95 || July 11 || Athletics || 3–8 || Bassitt (2–3) || McCullers (10–4) || — || 41,119 || 62–33 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 96 || July 12 || Athletics || 4–6 || Petit (3–2) || Devenski (2–2) || Trivino (4) || 38,900 || 62–34 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 97 || July 13 || Tigers || 3–0 || Keuchel (7–8) || Fiers (6–6) || Rondón (8) || 38,843 || 63–34 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 98 || July 14 || Tigers || 9–1 || Cole (10–2) || Fulmer (3–9) || — || 40,405 || 64–34 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 99 || July 15 || Tigers || 3–6 || VerHagen (1–2) || Verlander (9–5) || — || 39,455 || 64–35 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#bbcaff;"
| colspan="10" | 89th All-Star Game in Washington, D.C.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 100 || July 20 || @ Angels || 3–1 || Keuchel (8–8) || Skaggs (7–6) || Rondón (9) || 42,422 || 65–35 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 101 || July 21 || @ Angels || 7–0 || Verlander (10–5) || Tropeano (3–5) || — || 44,264 || 66–35 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 102 || July 22 || @ Angels || 5–14 || Heaney (6–6) || McCullers (10–5) || — || 35,298 || 66–36 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 103 || July 24 || @ Rockies || 8–2 (10) || Rondón (2–2) || Davis (0–3) || — || 43,184 || 67–36 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 104 || July 25 || @ Rockies || 2–3 || Davis (1–3) || McHugh (5–1) || — || 40,948 || 67–37 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 105 || July 27 || Rangers || 2–11 ||Gallardo (5–1) ||Keuchel (8–9) || — || 42,592 || 67–38 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 106 || July 28 || Rangers || 3–7 ||Jurado (1–1) ||Verlander (10–6) || — || 43,093 || 67–39 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 107 || July 29 || Rangers || 3–4 ||Minor (7–6) ||McCullers (10–6) ||Kela (24) || 40,560 || 67–40 || L4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 108 || July 30 || @ Mariners || 0–2 || Paxton (9–4) || Cole (10–3) || Díaz (40) || 35,198 || 67–41 || L5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 109 || July 31 || @ Mariners || 5–2 || Morton (12–2) || Leake (8–7) || Rondón (10) || 28,478 || 68–41 || W1
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 110 || August 1 || @ Mariners || 8–3 || Keuchel (9–9) || LeBlanc (6–2) || — || 34,575 || 69–41 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 111 || August 3 || @ Dodgers || 2–1 || Verlander (11–6) || Wood (7–6) || Rondón (11) || 53,598 || 70–41 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 112 || August 4 || @ Dodgers || 14–0 || Peacock (2–4) || Maeda (7–7) || — || 53,119 || 71–41 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 113 || August 5 || @ Dodgers || 2–3 || Buehler (5–4) || Cole (10–4) || Jansen (31) || 50,628 || 71–42 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 114 || August 6 || @ Giants || 3–1 || Osuna (1–0) || Smith (1–2) || Rondón (12) || 40,251 || 72–42 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 115 || August 7 || @ Giants || 2–1 || Smith (4–1) || Black (1–1) || Rondón (13) || 41,613 || 73–42 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 116 || August 9 || Mariners || 6–8 || Paxton (10–5) || Verlander (11–7) || Díaz (43) || 34,976 || 73–43 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 117 || August 10 || Mariners || 2–5 || Warren (1–1) || Cole (10–5) || Díaz (44) || 41,236 || 73–44 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 118 || August 11 || Mariners || 2–3 || LeBlanc (7–2) || Morton (12–3) || Díaz (45) || 38,888 || 73–45 || L3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 119 || August 12 || Mariners || 3–4 (10) || Duke (5–4) || Osuna (1–1) || Díaz (46) || 40,048 || 73–46 || L4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 120 || August 14 || Rockies || 1–5 || Márquez (10–9) || Verlander (11–8) || — || 35,813 || 73–47 || L5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 121 || August 15 || Rockies || 12–1 || Cole (11–5) || Anderson (6–5) || — || 29,967 || 74–47 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 122 || August 17 || @ Athletics || 3–4 (10) || Treinen (6–2) || Sipp (2–1) || — || 23,535 || 74–48 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 123 || August 18 || @ Athletics || 1–7 || Cahill (5–2) || Keuchel (9–10) || — || 32,204 || 74–49 || L2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 124 || August 19 || @ Athletics || 9–4 || Verlander (12–8) || Manaea 11–9) || — || 29,143 || 75–49 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 125 || August 20 || @ Mariners || 4–7 || Colomé (4–5) || McHugh (5–2) || Díaz (48) || 27,072 || 75–50 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 126 || August 21 || @ Mariners || 3–2 || Valdez (1–0) || Detwiler (0–1) || Rondón (14) || 25,415 || 76–50 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 127 || August 22 || @ Mariners || 10–7 || Morton (13–3) || Gonzales (12–9) || Osuna (10) || 31,062 || 77–50 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 128 || August 24 || @ Angels || 9–3 || Keuchel (10–10) || Heaney (7–8) || — || 42,788 || 78–50 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 129 || August 25 || @ Angels || 8–3 || Verlander (13–8) || Barría (8–8) || — || 41,654 || 79–50 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 130 || August 26 || @ Angels || 3–1 || Valdez (2–0) || Peña (1–4) || Osuna (11) || 37,530 || 80–50 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 131 || August 27 || Athletics || 11–4 || Cole (12–5) || Anderson (3–4) || — || 43,171 || 81–50 || W6
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 132 || August 28 || Athletics || 3–4 || Familia (8–4) || Osuna (1–2) || Treinen (33) || 33,136 || 81–51 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 133 || August 29 || Athletics || 5–4 || Osuna (2–2) || Familia (8–5) || — || 32,926 || 82–51 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 134 || August 30 || Angels || 2–5 ||Heaney (8–8) ||Verlander (13–9) || — || |30,371|| 82–52 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 135 || August 31 || Angels || 0–3 ||Barría (9–8) || Valdez (2–1) ||Parker (13)|| | 35,675 || 82–53 || L2
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 136 || September 1 || Angels || 7–3 || Smith (5–1) || Bedrosian (5–4) || — || 41,622 || 83–53 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 137 || September 2 || Angels || 4–2 || Cole (13–5) || Ohtani (4–2) || Osuna (12) || 41,506 || 84–53 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 138 || September 3 || Twins || 4–1 || Keuchel (11–10) || Gibson (7–12) || Peacock (3) || 39,559 || 85–53 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 139 || September 4 || Twins || 5–2 || Verlander (14–9) || May (3–1) || Osuna (13) || 31,315 || 86–53 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 140 || September 5 || Twins || 9–1 || Valdez (3–1) || Odorizzi (5–10) || — || 31,011 || 87–53 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 141 || September 7 || @ Red Sox || 6–3 || Pressly (2–1) || Kelly (4–2) || Osuna (14) || 36,930 || 88–53 || W6
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 142 || September 8 || @ Red Sox || 5–3 || Morton (14–3) || Rodríguez (12–4) || Osuna (15) || 36,684 || 89–53 || W7
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 143 || September 9 || @ Red Sox || 5–6 || Kimbrel (5–1) || Rondón (2–3) || — || 32,787 || 89–54 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 144 || September 10 || @ Tigers || 3–2 || Verlander (15–9) || Liriano (4–10) || Osuna (16) || 19,711 || 90–54 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 145 || September 11 || @ Tigers || 5–4 || Harris (4–3) || Zimmermann (7–7) || Osuna (17) || 19,432 || 91–54 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 146 || September 12 || @ Tigers || 5–4 || Cole (14–5) || Norris (0–4) || Pressly (1) || 22,666 || 92–54 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 147 || September 14 || D-backs || 2–4 || Ziegler (2–6) || Rondón (2–4) || Hirano (2) || 36,924 || 92–55 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 148 || September 15 || D-backs || 10–4 ||Morton (15–3) || Godley (14–10)|| — || 38,345 || 93–55 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 149 || September 16 || D-backs || 5–4 ||Verlander (16–9) ||Greinke (14–10) ||Osuna (18) || 37,889 || 94–55 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 150 || September 17 || Mariners || 1–4 ||Cook (2–1) ||Rondón (2–5) ||Díaz (56) || 43,145 || 94–56 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 151 || September 18 || Mariners || 7–0 ||James (1–0) ||Leake (10–10) ||– || 35,715 || 95–56 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 152 || September 19 || Mariners || 0–9 ||Lawrence (1–0) ||Keuchel (11–11) || – || 31,229 || 95–57 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 153 || September 21 || Angels || 11–3 || Cole (15–5) || Heaney (9–10) || — || 39,977 || 96–57 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 154 || September 22 || Angels || 10–5 ||McHugh (6–2) ||Buttrey (0–1) || — || 41,822 || 97–57 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 155 || September 23 || Angels || 6–2 ||Valdez (4–1) ||Skaggs (8–9) || — || 43,247 || 98–57 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 156 || September 24 || @ Blue Jays || 5–3 || Keuchel (12–11) || Estrada (7–14) ||Osuna (19) || 23,463 || 99–57 || W4
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 157 || September 25 || @ Blue Jays || 4–1 || James (2–0) || Gaviglio (3–9) || Osuna (20) || 28,440 || 100–57 || W5
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
|158 || September 26 || @ Blue Jays || 1–3 || Biagini (4–7) ||Devenski (2–3) ||Giles (25) || 22,828 || 100–58 || L1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccc
| — || September 27 || @ Orioles || colspan=8 | Postponed (rain). Makeup date: September 29.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 159 || September 28 || @ Orioles || 2–1 ||Sipp (3–1) || Scott (3–3) ||Osuna (21) || 18,434 || 101–58 || W1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 160 || September 29 (1) || @ Orioles || 4–3 || Harris (5–3) || Gilmartin (1–1) || Rondón (15) || 26,020 || 102–58 || W2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 161 || September 29 (2) || @ Orioles || 5–2 ||Peacock (3–4) || Ramírez (1–8) ||Pressly (2) || 26,020 || 103–58 || W3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 162 || September 30 || @ Orioles || 0–4 || Fry (1–2) ||Peacock (3–5) || — || 24,916 || 103–59 || L1
|-
Player stats
Batting
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; SB = Stolen bases; BB = Walks; AVG = Batting average; SLG = Slugging average
Source:
Pitching
Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts
Source:
Postseason
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 1 || October 5 || Indians || 7–2 || Verlander (1–0) || Kluber (0–1) || — || 43,514 || 1–0
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 2 || October 6 || Indians || 3–1 || Cole (1–0) || Carrasco (0–1) || Osuna (1) || 43,520 || 2–0
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 3 || October 8 || @ Indians || 11–3 ||McHugh (1–0) || Bauer (0–1) || — || 37,252 || 3–0
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc
| 1 || October 13 || @ Red Sox || 7–2 || Verlander (1–0) || Kelly (0–1) || — || 38,007 || 1–0
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 2 || October 14 || @ Red Sox || 5–7 || Barnes (1–0) || Cole (0–1) || Kimbrel (1) || 37,960 || 1–1
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 3 || October 16 || Red Sox || 2–8 || Eovaldi (1–0) || Smith (0–1) || — || 43,102 || 1–2
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 4 || October 17 || Red Sox || 6–8 || Kelly (1–1) || James (0–1) || Kimbrel (2) || 43,277 || 1–3
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb
| 5 || October 18 || Red Sox || 1–4 || Price (1–0) || Verlander (1–1) || Kimbrel (3) || 43,210 || 1–4
|-
Postseason rosters
| style="text-align:left" |
Pitchers: 29 Tony Sipp 31 Collin McHugh 35 Justin Verlander 36 Will Harris 43 Lance McCullers Jr. 45 Gerrit Cole 50 Charlie Morton 54 Roberto Osuna 55 Ryan Pressly 60 Dallas Keuchel 63 Josh James
Catchers: 15 Martín Maldonado 16 Brian McCann
Infielders: 1 Carlos Correa 2 Alex Bregman 9 Marwin González 10 Yuli Gurriel 27 José Altuve
Outfielders: 4 George Springer 18 Tony Kemp 22 Josh Reddick 26 Myles Straw
Designated hitters: 11 Evan Gattis 13 Tyler White
|- valign="top"
| style="text-align:left" |
Pitchers: 29 Tony Sipp 30 Héctor Rondón 31 Collin McHugh 35 Justin Verlander 38 Joe Smith 43 Lance McCullers Jr. 45 Gerrit Cole 50 Charlie Morton 54 Roberto Osuna 55 Ryan Pressly 60 Dallas Keuchel 63 Josh James
Catchers: 15 Martín Maldonado 16 Brian McCann
Infielders: 1 Carlos Correa 2 Alex Bregman 9 Marwin González 10 Yuli Gurriel 27 José Altuve
Outfielders: 4 George Springer 6 Jake Marisnick 18 Tony Kemp 22 Josh Reddick
Designated hitters: 11 Evan Gattis 13 Tyler White
|- valign="top"
Roster
Farm system
See also
List of Major League Baseball 100 win seasons
List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason streaks
List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders
References
External links
Houston Astros season official site
2018 Houston Astros season at Baseball Reference
Houston Astros seasons
Houston Astros
Houston Astros
American League West champion seasons |
4264348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Mason | Ron Mason | Ronald Herbert Mason (January 14, 1940 – June 13, 2016) was a Canadian ice hockey player, head coach, and university executive. A head coach of various American universities, most notably Michigan State University (MSU), he was the most successful coach in NCAA ice hockey history between 1993 and 2012 with 924 wins, until Jerry York (Boston College) became the new winningest coach with his 925th career win on December 29, 2012. Mason was athletic director at MSU from 2002 to 2008. He then served as senior advisor for the USHL Muskegon Lumberjacks. On December 2, 2013, Mason was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame.
Family
Ron Mason was born the son of Harvey Mason, a salesman, and Agnes Mackay Mason, an elementary school teacher. He married the former Marion Bell on June 8, 1963. They had two daughters, Tracey (born 1963) and Cindy (born 1968) and two grandsons, Tyler and Travis. Travis was a defenseman on the Michigan State University hockey team until his graduation in 2016. Mason had one sister, Marion Mason Rowe.
Education
Mason earned a B.A. in physical education from St. Lawrence University in 1964 and a Masters in physical education from the University of Pittsburgh in 1965. Michigan State University awarded Mason an honorary doctorate in 2001.
Career as player
Mason played junior hockey with the Ontario Hockey Association’s Peterborough Petes and the Ottawa Junior Canadians. From there Mason enrolled at St. Lawrence University in the upstate town of Canton, New York where he lettered in hockey for three years. In his first season at SLU in 1960–61, Mason and the Skating Saints were NCAA national finalists. In 1961–62, Mason and SLU won the school's first Eastern College Athletic Conference championship and made the NCAA Frozen Four. In his final season, SLU won a school-record 20 games finishing 20–6–1. Mason led the team in scoring twice earning back-to-back first-team all-league honors. Mason was St. Lawrence's only player to earn that distinction until T. J. Trevelyan was named all-league in 2005 and 2006.
Career as coach
Mason coached one NAIA program, Lake Superior State, and two NCAA programs, Bowling Green State and Michigan State in 36 seasons from 1966 to 2002. He won two national titles: NAIA in 1972 with Lake Superior State and NCAA in 1986 with Michigan State. Ron Mason finished his coaching career as the all-time career victories leader in college hockey history with 924 wins. Boston College's Jerry York surpassed Mason's win total on December 31, 2012. Mason is also the career coaching victories leader at Michigan State with 635 wins. He is Bowling Green State's winningest coach by percentage winning over 71 percent of his 229 games at BGSU.
Mason had 33 seasons with a winning record, 30 seasons winning 20 or more games and 11 seasons winning 30 or more games. Mason won ten CCHA regular season championships and a record 13 CCHA tournament titles. He advanced his teams to the NCAA tournament 22 times—six times as the No. 1 seed—making the Frozen Four eight times. Mason was the CCHA coach of the year six times. He won the Spencer Penrose Memorial Trophy as the national coach of the year in 1992.
On January 26, 2002, a media report stated Mason would step down as coach at Michigan State to take over the athletic director position at MSU. On January 28, 2002, Mason made it official that he would leave his post as head ice hockey coach to become athletic director.
Lake Superior State
Mason started the hockey program at Lake Superior State University in 1966. In seven seasons at LSSU he produced four 20-win seasons and never lost more than 10 games. He guided the Lakers to the 1972 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) national championship.
Bowling Green State
In 1973 he moved to Bowling Green State University where he won three Central Collegiate Hockey Association regular season titles and three consecutive CCHA tournament titles in six seasons. In 1977 Bowling Green State earned their first berth in the NCAA tournament. The berth was a first for a team not from the Western Collegiate Hockey Association or Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference in the NCAA tournament's 30-year history. It was the first of three consecutive NCAA tournaments under Mason. BGSU won the third-place game over defending national champion Wisconsin in the 1978 NCAA Frozen Four. In 1978–79 Mason coached BGSU to a then NCAA record 37 wins. The record would be broken in 1984-85 by Mason's own Michigan State team.
Michigan State
Michigan State University Athletic Director Joseph Kearney hired Mason to replace the retiring Amo Bessone on April 1, 1979. In his third season at MSU, Mason guided Michigan State to their first NCAA tournament in 15 seasons. Four seasons later in 1986, Mason led Michigan State to the school's second national title. Michigan State returned to the championship game the following season but lost to North Dakota. On March 12, 1993, with a 6-5 win over Kent State, Mason passed former Boston College coach Len Ceglarski to become college hockey's all-time winningest coach with 674 wins. While at MSU, Mason won a conference-record 10 CCHA tournament championships, including a conference-record four straight from 1982 to 1985. In addition, MSU won seven CCHA regular season titles under mason, earned 19 NCAA tournament appearances, and earned seven NCAA Frozen Four appearances.
Career as athletic director
Ron Mason began his duties as athletic director on July 1, 2002. Before he officially became athletic director, Mason chose Rick Comley as his successor as hockey coach.
On November 4, 2002, after a disappointing season and a series of off-the-field incidents with players, Mason fired head football coach Bobby Williams with three games left in the season and eventually hired John L. Smith away from Louisville as his permanent replacement. Mason fired Smith after three consecutive losing seasons, and Mason then hired Mark Dantonio away from Cincinnati, who brought the Spartans to football prominence.
While athletic director, the Michigan State hockey team won the school's third national title in 2007. Mason is the only person to have won NCAA ice hockey titles as head coach and athletic director. Mason also placed a priority seat licensing program in Spartan Stadium based on years of holding season tickets, contribution to the Ralph Young Fund, and a licensing fee for better seats on top of the price of season tickets. Further updates to increase revenue in Spartan Stadium included a $64 million USD expansion and improvements which include:
24 luxury suites
800 club seats
The "Grand Entrance" featuring high ceilings, glass walls, marble floors and a new home for the original Sparty statue
luxury concourse
Office space for Career Services, University Advancement and the MSU Alumni Office
State of the art recruiting lounge
Upgraded stadium-wide bathroom and concourse renovations
An increase of 3000 seats, bringing the total stadium capacity to 75,005
In September 2006, Michigan State University's Board of Trustees approved a contract extension for Mason extending his contract as MSU's athletic director through June 2008. He retired from the post of athletic director at Michigan State University on January 1, 2008, and was succeeded by Mark Hollis.
Legacy with the CCHA
In addition to his success as a coach, Mason was involved in organizing the Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) and helping it to grow into one of the most powerful college hockey conferences of the 1980s, '90s, and 2000s. When Mason began coaching in 1966 there were only two major conferences in the NCAA, the Eastern College Athletic Conference and the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. While building the ice hockey program at Lake Superior State to Division I status, Mason found that his team was left without a conference. In 1972 Mason, along with Bowling Green State University's Jack Vivian, St. Louis University's Bill Selman, Ohio State University's Dave Chambers, Ohio University's John McComb and the CCHA's first commissioner Fred Jacoby, formed the Central Collegiate Hockey Association. Mason's coaching tenure at Bowling Green State produced the CCHA's first NCAA tournament berth, first appearance in the NCAA Frozen Four, and first national No. 1 ranking.
For his contributions in helping build the CCHA, the conference renamed their tournament championship trophy as the Mason Cup in 2000–01.
Philanthropy
Mason volunteered with the Sparrow Foundation, where he established the Ron Mason Fund for Pediatric Rehabilitation, which helps children with disabilities. The fund has raised $675,000 for the foundation since 1998. He was also the honorary chairperson for the Children's Miracle Network, which has raised $19 million-plus since 1989.
Death
Mason died on the morning of June 13, 2016, in Haslett, Michigan, after suffering a heart attack. He was 76.
Notable players coached
In his 36 years, Mason coached a number of outstanding players.
Hobey Baker Award winners
Hobey Baker Award finalists
AHCA All-America
CCHA Player of the Year
NHL first round draft picks
Joe Murphy was first NCAA player selected first overall
Select NHL players
Olympians
Head coaching record
See also
List of college men's ice hockey coaches with 400 wins
Awards and honors
References
External links
1940 births
2016 deaths
Bowling Green Falcons ice hockey coaches
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Lake Superior State Lakers men's ice hockey coaches
Michigan State Spartans athletic directors
Michigan State Spartans ice hockey coaches
Sportspeople from Huron County, Ontario
Peterborough Petes (ice hockey) players
St. Lawrence Saints men's ice hockey players
United Hockey League coaches
University of Pittsburgh alumni
Sigma Alpha Epsilon members |
10616509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian%20turtle | Caspian turtle | The Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica), also known as the striped-neck terrapin, is a species of turtle in the family Geoemydidae (=Bataguridae). It is found in the eastern Mediterranean region from southwestern former USSR and central Iran to Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Israel, and Lebanon, northward through Turkey to Bulgaria, and through Cyprus, Crete, and the Ionian Peninsula to former Yugoslavia.
Description
Mauremys caspica is a tan to blackish, medium-sized, semiaquatic turtle, which may attain a carapace length of . Its low, oval carapace has a slight medial keel (better developed in juveniles) and a smooth, unserrated marginal border, which is slightly upturned and tapered above the tail. A pair of low lateral keels are present on the pleural scutes of hatchlings, but these become lower with age and disappear completely in adults. The carapace is tan to olive or black with yellow to cream-colored reticulations patterning the scutes, and some individuals have yellow vertebral stripes. These light lines fade with age, but the pleural seam borders become darker. The well-developed plastron is notched posteriorly. The plastral formulae are given in the subspecies descriptions under Geographic Variation. The plastron is either yellow with variable reddish to dark-brown blotches, or dark brown or black with a yellow blotch along the lateral scute borders. The bridge is either yellow with dark seam borders and dark spots on the corresponding marginals, or almost totally black with a few small yellow marks. The head is not enlarged, and is olive to dark brown with yellow or pale cream-colored stripes. Some stripes extend anteriorly from the neck onto the head. One of these on each side passes above the eye and onto the snout where it meets the stripe from the other side. Several others extend across the tympanum to contact the posterior rim of the orbit, and two additional stripes continue across the snout and pass ventral to the orbit. The neck, limbs, and tail are tan gray to olive or black with yellow, cream, or gray stripes or reticulations.
M. caspica has 52 chromosomes; (Killebrew, 1977a; Bickham and Carr, 1983).
Females are generally larger than males, have flat plastra and shorter tails with the vent under the rim of the carapace. The smaller males have concave plastra and longer, thicker tails with the vent beyond the rim of the carapace.
Systematics
Four subspecies are recognized: The eastern Caspian turtle, Siebenrock's Caspian turtle, the spotted-bellied Caspian turtle, and the western Caspian turtle.
The eastern Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica caspica) was recently split into three forms. The nominate subspecies occurs in central Turkey and northern Iran, northward to the Republic of Georgia and eastward to southwestern Turkmenistan. It has wider reticulations on its carapace than M. c. rivulata, and a yellow-to-tan plastron with a regularly shaped, large, dark blotch on each scute. These more-or-less symmetrically arranged plastral spots may merge to one dark central spot, but a yellow border to the plastron often remains. The soft parts are mainly dark, and the bridge is mainly yellow with some dark lines or spots (but may be dark in old melanistic individuals). Its plastral formula is for males, and for females.
Siebenrock's Caspian turtle (M. c. siebenrocki ) occurs in Iran and Iraq, with relict populations in Saudi Arabia and on the island of Bahrain; it intergrades with M. c. caspica in Mesopotamia. This light form with contrasting colors resembles M. c. caspica, but has a yellow-to-orange plastron with a small to medium-sized, regularly shaped dark blotch on each scute. The soft parts are lighter than in M. c. caspica, and, unlike in other subspecies, age-related melanism does not occur in this subspecies.
The spotted-bellied Caspian turtle (M. c. ventrimaculata) is endemic to the highlands of the Kor and Maharloo basins in southern Iran. It is distinguished from the M. c. caspica and M. c. siebenrocki subspecies by a yellow plastron with one or several irregularly shaped black spots on each scute. In older individuals this results in a complex plastral pattern of irregular dark markings.
The western Caspian turtle (M. c. rivulata) ranges throughout southeastern Europe (former Yugoslavia to Greece, the Ionian Islands, Crete, and Cyprus), Bulgaria, eastern to south-central Turkey, coastal Syria, Lebanon, and Israel; records from the vicinity of Ankara and from Lake Emir are questioned by Fritz. This subspecies has narrow or fine reticulations on its carapace (which may be lost with age), and a totally black plastron and bridge. Age-related flavism may occur, resulting in a mainly yellow plastron with black reduced to the seams. This subspecies can be separated from melanistic M. c. caspica by differences in head, neck, and foreleg patterns. Its plastral formula usually is in both sexes, but variations of this have been described in Izmir populations.
According to Fritz and Wischuf, M. c. caspica sensu lato (caspica, siebenrocki and ventrimaculata) and M. c. rivulata only intergrade in two populations near the Turkish-Syrian border; no wide intergradation belt between these two forms exists. Therefore, they propose rivulata to be separated as a "monotypic semi-species". Rivulata and members of the main caspica group are known to produce (presumably fertile) hybrids, so they should never be housed together in captivity
The Spanish pond turtle (Mauremys leprosa) was formerly considered a subspecies of M. caspica, but studies of the electrophoretic properties of its proteins, and studies of its morphology have shown it to be a separate species.
Etymology
The subspecific name, siebenrocki, is in honor of Austrian herpetologist Friedrich Siebenrock.
Ecology
Mauremys caspica occurs in large numbers in almost any permanent freshwater body within its range. It also lives in irrigation canals and is quite tolerant of brackish water. The turtles at one Iraq site lacked the ability to swim. Instead, they would crawl out of the water periodically to breathe and then slide back in again. A captive from there could not be induced to swim. Reed thought this behavior to be an adaptation to the extreme variability in the supply of surface water in the area.
Breeding usually takes place in early spring, but may also occur in the fall. The courtship behavior has not been described, but must be similar to that in captivity. Nesting occurs in June and July. A typical clutch is four to six, elongated 20-30 x 35–40 mm (1.0 x 1.5 in), brittle-shelled, white eggs. Hatchlings have round carapaces about in length, and are brighter colored than the adults.
The Caspian turtle may occur in large populations in certain areas, especially in permanent water bodies. In temporary waters, it is forced to aestivate in the mud in summer, and the more northern populations hibernate during winter. It often basks, but disappears at the least disturbance. Many are killed each year by humans who obtain their eggs to use in treating ubiquitous eye ailments. Storks and vultures also take a heavy toll of juveniles and adults, respectively.
It is carnivorous as juveniles with a shift towards being omnivorous as adults; larger individuals were observed to be more herbivorous. It feeds on small invertebrates, aquatic insects, amphibians, carrion, as well as a variety of aquatic and terrestrial plants.
References
Further reading
Busack, Stephen D.; Ernst, Carl H. (1980). "Variation in Mediterranean Populations of Mauremys Gray, 1869". Ann. Carnegie Mus. 49: 251–264.
(2005). "On the hybridisation between two distantly related Asian turtles (Testudines: Sacalia × Mauremys)". Salamandra 41: 21–26. PDF fulltext
Fritz, U.; Wischuf, T. (1997). "Zur Systematik westasiatisch-südosteuropaischer Bachschildkröten (Gattung Mauremys) (Reptilia: Testudines: Bataguridae)" Zool. Abh. Mus. Tierk. Dresden 49 (13): 223–260.
Gmelin SG (1774). Reise durch Russland zur Untersuchung der drey Natur-Reiche. Dritter Theil [Volume 3]. Reise durch das nordliche Persien, in den Jahren 1770. 1771. bis April 1772. Saint Petersburg, Russia: Kayserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. 508 pp. + Plates I-LII. (Testudo caspica, new species, p. 59 + Plates X & XL). (in German).
Valenciennes A (1833). In: Bory de Saint-Vincent JB (1833). "Vertébrés à sang froid. Reptiles et poissons ". pp. 57-80. In'': Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire É (editor) (1833). Expédition Scientifique de Morée. Tome III, Première Partie. Paris: F.G. Levrault. 400 pp. + plates. (Emys rivulata, new species, Plate IX, figure 2). (in French).
Wischuf, Tilman; Fritz, Uwe (1996). "Eine neue Unterart der Bachschildkröte ( Mauremys caspica ventrimaculata subsp. nov.) aus dem Iranischen Hochland [= A new subspecies of the Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica ventrimaculata subsp. nov.) from the Iranian Highlands]. Salamandra'' 32 (2): 113–122.
External links
An introduction to the Mauremys turtles of the Mediterranean
Mauremys
Turtles of Asia
Turtles of Europe
Turtle, Caspian
Reptiles described in 1774
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Habitats Directive Species |
5365615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Wolfenden | James Wolfenden | James Paine Wolfenden (July 25, 1889 – April 8, 1949) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.
James Wolfenden was born in Cardington, Pennsylvania. He attended Friends' Central School and Penn Charter Academy in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was engaged in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods in Cardington, Pennsylvania.
He was elected to the 70th United States Congress as a Republican to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Thomas S. Butler. He was reelected to the 71st United States Congress in 1928 and the eight succeeding Congresses. He did not run in 1946. He died in Philadelphia.
Biography
On May 26, 1928, Congressman Thomas S. Butler of West Chester, Pennsylvania, died at age seventy-three, after having represented the Delaware/Chester County 8th congressional district for an unprecedented thirty-one years. He was eulogized by various Delaware County leaders, who referred to him kindly as "Uncle Tom" and with whom he had developed a good rapport. Now, however, it was the more populous Delaware County's turn for the two-county congressional seat. By the 1920 census, Delaware County had led Chester County in population by about 173,000 to 115,000, but a gentlemen's agreement between the Republican leaders of each county had allowed the popular Butler to continue his service.
Vacancy
At a meeting on July 31, attended by forty-two Republican conferees from Delaware County and twenty-two from Chester County, thirty-nine-year-old James Wolfenden of Upper Darby was nominated to fill the unexpired term without opposition. Born on July 25, 1889, in Cardington, Delaware County, Wolfenden was an Upper Darby Township Commissioner for nine years and had run his father's cotton and woolen goods manufacturing firm, Wolfenden-Shore, for seven years. He also was a vice president of the Citizen's Bank of Lansdowne and vice president of the Delaware County Hospital, besides being the Republican leader of Upper Darby and later would be named by John J. McClure to the then-young Delaware County Board of Republican Supervisors (War Board). McClure, himself a candidate for the state senate district, which encompassed all of Delaware County, offered a resolution recognizing Butler's passing as the "loss of a great statesman and national leader." The Chester Times heavily praised the choice of Wolfenden, stating that he "will make a good representative" with his "business training" and that he was "progressive", a "leader" and a "booster".
Much excitement was generated in Delaware County and around the nation in the contest for the presidency between Republican Herbert Hoover, President Coolidge's secretary of commerce, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Democrat. Since Smith was a Catholic and, in that era, religious prejudices were then very pronounced, there was a lively debate nationwide.
When the dust had settled election day, Hoover carried staunchly Republican Delaware County by about 83,000 to 29,000. Likewise, Wolfenden defeated his Democratic opponent, Henry Davis, by a whopping 116,266 to 34,607. McClure was also elected to the state senate. The Republicans, having been the dominant party nationally since the turn of the 20th century, had a commanding 267 U.S. House seats to the Democrats 163, with a similar lead in the Senate, 56 to 39. Having also won the special election to fill the remainder of Butler's term, several weeks earlier, against token opposition, Wolfenden was able to take his seat in the House of Representatives on November 6, 1928. He would be the tenth person since 1852 to represent the district in Washington.
1st term
During his tenure in Congress, he served on the following committees: Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Accounts, Interstate and Foreign Commerce and the Joint Committee on Printing. Some of his activities during his first two terms included serving on a funeral committee for fellow Pennsylvania representative W.W. Griest and introducing bills to increase the pensions of Civil War and Spanish–American War veterans, build an addition to the Veterans Bureau Hospital in Coatesville, remodel a public building in Phoenixville, and survey the Darby River, as Darby Creek was called then. He also had received and noted in the Congressional Record petitions from the West Chester Farmers' Club, Dilworthtown Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and New Century Club of West Chester: all opposing any change in Prohibition.
Congressman Wolfenden generally kept a low profile, in line with McClure's wishes that War Board members keep out of the public spotlight. Less than a year after he took office, the stock market crash occurred in October 1929 and the protracted misery of the Great Depression began for the American people.
One notable vote was his in favor of the infamous Smoot-Hawley tariff of 1930, which helped erect a protectionist trade barrier for the United States and was retaliated against by our trading partners, who raised their own tariffs. It is thought by many economists that this tariff helped to worsen the Depression by hurting exports. In 1930, he also cast a pro-labor vote, voting against the Anti-Injunction Act.
As the Great Depression was gaining momentum and Republicans nationally fell out of favor with the public, Wolfenden, bucking the trend, was easily reelected in 1930, beating his Democratic opponent, Harry Wescott by 64,000 votes, 84,521 to 20,443. Widespread discontent, brought on by untold economic suffering and misery, caused the Democrats to make a net gain of 53 House and eight Senate seats. The Republicans clung to a one-vote lead in the Senate, 48 to 47, and two votes in the House, 218 to 216, although the deaths of several GOP members gave the Democrats a majority by the time Congress reorganized several months later.
2nd term
After the census of 1930, Pennsylvania's share of congressional seats was reduced from 36 to 34. Evidently, there was very little controversy in the state legislature regarding reapportionment, with the bill being introduced on April 22, 1931, then passed by the House and Senate and signed by the Governor by June 27. Delaware County, due to its population growth, was separated from Chester County, which was shifted into the Tenth congressional district with Lancaster County. Delaware County in its entirety became Pennsylvania's Seventh Congressional District and would remain so for 36 years.
By dividing Pennsylvania's population by the number of House seats it was entitled to, the ideal district size in 1930 was 283,275. Dividing Philadelphia's population by its seven congressional seats, gave each district an average of 278,709, giving it a slight overrepresentation. Delaware County's population of 278,662 made it slightly over-represented, also. In other words, a vote cast in the neighboring Tenth District, with a population of 326,511, carried less weight that a vote cast in Philadelphia for Congress.
The reason for this was political: county lines were rarely, if ever, crossed when the legislature drew up congressional districts. It would not be until the "one man, one vote" ruling of the Supreme Court some 30 years later that this inequality would be rectified.
3rd term
By 1932, as Hoover's sincere, but insufficient efforts to ease the widespread economic crisis could not arrest the continuing downturn, it was clear that voters were turning to the Democratic nominee, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. On November 3, there was a massive pre-election GOP rally in Media, attended by 1,500 of the party faithful, which Senator McClure described as "an inspiration".
Governor Arthur James, himself not up for election, vigorously defended the Hoover record, comparing the latter to Abraham Lincoln, in whom "people had faith and reelected" against great odds during the Civil War. Congressman Wolfenden, who was up for election, however, was only listed as a "guest" at the rally and did not speak, according to the ChesterTimes.
President Hoover carried Delaware County by 75,291 to FDR's 32,413, including the City of Chester by over two to one. In fact, the GOP machine that dominated Pennsylvania for many years was still able to deliver the state for the unpopular Hoover, 1,453,540 to 1,295,948, making it one of the few major industrial states to swing his way.
Wolfenden won by an even larger majority than Hoover, 70,177 to 32,139, in beating Democrat Matthew Randall. The lopsided county registration figures of 134,038 Republicans to only 8,152 Democrats certainly made the task of winning quite difficult for any Democrat.
But, when Wolfenden returned to Washington to serve his third term, he would find many fewer of his Republican colleagues sitting with him. The GOP's ranks in Congress were decimated, the venerable old party having lost no fewer than 101 House seats and twelve Senate seats, in the FDR landslide. That left the House lineup in favor of the Democrats, 313 to 117, with five independents, and 59 to 36 in the Senate.
In 1933, President Roosevelt, in order to try to relieve the widespread misery due to a now unthinkable unemployment rate of 25% that he inherited from the previous Republican administration, began submitting his New Deal legislation to Congress, which had a top-heavy Democratic majority. From 1933 to 1938, Wolfenden voted against most New Deal proposals, with the exception of several major pieces of legislation, such as the constitutional amendment to repeal Prohibition and allow the purchase of liquor (1933), the Relief Act to allocate money to relieve suffering (1933); the Gold Reserve Act, which devalued the dollar taking the U.S. off the gold standard (1934); the Social Security Act (1935); the Fair Labor Standards Act, which set a forty-hour work week along with a minimum wage (1938).
Some of the bills he voted against were: the Agriculture Adjustment Act to raise farm prices and distribute surplus food to the needy (1933); the Tennessee Valley Authority to federally fund power development in an area especially hit hard by the Depression (1933), the NIRA to allow employees to collectively bargain without interference, along with banning child labor (1933); the Securities Act to reform the stock market (1934); the Reciprocal Tariff Act (1934), the Tax Bill to raise revenue, mostly from the wealthy (1934). Other bills he opposed were: the Relief Act (1936), the Holding Company Act (1936), the Guffey-Snyder Coal Act to help raise the price of Pennsylvania's coal (1936); the Soil Conservation and Relief Act to reforest land (1938) and federal Crop Insurance (1938).
He also voted for isolationist neutrality legislation and opposed earlier efforts to build up defenses, which also reflected the view of the majority of his party and a large segment of the public.
During this period, Wolfenden served on the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission and also introduced HR164, which was aimed towards "discouraging, preventing, punishing the crime of lynching", one of the most vile manifestations of racial hatred still occurring in the Deep South. With conservative Southern Democrats generally controlling the major committees, there was little chance of civil rights legislation being passed.
4th term
In October 1934, the Chester Times rallied behind Congressmen Wolfenden's reelection bid, running a column showing each of his major votes during his third term. They touted the fact that he had voted against 49 New Deal bills and in favor of only 14. Further, it was stated that "several powerful organizations have thrown their support in the coming election" to Wolfenden, such as the Pennsylvania Veterans of Foreign Wars, the Allied Veterans' Association of the United States and four transportation worker brotherhoods. Both groups based their support on his "good record" in Congress. On October 30, Congressman Wolfenden spoke briefly at the annual GOP rally and made some bland remarks, in keeping with his generally low-profile style.
When the votes were counted nationwide in the first referendum on President Roosevelt and his New Deal, the Democrats, instead of the customary mid-term loss of congressional seats, had gained nine House seats and ten Senate seats. Their majorities now stood at 322 to 103 in the House and 69 to 25 in the Senate.
For the first time since 1890, a Democratic governor, George H. Earle, was elected in Pennsylvania, but Wolfenden won a fourth term, capturing 60,139 votes to 43,426 for John E. McDonough, his Democratic opponent. The Congressman's victory margin dropped from 65.8% of the vote in 1932 to 57.2% in 1934, a harbinger of what was to come.
5th term
Finally, following another two years of fighting tooth-and-nail against most New Deal legislation, the Republican Party had what it thought was a chance to recapture the presidency with the nomination of Governor Alf Landon of Kansas. Based on progress towards easing the wretched conditions of the citizens, President Roosevelt was enthusiastically renominated by his party and an energetic election ensued. Politicians in Delaware County were also caught up in the excitement at a pre-election rally, with War Board chairman and state Senator McClure stating: "I doubt his sincerity" in describing President Roosevelt's efforts to improve the economy. Congressman Wolfenden, in a more expressive mode, said: "What we need to save America is for the GOP to elect Landon and John McClure." In what appears to be a tribute towards working-class women, he further elaborated: "I am for the Republican ticket from Landon down to the scrub woman, if there was a scrub woman on it."
Although FDR did not carry the county, he made an impressive showing of 65,117 votes to Landon's 74,899, in the official count. The Democrats did carry the City of Chester, 11,600 to 10,500, in a stunning rebuke to the McClure Machine.
Roosevelt carried the blue collar/working class towns of Aston, Chester Twp., Lower and Upper Chichester, Clifton Heights, Collingdale, Colwyn, Darby Boro, Darby Township., Eddystone, Marcus Hook, Parkside, Ridley Twp., Trainer and Tinicum, while Landon drew his strength from the more rural or upper middle class areas of the Marple, Newtown, Radnor, Springfield and Upper Darby. Wolfenden was reelected by an uncomfortably close margin, officially tallying 73,335 (52.6%) to Howard Kirk's 66,119 (47.4%). Wolfenden's popularity evidently was ebbing, as his opponent ran about 1,000 votes ahead of the President, and the congressman some 1,500 votes behind Governor Landon. By 1936, with the general popularity of the New Deal, Democratic registration in the county had surged to a high of 37,000 and the GOP outnumbered them by only 3.4 to one. However, this would only be temporary, and the Democrats would not have as many registered voters again until another twenty years later.
Nationally, the FDR juggernaut swept Landon aside with 60.7% of the vote and the Democrats took an additional eleven House seats from the GOP and now held a whopping 333 to 89 majority, with thirteen third party members. They commanded the Senate by over four to one, 75 to 17, with four elected from other parties.
This would be the Democrats greatest triumph in history and would mark the high-water mark of their national power. In spite of concerted and sometimes vicious attacks from the Republicans, the New Deal and the hope that it provided, had been decisively and overwhelmingly ratified by the working class, poor, elderly, blacks, and middle class across the nation.
6th term
In 1938, as the New Deal drew to a close, the Republicans made a strong comeback from near-oblivion, gaining eighty seats in the House and six in the Senate. The Republicans recaptured the governorship of Pennsylvania and locally, Wolfenden gained a sixth term with 68% of the vote over C. Ferno Hoffman, his Democratic challenger. Continuing the previous trend, however, Wolfenden fell 1,800 votes below the average vote for the Republican candidates for governor and U.S. senator, while Hoffman was 1,100 votes higher than his running mates.
Attention was now shifting toward ominous developments overseas, with both Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan committing acts of aggression against their neighbors. As the international crisis worsened, with a full-scale war in Europe in September 1939, President Roosevelt asked Congress to strengthen the military in order to deter aggression.
Like most of his Republican colleagues, Wolfenden voted the isolationist line, against the Naval Expansion Act of 1938, the Lend-Lease Act, and the extension of the Selective Service in 1941. Even though the public was divided on most of the defense measures and many were hoping that the U.S. could miraculously avoid war, if these and other military defensive measures had not been adopted, the results could have been catastrophic.
7th term
What occurred at the 1940 GOP presidential convention was remarkable in its time and totally unimaginable in today's times. In the Pennsylvania Republican primary of April 23, New York City District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey, a young (only 38 years old), attractive major contender for the nomination, who gained a national reputation as a racket-buster, had won with over 66% of the vote.
Dewey's only competition in Pennsylvania was, believe it or not, President Roosevelt, who scored a large 10.5% as a write-in candidate and Pennsylvania Governor Arthur H. James, a "favorite son" candidate, with 10.3% of the vote.
In July, Philadelphia played host to the GOP National Convention, which was held at the Convention Center. On the first ballot, no candidate had received the 501 votes needed to be nominated. The tally was Dewey, 360 votes; conservative Ohio Senator Robert Taft, 189; Indiana businessman Wendell L. Willkie, a political "dark horse", 105; Governor James, 74; conservative Michigan Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, 76; and former president Herbert Hoover, 17.
With the exception of Willkie, all of the candidates were isolationists and had various degrees of political experience. By the fourth ballot, Willkie had catapulted to first place, mostly at Dewey's expense, and by the fifth ballot, Willkie had captured over 400 delegate votes, while Dewey dropped to only 57. By the sixth ballot, Governor James swung Pennsylvania's 72 votes to Willkie, putting him over the top, with 659. It was reported that at 1:50 a.m. the crowd of more than 16,000 marched out of Convention Hall, their job done, and shouted Willkie's name to the night.
The Republicans' shouting would be to no avail, as the Democrats, due to the deepening international crisis, renominated Roosevelt for an unprecedented third term. FDR, it appeared, was genuinely undecided about another term until France fell to the Nazis in May 1940. Voters, in keeping with tradition and not wishing to change national leadership in the midst of a crisis, reelected Roosevelt to an unprecedented third term, with a decisive 54% majority.
This time, he increased his margin in Chester, winning by 11,900 to 9,600. Congressman Wolfenden won another term, with 69,649 to 46,960 for his Democratic opponent, E. Adele Scott Saul. It would not be again until 1994, that a female would run in the general election under the banner of either major party for this office in this congressional district.
In the congressional redistricting following the 1940 census, the boundaries of the Seventh District were unchanged, although Pennsylvania's representation in the House was lowered by one seat to thirty-three and Philadelphia, likewise, lost one seat, retaining six. The ideal population for a congressional district in Pennsylvania in 1940 was 300,005. With Delaware County's congressional district representing 310,756 persons and each of Philadelphia's districts averaging 321,889, both the county and city were slightly short-changed in representation.
In December 1941, both houses of Congress voted without dissension, except for Republican Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin of Montana, to declare war on Germany and Japan. Wolfenden voted on December 8 to declare war on Japan, but missed the vote on December 11 to declare war on Germany and Italy.
8th term
In 1942, the Republicans, in a stunning comeback, gained 10 Senate seats and 47 house seats, nearly jeopardizing Democratic control in the house. Wolfenden was handily reelected, but not after a stiff challenge from Vernon O'Rourke, a Swarthmore College professor, who was aided by liberals and independents.
This coalition effort foreshadowed the campaign of fellow Democrat Bob Edgar, 32 years later. O'Rourke attacked the incumbent's isolationist voting record and waged an intensive door-to-door campaign. Nevertheless, the Congressman won by 48,210 to 34,164, with 58% of the vote in a low turn-out wartime election. But, the candidate for governor, Edward Martin, received 8,000 more votes than Wolfenden in the county.
In the 1944 election, FDR ran for a fourth term against Dewey, who was governor of New York. The campaign both nationally and locally was hotly contested and brutal at times, with various unsavory charges flying back and forth between the two parties. Wolfenden was also running for another term, his ninth, against the same opponent as last time. The election had a different twist in that O'Rouke had resigned his professorship at Swarthmore and was serving as a lieutenant, junior grade, aboard a destroyer escort. Since he was at sea and navy regulations forbade active political campaigning, O'Rourke campaigned through stand-ins.
At a Democratic rally at the Odd Fellows Temple in Chester, Owen Hunt, former state insurance commissioner, stood in for O'Rourke. In his remarks, Hunt referred to Wolfenden as "treacherous", having voted against twenty-two important defense bills in the past ten years. Further, he stated that the congressman never cast a vote without "ulterior motives" and served "special interests and sinister influences", such as big business and international cartels.
In charges that smacked of the McCarthyism that would develop in a few years, Hunt seemed to be attempting to impugn Wolfenden's loyalty by stating that the Japanese, prior to the war, had not possessed the resources to build a military machine, until they were supplied by the so-called "sinister influences". He also said that on December 8, the day war was declared, Wolfenden was "out shooting ducks along the Chesapeake".
The Auditor General of Pennsylvania, Democrat Clair Ross, likened the GOP of 1944 to the party of 1920, saying that they were both "haters" and under the "control of reactionaries and isolationists". Further, he elaborated that the Republicans were the party of "Hoover, Landon and Heart; McCormick, Taft and Nye; Martin, Barton and Fish", referring to isolationist members of Congress, as well as former candidates.
Next on the attack was Congressman Francis J. Myers, candidate for U.S. Senate, who painted Dewey as anti-labor and decried the latter's use of "innuendoes" towards certain critics by referring to them as "Russian" or "foreign born". He also criticized efforts by the county government to purge recent voters from the registration rolls, by calling them in for questioning about their residency.
On September 22, Roosevelt, in replying to Republican charges about advance knowledge within the administration regarding the attack on Pearl Harbor, said anyone with such knowledge should notify the military boards who were conducting investigations.
As the allies penetrated deeper into German soil, three months after the landing at Normandy, the headlines were dominated by this news, as well as the growing casualty lists. With unemployment virtually erased in the United States, the U.S. Employment Service reported that there were 7,594 immediate job openings in Delaware County, with 3,415 of those needing unskilled workers.
In October, Delaware County's population was estimated at 335,000, based on the number of rationing books sent by the local offices. According to statistics provided by the Chester Rationing Board, with Chester as a huge wartime manufacturing and commercial center, two-thirds of the county populace lived in Chester and the surrounding towns of Chester Twp., Upland and Parkside. Some of the other Rationing Boards in the county were located in Marcus Hook, Glenolden, Ridley Park, Media and Clifton Heights.
Also in October, Democratic U.S. Senator Joseph Guffey offered a $10,000 reward for any legitimate knowledge of voter fraud in Delaware County, denouncing the alleged "debauchery of the ballot", as practiced by Joseph N. Pew, Jr. and McClure.
Charges of "who-really-got-us-into-this-war" continued to fly, as Republican Congressman Hugh Scott, later to become senator, accused President Roosevelt of "criminal negligence" regarding the positioning of the Pacific fleet immediately prior to Pearl Harbor. Republican loyalists in Chester and Delaware counties, as well as across the Commonwealth, called for a "Day for Dewey", during which volunteers would be asked to donate eight hours to enlist their friends and neighbors to support the cause.
At a rally held at the Chester Elks' Hall, Wolfenden, reacting to the strong labor support for his opponent, hammered away at the "radical, criminal" leadership of the political action committee for the CIO labor union. He called on the unions to purge their ranks of these elements and shot off a series of rhetorical questions to Leon Weiner, editor of the newspaper for Local 107 of the Electrical Workers, questioning the latter's alleged ties to Communist or leftist groups. Wolfenden then paraded his letters of endorsement from the national American Federation of Labor and four railroad brotherhoods.
On October 27, over 3,000 residents gathered, hoping to catch a glimpse of President Roosevelt as his train passed through Delaware County. As the train slowed at the Baltimore and Ohio station at 12th Street and Providence Avenue in Chester, Roosevelt waved from the window and flashed his famous smile, causing the crowd to surge forward in excitement. One woman stated: "I almost saw him." Although knowledge of his deteriorating health was kept from the public, FDR regained some of his old form and returned the fire of Dewey, accusing the Republicans of placing "party over patriotism".
On election eve, there were 141,006 Republicans registered in the county, as opposed to only 27,184 Democrats. In Chester, the GOP also led, 20,588 to 4,687. Although organized labor, which never had it so good with the wartime boom, was pushing hard for Roosevelt and O'Rourke, county GOP leaders predicted that there would be very little ticket-splitting, due to difficulties with the voting machines.
As it had done before, the Chester Times opposed Roosevelt's reelection, citing, in a front-page editorial, his "inefficiency" regarding domestic affairs, an "improvised" foreign policy, the possible "dictatorship" of another term, and his choice of Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, as a "person of no outstanding ability".
9th term
In spite of all the opposition, FDR won his fourth, and last term, beating Dewey, with 25.6 million votes to 22 million. Governor Dewey, however, officially led Roosevelt in the county, 78,533 to 64,021.
When the voting machines were tallied, Wolfenden had 67,081 to O'Rourke's 64,484. However, some 10,000 absentee ballots, cast mostly by those in the military, remained to be opened on November 22. Not to take chances, the Democrats received court permission to place a twenty-four-hour watch on the vault where the ballots were locked away.
O'Rourke could only overcome Wolfenden's narrow lead of 2,597 votes by taking 64% of the soldiers' ballots, a difficult, but not impossible task. As the ballots were counted over the next several weeks, it was clear that Wolfenden would be reelected, with the final totals of 72,289 (51.5%) to 68,161 (48.5%).
Contrary to the Republicans' predictions, there was some ticket-splitting, since O'Rourke had polled some 4,100 votes more votes than the top of the Democratic ticket. According to party sources, due to his close call in the election, Wolfenden promised McClure that he would not run again in 1946.
In December, it was announced that Wolfenden would tour the Pacific war fronts.
In 1945, Delaware County's congressman voted with 299 other members to override the veto of a tax bill that President Roosevelt described as "not a tax bill, but a tax relief bill providing tax relief not for the needy, but for the greedy". Wolfenden also voted that year for Congress' first pay raise since 1925. Other notable bills that he voted or took positions on in his last term were the Manpower Draft Bill (N); giving permanent status to the House Un-American Activities Committee, which investigated Communists and other "undesirables", (Y); the Trade Agreements Act (N); outlawing the Poll Tax, which was used to prevent blacks in the South from voting, for federal elections (Y); the Full Employment Act (Paired Against); Federal Aid to airports (N); the School Lunches Act (Y).
On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt died of a massive cerebral hemorrhage and Vice President Harry Truman was sworn in, as the war in Europe was moving towards a close.
Era ends
On February 13, 1946, true to his promise to McClure, Wolfenden announced he would not seek another term in Congress. In a press release, he stated: "It will always be one of my cherished theories that I have voted in accordance with my conscience in an effort to protect the best interests of Delaware County".
On May 23, he was involved in a bizarre boating accident while on vacation in Ocean City, New Jersey. The Evening Bulletin reported that Wolfenden was aboard the Ram, 28-foot cabin cruiser, as a guest of assistant county coroner, Charles H. Drewes, when an engine backfire caused seventy gallons of gasoline that had just been loaded to explode. Wolfenden was in the cockpit and sprayed with flaming gasoline, then blown overboard by the force of the explosion.
He was rescued and spent several days recovering from first and second degree burns in a Hamonton nursing home owned by a relative. With his left foot remaining permanently injured, his voting attendance declined, along with his health. As he was having another operation on his foot at Temple University Hospital, he died on April 8, 1949, two years after leaving office.
James Wolfenden had faithfully represented Delaware County for eighteen years, the longest tenure of any to hold the office since Tom Butler. His service covered the entire Hoover and Roosevelt presidencies and the first two years of Truman's. He served as both a majority and minority member of the House, attaining the positions of Assistant House Republican Whip and chairman of Pennsylvania's GOP delegation, as well as being the state's ranking member.
His record showed he was basically an isolationist and protectionist, but did show compassion towards the elderly with his favorable Social Security Act vote and towards children with his School Lunch vote. He also took a small, but initial step towards assuring civil rights for all Americans by voting to abolish the poll tax in federal elections. All in all, his service was neither distinguished or inspired, but did attempt to balance the interests of a district that was undergoing a rapid transition from primarily sleepy rural to a growing, bustling bedroom community.
Sources: Delaware County Daily Times, Facts on File, Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, News of Delaware County, Congressional Record
Sources
The Political Graveyard
Politicians from Philadelphia
1889 births
1949 deaths
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
20th-century American politicians
Friends' Central School alumni |
3503759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke%20Schenscher | Luke Schenscher | Luke Dean Schenscher (born 31 December 1982) is an Australian former professional basketball player. He played four years of college basketball for Georgia Tech before having stints in the NBA with the Chicago Bulls in 2006 and the Portland Trail Blazers in 2007. In 2010, he won an NBL championship with the Perth Wildcats.
Early life and career
Schenscher was born in the small South Australian town of Hope Forest. He grew up on a five-acre farm. As a junior, he played basketball for the Noarlunga City Tigers. In 1999, he moved to Canberra to attend the Australian Institute of Sport in conjunction with Lake Ginninderra College. Between 1999 and 2001, he played for the Australian Institute of Sport's SEABL team. In 2001, he led the team in scoring (15.2 points per game) and rebounding (9.2 per game), while also averaging 1.65 blocks per game and shooting 54 percent from the floor. He was subsequently named AIS Junior Athlete of the Year. Also in 2001, he became the first high school student to play for the Boomers when he took part in the East Asian Games. Additionally, he was a member of the Australian national under-21 team which finished eighth at the FIBA Under-21 World Championship.
College career
From 2001 to 2005, Schenscher played college basketball for Georgia Tech. As a freshman, he started five of first six games before being sidelined for 12 games with a broken foot. He led Tech in field goal percentage (.587) and averaged 4.8 points and 3.2 rebounds for the season. As a sophomore, he started 16 games and ranked third on the team in field goal percentage (.472) and second in blocked shots (25).
As a junior in 2003–04, Schenscher finished fourth in the ACC in blocks (1.4 bpg) and eighth in rebounds (6.6 rpg). He shot .565 from the floor. He was the team's second leading scorer in the NCAA tournament, averaging 10.8 points along with 7.0 rebounds and 1.0 blocks. He helped the Yellow Jackets reach the NCAA Final Four, where he recorded 19 points and 12 rebounds in the semifinal win over Oklahoma State, and nine points and 11 rebounds in the final against UConn, a game the Yellow Jackets lost 82–73.
As a senior in 2004–05, Schenscher averaged a career-best 10.1 points per game, to go with 7.3 rebounds and 1.75 blocks. He led the Yellow Jackets in field goal percentage (.539) but did not meet the minimum attempts to qualify for league leaders.
In 119 games at Georgia Tech, Schenscher averaged 7.3 points, 5.4 rebounds and 1.32 blocks per game.
Professional career
NBA and D-League
After going undrafted in the 2005 NBA draft, Schenscher joined the Denver Nuggets' Summer League team. He later signed with the Nuggets on 15 August before being waived on 3 October. He was claimed off waivers by the Sacramento Kings two days later, before they too waived him on 26 October. He subsequently joined the Fort Worth Flyers of the NBA Development League, where he averaged 8.2 points, 6.1 rebounds, 1.42 blocks and 1.2 assists in 36 appearances with 34 starts during the 2005–06 season. He shot .530 from the floor and .607 from the free throw line.
On 5 March 2006, Schenscher signed a 10-day contract with the Chicago Bulls. He went on to sign a second 10-day contract on 15 March, and a rest-of-season contract on 25 March. In 20 games for the Bulls, he averaged 1.8 points and 1.5 rebounds in 7.5 minutes per game. After playing for the Bulls during Summer League and preseason, he was waived on 30 October 2006.
He returned to the Flyers for the 2006–07 D-League season. In 34 games (31 starts) for the Flyers, he averaged 9.6 points, 6.9 rebounds and 1.20 blocked shots, while shooting .512 from the floor. On 15 March 2007, he signed a 10-day contract with the Portland Trail Blazers. He went on to sign a second 10-day contract on 25 March, and a rest-of-season contract on 4 April. In 11 games for the Trail Blazers, he averaged 1.7 points and 2.3 rebounds in 10.7 minutes per game.
In July 2007, Schenscher played for the Minnesota Timberwolves' Summer League team.
Germany
On 27 July 2007, Schenscher signed a one-year deal with German team Brose Baskets. It was reportedly the highest fee ever paid by the club at the time. He found the pressure of the big contract and the expectation that came with being an NBA player overwhelming, with the pressure translating to injuries on the court. He played only one game before returning to Australia to have surgery on his knee.
NBL
Adelaide 36ers
In April 2008, Schenscher signed with the Adelaide 36ers for 2008–09 NBL season. On 25 October 2008, he recorded 33 points and 20 rebounds against the Perth Wildcats. On 6 December 2008, he recorded 17 points and 22 rebounds against the Melbourne Tigers. On 13 February 2009, he recorded 37 points and 15 rebounds against the Wollongong Hawks. In 31 games, he averaged 16.9 points, 10.8 points, 1.5 assists and 1.4 blocks per game. He subsequently earned All-NBL Second Team honours.
The 36ers allowed Schenscher to part ways with them in the off-season in order to play with the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA Summer League, but he aborted those plans due to a back injury.
Perth Wildcats
In September 2009, Schenscher signed with the Perth Wildcats for the 2009–10 NBL season. He scored a season-high 22 points twice in December, with a season-best 15 rebounds coming on 6 February against the Melbourne Tigers. In March 2010, he helped the Wildcats defeat the Wollongong Hawks 2–1 in the NBL Grand Final series to win the NBL championship. In 33 games, he averaged 10.0 points and 6.2 rebounds per game.
In April 2010, the Wildcats parted ways with Schenscher due to his wage demands being too high for the club to meet.
Townsville Crocodiles
Weeks after parting ways with the Wildcats, Schenscher signed with the Townsville Crocodiles. On 30 October 2010, he recorded 26 points and 10 rebounds against the Sydney Kings. On 23 December, he had 25 points and 10 rebounds against the Adelaide 36ers. He had another 25-point, 10-rebound effort on 21 January against the Wildcats. In game one of the Crocodiles' semi-final series against the Cairns Taipans, Schenscher recorded 15 points and a season-high 14 rebounds. The Crocodiles went on to lose the series 2–1. In 31 games during the 2010–11 season, he averaged 13.7 points, 6.8 rebounds, 1.4 assists and 1.1 blocks per game. He subsequently earned All-NBL Second Team honours and was named the Club MVP.
After considering a move back to Adelaide, Schenscher returned to the Crocodiles for the 2011–12 season. However, his season debut was delayed until December due to hip surgery. On 10 March 2012, he scored a season-high 25 points against the Gold Coast Blaze. In 24 games, he averaged 10.4 points, 5.3 rebounds and 2.2 assists per game.
Return to Adelaide
In May 2012, Schenscher signed a two-year deal (with the option of a third) with the Adelaide 36ers, returning to the club for a second stint. On 28 December 2012, he recorded 25 points and 16 rebounds against the New Zealand Breakers. He missed the final six games of the 36ers' season due a back injury. In 21 games, he averaged 9.0 points, 6.1 rebounds and 1.9 assists per game.
After undergoing off-season elbow surgery, Schenscher appeared in all 34 games for the 36ers in 2013–14. In the 36ers' regular-season finale on 23 March 2014, he scored a season-high 18 points against the Melbourne Tigers. He helped the 36ers reach the 2014 NBL Grand Final series, where they lost 2–1 to the Perth Wildcats. He finished the season averaging 6.8 points and 5.4 rebounds per game.
On 27 June 2014, Schenscher took up the player option on his contract for the 2014–15 season. On 31 December 2014, he scored a season-high 16 points against the Cairns Taipans. He appeared in all 30 games for the 36ers, averaging 6.9 points, 5.1 rebounds and 1.1 assists per game.
Return to Townsville
On 17 July 2015, Schenscher signed a three-year deal with the Townsville Crocodiles, returning to the club for a second stint. In late October, he ruptured a ligament in his left ankle. Ankle and back complaints restricted Schenscher's court time in 2015–16. In 13 games, he averaged 4.1 points and 3.2 rebounds per game.
Following the demise of the Crocodiles in 2016, Schenscher retired from the NBL.
Final years
On 2 June 2016, Schenscher signed with the Townsville Heat for the rest of the 2016 Queensland Basketball League season.
In February 2017, Schenscher had a two-game stint with the Singapore Slingers of the ASEAN Basketball League, in place of the injured Justin Howard.
In April 2017, Schenscher joined the Southern Tigers of the South Australian Premier League. In 13 games, he averaged 8.6 points per game.
In June 2017, Schenscher's Townsville 3x3 team won the Australian CLB 3x3 championship and competed in the Fiba 3x3 world tour qualifiers in Mongolia.
Personal
Schenscher is a fan of Australian rules football and is a known supporter of the Glenelg Football Club who play in the South Australian National Football League.
Schenscher is skilled at playing the didgeridoo.
Career stats
NBA
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Chicago
| 20 || 0 || 7.4 || .615 || .000 || .308 || 1.5 || .4 || .1 || .2 || 1.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Portland
| 11 || 0 || 10.7 || .304 || .000 || .714 || 2.3 || .1 || .2 || .4 || 1.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | Career
| 31 || 0 || 8.6 || .469 || .000 || .450 || 1.7 || .3 || .1 || .2 || 1.8
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006
| style="text-align:left;"| Chicago
| 3 || 0 || 5.7 || 1.000 || – || .750 || 2.3 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 2.3
NBL
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008–09
| style="text-align:left;"| Adelaide 36ers
| 31 || 31 || 32.5 || .549 || .000 || .746 || 10.8 || 1.5 || .3 || 1.3 || 16.9
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| 2009–10†
| style="text-align:left;"| Perth Wildcats
| 33 || 33 || 23.0 || .520 || .143 || .621 || 6.2 || 1.0 || .3 || 1.1 || 10.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2010–11
| style="text-align:left;"| Townsville Crocodiles
| 31 || 31 || 24.7 || .529 || .000 || .734 || 6.8 || 1.4 || .3 || 1.1 || 13.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2011–12
| style="text-align:left;"| Townsville Crocodiles
| 24 || NA || 23.8 || .477 || .000 || .703 || 5.3 || 2.2 || .4 || .7 || 10.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2012–13
| style="text-align:left;"| Adelaide 36ers
| 21 || NA || 22.8 || .453 || .000 || .613 || 6.1 || 1.9 || .8 || .9 || 9.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2013–14
| style="text-align:left;"| Adelaide 36ers
| 34 || NA || 15.8 || .526 || .500 || .595 || 5.4 || .8 || .2 || .6 || 6.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2014–15
| style="text-align:left;"| Adelaide 36ers
| 30 || NA || 17.6 || .486 || 1.000 || .408 || 5.1 || 1.1 || .3 || .8 || 6.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2015–16
| style="text-align:left;"| Townsville Crocodiles
| 13 || 0 || 13.4 || .439 || .000 || .616 || 3.1 || .3 || .2 || .5 || 4.1
|}
References
External links
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets bio
Townsville Crocodiles bio
NBL stats
1982 births
Living people
Adelaide 36ers players
Australian expatriate basketball people in Germany
Australian expatriate basketball people in the United States
Australian Institute of Sport basketball players
Australian men's basketball players
Australian people of German descent
Basketball players from South Australia
Centers (basketball)
Chicago Bulls players
Fort Worth Flyers players
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets men's basketball players
National Basketball Association players from Australia
People educated at Cardijn College
People educated at Lake Ginninderra College
Perth Wildcats players
Portland Trail Blazers players
Townsville Crocodiles players
Undrafted National Basketball Association players
Sportsmen from South Australia |
55083273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plautia%20gens | Plautia gens | The gens Plautia, sometimes written Plotia, was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens first appear in history in the middle of the fourth century BC, when Gaius Plautius Proculus obtained the consulship soon after that magistracy was opened to the plebeian order by the Licinio-Sextian rogations. Little is heard of the Plautii from the period of the Samnite Wars down to the late second century BC, but from then to imperial times they regularly held the consulship and other offices of importance. In the first century AD, the emperor Claudius, whose first wife was a member of this family, granted patrician status to one branch of the Plautii.
Origin
The Plautii of the later Republic claimed descent from Leucon, the son of Neptune and Themisto, the daughter of Hypseus, King of the Lapiths. The coins minted by Publius Plautius Hypsaeus depict Neptune and Leucon.
The nomen Plautius is derived from the common Latin surname Plautus, flat-footed. Chase classifies the name among those that were either native to Rome, or which occurred there and cannot be shown to have originated anywhere else. However, other scholars have suggested that they may have come from Privernum, a city of southern Latium. Several of the early Plautii appearing in the Fasti consulares carried on war against the Privernates.
Praenomina
The earlier Plautii mainly used the praenomina Lucius and Gaius, and occasionally Publius and Marcus. The later Plautii employed different names, mainly Aulus, Quintus, Marcus and Tiberius.
Branches and cognomina
The only distinct family of the Plautii during the middle Republic bore the cognomen Venno or Venox, a hunter. Frontinus describes a story, in which Gaius Plautius, censor in 312 BC, obtained the cognomen Venox by discovering the springs that fed the Aqua Appia, Rome's first aqueduct. However, Venno occurs before this, and appears more often in the fasti. The first of this family to obtain the consulship bore the additional cognomen Hypsaeus, later spelled Ypsaeus on coins, which was evidently a personal cognomen, as it does not appear again for over a century, when this name replaces the older Venno.
Proculus, which occurs as the cognomen of the first Plautius to obtain the consulship, also seems to have been a personal cognomen; it is not apparent whether this Plautius was part of the same family as the Vennones. Proculus was an old praenomen, which the Roman antiquarians supposed to have been given to a child born when his father was far from home, although morphologically it seems to be a diminutive of Proca, a name occurring in Roman mythology as one of the Kings of Alba Longa.
Later Plautii were entangled in the affairs of the imperial family during the first century, this branch first appears in the later years of the Republic, and flourished until the time of Nero. They often bore the praenomen Aulus. This was the family of Aulus Plautius, the first Roman governor of Britain. Many members also wore the cognomen Silvanus, originally referring to one who dwells in the forest. The imperial Plautii of the late second century may have been descended from one of these families through marriage, but were apparently descended from the Titii in the male line, and used Plautius because of its greater dignity.
Many of the Plautii bore no cognomen; these seem to have used the alternative spelling, Plotius, more than the others.
Members
Publius Plautius, the grandfather of Gaius Plautius Proculus, consul in 357 BC.
Publius P. f. Plautius, the father of Gaius Plautius Proculus.
Gaius Plautius P. f. P. n. Proculus, consul in 358 BC, defeated the Hernici, and was honoured with a triumph. In 356, he was magister equitum to Gaius Marcius Rutilus, the first plebeian dictator.
Gaius Plautius P. f. P. n. Decianus, consul in 329 BC, undertook the war with Privernum, and captured the city, for which he received a triumph. He was censor in 312, with Appius Claudius Caecus. At the expiration of the traditional term of eighteen months, Decianus resigned his office, but Claudius refused to do the same, remaining in office as sole censor for the ancient term of five years.
Plautii Vennones et Hypsaei
Lucius Plautius Venno, the grandfather of the consul of 347 and 341 BC.
Lucius Plautius L. f. Venno, the father of the consul of 347 and 341 BC.
Gaius Plautius L. f. L. n. Venno Hypsaeus, consul in 347 BC, and again in 341. In the latter year he defeated the Privernates, and forced a withdrawal of the Volsci, whose land he plundered.
Lucius Plautius L. f. L. n. Venno, consul in 330 BC, fought against the Privernates and the Fundani.
Lucius Plautius L. f. L. n. Venno, consul in 318 BC, received the hostages sent by Teate and Canusium, two towns in Apulia.
Gaius Plautius C. f. C. n. Venox, censor in 312, with Appius Claudius Caecus. At the expiration of the traditional term of eighteen months, Plautius resigned his office, but Claudius refused to do the same, remaining in office as sole censor for the ancient term of five years.
Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus, praetor in 189 BC, obtained the province of Hispania Citerior.
Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus, triumvir monetalis between 194 and 190 BC, probably the son of Lucius Plautius Hypsaeus, praetor in 189 BC.
Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus, praetor in 146 BC, was assigned the province of Hispania Ulterior. He was severely defeated twice by Viriathus, and forced into exile after returning to Rome.
Lucius Plautius (L. f.) Hypsaeus, praetor in Sicily during the First Servile War, was defeated by the slaves. Broughton tentatively places his praetorship in 139 BC.
Marcus Plautius Hypsaeus, consul in 125 BC, was appointed to redistribute portions of the ager publicus that had been illegally occupied. Cicero criticizes Plautius' understanding of the law.
Gaius Plautius C. f. Hypsaeus, triumvir monetalis in 121 BC. His coins bear the inscription Pluti, the only instance of this spelling.
Marcus Plautius Hypsaeus, praetor or propraetor in Asia in an uncertain year before 90 BC, and perhaps a legate under Sulla. He might be the same Plautius who took his own life on returning from Asia, only to learn of the death of his wife, Orestilla.
Publius Plautius Hypsaeus, an ally of Gnaeus Pompeius, under whom he had served as quaestor. He was a candidate for the consulship in 54 BC, but at the trial of Titus Annius Milo, Hypsaeus' slaves confessed under torture that he had committed bribery in order to win election, and he was banished.
Plautii Silvani
Aulus Plautius, father of the ambassador in Crete in 113 BC.
Quintus Plautius A. f., a senator and ambassador in Crete in 113 BC. He very likely belonged to this branch as his praenomen and that of his father, Aulus, are only found among them.
Aulus Plautius (Varus), tribune of the plebs in 70 BC, and legate in Sicily and the Adriatic Sea under Pompey in 67. The cognomen Varus found in Appian is probably a mistake. He might have been the same as Aulus Plautius, tribune of the plebs in 56 BC, or his father.
Marcus Plautius Silvanus, tribune of the plebs in 89 BC, passed a law which granted Roman citizenship to all the Italian allies, and another which limited the number of equestrian jurors in the courts. He was probably the brother of Aulus the legate in Sicily.
Aulus Plautius, tribune of the plebs in 56 BC, curule aedile in 55, praetor urbanus in 51, and subsequently propraetor of Bithynia and Pontus. He was a friend of Cicero and supported Pompey. He also minted coins during his aedileship.
Aulus Plautius, proconsul of Cyprus circa 22/21 BC. Probably the son of the tribune of the plebs in 56 BC.
Marcus Plautius A. f. Silvanus, husband of Urgulania, probably son of the tribune of the plebs in 56 BC.
Aulus Plautius A. f., consul suffectus in 1 BC. He married a Vitellia. Probably son of the proconsul of Cyprus.
Marcus Plautius M. f. A. n. Silvanus, consul in 2 BC. Son of Silvanus and Urgulania.
Marcus Plautius M. f. M. n. Silvanus, praetor in AD 24, was condemned to death for having murdered his second wife, Apronia. His first wife, Fabia Numantina, was charged with having caused his insanity through the use of witchcraft, but was acquitted. Eldest son of the consul of 2 BC and Lartia.
Publius Plautius M. f. M. n. Pulcher, quaestor in 31, son of the consul of 2 BC and Lartia.
Aulus Plautius Urgulanius, died at the age of 9. Son of the consul of 2 BC and Lartia.
Plautia M. f. M. n. Urgulanilla, the first wife of Claudius. Daughter of the consul of 2 BC and Lartia.
Plautia A. f. A. n., married Publius Petronius. Probably the daughter of the consul of 1 BC and Vitellia.
Aulus Plautius A. f. A. n., consul suffectus from the Kalends of July in AD 29, was subsequently sent by Claudius to invade Britain, and conquered the southern part of the island, becoming its first governor. He was granted an ovation on his return in 47, and shown great favour by the emperor. Probably the son of the consul of 1 BC and Vitellia.
Quintus Plautius A. f. A. n., consul in AD 36. Probably the son of the consul of 1 BC and Vitellia. He probably married a Sextia Laterana.
Plautius Q. f. A. n. Lateranus, one of the paramours of the empress Messalina, he was pardoned by Claudius out of respect for his famous uncle. Consul elect for AD 66, he participated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was put to death, bravely refusing to reveal the names of his fellow conspirators. Probably the son of the consul of 36 AD and Sextia.
Plautia, possible wife of Lucius Antistius Vetus, probably the daughter of the consul of 36 AD and Sextia.
Plautia, speculative daughter of the governor of Britain and wife of Titus Flavius Sabinus
Aulus Plautius, a young man put to death by Nero. Probably the son of Plautius Pulcher.
Tiberius Plautius M. f. M. n. Silvanus Aelianus, consul suffectus from the Kalends of March to the Kalends of July in AD 45. In 74, he was chosen consul for the second time, replacing Vespasian on the Ides of January, and serving with Titus until the Ides of May. Probably the adoptive son of the convicted murderer.
Plautia Laterana, wife of Publius Quinctilius Varus the Younger. Probably the daughter of the consul elect of 66 AD.
Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Ti. f. M. n. Aelianus, consul suffectus in AD 80, replacing Domitian on the Ides of January, and serving until the Kalends of March. Son of the suffect consul Tiberius Silvanus.
Plautia A. f. Quinctilia, wife of Publius Helvidius Priscus (son of the consul). She may have been the daughter of Aulus Plautius who was put to death by Nero.
Plautia [...]lacuna, daughter of the suffect consul Tiberius Silvanus.
Plautia, wife of Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and Sextus Vettulenus Civica Cerialis. Possibly a daughter of Plautius Aelianus the consul of 80 AD.
Plautia (or Aelia), possible mother of Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus. Possibly a daughter of Plautius Aelianus the consul of 80 AD.
Others
Publius Plautius Rufus
Novius Plautius, a skilled metalworker, who probably lived about the middle of the third century BC. Many of his caskets have been found at Praeneste.
Plautius, a comic poet. According to Varro, he was frequently confused with Plautus, to whom his comedies were mistakenly attributed.
Lucius Plotius Gallus, came to Rome from Cisalpine Gaul circa 88 BC, to establish the first school for Latin and rhetoric. He was very influential on the development of Roman rhetoric, and authored arguments for some of the leading advocates of his day. He was highly regarded by the young Cicero.
Marcus Plotius, one of Caesar's envoys to the proconsul Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus in 48 BC, who urged him to leave Pompeius, but to no effect.
Lucius Plautius Plancus, born Gaius Munatius Plancus, but adopted by one of the Plautii. He was the brother of Lucius Munatius Plancus, consul in 42, Titus Munatius Plancus Bursa, a partisan of Marcus Antonius, and Gnaeus Munatius Plancus, praetor in 43. Plautius was proscribed by the triumvirs, and gave himself up to preserve the lives of his slaves, who were being tortured to reveal his hiding place.
Plotius Numida, fought in the Cantabrian Wars. His safe return to Italy was celebrated by his friend, the poet Horace, in one of his odes.
Gaius Plautius Rufus, one of the triumviri monetalis during the time of Augustus. He may be the same person as the conspirator.
Plotius Tucca, a friend of the poets Horace and Virgil. Virgil named him one of his heirs, to whom he gave his unfinished writings, including the manuscript of the Aeneid.
Plautius Rufus, one of those who conspired against Augustus. He may be the same as Gaius Plotius Rufus.
Plotius Firmus, one of Otho's allies, who rose from humble beginnings to become praetorian prefect. He successfully quelled a mutiny through a combination of personal charisma and bribery, and encouraged the emperor to be brave and trust in his army.
Plotius Griphus, one of Vespasian's supporters, appointed praetor in AD 70.
Plautius, a notable jurist, who must have lived about the time of Vespasian.
Plautius Quintillus, consul in AD 159, married Ceionia Fabia, the sister of Lucius Verus.
Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus, consul in AD 162.
Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, consul in AD 177, with his brother-in-law, Commodus. He was an augur, and one of Commodus' trusted advisors, but escaped the wrath of his successors until 205, when Septimius Severus ordered his death.
Plautius M. f. Quintillus, son of Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, and nephew of Commodus.
Plautia Servilia, daughter of Quintillus, and niece of Commodus.
Marius Plotius Sacerdos, a late Latin grammarian, probably belonging to the fifth or sixth centuries, and the author of De Metris Liber, originally the third part of a treatise on grammar.
See also
List of Roman gentes
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Oratore, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, Pro Flacco, Pro Plancio.
Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War).
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica (Library of History).
Marcus Terentius Varro, De Lingua Latina (On the Latin Language).
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, Satirae (Satires).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities).
Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae.
Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History.
Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings).
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Elder), Controversiae.
Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis Pro Milone (Commentary on Cicero's Oration Pro Milone).
Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Historia Naturalis (Natural History).
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory).
Sextus Julius Frontinus, De Aquaeductu (On Aqueducts).
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae, De Vita et Moribus Iulii Agricolae (On the Life and Mores of Julius Agricola).
Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans.
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars), De Claris Rhetoribus (On the Eminent Orators).
Phlegon of Tralles, Peri Thaumasion (The Book of Marvels).
Lucius Annaeus Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC (Epitome of Livy: All the Wars of Seven Hundred Years).
Lucius Flavius Arrianus (Arrian of Nicomedia), Epicteti Diatribae (Discourses of Epictetus).
Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Hispanica (The Spanish Wars), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War).
Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights).
Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History.
Aelius Donatus, Vita Virgilii (The Life of Vergil).
Julius Obsequens, Liber de Prodigiis (The Book of Prodigies).
Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus (St. Jerome), In Chronicon Eusebii (The Chronicon of Eusebius).
Digesta, or Pandectae (The Digest).
Scholia Bobiensia (Bobbio Scholiast), In Ciceronis Pro Archia Poëta (Commentary on Cicero's Oration Pro Archia Poëta), In Ciceronis Pro Milone (Commentary on Cicero's Oration Pro Milone).
Guilielmus Grotius, De Vitae Jurisconsultorum (Lives of the Jurists), Felix Lopez, Brittenburg (1690).
Abraham Wieling, Jurisprudentia Restituta, seu Index Chronologicus in Totum Juris Justinianaei Corpus (Jurisprudence Restored, or a Chronological Index to the Whole Code of Justinian), Abraham van Paddenburgh, Utrecht (1739).
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Alterhums (The History of Art in Antiquity, 1764).
Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum (The Study of Ancient Coins, 1792–1798).
Sigmund Wilhelm Zimmern, Geschichte des Römischen Privatrechts bis Justinian (History of Roman Private Law to Justinian), J. C. B. Mohr, Heidelberg (1826).
Poëtarum Latinorum Reliquiae (Surviving Works of Latin Poets), August Weichert, ed., B. G. Teubner, Leipzig (1830).
Karl Otfried Müller, Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst (Handbook of Ancient Art, or Ancient Art and its Remains), 3rd ed., J. Leitch, trans., London (1847).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849).
Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present).
Wilhelm Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (Collection of Greek Inscriptions, abbreviated SIG), Leipzig (1883).
René Cagnat et alii, L'Année épigraphique (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated AE), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present).
August Pauly, Georg Wissowa, et alii, Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (Scientific Encyclopedia of the Knowledge of Classical Antiquities, abbreviated RE or PW), J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart (1894–1980).
George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897).
Henry H. Armstrong, "Privernum", in American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series, vol. XV, pp. 44–59, The Macmillan Company, New York (1911).
T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986).
Lily Ross Taylor, ''Trebula Suffenas and the Plautii Silvani'', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 24 (1956), pp. 7+9–30.
Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001).
Paul A. Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Claudius", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 28, pp. 407–426 (1978), "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 31, pp. 186–220 (1981).
Ronald Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, Clarendon Press (1989).
Ancient Greece and Rome, Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham, eds., Oxford University Press, (2010).
Nicola Terrenato, "Private Vis, Public Virtus: Family Agendas during the Early Roman Expansion", in Roman Republican Colonization New Perspectives from Archaeology and Ancient History, Tesse D. Stek and Jeremia Pelgrom, eds., Papers of the Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome (2014).
Roman gentes |
265143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Dawn | Red Dawn | Red Dawn is a 1984 American action drama film directed by John Milius with a screenplay by Milius and Kevin Reynolds. The film depicts a fictional World War III centering on an invasion of the United States by an alliance of Soviet, Warsaw Pact, and Latin American states. The story follows a group of teenage guerillas, known as the Wolverines, in Soviet-occupied Colorado. The film stars Patrick Swayze, Charlie Sheen, C. Thomas Howell, Lea Thompson and Jennifer Grey, with supporting roles played by Ben Johnson, Darren Dalton, Harry Dean Stanton, Ron O'Neal, William Smith and Powers Boothe.
Despite mixed reviews from critics, the film became a commercial success, grossing $38 million against a budget of $17 million. It was the first film to be released in the U.S. with a PG-13 rating under the modified rating system introduced on July 1, 1984. A remake was released in 2012.
Plot
In the town of Calumet, Colorado, a high school class is suddenly interrupted by a Soviet invasion. The students, including brothers Jed and Matt Eckert, escape the chaos as Soviet paratroopers attack them; Soviet, Cuban and Nicaraguan troops proceed to occupy Calumet. Jed and Matt, along with their friends Robert, Danny, Daryl and Arturo flee into the countryside after arming themselves at a store run by Robert's father. Encountering a Soviet roadblock, they are saved by a U.S. helicopter. After several weeks in the forests, the group learn that Mr. Eckert is held at a re-education camp at Calumet's drive-in. Visiting the camp, they speak to him through a fence and learn that Mrs. Eckert is dead; he orders the group to avenge him.
The group visit the Mason family in occupied territory and learn that Robert's father was executed by the occupiers. The Masons ask Jed and Matt to take care of their granddaughters, Toni and Erica. Banding together, the group begins to attack the occupational forces, calling themselves the "Wolverines" after their high school mascot. The occupiers respond with brutal reprisals, which kill Mr. Eckert and Arturo's father but do little to deter the Wolverines. They meet USAF pilot Andrew Tanner, who informs them of the current state of the war.
Tanner assists the Wolverines in their guerrilla operations, which lead to increased reprisals by occupational forces against civilians. Visiting the front lines of the war, Tanner and Arturo are killed in the crossfire of a tank battle between Soviet and American forces. Daryl is arrested by the KGB after his father betrays him. After torturing him, they force-feed Daryl a tracking device, and release him to rejoin the Wolverines. Soviet troops go into the forests carrying radio triangulation equipment, but are ambushed by the Wolverines, who trace the source of the signal to Daryl; confessing the truth, he pleads for mercy, but is killed by a hardened Robert as the others cannot kill their friend.
Shortly thereafter, the remaining Wolverines are ambushed by Soviet gunships, killing Toni and Robert. Jed and Matt decide to attack the occupational forces in Calumet to distract them while Danny and Erica escape. The plan works, but Jed and Matt are mortally wounded. They are discovered by a Cuban officer who lets them go; the brothers reach a bench in the park, holding each other as they die. Danny and Erica trek through the Rocky Mountains and reach American-held territory. In the closing scene, a plaque is seen in the mountains. It is fenced off and an American flag flies nearby, implying the United States won the war. The plaque states that: In the early days of World War III, guerrillas, mostly children, placed the names of their lost upon this rock. They fought here alone and gave up their lives, so "that this nation shall not perish from the earth."
Cast
Production
Ten Soldiers
Originally called Ten Soldiers, it was written by Kevin Reynolds. It was set in the near future as a combined force of Russians and Cubans launched an invasion of the Southwestern U.S.. Ten children take to the hills when their small town is captured, turning into a skilled and lethal guerrilla band.
Producer Barry Beckerman read the script, and, in the words of Peter Bart, "thought it had the potential to become a tough, taut, 'art' picture made on a modest budget that could possibly break out to find a wider audience." His father Sidney Beckerman helped him pay a $5,000 option. Reynolds wanted to direct but the Beckermans wanted someone more established. Walter Hill briefly considered the script before turning it down, as did several other directors.
The Beckermans pitched the project to David Begelman at MGM, but were turned down. They tried again at that studio when it was run by Frank Yablans. Senior vice-president for production Peter Bart, who remembers it as a "sharply written anti-war movie ... a sort of Lord of the Flies", took the project to Yablans.
The script's chances increased when Reynolds became mentored by Steven Spielberg, who helped him make Fandango. MGM bought the script.
The film depicts a group of high school students who engage in guerrilla warfare against troops of Cuba, Nicaragua and the Soviet Union who have invaded the United States.
John Milius
Bart recalls that things changed when "the chieftains at MGM got a better idea. Instead of making a poignant little antiwar movie, why not make a teen Rambo and turn the project over to John Milius, a genial filmmaker who loved war movies. The idea was especially popular with a member of the MGM board of directors, General Alexander Haig, the former Nixon chief of staff, who yearned to supervise the film personally and develop a movie career."
Bart says most of MGM's executives, except for Yablans, were opposed to Milius directing. Bart claims he made a last minute attempt to get Reynolds to direct the film and went to see Spielberg. However, by this stage Fandango was in rough cut, and Bart sensed that Spielberg was disappointed in the film and would not speak up for Reynolds. Milius was signed to direct at a fee of $1.25 million, plus a gun of his choice.
Milius set about rewriting the script. He and Haig devised a backstory in which the circumstances of the invasion would occur; this was reportedly based on Hitler's proposed plans to invade the U.S. during World War II. Haig took Milius under his wing, bringing him to the Hudson Institute, the conservative think tank founded by Herman Kahn, to develop a plausible scenario. Milius saw the story as a Third World liberation struggle in reverse; Haig introduced Nicaragua and suggested that, with the collapse of NATO, a left-wing Mexican government would participate in the Soviet invasion, effectively splitting the U.S. in half. Bart says, "Even Milius was taken aback by Haig's approach to the project. 'This is going to end up as a jingoistic, flag-waving movie,' Milius fretted. As a result, the budget of this once $6 million movie almost tripled."
Other changes included a shift in focus from conflict within the group to conflict between the teens and their oppressors, and the acceleration of the ages of some of the characters from early teens to high school age and beyond. There was also the addition of a sequence where some children visit a camp to find their parents have been brainwashed.
Milius later said, "I see this as an anti-war movie in the sense that if both sides could see this, maybe it wouldn't have to happen. I think it would be good for Americans to see what a war would be like. The film isn't even that violent – the war shows none of the horrors that could happen in World War III. In fact, everything that happened in the movie happened in World War II."
Bart says Yablans pushed through filming faster than Milius wanted because MGM needed a movie over the summer. Milius wanted more time to plan, including devising futuristic weaponry and to not shoot over winter, but had to accede.
Casting
Milius wanted Robert Blake to play the US pilot but Frank Yablans overruled him. Powers Boothe was selected instead.
Filming
The movie was filmed in and around the city of Las Vegas, New Mexico. Many of the buildings and structures which appear in the film, including a historic Fred Harvey Company hotel adjacent to the train depot, the train yard, and a building near downtown, which was repainted with the name of "Calumet, Colorado", referencing the town in Michigan, are still there today. An old Safeway grocery store was converted to a sound stage and used for several scenes in the movie.
Before starting work on the movie, the cast underwent an intensive eight-week military training course. During that time, production crews designed and built special combat vehicles in Newhall, California. Soldier of Fortune reported that the movie's T-72 tank was such a precise replica that "while it was being carted around Los Angeles, two CIA intelligence officers followed it to the studio and wanted to know where it had come from".
Powers Boothe later claimed that "Milius cut out the emotional life of its characters. Originally, my character was anti-war, as well as a rightist. I was supposed to be the voice of reason in that movie. But certain cuts negated my character."
Lea Thompson said the original cut featured a love scene between her and Powers Boothe but it "was cut out after some previews because of the age difference. And that was the main reason I took the movie—it was such a terrific scene."
Some of the weaponry devised for the film did not work. Futuristic helicopters created for the film did not have FAA approval to fly over people.
The budget increased from $11 million to $15 million. It eventually came in at $19 million.
Music
The film's score was composed and conducted by Basil Poledouris; it was the first soundtrack album to be released (on LP and compact disc) by Intrada Records. The label issued the complete score in 2007.
Reception
Box office
Red Dawn was the 20th highest-grossing film of 1984, opening on August 10, 1984 in 1,822 theatres and taking in $8,230,381 on its first weekend. Its box office gross is $38,376,497.
Critical reaction
Red Dawn received mixed reviews, receiving a "Rotten" 52% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The website's consensus reads, "An appealing ensemble of young stars will have some audiences rooting for the Wolverines, but Red Dawns self-seriousness can never conceal the silliness of its alarmist concept."
Colin Greenland reviewed Red Dawn for Imagine magazine, and stated that "Red Dawn [...] is a self-congratulatory little B-picture, the sort America does so well. Set in the early months of World War Three, it's a loving chronicle of juvenile heroism in Russian-occupied Colorado. Schoolkids caught behind enemy lines become crack guerillas overnight. Slaughter nobly, die even more so. Nice scenery, shame about the movie."
The New York Times reviewer Janet Maslin said, "To any sniveling lily-livers who suppose that John Milius ... has already reached the pinnacle of movie-making machismo, a warning: Mr. Milius's Red Dawn is more rip-roaring than anything he has done before. Here is Mr. Milius at his most alarming, delivering a rootin'-tootin' scenario for World War III."
MGM apologized to Alaska war veterans for the film's advertising, which claimed that no foreign troops had ever landed on U.S. soil, overlooking the Aleutian Islands campaign of World War II, where Japanese soldiers occupied the Aleutian Islands, part of Alaska.
At the time it was released, Red Dawn was considered the most violent film by the Guinness Book of Records and the National Coalition on Television Violence, with a rate of 134 acts of violence per hour, or 2.23 per minute. The 2007 DVD Special Edition includes an on-screen "Carnage Counter" in a nod to this.
A few days after the NCTV survey came out, 35 protestors picketed the MGM/UA building in opposition to the film. John Milius said:
What these people really don't like is that the movie shows violence being perpetrated against Russian and Cuban invaders, which is what the demonstration was all about. My question is, where were all these demonstrators when the Russians shot down that airliner? Were they cheering? And what about the people being gassed and yellow-rained in Afghanistan? ... There's really no pleasure in outraging these people. I suppose next some extreme right-wing organization will give me an award, which is equally ridiculous.
Later reputation
National Review Online has named the film No. 15 in its list of the "Best Conservative Movies." Adam Arseneau at the website DVD Verdict opined that the film "often feels like a Republican wet dream manifested into a surrealistic Orwellian nightmare".
According to Jesse Walker of Reason,
Libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard argued that the film was "not so much pro-war as it is anti-state." Rothbard gave the film a generally positive review, while expressing some reservations with the story:
Ed Power writes for The Independent,
Home media
Red Dawn has been variously released across a variety of formats.
In 1985, Red Dawn released on VHS. It was also released at the same time on PAL and Betamax.
Also in 1985, Red Dawn released on LaserDisc. The film was released several times on this format, with the latest in April 1994.
In 1998, Red Dawn released on DVD.
In 2007, a two-disc DVD Collector's Edition was released. Unusual among the "extras" are interviews of residents recalling the filming of the movie.
In 2015, a DVD release featured Red Dawn with the 2012 remake. Another release the same year excluded the remake.
In 2017, the Collector's Edition was released on Blu-ray.
In 2022, Shout! Factory released Red Dawn on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray.
References in the film
The movie being shown to American prisoners at the re-education camp is Sergei Eisenstein's Alexander Nevsky (1938).
Much of the story is set in the Arapaho National Forest, and a group of Soviet soldiers refer to the Colorado War, which was fought there between the Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes and the U.S. government.
During one scene, the young freedom fighters sit and listen to a radio playing messages meant for guerillas behind the lines. The message played, "John has a long mustache.", is one of the messages that was used before D-Day in Normandy to signal French partisans of the imminent invasion. The broadcast of this message is dramatized in the 1962 film The Longest Day.
Operation Red Dawn
The operation to capture former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was named Operation Red Dawn and its targets were dubbed "Wolverine 1" and "Wolverine 2". Army Captain Geoffrey McMurray, who named the mission, said the naming "was so fitting because it was a patriotic, pro-American movie." Milius approved of the naming, saying "I was deeply flattered and honored. It's nice to have a lasting legacy."
Cultural influence
Red Dawn has been reference for and influence on a number of other media, including music, books, film, and video games.
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine 'Wolverines' graffiti was reported on a destroyed Russian APC.
Books, film and television
Numerous references occur in the movie Hot Tub Time Machine, including the movie playing in the Ski Patrol station and being watched by Blaine, who considers it one of the best movies of all time.
"Grey Dawn" is a South Park episode which parodies Red Dawn where the old people of the town, fed up with how they are treated, take over the quiet Colorado town.
The 2017 American military drama series SEAL Team episode "Rolling Dark" contains numerous references to Red Dawn, such as a scene where one of the SEALs raises his weapon and yells "Wolverines!" to his Russian pursuers, a reference to a scene from the film. The SEAL then states "don't tell me y'all never seen Red Dawn before."
Music
Rock musician David Rosenthal formed the prog rock group Red Dawn in 1992 with drummer Chuck Burgi and bassist Greg Smith.
Video games
Red Dawn has influenced a number of video games.
Freedom Fighters is a 2003 video game that takes place during a Soviet invasion of New York. This game is heavily influenced by Red Dawn'''s characters, costumes, and design. The game's last mission closely resembles one of the movie's final scenes, when the Wolverines attack the Soviet base.
The plot of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 includes an invasion of the United States by an ultra-nationalist Russia, where members of the United States Army's 75th Ranger Regiment have to repel the attack. The achievement "Red Dawn" is awarded for completing the American "Wolverines!" and "Exodus" missions in Veteran difficulty. "Wolverines!" itself is a reference to the movie.
Homefront, a video game also written by John Milius about a reunited Korean invasion of America, borrows heavily from the movie. One notable Easter egg relating to the film is a large billboard at a school sport stadium which reads "Go Wolverines!!!". In turn, the plot of the 2012 remake of Red Dawn borrows heavily from Homefront, including the use of a united Korean threat, the use of rural and suburban settings for the primary action, and partisan warfare.
Red Dawn emails
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, a string of emails by Trump administration officials detailing concerns about the government's response to COVID-19 was dubbed the "Red Dawn emails" in reference to the film.
Ukrainian resistance during the 2022 Russian invasion
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, several Russian armored vehicles destroyed by the Ukrainians appeared with the word "Wolverines" spray-painted in white, a clear reference to the film. One theory is that numerically the Ukrainian are outnumbered by the Russians, similar to the scenario depicted in the film. It is not known whether "Wolverines" was painted by civilians or soldiers, but it has been spotted in Kyiv.
Remake
A remake of Red Dawn'' directed by Dan Bradley was released in 2012. The film takes place in the 2010s, with North Korea invading the United States. Milius criticized the remake as "terrible" after reading an original script where the villains were Chinese:
"There was a strange feeling to the whole thing. They were fans of the movie so they put in stuff they thought was neat. It's all about neat action scenes, and has nothing to do with story. ... There's only one example in 4,000 years of Chinese territorial adventurism, and that was in 1979, when they invaded Vietnam, and to put it mildly they got their [butts] handed to them ... Why would China want us? They sell us stuff. We're a market. I would have done it about Mexico."
See also
Culture during the Cold War
Survival film
World War III in popular culture
Tomorrow, When the War Began (film)
References
Further reading
External links
Original script "Ten Soldiers" by Kevin Reynolds
1984 films
1984 action films
1980s adventure films
1980s English-language films
1980s war films
American action films
American anti-communist propaganda films
American coming-of-age films
Cold War films
1980s political films
War adventure films
Films scored by Basil Poledouris
Films directed by John Milius
Films with screenplays by John Milius
Films set in Colorado
Films shot in New Mexico
Films about the United States Air Force
United Artists films
Films about World War III
Fiction about invasions
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films produced by Buzz Feitshans
Guerrilla warfare in film
1980s American films |
51015378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20St.%20Augustine%2C%20Florida | History of St. Augustine, Florida | St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the continental United States, was founded in 1565 by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. The Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida, and expansive privileges to exploit the lands in the vast territory of Spanish Florida, called La Florida by the Spaniards. This contract directed Menéndez to explore the region's Atlantic coast and report on its features, with the object of finding a suitable location to establish a permanent colony from which the Spanish treasure fleet could be defended and Spain's claimed territories in North America protected against incursions by other European powers.
Early exploration and attempts at settlement
The first European known to have explored the coasts of Florida was the Spanish explorer and governor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de León, who likely ventured in 1513 as far north as the vicinity of the future St. Augustine, naming the peninsula he believed to be an island "La Florida" and claiming it for the Spanish crown. Prior to the founding of St. Augustine in 1565, several earlier attempts at European colonization in what is now Florida were made by both Spain and France, but all failed.
The French exploration of the area began in 1562, under the command of the Huguenot colonizer, Captain Jean Ribault. Ribault explored the St. Johns River to the north of St. Augustine before sailing further north up the Atlantic coast, ultimately founding the short-lived Charlesfort on what is now known as Parris Island, South Carolina. In 1564, Ribault's former lieutenant René Goulaine de Laudonnière headed a new colonization effort. Laudonnière explored St. Augustine Inlet and the Matanzas River, which the French named Rivière des Dauphins (River of Dolphins). There they made contact with the local Timucua chief, Seloy, a subject of the powerful Saturiwa chiefdom, before heading north to the St. Johns River. There they established Fort Caroline.
Later that year a group of mutineers from Fort Caroline fled the colony and turned pirate, attacking Spanish vessels in the Caribbean. The Spanish used this as a pretext to locate and destroy Fort Caroline, fearing it would serve as a base for future piracy, and wanting to discourage further French colonization. King Philip II of Spain quickly dispatched Pedro Menéndez de Avilés to go to Florida and establish a center of operations from which to attack the French.
Founding
Pedro Menéndez's ships first sighted land on August 28, 1565, the feast day of St. Augustine of Hippo. In honor of the patron saint of his home town of Avilés, he named his colony's settlement San Agustín. The Spanish sailed through the inlet into Matanzas Bay and disembarked near the Timucua town of Seloy on September 6. Menéndez's immediate goal was to quickly construct fortifications to protect his people and supplies as they were unloaded from the ships, and then to make a proper survey of the area to determine the best place to erect the fort.
The location of this early fort has been confirmed through archaeological excavations directed by Kathleen Deagan on the grounds of what is now the Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park. It is known that the Spanish occupied several Native American structures in Seloy village, whose chief, the cacique Seloy, was allied with the Saturiwa, Laudonnière's allies. It is possible, but not yet demonstrated by any archaeological evidence, that Menéndez fortified one of the occupied Timucua structures to use as his first fort at Seloy.
In the meantime, Jean Ribault, Laudonnière's old commander, arrived at Fort Caroline with more settlers for the colony, as well as soldiers and weapons to defend them. He also took over the governorship of the settlement. Despite Laudonnière's wishes, Ribault put most of these soldiers aboard his ships for an assault on St. Augustine. However, he was surprised at sea by a violent storm that lasted several days and wrecked his ships further south on the coast. This gave Menéndez the opportunity to march his forces overland for a surprise dawn attack on the Fort Caroline garrison, which then numbered several hundred people. Laudonnière and some survivors fled to the woods, and the Spanish killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children. With the French displaced, Menéndez rechristened the fort "San Mateo", and appropriated it for his own purposes. The Spanish then returned south and eventually encountered the survivors of Ribault's fleet near the inlet at the southern end of Anastasia Island. There Menéndez executed most of the survivors, including Ribault; the inlet has ever since been called Matanzas, the Spanish word for "slaughters".
In 1566, Martín de Argüelles was born in Saint Augustine, the first birth of a child of European ancestry recorded in what is now the continental United States, This was 21 years before the English settlement at Roanoke Island in Virginia Colony, and 42 years before the successful settlements of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Jamestown, Virginia. In 1606, the first recorded birth of a black child in the continental United States was listed in the Cathedral Parish archives, thirteen years before enslaved Africans were first brought to the English colony at Jamestown in 1619. In territory under the jurisdiction of the United States, only Puerto Rico has continuously occupied European-established settlements older than St. Augustine.
Spanish period
St. Augustine was intended to be a base for further colonial expansion across what is now the southeastern United States, but such efforts were hampered by apathy and hostility on the part of the Native Americans towards becoming Spanish subjects. The Saturiwa, one of the two principal chiefdoms in the area, remained openly hostile. In 1566, the Saturiwa burned St. Augustine and the settlement was relocated. Traditionally it was thought to have been moved to its present location, though some documentary evidence suggests it was first moved to a location on Anastasia Island. At any rate, it was certainly in its present location by the end of the 16th century.
The settlement also faced attacks from European forces. In April 1568 the French soldier Dominique de Gourgue led an attack on Spanish holdings. With the aid of the Saturiwa, Tacatacuru, and other Timucua peoples who had been friendly with Laudonnière, de Gourgues attacked and burned Fort San Mateo, the former Fort Caroline. He executed his prisoners in revenge for the 1565 massacre, but did not approach St. Augustine. Additional French expeditions were primarily raids and could not dislodge the Spanish from St. Augustine. Following the failure of the Roanoke colony in Virginia, where no survivors were discovered by an overdue supply expedition, the English blamed the Spaniards of St. Augustine for its disappearance. Consequently, on June 6, 1586, English privateer Sir Francis Drake raided St. Augustine, burning it and driving surviving Spanish settlers into the wilderness. However, lacking sufficient forces or authority to establish an English settlement, Drake left the area.
In 1668, English privateer Robert Searle attacked and plundered St. Augustine. In the aftermath of his raid, the Spanish began in 1672 to construct a more secure fortification, the Castillo de San Marcos. It stands today as the oldest fort in the United States. Its construction took a quarter of a century, with many later additions and modifications.
The Spanish did not import many slaves to Florida for labor, since it was primarily a military outpost without a plantation economy like that of the British colonies. As the British planted settlements south along the Atlantic coast, the Spanish encouraged British slaves to escape to sanctuary in Florida. If the fugitives converted to Catholicism and swore allegiance to the king of Spain, they would be given freedom, arms, and supplies. Over time, St. Augustine would become a major destination for runaway slaves.
By 1683, a militia unit of free black people was formed for the defense of St. Augustine. Many of those in the unit could trace their lineage for several generations back to Spain. The militia unit served as a means for St. Augustine citizens of African descent to increase their standing in society as well as improve race relations with the other Spaniards.
Moving southward on the coast from the northern colonies, the British founded Charleston in 1670 and Savannah in 1733. In response, Spanish Governor Manual de Montiano in 1738 established the first legally recognized free community of ex-slaves, known as Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, or Fort Mose, to serve as a defensive outpost two miles north of St. Augustine.
In 1740, British forces attacked St. Augustine from their colonies in the Carolinas and Georgia. The largest and most successful of these attacks was organized by Governor and General James Oglethorpe of Georgia; he split the Spanish-Seminole alliance when he gained the help of Ahaya the Cowkeeper, chief of the Alachua band of the Seminole tribe. The Seminole then occupied territory mostly in the north of Florida, but later migrated into the center and south of the peninsula.
In the largest campaign of 1740, Oglethorpe commanded several thousand colonial militia and British regulars, along with Alachua band warriors, and invaded Spanish Florida. He conducted the Siege of St. Augustine as part of the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–42). During this siege, the black community of St. Augustine was important in resisting the British forces. The leader of Fort Mose during the battle was Capt. Francisco Menendez: born in Africa, he twice escaped from slavery. In Florida, he played an important role in defending St. Augustine from British raids. The Fort Mose site (of which only ruins remain) is now owned and maintained by the Florida Park Service. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark.
British period
In 1763, the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' War. Spain ceded Florida and St. Augustine to the British, in exchange for the British relinquishing control of occupied Havana. With the change of government, most of the Spanish Floridians and many freedmen departed from St. Augustine for Cuba. Only a few remained to handle unsold property and settle affairs.
James Grant was appointed the first governor of East Florida. He served from 1764 until 1771, when he returned to Britain due to illness. He was replaced as governor by Patrick Tonyn. During this brief period, the British converted the monks' quarters of the former Franciscan monastery into military barracks, which were named St. Francis Barracks. They also built The King's Bakery, which is believed to be the only extant structure in the city built entirely during the British period.
The Lieutenant Governor of East Florida under Governor Grant was John Moultrie, who was born in South Carolina. He had served under Grant as a major in the Cherokee War. During the American War of Independence, he remained loyal to the British Crown, but he had three brothers who served in the Patriot army.
Moultrie was granted large tracts of land in the St. Augustine vicinity, upon which he established a plantation he called "Bella Vista." He owned another plantation in the Tomoka River basin named "Rosetta". While acting as the lieutenant governor, he lived in the Peck House on St. George Street.
During the British period, Andrew Turnbull, a friend of Grant, established the settlement of New Smyrna in 1768. Turnbull recruited indentured servants from the Mediterranean area, primarily the island of Minorca. The conditions at New Smyrna were so abysmal that the settlers rebelled en masse in 1777; they walked the to St. Augustine, where Governor Tonyn gave them refuge. The Minorcans and their descendants stayed on in St. Augustine through the subsequent changes of flags, and marked the community with their language, culture, cuisine and customs.
Second Spanish period
The Treaty of Paris in 1783 gave the American colonies north of Florida their independence, and ceded Florida to Spain in recognition of Spanish efforts on behalf of the American colonies during the war.
On September 3, 1783, by Treaty of Paris, Britain also signed separate agreements with France and Spain. In the treaty with Spain, the colonies of West Florida, captured by the Spanish, and East Florida were given to Spain, as was the island of Minorca, while the Bahama Islands, Grenada and Montserrat, captured by the French and Spanish, were returned to Britain.
Florida was under Spanish control again from 1784 to 1821. There was no new settlement, only small detachments of soldiers, as the fortifications decayed. Spain itself was the scene of war between 1808 and 1814 and had little control over Florida. In 1821 the Adams–Onís Treaty peaceably turned the Spanish provinces in Florida and, with them, St. Augustine, over to the United States. There were only three Spanish soldiers stationed there in 1821.
A relic of this second period of Spanish rule is the Constitution monument, an obelisk in the town plaza honoring the Spanish Constitution of 1812, one of the most liberal of its time. In 1814 King Ferdinand VII of Spain abolished that constitution and had monuments to it torn down; the one in St. Augustine is said to be the only one to survive.
American period
Spain ceded Florida to the United States in the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty, ratified in 1821; Florida officially became a U.S. possession as the Florida Territory in 1822. Andrew Jackson, a future president, was appointed its military governor and then succeeded by William Pope Duval, who was appointed territorial governor in April 1822. Florida gained statehood in 1845.
After 1821, the United States renamed the Castillo de San Marcos (called Castle St. Marks or Fort St. Mark by the British) "Fort Marion" in honor of Francis Marion, known as the "Swamp Fox" of the American Revolution.
During the Second Seminole War of 1835–42, the fort served as a prison for Seminole captives, including the famed leader Osceola, as well as John Cavallo (John Horse) the black Seminole and Coacoochee (Wildcat), who made a daring escape from the fort with 19 other Seminoles. The city produced at least two militia units who fought during the war including one called the St. Augustine Guards. A contemporary observer said that the units were poorly equipped and a "melancholy sight." However, another witness said of the St. Augustine Guards specifically that they were "the generous and spirited young men of St. Augustine."
In 1861, the American Civil War began; Florida seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy. On January 7, 1861, prior to Florida's formal secession, a local militia unit, the St. Augustine Blues, took possession of St. Augustine's military facilities, including Fort Marion and the St. Francis Barracks, from the lone Union ordnance sergeant on duty. On March 11, 1862, crew from the USS Wabash reoccupied the city for the United States government without opposition. The fort was used as a site for recuperating Union soldiers and the Confederates never attempted to retake the city. However, Confederate cavalry did attack Union woodcutting parties who traveled too far from the city to gather fuel. In 1865, Florida rejoined the United States.
After the war, freedmen in St. Augustine established the community of Lincolnville in 1866, named after President Abraham Lincoln. Lincolnville, which had preserved the largest concentration of Victorian Era homes in St. Augustine, became a key setting for the Civil Rights Movement in St. Augustine a century later.
After the Civil War, Fort Marion was used twice, in the 1870s and then again in the 1880s, to confine first Plains Indians, and then Apaches, who were captured by the US Army in the West. The daughter of Geronimo was born at Fort Marion, and was named Marion. She later changed her name. The fort was also used as a military prison during the Spanish–American War of 1898. It was removed from the Army's active duty rolls in 1900 after 205 years of service under five different flags. Having been run temporarily by the St. Augustine Historical Society and Institute of Science in the 1910s, the National Park Service became its custodian and conservator in 1933. In 1942, Fort Marion reverted to its original name of Castillo de San Marcos. It is now run by the National Park Service, and is preserved as the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, a National Historic Landmark.
Flagler era
Henry Flagler, a partner with John D. Rockefeller in Standard Oil, arrived in St. Augustine in the 1880s. He was the driving force behind turning the city into a winter resort for the wealthy northern elite. Flagler bought a number of local railroads and incorporated them into the Florida East Coast Railway, which built its headquarters in St. Augustine.
Flagler commissioned the New York architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings to design a number of extravagant buildings in St. Augustine, among them the Ponce de León Hotel and the Alcazar Hotel. He built the latter partly on land purchased from his friend and associate Andrew Anderson and partly on the bed of Maria Sanchez Creek, which Flagler had filled with the archaeological remains of the original Fort Mose. Flagler, a Scottish Presbyterian, built or contributed to the construction of several churches of various denominations, including Grace Methodist, Ancient City Baptist, and the ornate Memorial Presbyterian Church of Venetian architectural style, where he was buried after his death in 1912.
Flagler commissioned Albert Spalding to design a baseball park in St. Augustine, and in the 1880s, the waiters at his hotels, under the leadership of headwaiter Frank P. Thompson, formed one of America's pioneer professional Negro league baseball teams, the Ponce de Leon Giants. Members of the New York African-American professional team, the Cuban Giants, wintered in St. Augustine, where they played for the Ponce de Leon Giants. These included Frank Grant, who in 2006 was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.
In the 1880s, no public hospital was operated between Daytona Beach and Jacksonville. On May 22, 1888, Flagler invited the most influential women of St. Augustine to a meeting where he offered them a hospital if the community would commit to operate and maintain the facility. The Alicia Hospital opened March 1, 1890, as a not-for-profit institution; it was renamed Flagler Hospital in his honor in 1905.
The St. Augustine Alligator Farm, founded in 1893, is one of the oldest commercial tourist attractions in Florida, as is the Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park, which has been a tourist attraction since around 1902. The city is the eastern terminus of the Old Spanish Trail, a promotional effort of the 1920s linking St. Augustine to San Diego, California, with of roadways.
From 1918 to 1968, St. Augustine was the home of the Florida Normal and Industrial Institute, serving African American students. In 1942 it changed its name to Florida Normal and Industrial Memorial College.
The Florida land boom of the 1920s left its mark on St. Augustine with the residential development (though not completion) of Davis Shores, a landfill project of the developer D.P. Davis on the marshy north end of Anastasia Island. It was promoted as "America's Foremost Watering Place", and could be reached from downtown St. Augustine by the Bridge of Lions, billed as "The Most Beautiful Bridge in Dixie".
During World War II, St. Augustine hotels were used as sites for training Coast Guardsmen, including the artist Jacob Lawrence and actor Buddy Ebsen. It was a popular place for R&R for soldiers from nearby Camp Blanding, including Andy Rooney and Sloan Wilson. Wilson later wrote the novel The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, which became a classic of the 1950s.
Civil rights movement
St. Augustine was among the pivotal sites of the civil rights movement in 1963–64.
Nearly a decade after the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of schools was unconstitutional, African Americans were still trying to get the city to integrate the public schools. They were also trying to integrate public accommodations, such as lunch counters, and were met with arrests and Ku Klux Klan violence. The police arrested non-violent protesters for participating in peaceful picket lines, sit-ins, and marches. Homes of blacks were firebombed, black leaders were assaulted and threatened with death, and others were fired from their jobs.
In the spring of 1964, St. Augustine based Robert Hayling, president of the Florida Branch of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), asked King for assistance. From May until July 1964, they carried out marches, sit-ins, and other forms of peaceful protest in St. Augustine. Hundreds of black and white civil rights supporters were arrested, and the jails were filled to overflowing. At the request of Hayling and King, white civil rights supporters from the North, including students, clergy, and well-known public figures, came to St. Augustine and were arrested together with Southern activists.
The Ku Klux Klan responded with violent attacks that were widely reported in national and international media. Popular revulsion against the Klan violence in St. Augustine generated national sympathy for the black protesters and became a key factor in Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, leading eventually to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, both of which were to provide federal enforcement of constitutional rights.
The black Florida Normal Industrial and Memorial College, whose students had participated in the protests, felt itself unwelcome in St. Augustine, and in 1968 moved to a new campus in Dade County. Today it is Florida Memorial University.
In 2010, at the invitation of Flagler College, Andrew Young premiered his movie, Crossing in St. Augustine, about the 1963–64 struggles against Jim Crow segregation in the city. Young had marched in St. Augustine, where he was physically assaulted by hooded members of the Ku Klux Klan in 1964, and later served as US ambassador to the United Nations.
The city has a privately funded Freedom Trail of historic sites of the civil rights movement, and a museum at the Fort Mose site, the location of the 1738 free black community. Historic Excelsior School, built in 1925 as the first public high school for blacks in St. Augustine, has been adapted as the city's first museum of African-American history. In 2011, the St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument, a commemoration of participants in the civil rights movement, was dedicated in the downtown plaza a few feet from the former Slave Market. Robert Hayling, the leader of the St. Augustine movement, and Hank Thomas, who grew up in St. Augustine and was one of the original Freedom Riders, spoke at the dedication ceremony. Another corner of the plaza was designated "Andrew Young Crossing" in honor of the civil rights leader, who received his first beating in the movement in St. Augustine in 1964. Bronze replicas of Young's footsteps have been incorporated into the sidewalk that runs diagonally through the plaza, along with quotes expressing the importance of St. Augustine to the civil rights movement. That project was publicly funded. Some important landmarks of the civil rights movement, including the Monson Motel and the Ponce de Leon Motor Lodge, had been demolished in 2003 and 2004.
Modern era
Today the city of St. Augustine is a popular travel destination for those in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The city is a well-preserved example of Spanish-style buildings and 18th- and 19th-century architecture. St. Augustine is a very walkable city, with several oceanfront parks. The mild subtropical climate allows for a 12-month tourist season, and many tours operators are based in St. Augustine, offering walking and trolley tours.
Architecture and points of interest
The city's historic center is anchored by St. George Street, which is lined with historic houses from various periods. Some of these houses are reconstructions of buildings or parts of buildings that had been burned or demolished over the years; however, several of them are original structures that have been restored. The city has many well-cared-for and preserved examples of Spanish-style, Mediterranean Revival, British Colonial, and early American homes and buildings. From 1959 to 1997, state agency Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board led the restoration and reconstruction efforts of St. Augustine's historic district and operated a living history museum called San Agustín Antiguo, parts of which remain today within the Colonial Quarter Museum.
The Castillo de San Marcos, located on South Castillo Drive, is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States. Made of a limestone called coquina (Spanish for "small shells"), construction began in 1672. In The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The 20.48-acre (8.29 ha) site was then turned over to the United States National Park Service. Today the nearly 350-year-old fort is a popular photo spot for travelers and history buffs.
One of St. Augustine's most notable buildings is the former Ponce de Leon Hotel, now part of Flagler College. Built by millionaire developer and Standard Oil co-founder Henry M. Flagler and completed in 1888, the exclusive hotel was designed in the Spanish Renaissance style for vacationing northerners in winter who traveled south on the Florida East Coast Railway in the late 1800s.
The city also has one of the oldest alligator farms in the United States, opened on May 20, 1893. Today the St. Augustine Alligator Farm Zoological Park is at the center of alligator and crocodile education and environmental awareness in the United States. As of 2012, this was the only place where one can see every species of alligator, crocodile, caiman, and gharial in the United States.
Five statues depicting persons of historical significance to St. Augustine and located out of doors, are connected and featured on a system of signage that makes them accessible to the blind and the sighted called the TOUCH (Tactile Orientation for Understanding Creativity and History) St. Augustine Braille Trail. The statues are of Pedro Menéndez, the founder of St, Augustine; Juan Ponce de León, the first European known to explore the Florida peninsula; the St. Augustine Foot Soldiers, who made civil rights history in the city during the early 1960s; Henry Flagler, who built the Ponce de Leon Hotel, now Flagler College; and Father Pedro Camps and the Menorcans next to the Cathedral Basilica. The system includes an audio tour that may be accessed via phones without internet access as well as desktop computers and smart mobile devices.
See also
Spanish Florida
References
Bibliography
Abbad y Lasierra, Iñigo, "Relación del descubrimiento, conquista y población de las provincias y costas de la Florida" – "Relación de La Florida" (1785); edición de Juan José Nieto Callén y José María Sánchez Molledo.
Colburn, David, Racial Change and Community Crisis: St. Augustine, Florida, 1877–1980 (1985), New York: Columbia University Press.
Corbett, Theodore G. "Migration to a Spanish imperial frontier in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: St. Augustine." Hispanic American Historical Review (1974): 414-430 in JSTOR
Deagan, Kathleen, Fort Mose: Colonial America's Black Fortress of Freedom (1995), Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Fairbanks, George R. (George Rainsford), History and antiquities of St. Augustine, Florida (1881), Jacksonville, Florida, H. Drew.
Gannon, Michael V., The Cross in the Sand: The Early Catholic Church in Florida 1513–1870 (1965), Gainesville: University Presses of Florida.
Goldstein, Holly Markovitz, "St. Augustine's "Slave Market": A Visual History," Southern Spaces, 28 September 2012.
Graham, Thomas, The Awakening of St. Augustine, (1978), St. Augustine Historical Society' Hanna, A. J., A Prince in Their Midst, (1946), Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Harvey, Karen, America's First City, (1992), Lake Buena Vista, Florida: Tailored Tours Publications.
Harvey, Karen, St. Augustine Enters the Twenty-first Century, (2010), Virginia Beach, VA: The Donning Company.
Landers, Jane, Black Society in Spanish Florida (1999), Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Lardner, Ring, Gullible's Travels, (1925), New York: Scribner's.
Lyon, Eugene, The Enterprise of Florida, (1976), Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Manucy, Albert, Menendez, (1983), St. Augustine Historical Society.
McCarthy, Kevin (editor), The Book Lover's Guide to Florida, (1992), Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press.
Nolan, David, Fifty Feet in Paradise: The Booming of Florida, (1984), New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Nolan, David, The Houses of St. Augustine, (1995), Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press.
Porter, Kenneth W., The Black Seminoles: History of a Freedom-Seeking People, (1996), Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Reynolds, Charles B. (Charles Bingham), Old Saint Augustine, a story of three centuries, (1893), St. Augustine, Florida E. H. Reynolds.
Torchia, Robert W., Lost Colony: The Artists of St. Augustine, 1930–1950, (2001), St. Augustine: The Lightner Museum.
Turner, Glennette Tilley, Fort Mose, (2010), New York: Abrams Books.
United States Commission on Civil Rights, 1965. Law Enforcement: A Report on Equal Protection in the South. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
Warren, Dan R., If It Takes All Summer: Martin Luther King, the KKK, and States' Rights in St. Augustine, 1964, (2008), Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Waterbury, Jean Parker (editor), The Oldest City'', (1983), St. Augustine Historical Society.
External links
Twine Collection Images of Lincolnville between 1922 and 1927. From the State Library & Archives of Florida.
st augustine
St. Augustine, Florida |
23386461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Bombardment%20Wing | 1st Bombardment Wing | The 1st Bombardment Wing is a disbanded United States Army Air Force unit. It was initially formed in France in 1918 during World War I as a command and control organization for the Pursuit Groups of the First Army Air Service.
Demobilized after the Armistice in France, it was re-established in the United States as the first wing formed in the reorganized United States Army Air Service, created in August 1919 to control three groups patrolling the border with Mexico after revolution broke out there.
As the 1st Wing, the unit was one of the original wings of the GHQ Air Force on 1 March 1935. During World War II, it was one of the primary B-17 Flying Fortress heavy strategic bombardment wings of VIII Bomber Command and later, Eighth Air Force. Its last assignment was with the Continental Air Forces, based at McChord Field, Washington. It was inactivated on 7 November 1945.
History
World War I
Organized at Croix de Metz Aerodrome, Toul Sector, France, during World War I as the 1st Pursuit Wing on 6 July 1918, it was a command and control organization in the First Army Air Service for several pursuit groups in the American Sector of the Western Front in France.
Served in combat on the St. Mihiel offensive in September, flew reconnaissance sorties, protected observation aircraft, attacked enemy observation balloons, strafed enemy troops, flew counter-air patrols, and bombed towns, bridges, and railroad stations behind the enemy's lines. Moved to Chaumont-Sur-Aire Aerodrome, and during the Meuse-Argonne offensive (26 September – 11 November 1918) bombardment aircraft continued their attacks behind the lines while pursuit ships concentrated mainly on large-scale counter-air patrols. Demobilized in France, December 1918.
Inter-War Period
Authorized in the Regular Army on 15 August 1919 as the 1st Wing Headquarters. Organized on 16 August 1919 at Kelly Field, Texas. Provided command and control of all United States Army Air Service units conducting patrol duties 1919–22 along the Mexican Border from Brownsville, Texas, to the California-Arizona border, Assigned to the GHQ, US Army in 1921. Reorganized 19 July 1922 as 1st Wing (Provisional) Headquarters and assigned responsibility to perform duties as the headquarters for the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field. Inactivated on 26 June 1924.
Allotted to the Eighth Corps Area on 29 February 1927. Fort Sam Houston, Texas, designated as headquarters on organization, but the unit was never organized at that location. Designated headquarters location changed on 14 September 1928 to Kelly Field. Re-designated as Headquarters, 1st Bombardment Wing on 8 May 1929. Activated on 1 April 1931 at March Field, California. Re-designated as Headquarters, 1st Pursuit Wing on 18 August 1933.
Was responsible for the supervision and administration of twenty-five camps in the southern California Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) District, 1933–34. Re-designated Headquarters, 1st Wing on 1 March 1935 and assigned to the General Headquarters Air Force (GHQAF). Transferred on 27 May 1941 to Tucson Municipal Airport, later Tucson Army Air Field, Arizona, under IV Bomber Command.
World War II
After the Pearl Harbor Attack, initially supervised Heavy Bomber Operational Training at Tucson AAF. Re-designated as 1st Bombardment Wing and reassigned to VIII Bomber Command and deployed to England July–August 1942.
In England, mission was command and control of B-17 Flying Fortress bombardment groups stationed in East Anglia, receiving operational orders from VIII BC headquarters and mobilizing subordinate groups for strategic bombardment attacks on enemy targets in Occupied Europe. Operated primarily from RAF Bassingbourn, Cambridgeshire. Served in combat in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) from August 1942 until 25 April 1945, receiving a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) for an attack on aircraft factories in Germany on 11 January 1944. Returned to the United States in August 1945. Inactivated on 7 November 1945.
Lineage
1st Pursuit Wing
Organized as the 1st Pursuit Wing on 6 July 1918
Demobilized in France, 17 December 1918
Reconstituted and consolidated with 1st Wing as the 1st Wing on 14 October 1936
1st Bombardment Wing
Authorized as the 1st Wing on 15 August 1919
Organized and activated on 16 August 1919
Redesignated: 1st Wing (Provisional) on 19 July 1922
Inactivated on 26 June 1924.
Redesignated 1st Bombardment Wing on 8 May 1929
Activated on 1 April 1931
Redesignated 1st Pursuit Wing on 18 August 1933
Redesignated 1st Wing on 1 March 1935
Consolidated with the 1st Pursuit Wing on 14 October 1936
Redesignated 1st Bombardment Wing on 19 October 1940
Redesignated 1st Combat Bombardment Wing (Heavy) in August 1943
Redesignated 1st Bombardment Wing (Heavy) in June 1945
Inactivated on 7 November 1945
Disbanded on 15 June 1983
Assignments
First Army Air Service, 6 July – 17 December 1918
United States Army Air Service, 16 August 1919
United States Army Air Service, 14 March 1921
Advanced Flying School, Kelly Field, Texas, 19 July 1922 – 26 June 1924
United States Army Air Corps, 1 April 1931
General Headquarters Air Force, 1 March 1935
Southwest Air District, 19 October 1940
IV Bomber Command, 1 September 1941
VIII Bomber Command, 19 August 1942
1st Bombardment Division, 13 September 1943
Re-designated: 1st Air Division: 19 December 1944 – 26 August 1945
Continental Air Forces, 6 September – 7 November 1945
Stations
Croix de Metz Aerodrome, Toul, France, 6 July 1918
Chaumont, France, c. 24 September 1918 – 17 December 1918
Kelly Field, Texas, 16 August 1919 – 26 June 1924
March Field, California, April 1931
Tucson Municipal Airport, Arizona, 27 May 1941 – July 1942
Brampton Grange (AAF-103), England, c. 19 August 1942
RAF Bassingbourn (AAF-121), England, September 1943
RAF Alconbury (AAF-102), England, c. 26 June – c. 26 August 1945
McChord Field, Washington, c. 6 September – 7 November 1945.
Components
World War I
1st Pursuit Group, 6 July 1918 – 17 December 1918
2d Pursuit Group, 6 July 1918 – 17 December 1918
3d Pursuit Group, 6 July 1918 – 17 December 1918
Inter-War period
1st Pursuit Group, 1919–1922; 1933–1935
2d (formerly 1st) Bombardment Group, 1918; 1919–1922
3d Attack (formerly 1st Surveillance) Group, 1919–1924
7th Bombardment Group, 1931–1933, 1935–1941
8th Pursuit Group, 1933–1935
17th Bombardment Group, 1931–1941
19th Bombardment Group, 1935–1941
10th Pursuit Group, 1939–1941
35th Pursuit Group, 1940–1941
41st Bombardment Group, 1941
World War II (VIII Bomber Command)
91st Bombardment Group, September 1942 – 23 June 1945
Attached to: 201st Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, February – 13 September 1943
92d Bombardment Group, August 1942 – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 102d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, May – 13 September 1943
93d Bombardment Group, 6 September – 6 December 1942
97th Bombardment Group*, August – 9 November 1942
301st Bombardment Group*, 9 August – 2 September 1942
303d Bombardment Group, 10 September 1942 – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 102d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, February–May 1943
Attached to: 103d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, May – 13 September 1943
305th Bombardment Group, September 1942 – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 102d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, February – 13 September 1943
306th Bombardment Group, September 1942 – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 101st Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, February – June 1943
Attached to: 102d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, June – 13 September 1943
351st Bombardment Group, May 1943 – 1 November 1943
Attached to: 101st Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, May – 13 September 1943
379th Bombardment Group, May – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 103d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, May – 13 September 1943
381st Bombardment Group, June 1943 – 1 January 1945
Attached to: 101st Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, June – 13 September 1943
384th Bombardment Group, June – 13 September 1943
Attached to: 103d Provisional Combat Bombardment Wing, June – 13 September 1943
398th Bombardment Group, 22 April 1944 – 22 June 1945
482d Bombardment Group, 20 August 1943 – 24 June 1945
* Note: Reassigned to Twelfth Air Force
See also
Organization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force
References
001
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
0001
Military units and formations of the United States Army Air Corps |
2249253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry%20in%20the%20American%20Civil%20War | Cavalry in the American Civil War | The American Civil War saw extensive use of horse-mounted soldiers on both sides of the conflict. They were vital to both the Union Army and Confederate Army for conducting reconnaissance missions to locate the enemy and determine their strength and movement, and for screening friendly units from being discovered by the enemy's reconnaissance efforts. Other missions carried out by cavalry included raiding behind enemy lines, escorting senior officers, and carrying messages.
In the first half of the war, the Confederates enjoyed the advantage in cavalry, not least because most of the experienced cavalry officers from the Regular Army had chosen to side with the Confederacy. Notable Confederate cavalry leaders included J. E. B. Stuart, famed for literally riding rings around the Union's Army of the Potomac, and Nathan Bedford Forrest, who caused havoc with Union supply lines.
The Battle of Brandy Station in 1863 is considered the point by which Union cavalry proved itself equal to the Confederates, and onward through the second half of the war they continued to improve. This was exemplified by Benjamin Grierson's brilliant deception tactics in the Mississippi valley, and Philip Sheridan's aggressive movements while in command of the Army of the Shenandoah at the end of the war in Virginia.
Cavalry units proved highly expensive to maintain, and unscrupulous agents would often exploit shortages by supplying defective animals at exorbitant prices. The Union benefited from the creation of tighter regulations and a centralized acquisition and distribution system which ensured its forces remained mounted throughout the war. Conversely, the Confederacy's system of each soldier supplying their own horses resulted in the degradation of its cavalry units as horses became harder to obtain.
Types of mounted forces
There were a variety of mounted forces prevalent in the Civil War, although for the sake of brevity they are often referred to under the catchall term "cavalry." Some cavalry units named themselves after European cavalry such as hussars and lancers, but these names were considered obsolete and used out of tradition rather than as an accurate description. Approximately fourteen percent of the Union Army consisted of cavalry, while in the Confederate States Army about twenty percent of soldiers were mounted.
Cavalry were forces that fought principally on horseback, armed with pistols and sabers. Historically there had been two types of cavalry: heavy cavalry (such as Carabiniers and Cuirassiers), whose primary role was on the battlefield conducting a cavalry charge, and light cavalry (such as Chasseurs à cheval and Chevau-léger), which were more suited to screening, raiding, and reconnaissance. The United States did not have a strong cavalry tradition and Congress was unwilling to fund the creation of expensive heavy cavalry; only light cavalry were formed before and during the Civil War.
Dragoons were hybrid forces that were armed with carbines, pistols, and sabers. They could fight from horseback as traditional cavalrymen but were expected to fight on foot as well. The term comes from the French Army, representing a cross between light infantry and light cavalry. Dragoons had been raised in the United States prior to the Civil War, and as the conflict progressed these tactics became more central to how cavalry fought.
Mounted infantry were forces that moved on horseback but dismounted for fighting on foot, armed principally with rifles, pistols, and bayonets. Mounted riflemen had been raised previously by the United States to fight in the frequent conflicts with Native Americans. During the Civil War many foot infantry units were converted into mounted infantry. Although there was a belief that mounted infantry made for neither good cavalry or infantry, with reliable weapons and competent leadership the concept would flourish, particularly in the Western Theater.
Irregular cavalry (such as partisans and guerrillas) were generally mounted forces. A concept particularly employed by the Confederates, known as the Partisan Ranger Act, to help aide the recruitment of irregulars into service with the Confederate Army. Many of the partisan cavalry units were considered excellent horsemen and operated both within and outside of Southern territory. There is little commonality as to their weapons in general, and any weapons available were used, but many favored the double-barreled shotgun.
Roles
At the time of the American Civil War, the cavalry had six major roles to play:
Reconnaissance
Screening
Flank security
Attack
Headquarters duties
Raiding/Interdiction
Of these missions, reconnaissance was the most important role. Their inherent nature made cavalry ideally suited to be the "eyes and ears" of an army's commander and keep him informed of the enemy's position and movements. Cavalry had the agility and firepower to probe the enemy for weak points, set ambushes for isolated groups, and flee before the main force could overwhelm them. The widespread availability of field glasses only increased their information-gathering capability.
Reconnaissance and screening were crucial components in the Gettysburg Campaign, where cavalry under Union General Alfred Pleasonton attempted to find the wide-ranging Army of Northern Virginia on its invasion of the North, and Confederate cavalry under J.E.B. Stuart effectively employed counter-reconnaissance to screen passes in the Blue Ridge Mountains and hide Robert E. Lee's movements from the Army of the Potomac. However, when Stuart was "cut loose" to conduct another raid around the Army of the Potomac, he deprived Lee of adequate reconnaissance at the beginning of the Battle of Gettysburg, one of the principal reasons for the Confederate defeat there.
The use and evolution of cavalry for offensive action in the Civil War is a subject of contention. The conventional view is that cavalry's traditional role on the battlefield of charging into enemy infantry or cavalry with lances and sabers to break up their formations, had been appropriate in previous generations when the infantry's primary weapon was the smoothbore musket with an effective range of up to . However, during the Civil War, the rifled musket was the primary infantry firearm, and against a weapon with an effective range of up to these mounted shock tactics were rendered ineffective and disastrous on the battlefield. Instead, cavalry had to learn to fight dismounted, in effect becoming mounted infantry who used their horses only for mobility and fought on foot as regular infantry. Furthermore, the terrain was also blamed for being less conducive to large cavalry maneuvers, particularly in the Eastern Theater which was broken up with an abundance of woodlands and farmlands.
Historian Earl J. Hess disputes the impact the rifle had on cavalry tactics in the Civil War, noting that even in the era of smoothbore muskets infantry had always been able to defend itself against cavalry attacks; a cavalry charge against infantry in formation and ready to meet it had almost always ended in failure. Paddy Griffith observed that the United States never had a strong tradition of heavy cavalry which normally conducted such attacks, whereas a cost-conscious Congress preferred to fund the formation of dragoons and mounted infantry which had more supposed versatility. Lacking a doctrinal basis for their use, Union cavalry only conducted a handful of cavalry charges against Confederate infantry in the first three years of the war and all were doomed to fail for reasons other than the rifle. Stephen Z. Starr found no proof that cavalry in the Civil War made a conscious choice to change their tactics in response to the rifle. While there was a shift towards more dragoon-based tactics overall, he cites a number of other factors for this evolution, principal among them being the quality of the mounts available and the lack of appropriate training for both horse and rider.
Long-distance raids were the most desirable mission for cavalrymen, primarily because of the fame that successful raids would bring, but they were often of little practical strategic value in comparison to the men and horses lost. Jeb Stuart became famous for two audacious raids around the Army of the Potomac in 1862; his third such attempt, during the Gettysburg Campaign, lead to disaster for the Army of Northern Virginia. Inspired by the 'success' of these raids the Union attempted to mimic them but to mixed results. George Stoneman's raid in the Battle of Chancellorsville was considered a failure for although it destroyed considerable Confederate property, much of this was quickly repaired, at the cost of at least 1,000 of his horses ruined by the exertion. Meanwhile Benjamin Grierson's raid in the Vicksburg Campaign was a strategic masterpiece that diverted critical Confederate forces away from Ulysses S. Grant's army.
Tactics
Cavalry typically traveled in a column of fours, allowing for easy travel down roads and around obstacles. About to either side were parallel files of horsemen to protect the flanks. A vanguard and rearguard was also deployed out ahead and behind the column, which themselves deployed vedettes further ahead and behind to provide advanced warning. With a troop of 96 horsemen in a column of fours taking up of road, a cavalry force on the march could stretch for many miles: Sherridan's massive force of ten thousand troopers and six artillery batteries en route to Yellow Tavern measured thirteen miles long.
A cavalry force on picket duty would set up an outpost with about half of its total strength stationed there as a "grand guard." The rest would set up pickets out to the sides and in front of the outpost at a distance of . Each picket would also deploy solitary vedettes in a semicircle a further out. Constant patrols were maintained between the outpost and the pickets, and additional patrols were set out ahead of the vendettes to distances of two or more miles. Picket duty was fatiguing for both soldiers and horses, and many cavalry leaders believed this type of work was better suited to infantry.
When setting up to conduct a charge, cavalry traditionally arrayed itself in a line of two ranks, although more recent doctrine called for just a single rank. It was also possible to make a charge from a column (or double column) of fours. Dismounted troopers formed themselves into a line of one rank, with skirmishers arrayed out in front of it. Every fourth trooper was a horseholder responsible for taking care of the others' mounts. They were positioned as near as possible to allow for a quick remount, while simultaneously taking advantage of any shelter available to stay out of danger.
By the latter part of the war, offensive tactics had settled around a hybrid that mixed the qualities of both traditional cavalry and mounted infantry. A cavalry unit would use their superior mobility to approach the enemy but then dismount a majority of their force to attack on foot. The dismounted troopers would use weight of fire to assault the enemy's position, particularly if armed with new repeating rifles. Finally at the right moment, the mounted portion stationed on one or both flanks would conduct a saber charge (or, if lacking in sabers, use their revolvers). When combined with the usage of horse artillery, cavalry fighting this way essentially became an "all-arms" force, though they were more expensive to maintain, required more logistical support, and could not field quite as many soldiers as comparable infantry forces.
Organization
The United States Army (known also as the Regular Army) before the Civil War utilized the regiment as the principal unit of maneuver and training for its cavalry forces. There were five regiments of mounted soldier: the 1st and 2nd Dragoon regiments, the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen, and the 1st and 2nd Cavalry regiments. Each were similarly organized with ten companies (or troops), one troop commanded by a captain with a number of other commissioned and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) for around a hundred soldiers each. Two troops were further combined to form a squadron for five total. A regiment was commanded by a colonel (assisted by a lieutenant colonel and three majors) and included a staff which operated as part of the regimental headquarters.
When a sixth regiment (3rd Cavalry) was founded in May 1861, it instead constituted twelve troops for a total of 1,278 soldiers. This included a permanent battalion structure with two squadrons to a battalion and each battalion with its own commanding officer and staff. Regiments raised by the states under the United States Volunteers mirrored the organization of the 3rd Cavalry starting in July. In August, Congress renumbered the Regular Army's mounted forces as the 1st through 6th Cavalry regiments. Then in July 1862 all cavalry regiments were reorganized around the twelve-troop model and the permanent battalion structure removed. Continued adjustments to the number of soldiers per regiment and troop made throughout the early part of the war were finalized in April 1863, when the authorized strength for a Union cavalry regiment was set at between 1,040 and 1,156. Although permanent battalions were removed, Union forces continued to operate in the field as squadrons and battalions. Independent battalions and companies of the Volunteers were also formed throughout the war.
The Confederates organized their cavalry regiments along the same principles as the old Regular Army regiments with ten companies. In November 1861, each company was to have at minimum sixty privates, later increased to eighty in October 1862, also commanded by a captain with a number of other officers and NCOs. Each regiment was commanded by a colonel, assisted by a lieutenant colonel and a major, with its own regimental staff. As with Union forces, the Confederates also formed independent battalions and companies of cavalry forces, and many partisan groups were formed which operated both within and outside of Confederate territory. Additionally, at least one cavalry legion was formed early in the war by combining infantry and artillery forces into one large regiment, but the concept was soon abandoned for being too unwieldy.
The actual size of cavalry regiments rarely if ever conformed to their paper strength. Sometimes they could be much larger: Turner Ashby for example grew his 7th Virginia Cavalry Regiment to over 1,400 troopers by April 1862 (split between twenty-two and twenty-six companies) by refusing to allow it's division into multiple regiments. More often, regiments were worn down by attrition until they were a fraction of their authorized size: Union regiments averaged between 400 and 600 total, while Confederate regiments averaged between 160 and 360 total. In one extreme example, an unnamed Union regiment at the Battle of Five Forks numbered only 45 men. The fate of most regiments once they were reduced to a certain size was either disbandment or consolidation with other units, much to the chagrin of the veteran troopers. The states were mostly responsible for recruitment and many governors were more inclined to create brand new units as a form of political patronage rather than return an existing unit to full strength. Nevertheless, the Confederates did a better job than the Union at funneling replacements to existing regiments.
Above the regiment was a brigade which consisted of several regiments, and several brigades were combined into a division. Brigades and divisions were commanded by brigadier generals and major generals respectively, although for lack of a higher rank some Union cavalry brigades and divisions were commanded by colonels and brigadier generals instead. Both sides also eventually combined their cavalry forces into corps, grouping a number of divisions together. Union brigades were numbered based on their position within their parent division, as were divisions within their corps, however Confederate units were known by their commanding officer's name.
Starting at the regimental level, commanders had a staff of officers to help with the administration of their unit. Regimental staff officers were chosen from among the unit's lieutenants, while higher formations were to have a representative from the armies' respective War Departments. General officers were also allowed a personal staff of aides-de-camp and a chief of staff. Neither side had an effective way to train staff officers however, and so their competence tended to be based on how much experience they gained. Furthermore, with some exceptions there were no enlisted personnel authorized to assist in carrying out the logistical work necessary to keep these units supplied. Either civilian workers had to be hired or soldiers detailed to handle these functions; the former tended to be unreliable while the latter lessened the combat effectiveness of their units.
In both armies, the cavalry was accompanied by batteries or battalions of horse artillery where possible. They also had their own train of supply wagons and traveling forges. The size of the train could be quite large to support a cavalry force: even a single regiment might demand 81 wagons to keep it supplied. Forage in particular was the bulkiest and most difficult to transport of all military supplies. In October 1862 the Army of the Potomac, with 127,818 soldiers and 321 cannons, had a daily supply requirement of , of which was forage for its 22,493 horses and 10,392 mules.
Equipment
Horses
The principal item of equipment for a cavalryman was the horse and one of the reasons both North and South initially hesitated in forming mounted units was because of financial considerations; each cavalry regiment cost $300,000 for initial organization with annual upkeep expenses tallying over $100,000. Both cavalries originally required recruits or local communities to provide horses, a policy that lasted briefly in the North, while the South maintained it throughout the war even though Richmond leaders recognized its serious drawbacks. While Confederate troopers bore the monetary cost of keeping themselves mounted, Union cavalrymen rode quartermaster-issued animals obtained through public contracts (although officers had to reimburse the cost of their mounts to the government). While open to fraud early in the war, once tightened regulations and stringent inspections were enforced, the contract system yielded an estimated 650,000 horses for Union armies during the war exclusive of an additional 75,000 confiscated in Confederate territory.
Union army guidelines for cavalry horse selection mandated animals be at least 15 hands () high, weighing on average around , and aged between 4 and 10 years old, and be well-broken to bridle and saddle. Animals were to be dark colors and free from defects such as shallow breathing, deformed hooves, bone and bog spavin, or ringbone. Geldings were preferred for cavalry horses with the purchase of mares strictly prohibited outside absolute military emergency, while stallions' volatility and aggressiveness made them generally unsuitable for service. In the Confederacy, limited horse numbers did not permit such selectivity in trying to keep their armies horsed.
Cavalry horse prices varied throughout the war; in 1861 the maximum government price for cavalry horses was $119. However, relentless military demand caused prices to continually increase and by 1865 prices hovered near $190 per head. In the Confederacy horse prices rapidly spiraled upward due to animal scarcity and inflation costing over $3,000 by war's end. The daily feed ration for Union cavalry horses was ten pounds of hay and fourteen pounds of grain which were ample and fulfilled the animals' nutritional needs if of good quality, however, the vagaries of the army supply system did not always insure prescribed forage amounts were delivered where most needed.
On both sides volunteer officers often proved notably lax in promoting strict animal welfare, a shortcoming exacerbated by the absence of a trained and organized veterinary corps which allowed serious maladies like strangles, grease heel, and glanders to spread among army stock. The U.S. Congress finally created the rank of veterinary sergeant in March 1863, but the meager pay and rank held no inducement for qualified candidates to join the army. Repeated calls to establish a professional military veterinary service failed, and widespread waste, suffering, and destruction among army horses resulted; not until 1916 was an official U.S. army veterinary corps founded.
Horses gave the cavalry forces significant mobility: during an eight-hour day a distance of could be covered without fatiguing horse or rider. In some operations, forces were pushed to the limit: Jeb Stuart's raid on Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, in 1862, saw his troopers march in 27 hours, while during Morgan's Raid his forces averaged twenty-one hours in the saddle on some days (and once covered in thirty-five hours). Such excesses were extremely damaging to the readiness of the units and extensive recovery periods were required. Stuart, during the Gettysburg Campaign, resorted to procuring replacement horses from local farmers and townspeople during his grueling trek northward around the Union army. In York County, Pennsylvania, following the Battle of Hanover, his men appropriated well over 1,000 horses from the region. Many of these untrained new mounts proved a hindrance during the subsequent fighting at East Cavalry Field during the battle of Gettysburg.
Commanders often tried to procure specific breeds for their men, with the Morgan being a particular favorite within the Army of the Potomac. Famous Morgan cavalry mounts from the Civil War included Sheridan's "Rienzi" and Stonewall Jackson's "Little Sorrel".
Weaponry
A wide variety of weaponry was carried by mounted forces during the Civil War. While it is commonly held that Northern cavalry were better equipped than their Southern counterparts, this was not always the case, particularly at the beginning of the war. By the start of 1862, most had been issued a saber and pistols, but many regiments had no more than ten to twelve carbines per company. It was not until 1863 when every Union trooper was guaranteed a carbine in addition to his revolvers and saber, although up through to the end of the war many regiments were armed with multiple models of carbines, making resupply difficult. Confederate soldiers meanwhile might carry anything from the latest carbines imported from Europe to flintlock muskets and Bowie knifes, although the primary source for their weapons was whatever could be captured from defeated Union forces.
Rifles were the standard weapon of infantry during the Civil War but were also carried by some mounted forces. Many used traditional infantry rifle muskets while others employed new repeating rifles. In perhaps the most famous example of the latter, Colonel John T. Wilder equipped the entire "Lightning Brigade" with brand-new Spencer repeating rifles out of his own pocket (intending to deduct the cost from his men's wages, an embarrassed Federal government agreed to reimburse him instead). Rifles were considered too unwieldy to be used from horseback though.
Carbines were shorter in overall length, less cumbersome to carry mounted or dismounted, and easier to operate from horseback. However, their accuracy was greatly diminished compared to that of other long guns. Most carbines were .52- or .56-caliber, single-shot breech-loading weapons. They were manufactured by several different companies, but the most common were the Sharps rifle, the Burnside carbine, and the Smith carbine. Late in 1863, the seven-shot Spencer repeating carbine was introduced, but it was rarely deployed. When James H. Wilson was made chief of the Cavalry Bureau in January 1864, he adopted the Spencer as the standard Union cavalry firearm; while many regiments were fully rearmed with these repeaters, some were still armed with other weapons by the war's end. Confederate forces could use captured breechloaders like the Sharps and produce copies of these since their linen cartridges were duplicable. The metallic cartridges needed by other carbines like the Burnside and Spencer were too advanced for the Confederates to copy and so were not used for lack of ammunition.
Pistols, carried by both Northern and Southern cavalry, were usually six-shot revolvers, in .36- or .44-caliber, from Colt or Remington. They were useful only in close fighting since they had little accuracy. It was common for cavalrymen to carry two revolvers for extra firepower, and John S. Mosby's Rangers often carried four each: a pair in their holsters and another pair in their saddlebag.
Sabers were used by cavalrymen on both sides, the most common models being the Model 1860 Light Cavalry Saber and Model 1840 Cavalry Saber, although their utility was questioned even at the time. On average Northern troopers made greater use of sabers while Southern troopers preferred other weapons. John Mosby noted that the only instances he used a saber was as a spit and discarded it as soon as he could. In some units like the 2nd Kentucky regiment, if any man attempted to carry a saber he would be considered a "laughing stock" by the rest. Conversely, Confederate cavalry commanded by General Wade Hampton III were said to like nothing so well as a chance to use their sabers in combat. In an October 1864 report, Jubal Early complained that Confederate cavalry armed only with rifles were at a severe disadvantage in open country against Union cavalry who could fight on horseback with sabers.
Shotguns were used during the early phases of the war, particularly by the Confederacy, as troopers brought with them whatever weapons they had on hand. Though capable of inflicting heavy damage at close range, they were mostly replaced once both sides got sufficient supplies of carbines. Partisan cavalry preferred to use double-barreled shotguns though, especially units operating in the Western Theater. A common tactic was to charge the enemy and unleash both barrels at close range then switch to a pistol or use the buttstock as a club.
Lances were used alongside sabers by a select few cavalry regiments, such as the 5th Texas Cavalry and the 6th Pennsylvania Cavalry. Lances had been used since medieval times, but had been rendered obsolete since the invention of the Minié ball (hollow-base bullet) for rifled muskets. During the Battle of Valverde, the 5th Texas Cavalry performed the only major lancer charge of the war, and was slaughtered, abandoning the lance after the battle. The 6th Pennsylvania Cavalry discontinued usage of the lance in May 1863 and where replaced with carbines.
Confederate cavalry
A Southerner was, on average, considered a superior horseman to his Northerner counterpart, especially early in the war. The common explanations for this stereotype were the poor road conditions in the rural South, requiring a greater reliance on horses for individual transportation, combined with a pervasive cavalier culture within the Southern aristocracy which emphasized equestrianism. Historian Gregory J. W. Urwin has referred to such a broad generalization as a part of a "tired, overly-familiar myth" which explains away the South's defeat due to the North's industrial might. Paddy Griffith also argues that, with each trooper having to supply their own horse, "[o]ne does not need to invoke any theory of 'Southern Cavaliers' or 'innate equestrian skills' to see that a soldier will do better if he rides his own cherished four-legged friend than if he is astride an anonymous item of government property."
Furthermore, both note that these same factors – the use of their own horses and the aristocratic culture – made Southern troopers notoriously insubordinate: soldiers often refused to follow orders or went home whenever they felt like, and some officers refused to serve under commanders with whom they had petty grievances. In one remarkable case a Tennessee cavalry regiment unliterally decided to disband itself. Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina went so far as to compare Confederate cavalry operating within his state to the Plagues of Egypt.
With Confederate cavalry responsible for their own horses, many first rode into battle on some of the finest mounts available, but as the war progressed it became harder and harder to find suitable replacements. A trooper was compensated on a per diem basis for their horse, and if it were killed in battle their owner would be paid its value at the time of mustering. However, no compensation would be given if the horse died of any other causes, and without a horse they either had to steal one from the Yankees or take a 30-day furlough to return home and buy a new one. If a replacement could not be found, they were forced to join the infantry, an ignominious fate for a dashing cavalryman. Contemporaries remarked at the flaws in this system and the resulting loss of troopers, and how it perversely penalized the boldest as they were the most likely to have their horses shot out from under them.
The first prominent Confederate cavalry leader was J. E. B. Stuart, who achieved success in the First Battle of Bull Run against infantry. He was a flamboyant dresser and an audacious commander, wildly popular with the Southern public for his escapades in twice encircling the Army of the Potomac. These long-range reconnaissance missions accomplished little of military value but boosted Southern morale. After Stuart's death in 1864, he was replaced by Wade Hampton, who was a more mature, and arguably more effective, commander. Another Eastern commander of note was Turner Ashby, the "Black Knight of the Confederacy", who commanded Stonewall Jackson's cavalry forces in the Valley Campaign; he was killed in battle in 1862.
In the Western Theater, the most fearless, and ruthless, cavalry commander was Nathan Bedford Forrest, who achieved spectacular results with small forces but was an ineffective subordinate to the army commanders he was supposed to support, resulting in poorly coordinated battles. Much of the same issues could be said of Forrest's counterpart in the Army of Tennessee, John Hunt Morgan. In the Eastern Theater, the Partisan Ranger John Singleton Mosby succeeded in tying down upwards of 40,000 Federal troops defending rail lines and logistical hubs with only 100 to 150 irregulars. In the Trans-Mississippi Theater, John S. Marmaduke and "Jo" Shelby became prominent.
Union cavalry
The Union started the war with five Regular mounted regiments: the 1st and 2nd U.S. Dragoons, the 1st Mounted Rifles, and the 1st and 2nd Cavalry. These were renumbered the 1st through 5th U.S. Cavalry regiments, respectively, and a 6th was recruited. The Union was initially reluctant to enlist additional regiments, because of the expense, the understanding that training an effective cavalryman could take as long as two years, and the conventional wisdom that the rough and forested terrain of the United States, being so different from that of Western Europe, would make the deployment of Napoleonic-style cavalry forces ineffective. As the war progressed, the value of cavalry was eventually realized, and numerous state volunteer cavalry regiments were added to the army. While initially reluctant to form a large cavalry force, the Union eventually fielded some 258 mounted regiments and 170 unattached companies, of differing enlistment periods, throughout the war and suffered 10,596 killed and 26,490 wounded during the struggle.
The Union cavalry was disadvantaged at the start of the war because Northern soldiers allegedly had less comparative equestrian experience than their Southern counterparts, and the Union army did not institute an examination in basic horsemanship before a recruit was mustered into service until August 1862. In addition, over half (104 out of 176) of the experienced U.S. Army cavalry officers were Southerners, and the majority resigned their commissions to fight for the Confederacy. This included four of the five regimental colonels. With West Point's graduating class of 1861 unable to make up the deficiency, many officer positions were filled by green appointees from the civilian sector.
One advantage the Union horseman had over his opponent was the centralized horse procurement organization of the army, relieving him of any responsibility for replacing an injured horse. This responsibility was first taken over by the government on August 31, 1861, with the Quartermaster Department in charge of supplying horses for the entire army. Then in July 1863 the Cavalry Bureau was established specifically with supplying horses and equipment to Union cavalry forces. There were six large remount depots created where horses were purchased, sick and injured horses allowed to recuperate, and cavalry units gathered to drill and train. The primary depot, located at Giesboro Point along the Potomac River, was 625 acres in size and could handle 30,000 horses.
Early in the war, the Army of the Potomac did not organize its cavalry regiments into larger formations to perform independent operations, but instead paired them with infantry divisions. Here they were often wasted by being used merely as pickets, outposts, orderlies, guards for senior officers, and messengers. In July 1862 the first independent brigades were formed but were unfortunately used for many of the same roles. The first officer to make effect use of cavalry was Major General Joseph Hooker, who in February 1863 consolidated the Army of the Potomac's cavalry into a dedicated Cavalry Corps under a single commander, George Stoneman. Similar developments played out with other Union armies.
Halfway into the war, during the summer of 1863, the Union cavalry came into its own. Widely regarded as inferior to its Southern counterpart up until then, the Battle of Brandy Station, although tactically indecisive, is recognized as the point at which it was acknowledged to have comparable competence.
In 1864, Philip Sheridan was given command of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and he deployed his horsemen in a more effective, strategic way than his predecessors. Despite the reluctance of his superior, Major General George G. Meade, Sheridan convinced General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant to allow him to deploy the cavalry in long-range raids, the first of which, at Yellow Tavern, resulted in the death of Confederate commander Jeb Stuart. He later employed his cavalry force effectively in the Valley Campaigns of 1864 and the Appomattox Campaign, in pursuit of Robert E. Lee.
In the Western Theater, two effective cavalry generals have not achieved the fame of their Eastern counterparts: Benjamin Grierson's dramatic raid through Mississippi was an integral part of Ulysses S. Grant's Vicksburg Campaign; James H. Wilson was invaluable in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign and in his 1865 Alabama raid.
Significant cavalry battles and raids
The following are Civil War battles, campaigns, or separate raids in which cavalry forces played a significant role.
Battle of Brandy Station — 20,500 combatants, in 1863, Pleasanton leads the largest predominantly cavalry battle of the war
Battle of Chancellorsville — ambitious plan for raid in the Confederate rear foiled by George Stoneman's inaction
Battle of Gaines's Mill — the first large cavalry engagement of the war
Battle of Gettysburg, Third Day cavalry battles — East Cavalry Field and Farnsworth's Charge
Battle of Franklin — James H. Wilson's repulse of Forrest probably saved the Union army
Battle of Mine Creek — 9,600 cavalry, in 1864, Pleasanton leads the largest cavalry battle west of the Mississippi
Battle of Sailor's Creek — masterful cavalry maneuvers brought Confederates close to surrender in the Appomattox Campaign.
Battle of Selma — James H. Wilson's massive raid into Alabama in 1865
Battle of Trevilian Station — 16,048 cavalry, in 1864, Sheridan leads largest all-cavalry battle of the war
Battle of Yellow Tavern — J.E.B. Stuart killed in action by Philip Sheridan's cavalry
Dahlgren's Raid — unsuccessful Union raid against Richmond
Gettysburg Campaign — numerous cavalry actions in Robert E. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania
Grierson's Raid — long-range raid through Mississippi in conjunction with Ulysses S. Grant's Vicksburg Campaign
Maryland Campaign — J.E.B. Stuart's second ride around the Union army
Peninsula Campaign — Stuart's first ride around the Union army
Price's Raid — Sterling Price's 1864 raid in the Trans-Mississippi Theater
Streight's Raid — 1863 raid across Alabama in which Col. Abel Streight surrendered 1,500 men to Forrest's 400
Third Battle of Winchester — 9,300 cavalry, Sheridan battled Early in 1864, in the Shenandoah valley
Wilson's Raid — James H. Wilson's 1865 raid through Alabama and Georgia
Morgan's Raid — John H. Morgan's 1863 raid through Kentucky, Indiana and Ohio.
Notable cavalry leaders and partisan rangers
Turner Ashby
William W. Averell
John Buford
Louis Henry Carpenter
Philip St. George Cooke
George Armstrong Custer
Ulric Dahlgren
Elon J. Farnsworth
Nathan Bedford Forrest
David McM. Gregg
Benjamin Grierson
Wade Hampton
John D. Imboden
Jesse James
Frank James
Albert G. Jenkins
William E. "Grumble" Jones
Judson Kilpatrick
Fitzhugh Lee
W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee
John S. Marmaduke
Wesley Merritt
John Hunt Morgan
John S. Mosby
John Pelham
Alfred Pleasonton
William Quantrill
Beverly Robertson
Thomas L. Rosser
Joseph O. "Jo" Shelby
Philip Sheridan
David S. Stanley
George Stoneman
J.E.B. Stuart
Alfred Thomas Torbert
Earl Van Dorn
John A. Wharton
Joseph Wheeler
James H. Wilson
Cole Younger
References
Further reading
Gerleman, David J. "Warhorse! Union Cavalry Mounts." North and South Magazine Vol. 2, No. 2, (January 1999), pp. 47–61.
Longacre, Edward G. Lincoln's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of the Potomac. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000. .
Longacre, Edward G. The Cavalry at Gettysburg. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. .
Longacre, Edward G. General John Buford: A Military Biography. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1995. .
Longacre, Edward G. Lee's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of Northern Virginia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
Longacre, Edward G., and Eric J. Wittenberg. Unpublished remarks to the Civil War Institute. Gettysburg College, June 2005.
Mackey, Robert R. The UnCivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861-1865. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. .
Nosworthy, Brent. The Bloody Crucible of Courage, Fighting Methods and Combat Experience of the Civil War. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2003. .
Starr, Stephen Z. The Union Cavalry in the Civil War. Vol. 1, From Fort Sumter to Gettysburg 1861–1863. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. .
Starr, Stephen Z. The Union Cavalry in the Civil War. Vol. 2, The War in the East from Gettysburg to Appomattox 1863–1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. .
Starr, Stephen Z. The Union Cavalry in the Civil War. Vol. 3, The War in the West 1861–1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. .
Wills, Brian Steel. The Confederacy's Greatest Cavalryman: Nathan Bedford Forrest. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992. .
Wittenberg, Eric J. Glory Enough For All: Sheridan's Second Raid and the Battle of Trevilian Station. Washington, DC: Brassey's, Inc., 2001. .
Wittenberg, Eric J. The Battle of Brandy Station: North America's Largest Cavalry Battle. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2010. .
External links
Maps: Battle of Brandy Station
Brandy Station: The Action on Fleetwood Hill
1st Maine Cavalry Federal Cavalry living history organization
10th Illinois Volunteer Cavalry living history organization
American Civil War
Military equipment of the American Civil War
Military history of the American Civil War |
1216941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wincenty%20Kad%C5%82ubek | Wincenty Kadłubek | Wincenty Kadłubek (; 1150 – 8 March 1223) was a Polish Catholic prelate and professed Cistercian who served as the Bishop of Kraków from 1208 until his resignation in 1218. His episcopal mission was to reform the diocesan priests to ensure their holiness and invigorate the faithful and cultivate greater participation in ecclesial affairs on their part. Wincenty was much more than just a bishop; he was a leading scholar in Poland from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. He was also a lawyer, historian, church reformer, monk, magister, and the father of Polish culture and national identity.
The process of his canonization proved quite slow despite the initial momentum to see him proclaimed as a saint. The cause languished for several centuries until 1764 when Pope Clement XIII beatified him.
Early life and education
Little is known about Kadłubek's early life, but we do know he was born around 1160 to parents of elite status. Eleventh and Twelfth century Poland was a complicated and turbulent place, shaping Kadłubek's works and life. This period of time is characterized by territorial divisions between branches of the Piast family and civil war.
Kadłubek first studied in Stopnica before he studied at the cathedral school in Kraków. It was while at the latter that he studied under Mateusz Cholewa, who encouraged Kadłubek to be sent abroad for further studies. He completed his studies in 1185 and returned home where he was ordained to the priesthood before 1189 and served as the provost for the Sandomierz Cathedral; some sources suggest that he served as the principal of the cathedral school in Kraków. He studied in France at the college in Paris as well as at the college in Bologna. Some sources suggest that he met the future Pope Innocent III at Bologna when the two were students and it was further said he once encountered John of Salisbury.
Kadłubek was considerably educated for the time period. He was knowledgeable of medieval and classical literature, spoke Greek, French, and Latin, and had a meticulous knowledge of Roman and Canon law. At the time, you could only learn about Roman and Canon law at schools in Paris and Bologna. He was the first known Polish lawyer to contribute to Polish legal scholarship. Kadłubek's work, the Chronica Polonorum, or the Chronicle of Poles, confirms that he was a lawyer. Through the Chronicle of Poles, he was the first Polish person to chronicle Polish history, making him a cardinal source for the early medieval history of Poland.
Time as a bishop
Kadłubek was elected to be a bishop in 1208. It was after the death of Fulko - the Bishop of Kraków - that he was chosen to succeed him as the new bishop. This was the first time that the Krakow Chapter elected a bishop on its own, with the help of Pope Innocent III, instead of through secular power. Pope Innocent III had to take action because the Krakow Chapter could not decide between Kadłubek and Bishop Gedko of Plok. Kadłubek was eventually chosen to be a bishop because of his avid support of church reforms and potential friendship with Pope Innocent III, as It is possible that Pope Innocent III and Kadłubek met in Paris while studying. Pope Innocent III confirmed the decision in a papal bull on 28 March 1208 and Kadłubek received his episcopal consecration from the Archbishop of Gniezno two months later. Innocent III's bull referred to Kadłubek's wisdom as the motivation for his selection while referring to him as a "master and preacher".
He set out to reform the diocesan priesthood to ensure their holiness while also seeking to invigorate the faithful to active participation in ecclesial affairs. As Bishop, he took action to make sure the church was independent of the power of the duke. In addition to being the bishop, he was the legislator of the diocese in Krakow and a member of the first Polish delegation to the Fourth Lateran Council, causing him to affect their reforms and resolutions in Krakow. He participated in diocesan synods and donated to the diocese of Krakow. He also founded and donated to monasteries, in addition to being a benefactor of the Cistercian monastery in Jędrzejów, which was not uncommon for bishops at the time. He was the first in Poland to begin the custom of lighting a vigil lamp prior to the Blessed Sacrament, which he was able to accomplish by allocating funds from the Krakow Chapter to provide wax for the vigil lamp in Saint Wenceslas Cathedral. He also consecrated Saint Florian's Basilica and was said to have once been the chaplain to Casimir II the Just. Kadłubek was ordained as a priest the Dominican friar Ceslaus.
The bishop was noted for his linguistic skills and his charismatic preaching; Kadłubek was known also for his expertise in canon law, his approach to philosophical subjects, as well as for his expertise in rhetoric. He was well educated on the natural sciences since he had learned about them while in Paris and Bologna. Yet, it was while in Europe that he started reading into the life and works of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux and became enthralled with the charism of the Cistercians whom he granted favors to as bishop.
He followed Gallus Anonymus in further developing the idea of the Latin proverb "vox populi vox dei" ("the voice of the people is the voice of God") and argued that the ruler (king) should follow a council that includes bishops and representatives of clans since not the ruler but the council has higher power originating from the laws that God instituted. He also claimed that the council should elect the ruler and that rulers abusing their power should be removed from their position.
Later life
In 1217, Kadłubek decided to resign from his duties as a bishop. He spent his last years at the Cistercian monastery in Jędrzejów, making him the first Bishop of Krakow to join the Cistercian order after voluntarily abdicating. This also made him the first Polish person in the Cistercian monastery in Jędrzejów, which was composed of exclusively French monks at the time. The fire of the Jędrzejów monastery in 1800 in combination with the turbulence of Polish history at the time makes it difficult to understand the remaining years of his life. He likely continued to write the Chronica Polonorum into this time.
Kadlubek died on March 8, 1223, retaining his bishop's pallium, buried in the Jędrzejów monastery, his remains were interred before the high altar of the convent church. His remains were exhumed on 26 April 1633 with his pallium found intact though his remains had become skeletal. Measurements were taken and it was surmised that he was of "fair height". His remains were moved to a new location before the high altar on the following 16 August. Kadłubek's remains were again exhumed and reinterred in mid-1765 and some were moved to Sandomierz in 1845 for veneration. Other parts to his remains were moved in 1903 to Wawel and placed in a silver urn.
Beatification
In 1634 the Polish episcopate made a petition to Pope Urban VIII requesting his canonization. In 1650 the Bishop of Kraków Piotr Gembicki appointed a tribunal to hear witnesses for the cause but the commission never began its work which suspended the cause. Bishop Jan Małachowski - in 1683 - petitioned Pope Innocent XI to canonize the late bishop. Innocent XI requested the Congregation for Rites to begin an investigation which took place from 1688 to 1692. But the congregation concluded that there was no reliable evidence to prove his heroic virtue which suspended the cause once again. In 1682 the king Jan III Sobieski petitioned for his beatification. The Order of Cîteaux made similar request in 1699 at their General Chapter. The Polish episcopate made another request to Pope Clement XII to canonize him but the process that the pope requested came to the same conclusion as the previous one.
In 1761 the king Augustus III sent two letters to Pope Clement XIII requesting the canonization which prompted the pope to order another process of investigation. That investigation proved to be successful for Clement XIII issued a papal bull in which he beatified the late bishop on 18 February 1764. On 9 June 1764 the pope issued another bull that allowed for a Mass and the Divine Office to be said in his honor in Kraków and among the Cistercians.
He is referred to in Poland as a saint despite the fact that he has not been canonized as such; Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz referred to Kadłubek as a "saint" in 2008. Since 2 January 2016 he has been the patron for Jędrzejów.
Efforts to resume the cause
There had been several efforts since his beatification to resume the cause and achieve his canonization though each attempt failed. Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and Karol Józef Wojtyła (the future Pope John Paul II) both supported his cause in 1964 with Wojtyła referring to the late bishop as the "Father of Polish culture".
In 1972 the Congregation for the Causes of Saints concluded that there was no reliable or available documentation that could confirm Kadłubek's heroic virtues thus suspending the cause which has not continued since.
Works
His best-known work - Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae (Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland) - is a historical compendium of Poland in four volumes. The first three volumes take the form of a dialogue between Archbishop John of Gniezno and Bishop Mateusz. The first volume's sources are legends while the second is based on the chronicle of Gallus and the last two are based upon Kadłubek's own experiences. Writing this work made him the first Polish native to chronicle Polish history.
This work had a huge impact on the Polish political doctrine of the 14th and 15th centuries co-authored by Stanisław of Skarbimierz as well as on later works of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki. These ideas led to the Nobles' Democracy in Poland for it is in his works that for the first time the terms res publica (see Commonwealth and Rzeczpospolita) were used in the context of Poland. Some suggest that the book was written at the request of Prince Casimir II; others suggest that it was made at the request of Prince Leszek while Kadłubek was a bishop; still others claim that it was not written until after his retirement.
References
External links
Hagiography Circle
Catholic Online
The Catholic Encyclopedia
Academia
The forthcoming first English critical edition of the "Chronica Polonorum" on Academia.edu
The forthcoming first English critical edition of the "Chronica Polonorum" on ResearchGate
1150s births
1223 deaths
13th-century Polish historians
13th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Poland
13th-century venerated Christians
Bishops of Kraków
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
Clan of Poraj
People from Sandomierz
Polish beatified people
Polish chroniclers
Polish Cistercians
Polish male non-fiction writers
Polish nobility
University of Bologna alumni
University of Paris alumni
Venerated Catholics
13th-century jurists
Beatifications by Pope Clement XIII |
3962003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kharj | Al-Kharj | Kharj () is a governorate in central Saudi Arabia. It is one of the important governorates in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and is located in the southeast of the capital Riyadh, within an area of 19,790 km2 ~ 4,890,215.5 acres, and a population of 376,325 people, according to the statistics of the General Authority for Statistics for the year 2010. The city of Al Saih () is the capital of modern Kharj and its administrative and economic center.
Etymology
It has also been said that Alkharj means what comes out of the earth because it is an agricultural region since the earliest times, and the name is older than those poets like the poet of King Al-Himyari (), Asaad Abi Karb Al-Awsat (), who mentioned the name of the Alkharj in their poems.
The Ministry of Transport recently started making some corrective changes to the indicative panels on the roads leading to the city of Al Saih, within the administrative borders of Alkharj governorate and include the entrances to the city of Al Saih, the Riyadh highway, the old Riyadh road, the Haradh road, and the Al Saih-Dalam road, in implementation of the directives issued by the Amir of Riyadh in this regard that emphasizes the necessity of committing to launching the name (the City of Al Saih) in line with the correct name of this city that was launched by the unifier of this country, King Abdulaziz (), in the year 1356 Hijri.
History
Al-Kharj, with its historical monuments, is an important destination for researchers and those interested in the history of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and of the founder King Abdulaziz. Alkharj has some of the factors that are considered essential for tourism in the Kingdom and need to be considered and sought to achieve them archeology tourism, as there is a feast of archaeological monuments, perhaps the most important of which is the King Abdulaziz Palace. The historical site located in Al-Aziziyah () district in the heart of Al-Saih city. It was built in 1359 Hijri in the center of Al-Saih city.
Among the historical palaces abound in Alkharj is "Abu Jafan Palace" () located east of the city of Al-Saih, and it was built during the reign of King Abdulaziz in the year 1366 Hijri and the purpose of its construction was to be a place at where those coming from the eastern region and pilgrims to the Great Mosque of Mecca which is still open to visitors.
The city of Dalam (), which has a historical value to Alkharj governorate, abounds with many archaeological monuments and witnessed many historical battles represented in a fierce battle between King Abdulalaziz and Ibn Rashid ().
The town of Yamama (), located in the north of the city of Al-Saih, is one of the oldest towns in the Arabian Peninsula (). In the northeastern corner of the town, there locates one of the oldest settlements that is called (Al-Banna) (), which is part of the old settlement that was found in this place before Islam. A variety of pottery was found on surrounding area of the town which indicates a time settlement that extends from the middle of the third millennium BC. Also, there has been found three pieces of ancient coin on the site, as well as accessories made of silver and bronze.
Geography
There are many valleys that flow into Alkharj. The most important of which are the Hanifa Valley (), the Haniyeh () Valley and the Al-Sahba Valley (). Also, Alkharj is known for the presence of ʿayūn ( “eyes”), which are cavities inside the earth. These cavities in Al-Kharj, during summer period, are popular with visitors who come to see them from inside and outside the Kingdom, especially citizens of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. The “eyes” of Al-Kharj are distinguished for a long time by their cold water during the summer and warm during the winter, as these massive wells were flooding with water and running in large quantities like a river in the desert, especially in the valleys that penetrate the city of Al-Saih and which have acquired this name for the flow of water in it All year round. Al-Kharj is known that it is a water land where it gained its name since ancient times from the content of its geographical nature, which was characterized by the abundance of its agricultural production, the fertility of its lands and the sweetness of its water, as it has many natural springs that used to supply farms and agricultural projects with water through a group of channels and streams of water.
The ʿAyn of al-Dila (), a spring, located in the southwest of the city of Al-Saih, is one of the largest “eyes” in the Kingdom, in addition to the presence of many wells and springs with mineral sulfur water, which had an important place since ancient times, the most famous of which are ʿAyn Samha (), ʿAyn Umm Khaysa (), ʿAyn al-Dila () and ʿAyn Farzān (). These wells have remained the main source of water supplies for all uses in the Alkharj Oasis, and its quantities and levels have started to gradually decrease over the past two decades as a result of increasing the withdrawal and consumption of water from the feeding layer after the expansion of digging artesian wells by farmers, especially major agricultural and animal projects, which in return led to a stoppage of the natural flow in all Eyes and the gradual depletion of the deeper eyes, the depth ranges between 5 and 16 meters, then the deepest.
Climate
The climate of Al-Kharj is continental, really hot through the summer and dry cold through the winter plus a low chance of rain. The weather cools down at night in mid-September until the cold becomes more intense in December and January, and the average maximum temperature in winter is 18 °C and the lowest 5 °C, while summer is the average maximum temperature is 48 °C and the lowest of 31 °C.
Economy
Al-Saih is one of the main and active cities in the present and future of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which is the modern capital of Alkharj and its administrative and economic center with a population of more than 376 thousand people.
It is also worth noting what this city is known for in terms of its characteristics and what it possesses of advantages and constituents as it is one of the rich regions with all the economic rectifiers that attract investment and settlement. Not only that but also from natural resources, geographical location and population density, which is undoubtedly factors that give this city a successful environment for investment, if you take advantage of optimal exploitation to create a strong, effective and solid economic entity that will be a tributary of diversification of income sources and support for the national and local income, in addition to creating job opportunities for the promising manpower, especially the auxiliary city of the country's political capital.
The city of Al-Saih is the home to many significant economic and government installations, perhaps the most noted of which are the General Corporation for Military Industries, which is the only military factory in the Persian Gulf, and Prince Sultan Air Base, which is one of the largest air bases in the world, which includes the main supply and supply base for the Saudi army, General of arms and savings and many branches of the various military sectors of the Ministry of Defense.
Alkharj is considered a first-class agricultural region, as it has been and still is a food basket since ancient times, with its diverse agricultural crops. Alkharj is a source of weight for agricultural production as it produces more than 26% of vegetable production in the Kingdom, and embraces the largest companies, farms, dairy factories and Saudi poultry that its products cover the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and Jordan. Some of these companies are the well-respected Almarai company plus Al Safi Danone, Al Azizia, Mazraa Dairy, and Al Kharj Dairy.
The leadership of Alkharj comes back to the dairy industry and related technology for that industry. Alkharj has been crowned as the capital of dairy industry. This is as result of a good seed planted by the unifier of this country, King Abdulaziz, which is the first seed for dairy production in the Kingdom, when his Majesty directed the establishment of the Alkharj Agricultural Project in 1354 Hijri. Currently, Alkharj produces more than 65 percent of the Kingdom's milk production and acquires the largest dairy farms and factories in the Kingdom and the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Alkharj organized the first dairy festival under the slogan of "Alkharj is the capital of dairy industry" in the month of Jumada Al-Awwal 1429 Hijri corresponding to May 2008, and is considered the first of its kind in the Kingdom and the first in the Persian Gulf, where it witnessed the popularity and admiration of visitors.
Education
The city is home to a number of state schools, which are fully funded by the government, and public and international schools teaching foreign curricula. The city is also home to Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University.
Al-Kharj on the map
Alkharj is one of the important strategic locations on the Saudi map, as it is a crossroads linking it to the rest of the regions in the Kingdom and even neighboring countries. Alkharj is connected by a highway to the capital, Riyadh, and is the first highway in the central region which was established in 1980. This highway through Alkharj links the capital with the Asir region in the south of the Kingdom, then to the Republic of Yemen. There is also a road that links Alkharj with the eastern region, the Gulf Cooperation Council states, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Oman. It connects the Arab states of the Persian Gulf with the Asir region and Yemen through the city of Al-Saih, and between Alkharj and Al-Ahsa, which is under expansion. Beside the railway line that runs through Alkharj from Riyadh to the eastern region. There is currently in the city of Al-Saih a freight train station and the weight of trucks and will be transferred to a dry port.
See also
List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia
Regions of Saudi Arabia
References
.
Populated places in Riyadh Province |
996640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldcastle%2C%20County%20Meath | Oldcastle, County Meath | Oldcastle () is a town in County Meath, Ireland. It is located in the north-west of the county near the border with Cavan, approximately 13 miles (21 km) from Kells. The R154 and R195 regional roads cross in the town's market square.
As of the 2022 census the town's population stood at 1,409, a growth rate of more than 70% since the 1996 census (which recorded a population of 826 inhabitants).
History
The area was the birthplace of St Oliver Plunkett, the last Irish Catholic martyr to die in England.
Oldcastle is the 18th century creation of the Naper family who had received parts of the Plunkett estate following the Cromwellian wars. St. Oliver Plunkett, who served as Lord Archbishop of Armagh in the seventeenth century, and who was hung, drawn and quartered at Tyburn in Middlesex (now in the Marble Arch area of the City of Westminster in London) in 1681 on false charges, was the most famous member of this family.
It was also the birthplace of Isaac Jackson, son of Anthony Jackson III (who some say was a yeoman son in turn of the Charles II courtier, Sir Anthomy Jackson II, of Killingswold Grove, East Yorkshire, England) of Eccleston, Lancashire, England who died in nearby County Cavan after 1666. Isaac was an early Quaker in Ireland, as was his father. He moved to Ballitore, County Kildare, where he married and raised a large family, mostly all of whom emigrated with their parents to Chester County, Pennsylvania, USA in 1725.
Oldcastle suffered quite badly during the Great Famine and subsequent emigration. Owing to the continuation of a Gaelic way of life in the north of the county, Oldcastle suffered far more than the richer more arable land in the southern part of County Meath. The poorest class lived where Irish culture was strongest and were obliterated by starvation and emigration. Nonetheless, land patterns visible today still reveal a strong attachment to the pastoral farming of Gaelic culture. Politically and culturally the area has a strong tradition of support for radical republicanism, the Gaelic Athletic Association and Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann; a local paper published in the town in the early 1900s gave its name to one of the Irish political parties, Sinn Féin.
Oldcastle Workhouse was located on St. Oliver Plunkett Street (formerly Lennox Street), part of the R195 (the main road to Castlepollard), on the southern edge of the town. Designed by George Wilkinson in a neo-Tudor style, and probably built in the late 1830s or early 1840s, it was demolished before the 1950s. Mellow's Park was built by Meath County Council on the site around 1950. Many Germans, Austrians and Hungarians were interned in the old workhouse by the British Government during the First World War.
Fennor Upper and Lower in Oldcastle is said to be named after Queen Medb's daughter, Findabair (Fennor). In Irish Mythology, she was sent as an offering to Cú Chulainn in his fight against Medb and her army from Connacht. She was killed by Cú Chulainn and the area was named after the place where she was murdered and buried.
In 1923, Micheal Grealy, a member of the anti-treaty IRA, robbed two banks – The Hibernian Bank and the Northern Bank – for which he was executed in Mullingar Barracks.
A monument was erected in 1961 in Oldcastle Square by Meath Brigades Executive, Old IRA Federation, 1916–1921 to the memory of Commandant Seamus Coogan and Commandant Patrick McDonnell who were killed by British Crown Forces during the War of Independence. The monument in the form of a cross was unveiled by Seán Dowling, Chairman of the National Federation of the Old IRA.
In November 1997 Michael McKevitt and other IRA dissidents held a meeting in a farmhouse in Oldcastle, County Meath, and a new organisation styling itself Óglaigh na hÉireann was formed. The organisation attracted disaffected Provisional IRA members from the republican stronghold of South Armagh, as well as other areas including Dublin, Belfast, Limerick, Tipperary, County Louth, County Tyrone and County Monaghan.
Oldcastle Detention camp (1916–1918)
Ireland was part of the United Kingdom in 1914 when the first world war broke out. The Alien Restriction Act 1914 was passed on 5 August 1914. The Act introduced strict controls on freedom of movement of foreign nationals and introduced a system of registration with the police. The Act also contained powers to deport foreign nationals and to intern all Austrian and German males between the ages of 17 and 42 i.e. men of military age. ‘The Oldcastle detention camp was the only permanent civilian POW camp in Ireland, detaining so called “enemy aliens”. This was due to a fear that these men would betray Britain by returning home and joining the German Army or becoming spies in Britain. Not all German and Austrian nationals residing Ireland were detained immediately. These individuals tended to be citizens who had influential contacts and whose good conduct was guaranteed by them. However even these men were detained eventually.
After this Act was passed the British War Office started looking for suitable buildings to convert into detention centres. As stated by John Smith, "disused workhouses were ideal. They had much of the infrastructure to hold hundreds of people: dormitories, kitchens, dining halls, water, washing facilities, an infirmary, store rooms, recreation yards etc". These also had the bonus of being easy to defend with their high walls and being on the outskirts of towns. Oldcastle Workhouse met these requirements perfectly.
In 1838 The Poor Law Act was passed which aimed to relieve the poor/destitute by providing basic food and accommodation. Oldcastle Workhouse was built and opened in 1842 to accommodate 600 people. By 1914 there were only 50 inmates living in the building. After the military approved the conversion of the workhouse into a detention centre, these remaining residents were moved to other workhouses in the area. In November 1914 the building was converted. The eight foot perimeter walls were reinforced, ‘There are nine sentry boxes around the workhouse grounds, while several galvanized houses have been erected... The grounds are surrounded by barbed wire entanglements about 5 feet high and 14 feet wide.’ Quoted from The Anglo Celt, a newspaper in the area at the time of the camp.
On 12 December 1914 ‘The long expected German prisoners arrived this week in Oldcastle and took up quarters in the disused workhouse.’ This was a headline from the time, The Meath Chronicle on the day the arrival. The Meath Chronicle reported that via a specially commissioned train 68 German inmates were transported into the town. From there they were marched through the town under armed guards to their new residence. Two days later another 26 civilians were moved into the camp. This continued steadily from late 1914 to 1915. 304 inmates were in the camp by February 1915 this number increased to 579 by June 1916. By this time every space in the workhouse was being utilised by the camp commandant Major Robert Johnson including the workhouses church sacristy. ‘Written accounts show that the highest recorded number of prisoners being held at the Oldcastle Detention Camp was 583 – the building appeared to be operating at full capacity.’ As taken from John Smith's article on the subject. Up to thirty men were housed in a room on regulation camp beds - that is, plank beds with sacks stuffed with straw serving as mattresses - one pillow and three blankets per man.
The detainees were civilians from vastly different backgrounds. This ranged from clergymen, jewellery makers and musicians to cooks, butlers and butchers. Though the prison was not entirely pleasant the inmates had some privileges especially those who came from a better background. It was possible for the more affluent inmates to buy their own rooms and hire their own servants from among the less affluent detainees. The British wanted to divide the classes as they believed it was not acceptable to put a docker with a doctor. As part of camp life they were allowed to write and send two letters a week containing twenty-four lines. Parcels could be received and visitors were allowed for 15 minutes twice a month. One inmate, Aloys Fleischmann, a Bavarian church musician and composer, wrote to his wife and requested “three blankets and a pillow, a warm knitted Jacket, waterproof boots, a wash bowl, a kettle and mug, cutlery, tobacco and books.” This quote was taken from John Smith's research article. We can gather from this that conditions in camp were cold, damp and basic. Although it is also reported that if they could gather 100 prisoners they would go on a four-mile march for exercise ending up in a pub in Dromone. They were even allowed to go in and buy a drink. Aloys Fleischmann kept a diary while in the camp.
A journalist visited the camp in June 1915, ‘he stated that he was “met by a large body of men” and described them as “fine strapping men”’. Account taken from John Smith’s article on the camp. These men caused no trouble for the guards but seemed bored and had nothing to do. The reported goes on to lament that they should be put to better use. Certainly, in the early days the inmates had nothing to occupy their time so this could have been the reason for four of the detainees to be sent to the mental asylum in Mullingar. By July 1916 it was reported that the detainees had formed committees to run the camp. They took charge of their own washing, drinking water and cooking. There were 3 bakers and 12 cooks among the inmates who provided all the meals for the camp. They were provided with regulation provisions which included "bread, biscuits, fresh or frozen meat, tea, coffee, salt, sugar, condensed milk, fresh vegetables, cheese, butter, peas, beans, lentils and rice". Account taken from John Smith's article on the detention centre. The rest of the men practiced their trades by making toys, jewellery, boots and wood-carving. Many men spent their days painting and sketching. The camp also had two orchestras’ which gave concerts and played for dramatic performances.
Apart from the boredom one of the other issues for the inmates was the relationships with their families. This led to many divorces and estrangement from their children. There were numerous escape attempts reported in newspapers. One of the most notorious attempts was by Carl Morlang and Aphonsus Grein who managed to escape for a few days. On the night of 14 August at 9.30 pm the prisoners were noticed missing at roll-call. Morlang and Grein left the prison and made their way northwards to Ballyjamesduff, Co Cavan disguised as two clergymen. ‘At the village of Denn a few miles from Cavan, Grein entered the public house and treated all hands in lavish style.’ An account taken from The Anglo Celt. They were captured the following day by the local constabulary and returned to camp. When they were searched they were found to be carrying maps, supplies and money which they should not have been able to obtain. Also among their belongings it was said there was a letter addressed to Charles Fox thanking him for helping them escape. He was a decorated ex-officer in the British Army and a successful businessman. He was very republican in his views so he was arrested and tried for treason, which was a hanging offence. However, the charges were dropped. He returned to Oldcastle and treated like a hero by the locals.
Two inmates were killed at Oldcastle during the years 1914–1918. One on 17 September 1917 during an escape with another inmate. August Bockmeyer was shot when he refused to stop. Although he survived the shooting he later succumbed to his injuries. There was an enquiry and it was declared that ‘Private Tiernan’s actions to be “quite justified” in the “discharge” of his duty.’ As stated by the article by John Smith. The second, Franz Xaver Seemeier, died in January 1917. According to the information given to the press by the camp authorities, the detainee was playing football when he collided with another player and was taken to the infirmary; the following day he died from serious internal injuries. According to an account written by an internee, Seemeier was bayoneted by a guard after he had been seen approaching the barbed wire fence.
After the 1916 Rising the political landscape had changed in Ireland. There was an anti-conscription meeting in Oldcastle held on 13 April 1918. The guest speaker was Arthur Griffith a key figure in Sinn Fein. The rally was attended by thousands of people and was only 300 meters away from the camp. The speeches taking place were very Nationalist and anti-British. Prisoners watched from the roof of the camp ‘from which the meeting was visible’. Account taken from The Anglo Celt. Once the speeches had ended the crowd moved towards the prison but nothing became of this. Following this incident and the political concerns at the time the British decided to move the prisoners from Oldcastle. On 25 May 1918 a specially commissioned train left Oldcastle to go to North Wall, Dublin. The prisoners were then taken by ship to Knockaloe Camp on the Isle of Man. Oldcastle was returned to its previous owners the Oldcastle Board of Guardians and fell into disuse. During the War of Independence in May 1920 Oldcastle Workhouse was set ablaze by the local IRA to stop the British using it as a military base. The main buildings no longer stand the only thing still standing is the perimeter wall.
Entertainment
The Oldcastle Agricultural Show is held on the third Sunday in July in the Gilson National Park. Each year it attracts thousands of people to the town. Live music, fashion, children's entertainment, and other events are held. YouTube singer Father Ray Kelly performed at the 2016 event.
Le Chéile Arts & Music Festival is held on the bank holiday weekend in August at various venues around the town. The festival has been running since 1998 and has featured acts such as Aslan, The Saw Doctors, Shane MacGowan, The Riptide Movement and Kodaline. Fr Ray Kelly is also a local feature and performs in his own parish church.
Sport
Oldcastle is a centre for anglers & is ideally located four miles (6.4 km) from Lough Ramor (County Cavan), a lake that is noted for its coarse fishing.
Oldcastle is also ideally located six miles (10 km) from Lough Sheelin (County Cavan) which is noted for its trout fishing.
Oldcastle GAA club is over 125 years old. It competes in the Meath Intermediate Football Championship are in Division 1 of the League.
The town has a wide range of other clubs available for all to join. The track and mountain running club of Saint Brigid's Athletic club are also located in close proximity of Mullaghmeen forest with such notable members as Gerrard Heery who finished 2nd over 40 in Snowdon international mountain race 2013, and other endurance members who has completed and ranked highly in many international multi day adventure and foot races representing his club and country
Economy & tourism
Oldcastle acts as a retail and service centre for the surrounding hinterland, and is also home to a number of furniture-manufacturing and engineering businesses.
The town's bed-manufacturing industries have included firms such as Gleneagle Woodcrafts, Briody Bedding and Respa Bedding which are a major source of employment for the area. In 1999, a fire broke out at Gleneagle Woodcrafts, killing one woman. The site has since been restored and continues to operate. A similar event occurred on the night of October 31, 2020, when a fire tore through an Oldcastle Co-Operative building.
There are the engineering firms located in the parish of Moylagh, County Meath, approximately from the town. These industries have attracted immigrants to the area for work, including from Lithuania and Poland. As of the 2016 census, for example, there were approximately 210 Lithuanian-born people living in the town.
Oldcastle is located a short distance from the Loughcrew Cairns, a tourist attraction that was built around 3300 BCE as passage tombs.
Local geography
Oldcastle is located in the foothills of Sliabh na Caillaigh.
In 2005, an environmental disaster occurred in Oldcastle when a sewage treatment plant overflowed and spilled into the River Inny. 4,000 wild brown trout were killed as a result.
Education
There is a mixed primary school, Gilson National School, and a secondary school, St. Oliver Post Primary. This secondary school has been expanded in recent years, with the opening of a new building in 2002.
The secondary school celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2009, opening four new classrooms on the date. Noel Dempsey and Bishop Micheal Smith were present. On 3 March 2007 the school won the All-Ireland Vocational Schools Championship Senior Cup 'B' Competition in Gaelic football.
Recently a new community library was opened replacing a smaller library in the town and is located next to the local Credit Union.
Architecture
The Gilson National School is said by the local Chamber of Commerce to be the "Gem in the Crown of Oldcastle's architecture". The Gilson National School's trust and building owe their existence to the generosity of Laurence Gilson, a native of Oldcastle and Moylagh Parish. A statue of Gilson was unveiled in May 2011. Gilson donated money to the town of Oldcastle in 1810 for the establishment of a multi-faith school.
The Show Hall in Oldcastle is located near the church. It hosts bingo, show dances, show bands and Le Chéile concerts annually.
Transport
Rail
Oldcastle railway station, at the end of a branch line from Navan, opened on 17 March 1863 and for many years provided a source of revenue and income for local farmers as well as other industries in the area by allowing local goods and produce to be transported to the main ports of Ireland for export. The station closed for passenger traffic on 14 April 1958 and the branch finally closed altogether on 1 April 1963, during a period when numerous railway lines were being closed.
Bus
Bus Éireann route 187 services Oldcastle from Monday to Saturday. It provides transport to neighbouring towns and villages of Mountnugent, Ballyjamesduff, Virginia and Kells. Onward connections e.g. to Dublin, Cavan, Navan and Enniskillen are available at Virginia/Kells. There are four journeys both to and from Oldcastle each weekday. Subject to road safety the bus will stop to pick up and set down passengers at any safe point along the route.
Notable people
Rory Galligan (1973–2012), rally driver
Ray Kelly, singing priest
Alicia Adelaide Needham (1863–1945), composer of songs and ballads
Thomas Nulty Roman Catholic bishop (1818–1898) and land reform advocate
Richard Ridgeway, Victoria Cross recipient
International relations
Oldcastle has a town twinning agreement with Tecumseh, Ontario, Canada.
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
Midlands Gateway
Real Irish Republican Army
References
External links
Towns and villages in County Meath |
265860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin%20Currie | Austin Currie | Joseph Austin Currie (11 October 1939 – 9 November 2021) was an Irish politician who served as a Minister of State with responsibility for Children's Rights from 1994 to 1997. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Dublin West constituency from 1989 to 2002, representing Fine Gael, and as a Member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland (MP) for East Tyrone from 1964 to 1972, representing the Nationalist Party and later the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP).
Early life
Born in Coalisland, County Tyrone on 11 October 1939, Austin was the eldest of 11 children born to Mary (née O’Donnell) and John Currie. He was educated at the renowned St Patrick's academy, Dungannon, and graduated in politics and history from Queen's University Belfast. On 20 June 1968, he squatted at a Kinnard Park house given to a Unionist secretary during a housing protest in Caledon. All 14 houses in the new council development had been allocated to Protestants. Then a sitting MP in the home rule Parliament of Northern Ireland, Currie's protest was unanimously approved by the Nationalist Party the next day. This was one of the catalysts of the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland.
Political career
Northern Ireland
Currie became an active member in the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. He would later speak about the effect of partition on Catholics in Northern Ireland: "Partition was used to try to cut us off from the rest of the Irish nation. Unionists did their best to stamp out our nationalism and, the educational system, to the extent it could organise it, was oriented to Britain and we were not even allowed to use names such as Séamus or Seán. When my brothers' godparents went to register their birth, they were told no such names as Séamus or Seán existed in Northern Ireland and were asked for the English equivalent."
In 1964 he was elected in a by-election as a Nationalist MP for East Tyrone in the 10th House of Commons of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, following the death of the sitting Nationalist MP, Joe Stewart. He retained he seat in both the general election to the 11th House of Commons in November 1965 and the 12th House of Commons in February 1969. This was the last election to the home rule Parliament at Stormort, before it was suspended by the UK Government in March 1972, and formally abolished in July 1973.
Co-founding the SDLP
In 1970, he was a founder of the group that established the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). From 1973 to 1974, Currie was elected as an SDLP member of the short-lived devolved Northern Ireland Assembly. In 1974 he became chief whip of the SDLP, and in the same year became Minister for Housing, Local Government and Planning in the power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive. The Assembly and Executive collapsed on 28 May 1974, after opposition from within the UUP and the Ulster Workers' Council strike. This led to the imposition of direct rule of Northern Ireland from London.
He contested the 1979 United Kingdom general election and 1986 by-election in the Fermanagh and South Tyrone seat, but was unsuccessful on both attempts. Currie also was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1982 for the same seat. That Assembly, which was an attempt by the UK Government to reintroduce devolved power-sharing, collapsed in 1986 without executive ministerial functions ever being transferred to it from the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland as no political agreement could be reached on power-sharing between the parties owing to nationalists abstentionism over the constituency boundaries used to elect members, and unionist opposition to the 1985 Anglo Irish Agreement.
Republic of Ireland
Following his decision to quit Northern Ireland politics, and relocate his family to County Kildare, Currie became actively involved in politics in the Republic. Partly due to his long-standing doubts about the commitment of politicians in the Republic to the plight of northern nationalists, he joined the Fine Gael party in 1989. He was elected as a Fine Gael TD for Dublin West at the 1989 Irish general election.
1990 Irish presidential election
In 1990 Fine Gael selected Currie as their candidate for the 1990 Irish presidential election, running against Tánaiste and Fianna Fáil TD, Brian Lenihan Sr, and Senator Mary Robinson for the Labour Party. The 1990 election was the first contested election for the Irish Presidency in 17 years. Currie received 267,902 first preference votes (approximately 17%) and was eliminated on the first count. The distribution of his votes saw Mary Robinson elected as Ireland's first female president on the second count, beating Lenihan by more than 86,000 votes.
In his 2004 autobiography All Hell will Break Loose, he wrote about his experience of running in the presidential election, and the prejudice he faced as a nationalist from Ulster in southern politics: "What annoyed, indeed angered me most was the suggestion that because I came from the North, I was not a real Irishman ... what I called the partitionist mentality ... [during the election campaign] the [then Fianna Fáil] Minister for Justice [Ray Burke] said Fine Gael leader Alan Dukes 'had to go to Tyrone to find a candidate for the presidency' ... it was hard to take, particularly from so-called republicans".
As a TD
Following his defeat in the presidential election, Austin Currie held his Dáil seat in Dublin West at the 1992 and 1997 general elections. Following the formation of the so-called Rainbow Coalition between Fine Gael, Labour and Democratic Left, on 20 December 1994 newly appointed Taoiseach John Bruton appointed Currie as a Minister of State with responsibility for Children's Rights at the Departments of Health, Education and Justice, becoming the first ever minister in an Irish Government with dedicated responsibility for children. He held this post until the appointment of a new Irish Government on 26 June 1997 following the 1997 Irish General Election.
At the 2002 general election Currie contested the new constituency of Dublin Mid-West, and failed to be elected. He immediately announced his retirement from electoral politics. He continued to speak and campaign for civil rights across the island of Ireland and for causes he believed in, such as justice for the families of the Disappeared during the Troubles. Currie and his wife and family were personal friends of the family of one if the disappeared, Columba McVeigh, from Donaghmore Co Tyrone.
Personal life
Austin Currie met his wife Annita in 1961 while he was studying Modern History and Politics at Queens University Belfast, where she was also a student. They were married in January 1968 and had five children, Estelle, Caitríona, Dualta, Austin Óg and Senator Emer Currie, who is a Member of the 26th Seanad.
In the 1960s and 1970s, he and his family were the repeated targets of loyalist paramilitary attacks on their home in Co Tyrone. When the Troubles broke out in August 1969, Currie was informed by a trusted source that members of the B-Specials intended to carry out a gun attack on his home. In total there were more than thirty attacks on the Currie family home during the Troubles. In November 1972, his wife Anita suffered a brutal attack when two armed and masked men burst into her home looking to attack her husband, who happened to be away at a political speaking engagement in Co Cork that evening. Speaking about it in a TV interview two days later, Anita Currie spoke of how she was punched, cut with a blade, and kicked unconscious while lying on the floor, while her two young daughters looked on helplessly. As a result of these risks, and his growing disillusionment with the political direction the SDLP was taking, Currie quit Northern Ireland politics and relocated his family to the Republic of Ireland.
Speaking in Dáil Éireann on the impact of partition of Ireland upon the Nationalist community in Northern Ireland, Currie said in 1999:
Austin Currie resided in County Kildare. He occasionally lectured and gave talks on issues relating to The Troubles, and for causes he believed in, such as justice for the families of the Disappeared during the Troubles. Currie and his wife and family were personal friends of the family of one of the disappeared, Columba McVeigh, from Donaghmore Co Tyrone.
Following the deaths of Seamus Mallon and John Hume in January and August 2020 respectively, Austin Currie became the last surviving founder of the SDLP.
Austin Currie died on 9 November 2021 at the age of 82 at his residence in Derrymullen Co Kildare. Following an initial funeral mass in Allentown Co Kildare, his remains were transferred to his original family home in Edendork, near Dungannon Co Tyrone, where a second funeral mass was celebrated at St. Malachy's Church, Edendork. He is buried alongside his parents in the cemetery adjoining the church.
Writing
References
1939 births
2021 deaths
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Candidates for President of Ireland
Fine Gael TDs
Members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland 1962–1965
Members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland 1965–1969
Members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland 1969–1973
Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly 1973–1974
Members of the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention
Northern Ireland MPAs 1982–1986
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 27th Dáil
Members of the 28th Dáil
Nationalist Party (Ireland) members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland
Social Democratic and Labour Party members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland
Ministers of State of the 27th Dáil
Politicians from County Tyrone
Members of the House of Commons of Northern Ireland for County Tyrone constituencies
Executive ministers of the 1974 Northern Ireland Assembly
People educated at St Patrick's Academy, Dungannon
People from Coalisland |
294097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paavo%20Talvela | Paavo Talvela | Paavo Juho Talvela (born Paavo Juho Thorén 19 February 1897, died 30 September 1973) was a Finnish general of the infantry, Knight of the Mannerheim Cross and a member of the Jäger movement. He participated in the Eastern Front of World War I, the Finnish Civil War, the Finnish Kinship Wars, the Winter War and the Continuation War.
Early life
Paavo Juho Talvela (originally Thorén) was born 19 January 1897 to farmer parents Johan Fredrik Thorén and Helena Uino in Helsingin maalaiskunta. One of eleven children, Talvela enrolled in secondary education, but became involved in the Jäger Movement, where Finnish volunteers received military training in Germany, leaving for Germany in 1916. While in Germany, the Finnish volunteers formed the 27th Royal Prussian Jäger Battalion, fighting for the Imperial German Army on the Eastern Front of World War I. During this time, Talvela saw combat in battles in the regions of Misa and Gulf of Riga, but was sent to Sweden and Finland for "special tasks" in 1917. He was arrested on the Finno-Swedish border and detained by Swedish authorities for multiple months. In late 1917, Talvela was able to enter Finland by traveling to Turku via Åland. In December 1917, Talvela moved from Turku to Vimpeli, where he would act as a military instructor. During 1918, Talvela took part in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the Whites under the pseudonym Strömsten. In 1918, Talvela was promoted from the private-equivalent rank of jäger directly to a lieutenant of the Finnish Army.
Talvela was promoted to a major after the civil war, briefly commanding both a battalion and a regiment, but resigned in 1919 to participate as a regimental commander in the Kinship Wars of the 1920s. Talvela became the commander-in-chief of the Aunus expedition after it had reached Petrozavodsk. After the failure of the Aunus expedition, Talvela re-joined the Finnish Army, but continued to view efforts to integrate East Karelia to Finland as crucial for both the security and the economy of the newly-independent Finland. As such, Talvela resigned again in 1921 to command a battalion during the Viena expedition which also failed. Following these failures, Talvela joined the Finnish army the third time in 1922. Having returned to service, Talvela graduated from the English Coast Artillery School in 1923 before acting as the chief of coastal artillery in 1925. In 1926, he graduated from the Finnish War College, taking on the duties of commander of the Savo Jäger Regiment in 1926–1927. Following a 1925 promotion to lieutenant colonel, he was promoted a colonel in 1928. In 1930, he acted as the head of the Finnish General HQ's Operations Section, but conflicts with the head of the Finnish General Staff Martti Wallenius led to Talvela's third resignation.
Following his resignation, Talvela became politically active. He was a member of the electoral college for the President of Finland in 1931. He also became active in the right-wing Lapua Movement, organizing the Peasant March. The movement was disbanded in the wake of the Mäntsälä Rebellion. Afterwards, Talvela ran for parliament as a member of Kokoomus in 1936 but was not elected. Talvela was also active in various economic affairs, working as the deputy director of Suomi-Filmi from 1929 to 1932 and the Finnish state alcohol monopoly Oy Alkoholiliike Ab from 1932 to 1937, following the end of the Finnish prohibition. From 1937 to 1939, Talvela worked as the deputy director of , the association of Finnish cellulose producers. Concurrently with these duties, Talvela continued his activities in national defense, working as the chair of the Jäger Union to 1934 and in the governmental Defense Council.
Winter War and Continuation War
The Finno-Soviet Winter War broke out on the morning of 30 November 1939 with a Soviet assault over the Finno-Soviet border on the Karelian Isthmus. In the lead-up to the war, Talvela had been promoted to a major general and became a member of the war materiel council, but just two days after the start of the war he approached the Finnish commander-in-chief Mannerheim asking for a field command. Talvela proposed that he should be given command of a regiment of the 7th Division, which was being held as commander-in-chief's reserve. On 6 December, Mannerheim ordered that the Finnish IV corps would be split into two commands, with one being given to Talvela. Talvela's orders were to halt and throw back the Soviet advance in the area of Tolvajärvi.
The Finnish position in the Tolvajärvi region was in severe danger, and upon arriving in his area of operations Talvela's first task was to halt the retreat of Infantry Regiment 16. The following Battle of Tolvajärvi resulted in a Soviet retreat and the first Finnish victory of the war: The Soviet 139th Rifle Division lost its headquarters and most of its artillery. The 139th Division was replaced with the 75th Division, which was also forced to retreat just a few days later. Following these victories, the area saw only limited action to the end of the war. In February, Talvela was given command of the III Corps on the Karelian Isthmus in the area of Vuoksi and Lake Sukhodolskoye.
During the Interim Peace, in 1940, Talvela took part in the Finno-German negotiations regarding weapons shipments and the movement of German troops through Finland. He was made the chair of Suomen Aseveljien Liitto, the Union of Finnish Brothers-in-Arms.
At the start of the Continuation War in 1941, Talvela commanded the II Corps, but immediately following the start of the hostilities he was given command of the VI Corps. Under his command, the VI Corps participated in the Finnish invasion of Ladoga Karelia. As part of the Army of Karelia, VI Corps surrounded parts of the Soviet 7th Army north of Lake Ladoga. On 3 August 1941, Talvela was granted the Mannerheim Cross. The VI Corps reached Svir in September 1941, with the Finnish forces forming a 100 kilometer wide, 20 kilometer deep bridgehead over the river, thus cutting the Murmansk railroad. The Finns' refusal to advance further from Svir caused strain in the Finno-German relations, as German forces were able to reach a point some 80 kilometers to the southwest of the Finnish positions. The Germans had even moved the German 163rd Division to the Svir to help in securing the flanks for the "handshake at the Svir". The issue resolved itself once Soviet counter-attacks pushed the Germans further from the Svir in the south. In January 1942, Talvela was removed from his position as the commander of VI Corps and transferred to Germany, where he was the representative of the Finnish army in the German high command.
Talvela was recalled to Finland in February 1944. Having been promoted to lieutenant general in 1942, he was given command of the Aunus Group, which was in charge of the Finnish forces along the Svir. Following a Soviet landing in Tuloksa as part of the Soviet Svir–Petrozavodsk Offensive in 1944, the Finnish IV Corps, part of Talvela's Aunus Group, was in danger of being cut off. When the commander of VI Corps, general Aarne Blick, requested permission to pull back, Talvela refused and ordered the corps to instead conduct a delaying action. Blick ignored the orders, pulling VI Corps back, causing significant strain in the two commanders' personal relations. The animosity resulted in the replacement of Blick on 6 July.
On 16 July 1944, the Aunus Group was disbanded and Talvela was ordered to return to Germany. He would stay in Germany until the Finno-Soviet cease-fire and the breaking of the Finno-German relations, both of which came as a surprise to him. Before leaving Germany, Talvela was approached by Himmler, who requested that Talvela would lead Finnish armed resistance. Talvela indicated that he would be willing to lead a resistance movement, but only under orders from Mannerheim.
Later life and legacy
Talvela left the army in September 1944, returning to his job as the director of Pohjolan Liikenne which he had taken during the Interim Peace. As a result of the time he had spent in Germany during the war, he found working in Finland difficult, and lived in Rio de Janeiro selling cellulose between 1946 and 1949. Talvela returned to Finland in 1949, serving as a member of the City Council of Helsinki between 1954 and 1960. In 1958, he was the head consul for Philippines. He continued to be active in various activities related to paper production until his retirement. Talvela received his final promotion to the rank of general of the infantry () in 1966.
Talvela married twice during his life. His first marriage with Martta Sofia Nikoskelainen ran from 1919 to 1922, ending in a divorce. He remarried in 1923 to Karin Johanna Tengman. During his marriages, Talvela had a total of four children, born between 1919 and 1926. He secretly had a fifth child born out of wedlock, Swedish writer Gunilla Boëthius in 1945; this wasn't discovered until long after his death. Talvela died on 30 September 1973 in Helsinki. He is buried in the Kulosaari Cemetery in Helsinki.
During his career, Talvela was granted several awards. The most notable of these is the Mannerheim Cross, which Talvela was the second to receive. He also received the Finnish Order of the Cross of Liberty and the Order of the White Rose. He also received the German Iron Cross (both 1st and 2nd class), German Cross in Gold and the Order of Merit of the German Eagle; the Swedish Order of the Sword and Order of Vasa; the Order of the Crown of Italy; and the Norwegian Order of St. Olav.
Notes
References
External links
1897 births
1973 deaths
People from Vantaa
Military personnel from Uusimaa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Finnish generals
German Army personnel of World War I
People of the Finnish Civil War (White side)
Finnish military personnel of World War II
Knights of the Mannerheim Cross
Jägers of the Jäger Movement |
24839063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory%20development | Participatory development | Participatory development (PD) seeks to engage local populations in development projects. Participatory development has taken a variety of forms since it emerged in the 1970s, when it was introduced as an important part of the "basic needs approach" to development. Most manifestations of public participation in development seek "to give the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit" in the hopes that development projects will be more sustainable and successful if local populations are engaged in the development process. PD has become an increasingly accepted method of development practice and is employed by a variety of organizations. It is often presented as an alternative to mainstream "top-down" development. There is some question about the proper definition of PD as it varies depending on the perspective applied.
Perspectives
Two perspectives that can define PD are the "Social Movement Perspective" and the "Institutional Perspective":
The "Social Movement Perspective" defines participation as the mobilization of people to eliminate unjust hierarchies of knowledge, power, and economic distribution. This perspective identifies the goal of participation as an empowering process for people to handle challenges and influence the direction of their own lives. Empowerment participation is when primary stakeholders are capable and willing to initiate the process and take part in the analysis. This leads to joint decision making about what should be achieved and how. While outsiders are equal partners in the development effort, the primary stakeholders are primus inter pares, i.e., they are equal partners with a significant say in decisions concerning their lives. Dialogue identifies and analyzes critical issues, and an exchange of knowledge and experiences leads to solutions. Ownership and control of the process rest in the hands of the primary stakeholders.
The "Institutional Perspective" defines participation as the reach and inclusion of inputs by relevant groups in the design and implementation of a development project. The "Institutional Perspective" uses the inputs and opinions of relevant groups, or stakeholders in a community, as a tool to achieve a pre-established goal defined by someone external to the community involved. The development project, initiated by an activist external to the community involved, is a process by which problem issues in a community can be divided into stages, and this division facilitates assessment of when and to what degree a participatory approach is relevant. From an institutional perspective, there are four key stages of a development project: Research Stage, Design Stage, Implementation Stage, Evaluation Stage that are defined in later sections of this article. The institutional perspective can also be referred to as a "Project-Based Perspective".
Advocates of PD emphasize a difference between participation as "an end in itself", and participatory development as a "process of empowerment" for marginalized populations. This has also been described as the contrast between valuing participation for intrinsic rather than purely instrumental reasons.<ref name="Osmani, Siddiqur 2008 p 3">Osmani, Siddiqur (2008) "Participatory governance: An overview of issues and evidence" in United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Participatory governance and the millennium development goals (MDGs)', United Nations p. 3.</ref> In the former manifestation, participants may be asked to give opinions without any assurance that these opinions will have an effect or may be informed of decisions after they have been made. In the latter form, proponents assert that PD tries to "foster and enhance people's capability to have a role in their society's development".See also Sen, Amartya (2002) Rationality and Freedom, Harvard, Harvard Belknap Press; and Sen, Amartya (1999) Development as freedom, Oxford, Oxford University Press
Participatory development employed in particular initiatives often involves the process of content creation. For example, UNESCO's Finding a Voice Project'' employs ICT for development initiatives. Local content creation and distribution contributes to the formation of local information networks. This is a bottom-up approach that involves extensive discussions, conversations, and decision-making with the target community. Community group members create content according to their capacities and interests. This process facilitates engagement with information and communication technology (ICT) with the goal of strengthening individual and social development. This participatory content creation is an important tool for poverty reduction strategies and creating a digitally inclusive knowledge society.
Stages of a participatory development project from an institutional perspective
Each project issue in participatory development can be divided into stages, and this division facilitates assessment of when and to what degree a participatory approach is relevant. From an institutional perspective, there are four key stages of a development project:
Research Stage is where the development problem is accurately defined. All relevant stakeholders can be involved in this process. The research around the development problem can include studying previous experiences, individual and community knowledge and attitudes, existing policies and other relevant contextual information related to socio-economic conditions, culture, spirituality, gender, etc.
Design Stage defines the actual activities. A participatory approach helps to secure the ownership and commitment of the communities involved. Active participation by local citizens and other stakeholders aims to enhance both the quality and relevance of the suggested interventions.
Implementation Stage is when the planned intervention is implemented. Participation at this stage increases commitment, relevance and sustainability.
Evaluation Stage participation ensures that the most significant changes are voiced, brought to common attention and assessed. For a meaningful evaluation, indicators and measurements should be defined in a participatory process at the very beginning of the initiative involving all relevant stakeholders.
Features of participatory development
Passive participation is the least participatory of the four approaches. Primary stakeholders of a project participate by being informed about what is going to happen or has already happened. People’s feedback is minimal or non- existent, and their participation is assessed through methods like head counting and contribution to the discussion (sometimes referred to as participation by information).
Participation by consultation is an extractive process, whereby stakeholders provide answers to questions posed by outside researchers or experts. Input is not limited to meetings but can be provided at different points in time. In the final analysis, however, this consultative process keeps all the decision- making power in the hands of external professionals who are under no obligation to incorporate stakeholders' input.
Participation by collaboration forms groups of primary stakeholders to participate in the discussion and analysis of predetermined objectives set by the project. This level of participation does not usually result in dramatic changes in what should be accomplished, which is often already determined. It does, however, require an active involvement in the decision-making process about how to achieve it. This incorporates a component of horizontal communication and capacity building among all stakeholders—a joint collaborative effort. Even if initially dependent on outside facilitators and experts, with time collaborative participation has the potential to evolve into an independent form of participation.
Empowerment participation is where primary stakeholders are capable and willing to initiate the process and take part in the analysis. This leads to joint decision making about what should be achieved and how. While outsiders are equal partners in the development effort, the primary stakeholders are primus inter pares, i.e., they are equal partners with a significant say in decisions concerning their lives. Dialogue identifies and analyzes critical issues, and an exchange of knowledge and experiences leads to solutions. Ownership and control of the process rest in the hands of the primary stakeholders.
Variations of participatory development
Manifestations
There are many different manifestations of Participatory Development. PD has been promoted as a way to improve the "efficiency and effectiveness" of "formal" development programs. This method usually involves external and local actors working together on a particular project. GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), a German development agency, describes participation as "co-determination and power sharing throughout the program cycle". By involving those who will benefit from the programs in their development and having local and international groups work together, it is hoped that development projects will be made more sustainable and successful.
Enabling "mutual learning" is another way that PD is conceptualized. The goal is to enhance "communication, respect, listening and learning between development workers and those they serve" in order to achieve more applicable, "useful outcomes". Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is one example of mutual learning, a form of research which acknowledges that "illiterate, poor, marginalized people [can] represent their own lives and livelihoods ... do their own analysis and come up with their own solutions".
Some hope that PD will be able to cause a shift in power relations by "valorizing ... voices" that usually go unheard by political and development groups. This speaks to the idea that PD has the potential to increase a population's ability to be self-determining. Those who promote this view of PD would like to see local communities making, rather than only contributing to, important decisions. These activists hope that PD will lead to better civil engagement, whereby people are able determine the ways their own communities function. In these cases, international organizations can support and draw attention to the efforts of groups working for self-determination.
Implementation
Some theorists have highlighted a difference between "invited" and "claimed" spaces for PD. Invited spaces are usually formal events where local communities are asked by development agencies to share their thoughts. There is often a goal of coming to an agreement. Conversely, claimed spaces are created when marginalized individuals step in and "[take] control of political processes". The Zapatista Army of National Liberation movement can be viewed as an example of local people "claiming" space to advocate for political change.
Benefits
Research conducted by several development agencies (World Bank, CIDA, USAID, IRDP) suggests that there are many benefits to be gained through the use of PD. These studies suggest that while PD projects may have high start up costs, they will be less expensive and more sustainable in the long run. These studies also found that PD projects are better at addressing local needs and are generally more relevant to local populations than traditional development projects.
Community participation is also thought to increase the efficiency of development projects. Participation can also contribute towards more equitable outcomes so long as elite capture of participatory mechanisms is avoided.
Criticisms
When compared with traditional forms of development, PD is sometimes criticized for being costly and slow. A project may take longer if one has to engage, work and come to a consensus with local communities, than if one did not have to do these things. PD may also have higher start-up costs than traditional development. In addition, PD is criticized for reaching a smaller population than traditional development. Community dialogue and augmentation may initially involve only a few individuals, whereas dropped food aid reaches hundreds of people.
See also
Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action (PCHP)
Participatory action research
Participatory technology development
Participation (decision making)
Farmer Field School
Community-led total sanitation
Community-based participatory research (CBPR)
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
Praxis intervention
Public participation
Orality
Millennium Development Goals
Wikipedia:WikiProject International development
Notes
Community development
Articles containing video clips
Citizen science models |
9197742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut%27s%20congressional%20districts | Connecticut's congressional districts | Connecticut is divided among five congressional districts from which citizens elect the state's representatives to the United States House of Representatives. After the re-apportionment following the 2000 census, Connecticut lost one representative, reducing the state's delegation from six to five. The redistricting process was shared between the Republican governor at the time, John G. Rowland, and the Democratic-controlled General Assembly. Before the census, the state's House delegation was split evenly between Republicans and Democrats, and the solution finally agreed upon by the redistricting committee would ensure an even match-up between incumbents, the 6th district's Nancy L. Johnson, a Republican, and the 5th district's James H. Maloney, a Democrat. In the 2002 elections, Johnson defeated Maloney by a surprisingly large margin in the new 5th district.
Since the 2008 elections, all five of Connecticut's representatives are Democrats. Christopher Shays, previously the only Republican in the state's congressional delegation, lost his re-election bid in 2008.
Current districts and representatives
List of members of the United States House delegation from Connecticut, their terms, their district boundaries, and the district political ratings, according to the CPVI. The delegation has a total of 5 members, all of whom are members of the Democratic party.
District profiles
First district
The 1st district still comprises the greater part of the Hartford metropolitan area. Hartford, the capital of Connecticut, is still the population center and focal point of the district, which also includes wealthy West Hartford, the center of Greater Hartford's Jewish and Asian-American communities, and working-class East Hartford, home of Pratt and Whitney. After the re-apportionment, however, the district was shifted westward, and now includes sections of northern Litchfield County, once represented by the old 6th district, as well as stretching southward, to take in a portion of Middletown, and southwest, to include Bristol and Southington. Long severed from the wealthier and more moderate Hartford suburbs in the Farmington Valley, the 1st district is reliably and strongly Democratic. Hartford casts large pluralities for the Democratic candidate in all races, and the former mill towns which surround the capital, such as East Hartford and Middletown, have largely retained their ethnic Democratic heritage.
Congressman John B. Larson, the former President pro tempore of the Connecticut Senate from East Hartford, has represented the 1st district since 1999. He succeeded Barbara B. Kennelly, who had unsuccessfully challenged Governor John G. Rowland during that election cycle. Larson was elected House Democratic Caucus Vice Chairman in 2006, and became Caucus Chairman at the start of the 111th United States Congress; he served in the latter role for four years, before leaving that role due to term limits. Larson's victory resurrected a political career temporarily suspended by a crushing defeat in the 1994 Democratic primary for Governor, in which he lost to comptroller Bill Curry, despite receiving the endorsement of the state party convention. Larson won the election in 1998 with 58% of the vote, and has been re-elected ever since, receiving no less than 60% during each election cycle.
Second district
The 2nd district takes in nearly half of the state, geographically, and has long been the voice in Washington for largely rural Eastern Connecticut. The redistricting process maintained the approximate historical area of the district, despite state Democrats' hope to draw the Republican representative at the time, Rob Simmons, out of a seat by partitioning the area between the heavily Democratic districts centered on Hartford and New Haven. Since the 108th Congress, the 2nd district seeps into the eastern parts of Hartford county, reaching into the suburbs north of Hartford such as Suffield, as well as some towns to the capital's east, like Glastonbury which it shares with the 1st. The redistricting committee intended to more or less retain the partisan balance of the district, which heavily favored Democrats to begin with, and swapped Middletown for Enfield, similarly sized towns with similarly Democratic heritages. The demographics of the 2nd district vary widely, ranging from the liberal and culturally diverse population centers of New London, Norwich, and Windham, to the blue-collar towns of Enfield and Vernon, to the wealthy (and traditionally Republican) towns along the coast like Old Saybrook and Mystic where many millionaires from both Connecticut and New York maintain vacation homes. Statistically, Democrats dominate the 2nd district, although Republicans have recently fared well here in both congressional and statewide elections. New London, Norwich, and the students from the University of Connecticut in Storrs consistently vote for Democrats in overwhelming margins. Former Republican strongholds along the coast and in the wealthier Hartford suburbs have been trending Democratic recently as the GOP has become increasingly conservative and regional, although most voters here have little difficulty differentiating between the national party and local moderate Republicans.
In 2006, former Democratic state representative Joe Courtney of Vernon defeated popular incumbent Republican Rob Simmons by a razor-thin margin of 83 votes. A disastrous year for Republicans nationwide, rather than any substantive dissatisfaction with Simmons, was the likely factor behind Courtney's victory. Simmons had defeated ten-term incumbent Sam Gejdenson in 2000, and had won reelection by eight-point margins in 2002 and 2004, the former against Courtney.
Third district
The 3rd district envelops the greater part of New Haven County, surrounding the city of New Haven, the district's population center, regional hub of southern Connecticut, and home to Yale University. The district is the most diverse region of Connecticut, with many Irish, Italian, Polish, Jewish, Greek, Asian, and African-American communities. More recently, New Haven as a growing population of Ecuadorians. Since reapportionment, the 3rd district now also includes the entirety of the Naugatuck Valley, a crucial component of the former 5th district. While the district does take in some of Connecticut's wealthy coastal towns such as Guilford, most of the coastal towns in the 3rd are eminently middle-class, like Milford and Stratford. The district also notably encompasses the core area of Connecticut's large Italian-American community, from the area around Wooster Street in New Haven, to the neighborhood of Town Plot in Waterbury, Connecticut, to the many suburbs like Hamden, Milford, West Haven, East Haven, and North Haven. The area is also home to large numbers of Irish-American communities. The state's largest Portuguese-American community, in Naugatuck, is also located in the 3rd district, as well as one of the oldest African-American communities in the Newhallville area of New Haven. The New Haven area retains an overwhelmingly Democratic heritage for the most part, although Republicans have made significant successful inroads in the communities of the suburbs. Waterbury, Connecticut's 5th largest city, is a Democratic but very conservative city, where many of the Italian, Irish, and Lebanese voters have become increasingly comfortable voting for Republicans. After long remaining the focal point of the old 5th district, Waterbury was placed largely in the new 5th; yet, the considerably Republican and Italian neighborhood of Town Plot excised and lopped onto the 3rd, to the dismay of 5th district Republicans.
The representative from the 3rd district is Rosa DeLauro, the scion of an influential political family from New Haven. Before being elected in 1990, DeLauro worked as a political activist for liberal causes and an influential fundraiser for state and national Democrats, serving as chief of staff to Senator Chris Dodd and Executive Director of EMILY's List, a pro-choice PAC. Both of her parents were New Haven Alderman, and her husband, Stan Greenberg, is a highly reputed consultant and pollster. DeLauro has faced little opposition since 1990, when she barely defeated young state legislator Tom Scott of Milford, an anti-tax Republican who made DeLauro's strong support of a woman's right to choose a central issue in the campaign. While Republicans almost captured the 1990 open seat being vacated by Bruce Morrison in his unsuccessful campaign for Governor, and had actually held it for one term in the 1980s, the 3rd district has become more Democratic since the Bill Clinton years.
Fourth district
The 4th district is the political region of Connecticut's famous "Gold Coast"—the string of prosperous towns and cities along the shore of Fairfield County, home of many very wealthy Manhattan business elite and celebrities. While rich communities like Greenwich, New Canaan, Stamford, Darien, Ridgefield, Fairfield, Wilton and Westport may typify the luxurious stereotypes of this area of Connecticut, the district is also home to one of the poorest cities in the United States, Bridgeport, the largest city in Connecticut. Before the redistricting, the 4th included exclusively the few towns on the Long Island Sound from New York to Bridgeport; it now extends northward and eastward to take in the suburbs of Danbury as well as many towns that once constituted the heart of the old 5th district. In so doing, the reapportioned district after 2002 followed many Republican natives of lower Fairfield County who had relocated further into Connecticut for economic reasons.
The representative of the 4th district is Jim Himes who worked for 12 years at Goldman Sachs Group Inc. before leaving to head Enterprise Community Partners, a group that worked to combat urban poverty. Himes defeated longtime Republican incumbent Chris Shays in the November 2008 election.
The district has a long history of moderate and independent Congressmen, with Shays succeeding Representatives such as Stewart McKinney (who had died from AIDS, in 1987) and Lowell P. Weicker (who became estranged from the Republican Party following his service on the Senate Watergate Committee). Shays, widely regarded as a social moderate, fended off strong challenges from Westport Selectman Diane Farrell in 2004 and 2006, before local demographic shifts and a national mood favoring Democratic candidates resulted in his narrow defeat. Potential Republican candidates include Lieutenant Governor Michael Fedele from Stamford, State Senator (and son of the former Congressman) John P. McKinney of Southport, and state House Minority Leader Lawrence Cafero of Norwalk.
Fifth district
The 5th district is an approximate combination of the former 5th and 6th districts before the 2000 census. The district was designed as the result of a compromise among the redistricting committee as an evenly divided territory into which a Republican and a Democratic incumbent were both drawn. The new 5th largely maintained the distinguishing feature of the old 5th – the I-84 corridor connecting Danbury to Waterbury, and then stretching southeastward to Meriden. And similar to the old 6th district, the 5th takes in most of Litchfield County and the towns of the Farmington Valley in Hartford County. In the presidential politics the district is the most amenable in the state to backing Republicans, as it voted slightly for John Kerry in 2004 and Al Gore in 2000, but on the whole provides both parties with no overwhelming advantage. The suburbs of Waterbury, the small towns in Litchfield County, and the Farmington Valley are all traditionally Republican and generally conservative outposts. Meriden and the city of New Britain, located at the eastern fringe of the district, are both strongly Democratic towns that reliably give large pluralities to the Democratic candidate.
Previously, it was held by Elizabeth Esty of Cheshire from 2013-2019. She declined to run for a 4th term in 2018 due to a scandal in which she was accused of failing to protect her female staff members from her former chief-of-staff, who was alleged to have physically assaulted and harassed another staff member. Before that, it was held by current senator Chris Murphy, a former state Senator and representative originally from Southington. Prior to the 2006 election, Murphy moved across the border to the 5th district town of Cheshire, and scored a 56–44% upset victory against 24-year Republican incumbent Nancy L. Johnson of New Britain. The representative for the 5th district is Jahana Hayes, who was narrowly re-elected in 2022, in one of the closest house elections in the state since 2006.
Historical and present district boundaries
Table of United States congressional district boundary maps in the State of Connecticut, presented chronologically. All redistricting events that took place in Connecticut between 1973 and 2013 are shown.
See also
List of United States congressional districts
References
Congressional districts of Connecticut
Congressional districts |
6846416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV%20Tres | MTV Tres | MTV Tres is an American owned by Paramount Media Networks, a subsidiary of Paramount Global.
The channel is targeted toward bilingual Latinos and non-Latino Americans aged 12 to 34, and its programming formerly included lifestyle series, customized music video playlists, news documentaries that celebrate Latino culture, music and artists and English-subtitled programming in Spanish, imported from MTV Spain and MTV Latin America, as well as Spanish-subtitled programming from MTV. The network's logo is rendered as tr3s, with an acute accent over the number 3 (which in the actual audible name is a reversed capital É).
As of August 2013, MTV Tres was available to approximately 36 million pay television households (totaling 32% of households with television) in the United States.
History
MTV Español
On August 1, 1998, MTV Networks launched a 24-hour digital cable channel, MTV S (the "S" standing for "Spanish"). On October 1, 2001, the channel was relaunched as MTV Español, focusing on music videos by Latin rock and pop artists. The rebranded network mainly utilized the eight-hour automated music video playlist wheel used by sister networks MTV2, MTV Hits and MTVX (later MTV Jams) without any original programming, except for repurposed content from MTV's Latin America networks.
Acquisition of MásMúsica TeVe
Más Música TeVe, founded in 1998, was a network distributed in the United States on pay television that aired music videos from diverse Latin music styles, including salsa, cumbia, regional Mexican, and contemporary Spanish-language hits. Founded by Eduardo Caballero of Caballero Television, MásMúsica TeVe carried the minimum requirements of educational and public affairs programming on weekends, and it was carried mainly on low-power television stations throughout the United States.
In December 2005, Viacom acquired MásMúsica and ten of the network's affiliated stations. The sale was closed down in January 2006.
Launch of MTV Tres
MTV Tres unofficially launched on September 4, 2006, when it became available on all subscription providers that recently carried MTV Español. On September 25, 2006, MTV Español and MásMúsica TeVe officially merged. The first program to air on the newly formed channel was the premiere of Mi TRL at 4:30 p.m. Eastern Time.
In its beginnings, MTV Tres's programming schedule was significantly more repetitive than MTV Español was in its last days. The channel aired shows such as Hola, My Name is MTV Tres, the Top 20 Countdown, Los Hits, Mis #1s, Sucker Free Latino (only running two new shows per week), Latina Factor, Mi TRL, MTV Trespass, Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica 2006, Making the Video and Diary; the latter two and many other programs from MTV are merely subtitled into Spanish rather than carrying re-dubbed versions. These programs were repeated for most of the day, which greatly reduced the amount of freeform music videos played on the channel. As months passed, however, the programming became more varied and different, with changing music video blocks airing several times in the day.
Relaunch as Tres
On July 12, 2010, MTV Tres dropped the MTV name from its logo and name, officially rebranding as simply Tres. With the rebrand, the network expanded its programming to include additional acquired MTV programs and series from Viacom's Latin American networks. Eventually, Viacom re-sold some of the stations acquired in the Más Música deal in California and Texas back to Caballero Television, and after its 2019 sale of its last broadcast asset before the re-acquisition of CBS Corporation, the network is cable-only.
Programming
Tres broadcasts on an Eastern Time schedule with one national feed for all providers.
Music video programs
Since 2014, MTV Tres broadcasts music videos for at least 22 hours each day (though like their sister networks NickMusic and CMT Music, the titles of the 'programs' now merely delineate an hour for electronic program guides than provide any actual video theming).
Current
Exitos – Current hits
2x2 – Two videos from the same artist are played consecutively
Fresh – Videos recently added to the network's playlist
La Hora Nacional – Independent artists
Tropicalismo – Reggaeton, Bachata and Tropical
ReMexa – Banda, Ranchera, Duranguense and Norteña
Former
Classic Co. – The program, which aired weekdays at 10:00 a.m. Eastern Time, featured a mix of videos from Latino artists of the 1980s and 1990s such as Selena, Ricky Martin, and Marc Anthony. The title is most likely an English-language play on the Spanish term for "classic", clásico, as the title might stand for "Classic Company". The program was discontinued in early 2008.
Los Hits – Based on MTV's Big Ten and Más Música's Los Top 10, this program featured the most popular videos in rotation on MTV Tr3s. It was hosted by Carlos Santos or Denise Ramirez featuring interviews with popular artists, however the program would drop its VJ format in March 2007. The program was discontinued in mid-2007.
Tr3s or False – This program was a music video/text message-based game show that awarded viewers points, which could be redeemed for prizes, for answering questions correctly. The program was discontinued in early 2009.
Music My Guey – This program focuses on viewer requested music videos.
Top 20 – Similar to Las 40 Principales from Más Música, this program is a countdown of the top 20 videos in rotation on the channel during the week. In late June 2008, the network changed the show's format; most music videos are no longer played in their entirety; the show has been hosted since that point by Carlos Santos.
TXTO (pronounced "texto", Spanish for "text") – This program is a block of music videos requested by callers who send text messages to the channel, in English or Spanish, dedicating videos to friends or family. Although it is loosely based on Tu Email from Más Música, TXTO does not feature a VJ who reads the e-mails. However, there may be occasional VJ spots in the program. TXTO URB is a spinoff series that is dedicated to urban music videos.
¡Rock! – This program aired mostly during the late night hours, and featured a mix of rock music videos from U.S. and Latin American bands. Among the U.S. bands featured in the lineup were the Deftones, which contain Latino vocalist Chino Moreno and turntablist Frank Delgado, and Incubus, which contain Latino drummer Jose Pasillas. The program was discontinued in October 2007.
MixMex – A music video program featuring artists from Mexico; it was replaced with ReMexa in March 2009.
Street Mix (later known as El Sonidero) – A block of urban music videos, focusing on hip-hop, reggaeton and R&B artists, and includes Spanish-speaking artists with occasional American videos from non-Latino, English-speaking artists.(was called EL Sonidero until September 2008)
Videoteca (formally known as V.P.M., short for Video Party Music) – This program focused on rhythmic videos; Videoteca was cancelled on July 12, 2010, concurrent with the network's relaunch.
Videorama – General music video mix that aired during the daytime hours
Videosomnia – General music video mix that aired during the overnight hours (Similar to MTV After Hours)
Clasicos – Classic music videos (though most are from after 2010 but before 2015)
Cafeina – Early morning music video mix
El Flow – Latin urban contemporary music videos
The following music video programs were hosted by VJ's who primarily host in English:
Sucker Free Latino – Hosted by L. Boogs; this program is similar to Más Música's Zona Urbana and is based on MTV's Sucker Free, featuring popular hip-hop, R&B and reggaeton music videos, mostly from Latino artists; however, some of the featured videos may be performed by U.S. artists like The Fugees or Ludacris, with interviews included (replaced with SFL5)
Mi TRL – Based on MTV's Total Request Live and Más Música's Pidelo, and hosted by Carlos Santos, new episodes air each Thursday at 4:30 p.m. Eastern Time (with rebroadcasts throughout the week on Tr3s as well as rebroadcasts on MTV Hits); the program featured the ten most requested videos based on voting on the MTV Tr3s website, featuring live performances and interviews (discontinued along with TRL in November 2008, then revived in February 2009 as Entertainment as a Second Language)
Indie 101 – Hosted by Martin Chan, this program – which is similar in format to Más Música's Rokmania – focuses on indie rock bands from Latin America.
Non-music programming
Some reality and scripted series formerly aired on the channel, including MTV originals featuring Spanish subtitling, as well as from MTV Latin America and Nickelodeon Latin America (which were natively broadcast in Spanish and subtitled in English for broadcast on U.S. television). These types of programs aired for no more than three hours at a time. Some of the programs had little or nothing to do with Latino culture and possibly only aired on Tres to allow Viacom to maintain syndication rights to the programs without threatening ratings on higher-profile networks.
For a short time from July until October 2010, Tres carried a block of programming known as "Tres Jr.", which carried Spanish-language dubs of the Nick Jr. Channel's Blue's Clues (Spanish-titled as Pistas de Blue and featuring Steve Burns-era episodes) and Wonder Pets.
Class A affiliates (and previously, former full-power affiliate KBEH-TV) carried a second feed of the network with English-language repeats of Allegra's Window and Gullah Gullah Island in order to fulfill E/I programming requirements set by the Federal Communications Commission.
Former programming
Beavis and Butt-Head (dubbed in Spanish)
Bellator Fighting Championships
Blue's Clues (Pistas de Blue, dubbed in Spanish)
Boiling Points
Casados con Hijos (Colombian version of Married... with Children, subtitled)
Dancelife
Dismissed
George Lopez
I Bet You Will
Impact Wrestling (wrestling show, translated in Spanish)
Isa TKM
Jersey Shore
Juegos Prohibidos
Lucha Libre USA: Masked Warriors
Mind of Mencia
Ninas Mal
Quiero Mi Boda – a show involving elaborate weddings
Quiero Mis Quinces – a Latin American version of My Super Sweet 16, though instead involving quinceañeras
Room Raiders
Short Circuitz
SpongeBob SquarePants (Bob Esponja, dubbed in Spanish)
Wonder Pets (Las Mascotas Maravilla, dubbed in Spanish)
Entertainment as a Second Language
Karlifornia
Lugar Heights
Mis ViDeos Locos!
Music My Güey
Pimpeando
Rock Dinner
Speak Tr3s
Yo Soy Jenny Rivera
Free-to-air affiliates
Most of the broadcast stations that aired MTV Tres served communities with large Hispanic populations. Upon the merger of Más Música and MTV Tres, however, former Más Música affiliate WZXZ-CA in Orlando, Florida, switched to MTV2, before affiliating with America TéVé, and WUBX-CA and WBXU-LP in the Raleigh/Durham/Fayetteville, North Carolina, market ceased operations completely. Eventually Viacom let their affiliation agreements lapse with their broadcast affiliates, and those other stations have become affiliates of other networks, or ceased all operations. Viacom's carriage agreements with cable providers also often saw the Tres cable channel preferred for carriage over a local affiliate, and most stations were unable to find cable coverage with Tres programming, notwithstanding existing complications involving low-power stations and cable carriage. KVMM-CD, channel 41 of Santa Barbara, California, was the only MTV Tres affiliate that still broadcast free-to-air until May 20, 2019, as well as the only over-the-air broadcast asset that Viacom had remaining, until it was sold to HC2 Holdings on February 15, 2019.
Former affiliates
References
MTV channels
Music video networks in the United States
Spanish-language television networks in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 2006 |
3713462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuta%20Iyama | Yuta Iyama | is a Japanese professional Go player. In April 2016, he became the first player in Japanese history to hold all seven major titles simultaneously. In January 2018, Iyama became the first professional Go player to be awarded Japan's People's Honour Award.
Biography
Born in Osaka, Iyama became the first professional of the Heisei period. He began playing Go at the age of five and reached the rank of 3 dan amateur a year later. It was at this time Kunio Ishii became Iyama's teacher, with the two playing thousands of games online. He won the national elementary school championship twice, in 1997 and 1998. Iyama became an insei in October 1998 and challenged for a professional spot in 2001. He lost to Kohei Kawada. The following year, he challenged again and passed the qualifying test. At the time, Iyama was the fourth youngest professional behind Cho Chikun, Utaro Hashimoto and Satoshi Yuki.
Iyama was promoted to 2 dan on 4 September 2002. During the China-Japan Agon Cup in 2002, Iyama played an unofficial match with Chen Yaoye. Iyama lost the match by resignation. In June 2003, Iyama was promoted to 3 dan for his performances in the Oteai. Nearly two years later, Iyama was promoted to 4 dan under the newly revised promotion rules.
He met his rival, Daisuke Murakawa, a fellow player from the Kansai region, in the final section of the 30th Shinjin-O. Taking white, Iyama went on to win by 5.5 points. Iyama won the first major game of his career when he defeated Cho U by resignation in the 20th Agon Cup. He would go on to win the tournament, becoming the youngest title holder in Japanese history at 16 years and five months. The previous holder of the record was Cho Chikun, who won the Shin-Ei, a tournament open to young players only, at 17 years. As a result of winning the tournament, Iyama was directly promoted to 7 dan and became the youngest 7 dan in Japanese Go.
Before winning the Agon Cup, Iyama won the Nakano Cup, a privately sponsored unofficial tournament, and unsuccessfully challenged for the Shinjin-O title, losing to Kim Shushun. Iyama was a member of the Japanese team at the 6th Asian New Star Match, where he won one match. Japan finished in third place behind South Korea and China. Iyama participated in the China-Japan Agon Cup in 2006, losing to Gu Li by resignation.
Iyama won two awards for his performance during the 2005 season: the New Star award and an award for having the highest winning percentage (75.47%). In August 2006, Iyama made it to the last game of the 61st Honinbo preliminary stage. Facing Cho Sonjin (a former Honinbo), Iyama took black and lost by resignation. Had Iyama won, he would have been the youngest participant of the Honinbo league at 17 years. Three months after his unsuccessful Honinbo league bid, Iyama participated in the first edition of the Daiwa Cup, an internet tournament. Iyama qualified for the main tournament, but was unable to challenge for the title.
Iyama won his second official tournament when he defeated Kenichi Mochizuki in the Shinjin-O final. In September 2007, Iyama reached the challenger final of his first major title, the Tengen. Taking black, Iyama lost to Keigo Yamashita by 1.5 points and was unable to challenge title-holder Rin Kono. Iyama qualified for his first international tournament, the 21st Fujitsu Cup, by defeating Kanketsu Rin and Michihiro Morita in the preliminary stages. In the main tournament, Iyama defeated Taiwanese representative Zhou Junxun, but lost to Korea's Lee Sedol in the second round.
In March 2008, Iyama participated in the 1st Yugen Cup, a tournament pitting veteran professionals against newly promoted youngsters. He finished in 6th place, but won all six of his games. Iyama reached the final round of the preliminary tournament for the 13th LG Cup, but was unable to make the final tournament. No other Japanese players qualified.
Two months later, in July 2008, Iyama won the 33rd Meijin league. At the age of 19, Iyama became the youngest ever challenger for the Meijin title and the youngest challenger for any of the major titles. He broke a record held by Cho Chikun, who challenged for the Oza title in 1976 at the age of 20 years. As a result of winning the league, Iyama was directly promoted to 8 dan. Iyama's title bid was unsuccessful as he lost in seven games to title-holder Cho U.
A few days after earning the right to challenge for the 33rd Meijin, Iyama defeated Cho U in the final of the 1st Daiwa Cup Grand Champion, an internet tournament for winners of the other Daiwa Cup tournaments. Iyama was also a part of the Japanese team at the 1st World Mind Sports Games. While challenging for the Meijin title, Iyama faced Cho U again, this time in the Oza challenger final. Iyama took black and lost by resignation.
A month later, in October 2008, Iyama reached another challenger final. He faced Norimoto Yoda in the challenger final of the 33rd Kisei and lost by resignation. In March 2008, Iyama participated in the inaugural BC Card Cup as one of Japan's two representatives, Cho Chikun being the other. Chikun was knocked out in the first round by Paek Hongsuk, but Iyama won two games in a row against Kim Seongjae and On Sojin. Iyama came up against Cho Hanseung in the third round and was eliminated by the Korean representative.
That same month Iyama participated in two unofficial tournaments, the Yugen Cup, which he won, and the RICOH Rengo Cup. Iyama and partner Xie Yimin lost to Naoki Hane and Keiko Kato in the final of the Rengo Cup. Iyama also won the Kido "Outstanding Player" award for his performances during the 2008 season.
Iyama was one of four Japanese participants at the 14th LG Cup, where he won his first game against Yun Junsang and lost his second game against Lee Chang-ho. Iyama also reached the challenger final of the 34th Gosei, but eventually lost to Satoshi Yuki by 1.5 points.
After losing the Meijin the previous year, Iyama won the Meijin league again in July 2009 and earned the right to challenge Cho U. He went undefeated in the league, becoming the fourth player in the modern-era to go undefeated in the Meijin league. Two months later Iyama qualified for his first Honinbo league.
Iyama lost the first game of his Meijin challenge, but then went on to win four in-a-row. As a result, Iyama broke three records: youngest major title winner, youngest Meijin and youngest 9 dan, breaking records set by Cho Chikun, Rin Kaiho and his opponent in the Meijin finals, Cho U. Iyama also won the Ryusei title, televised on the date of the final Meijin match.
In December 2009, Iyama participated in his first Nongshim Cup. He was the third Japanese player and lost his game to Xie He, who won five straight games before losing to Naoki Hane. Iyama led the Japanese most wins list in 2009 with a record of 43 wins and 14 losses. Iyama was also awarded the Shusai Prize for his performances during the 2009 season. In February 2010, Iyama lost the final of the 5th Daiwa Cup to Rin Kono.
In May, Iyama reached the challenger final for the 65th Honinbo, but lost to Keigo Yamashita. As a result, for finishing runner-up of the NHK Cup in 2010, Iyama was qualified for the 22nd Asian TV Cup. He lost to Lee Chang-ho in the first round. Iyama was also a representative of the Japanese team at the 16th Asian Games. In October 2010, Iyama was invited to the World Meijin tournament along with Gu Li and Lee Chang-ho. Iyama finished in third place. Iyama then defended his Meijin title in straight wins against Shinji Takao.
In 2010, Iyama won the third most prize money in Japan with 56,482,000 Yen. He unsuccessfully challenged Cho U for the Kisei title in 2011. Iyama won his second major title, the Judan, in 2011.
In January 2017, Iyama was awarded the Shusai Prize, which honors the outstanding player of the previous year. It was his fifth consecutive Shusai Prize. In February 2017, Iyama was awarded the Kido Prize for "Most outstanding player" for winning all top seven titles.
Iyama is scheduled to play in the 2017 World Go Championship.
Promotion record
Career record
Titles and runners-up
Awards and honours
2010 Osaka Culture Prize
2018 People's Honour Award
2022 Medal with Purple Ribbon
References
1989 births
Japanese Go players
Living people
People from Higashiōsaka
Asian Games medalists in go
Go players at the 2010 Asian Games
Asian Games bronze medalists for Japan
Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games
People's Honour Award winners
Recipients of the Medal with Purple Ribbon |
47288608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%20Milwaukee%20riot | 1967 Milwaukee riot | The 1967 Milwaukee riot was one of 159 race riots that swept cities in the United States during the "Long Hot Summer of 1967". In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, African American residents, outraged by the slow pace in ending housing discrimination and police brutality, began to riot on the evening of July 30, 1967. The inciting incident was a fight between teenagers, which escalated into full-fledged rioting with the arrival of police. Within minutes, arson, looting, and sniping were occurring in the north side of the city, primarily the 3rd Street Corridor.
The city put a round-the-clock curfew into effect on July 31. The governor mobilized the National Guard to quell the disturbance that same day, and order was restored on August 3. Although the damage caused by the riot was not as destructive as in such cities as Detroit and Newark, many businesses in the affected neighborhoods were severely damaged. Tensions increased afterward between police and residents. The July disturbance also served as a catalyst to additional unrest in the city; equal housing marches held in August often turned violent as white residents clashed with black demonstrators.
Background
During the mid-1960s, there was race-related civil unrest in a number of major US cities, including riots in Harlem and Philadelphia in 1964; Los Angeles in 1965; and Cleveland and Chicago in 1966. During the summer of 1967, a total of 159 race riots broke out across the country in what would come to be known as the Long Hot Summer.
Milwaukee communities had long been segregated when Alderwoman Vel Phillips, the first woman and African American to hold the position, proposed the first fair housing ordinance in March 1962. She continued to introduce fair housing proposals over the next five years. Four times they were defeated by the city council.
By the summer of 1967, tensions continued to escalate, and protests became increasingly common, including multiple demonstrations outside the private homes of the city's Aldermen. Mayor Henry Maier, the city council, and school board refused to address civil rights grievances, and relations between the police and the residents worsened. As historian Patrick Jones put it, "Blight had surrounded, and then devoured, the heart of Milwaukee's black community."
Recent uprisings in Newark and Detroit, which had broken out July 12 and 23 respectively, only served to make matters worse. LeRoy Jones, then one of 18 black police officers among the total of 2,056 officers in the city's department, described the situation:
There were some rumors that something was going to happen ... We did know there was going to be a riot. The Police Department knew - one to two weeks ahead - that something was planned. It was predicted that it would be on 3rd Street.According to a study that was administered by Karl Flaming, over 95% of all local African Americans did not participate in this disturbance. A majority of the citizens that took part in this riot were young black men who lived in the inner core of Milwaukee. Of the participants, 35% were unemployed and 20% were classified as poor.
Events
July 29
Around midnight on the evening of July 29, a fight broke out between two black women outside the St. Francis Social Center, on the corner of 4th and West Brown streets. A crowd of 350 spectators gathered, and when police arrived to respond to the disturbance, the crowd began to throw rocks at police vehicles. Soon more police came, dressed in riot gear. Some property damage was done but the crowd was quickly dispersed.
July 30
The day of Sunday, July 30 was calm, but rumors spread and tensions grew.
A large crowd gathered that evening on 3rd Street. It is not clear what event started the outbreak, but at least one story circulated that police had assaulted a young boy. Squire Austin, who was at a civil rights rally, recalled, "The rumor we got ... was that police had beaten up a kid pretty bad over on Third and Walnut ... that's when the looting and firebombing started."
By 10:00 PM a crowd of 300 were throwing missiles at stores owned by white residents, starting fires, and looting. The police reacted with violence, and the mob reacted in turn. More fights broke out around 3rd Street, and shootings were reported on Center Street. Along the area from West State street to West Burleigh street looting broke out, multiple shootings occurred, and more fires were set.
Just prior to midnight, the mayor went to City Hall to meet with Police Chief Harold Breier. Reports of the first fires came in, along with reports of dispatched firefighters being assailed by stones and prevented from extinguishing them. The mayor requested Governor Warren Knowles notify the Wisconsin National Guard to be on standby.
July 31
Around 2 AM on July 31, in the area around North 2nd street and West Center street, iron worker Milton L. Nelsen was slowly driving through the mostly black inhabited area while reportedly yelling racial slurs, when someone shouted "He's got a gun in the glove compartment." Shotgun fire came from a nearby house, and Nelsen was shot in the face and killed instantly. He left behind a wife and eight children. Hannah Jackson, a bystander, was also hit. The man who fired the gun, John Oraa Tucker, was later charged for the shooting, and maintained he did so out of fear for his and his family's safety. When police responded, officer Bryan Moschea was shot and killed when he entered a building thought to be the location of an unrelated sniper. His badly burned body was not able to be recovered until the following day. Four other officers were wounded. The body of Annie Mosley, aged 77, was found in the burned-out building. She had been shot in the head. Another woman, Willie Ella Green, aged 43, suffered a fatal heart attack running from her second story apartment.
The mayor received word of the shootings and fire at West Center at 2:26 AM. He declared a state of emergency, and imposed a citywide curfew, which took effect at 3:40 AM. At the Mayor's request, the National Guard was activated.
The mayor lifted the curfew from 4:00 PM to 6:00 PM. This resulted in a rush on downtown and suburban supermarkets. As the story in the Milwaukee Journal described it:
Grocery shopping Monday meant standing in long lines and waiting ... Shoppers came in families. Sometimes there were six adults in a car. They seemed to be shopping more from compulsion than need.
By the end of the day businesses, public transportation, utilities and educational institutions had all closed, and deliveries of milk and cattle to the city had halted.
August 1 onward
On August 1, Mayor Maier issued an order relaxing the curfew to only night hours. Some people began returning to work and some public services became available, at least partially. Police responded to reports that youths were lighting a paint store on fire. Clifford McKissick, aged 18, was shot in the neck and killed as he fled toward the nearby family home. The Milwaukee County's emergency hospital was closed and all personnel were transferred to the general hospital, which was farther away from the city, and deemed better capable of coping with the large number of casualties.
The Milwaukee Sentinel published a piece August 2 describing the plight of those who were restricted by the curfew, saying that they "were outside on their porches or standing next to their apartment buildings, watching. If they got too far away from their homes, though, police and guardsmen moved in."
On August 3 the mayor postponed the curfew from 7:00 PM to 9:00 PM.
On August 4 the mayor postponed the curfew from 9:00 PM to midnight, and announced that liquor stores and bars would be allowed to open and sell alcohol.
Casualties and cost
In total, the riot resulted in three to four deaths (including at least one police officer), 100 injuries, and 1,740 arrests.
According to stories published by the Milwaukee Journal on August 2 and 4, more than $200,000 in window damage had been done to businesses, and the cost of mustering and paying the National Guard to intervene amounted to nearly $300,000.
Aftermath
On August 3, 1967, an alliance of civil rights organizations and male priest held a dinner to tribute Groppi to honor his contributions to the local struggle for racial equity in Milwaukee and the state of Wisconsin.
On August 27, 1967, the local NAACP, led by Father James Groppi, held a march of about a hundred into a white neighborhood in protest of the city's housing laws. They came up against a crowd of 5,000 who retaliated with racial epithets, stones, and garbage. The following day Groppi addressed a meeting of supporters at St. Boniface Church, and prepared them for what was likely to come:
If there is any man or woman here who is afraid of going to jail for his freedom, is afraid of getting tear gassed, or is afraid of dying, you should not have come to this meeting tonight.
On August 29, the curfew was lifted and Groppi led 200 members of the Milwaukee NAACP on a march out of the ghetto and toward Kosciuszko Park, in an area predominately inhabited by white residents. The mob they met had grown to 13,000 and the protesters came under sniper fire as they returned to their headquarters. It was burned down later that night or early the next morning. The Mayor issued an order banning such demonstrations, and both Groppi and Phillips were arrested.
On September 4, Martin Luther King Jr. sent a telegram from Atlanta in support:
What you and your courageous associates are doing in Milwaukee will certainly serve as a kind of massive nonviolence that we need in this turbulent period. You are demonstrating that it is possible to be militant and powerful without destroying life or property. Please know that you have my support and my prayers.On September 17, Groppi made an appearance on Face the Nation. This was televised on CBS.
In September, Dick Gregory had issued a formal boycott against Schlitz and many other brewing companies. On October 3, 200 demonstrators marched to Schlitz and Blatz brewery underline their protest. This was supposed to put pressure on the companies to gain support for open housing.
On April 8 of 1968, 15,000-20,000 participated in a memorial march in downtown Milwaukee.
On May 13, NAACP president and vice president Fred Bronson and Fortune Humphrey led 13 organizations and 450 people on a march to the Public Safety building to push for better police-community relations. A resolution was posted by Bronson and Humphrey that asked the mayor to lay off Chief Breier to "restore sanity" in police operations and to protect the black community from being controlled by a police force.
Groppi went on to lead 200 consecutive days of protests.
Father Groppi resigned as advisor to the YC in November 1968.
In 1968, Henry Maier was reelected for his 3rd term and received more than 80% of the total votes. This was the largest runaway victory that Milwaukee had ever seen.
On September 21, 1969, Groppi led a group of welfare mothers, low income African Americans, college students, Latinos and many others on a march from Milwaukee to Madison to protest the potential possibility of cuts for Wisconsin's state welfare budget.
Legal changes
In the immediate aftermath of the riot and marches, little was accomplished in the way of laws, policies, and programs. Speaking of the lack of available funding for enacting proposed reforms, Mayor Maier said:
The city of Milwaukee can no more finance the crucial problems of poverty, ignorance, disease and discrimination with the property taxes of relatively poor people than the city of Milwaukee can finance sending a man to the moon.
However, later that year the mayor rejected federal benefits, as they required support for fair housing in the city. He argued instead that the problem was a county-wide one. Support continued to grow for a housing measure, supported by the League of Women Voters and local workers unions. A petition circulated by supporters of fair housing garnered 8,000 signatures. A petition that opposed such legislation was presented to the city council with 27,000 signatures. In December, the city passed a form of fair housing that included enough exemptions, that it only applied to about a third of the housing in the city. Groppi dismissed it as "tokenism and crumbs". Phillips voted against the measure, saying it was "very much too late with very much too little".
On April 11, 1968, a week after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the US Congress passed the Fair Housing Act, as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Faced with capitulation, or the violation of federal law, the Milwaukee Common Council followed on April 30, passing an ordinance that was stronger than that required by the federal law. Casting a tie-breaking vote, council president Robert Jendusa said he hoped the measure might "heal some of the wounds of the community".
Public opinion
According to Nesbit, the riots "widened the gap between militant blacks and other civil rights activists and the uncompromising white majority in the city." Thomson described the disparate interpretations of the event, emphasizing that blacks tended to view it as "a violent expression of the accumulated frustration and anger, undesirable but understandable", while whites believed it represented "the failure of black parents to control their children, irresponsible and rebellious individuals and the agitation of civil rights activists..." Blacks tended to see solutions in public reforms and the advancement of civil rights, while whites tended toward the need for increased policing and gun control.
In an article published August 1, 1967, by the Milwaukee Sentinel, an interview was reported with "John", an anonymous black rioter in his 20s:
He's (the white man) out there marching up and down with his guns. Why can't we march up and down with our guns? ... We went before (Mayor) Maier and we argued and argued and argued and argued and argued and it didn't do no good...
A study conducted by the Milwaukee Urban League found that, among blacks arrested during the riot, 90% cited "blocked job opportunities" as one of the root causes. The same study found that 53% of blacks arrested were unemployed or underemployed compared to 29% among blacks not participating in the riot. In another University of Wisconsin study, 54% of blacks interviewed reported that police brutality had a "great deal" to do with the riot. Another 55% felt that lack of respect and insults by police occurred frequently in the ghetto.
According to a research conducted by Jonathon Slesinger, 24% of inner city blacks described this event as a civil rights struggle, while 43% of inner city whites viewed it as a riot. Opinions on how to avoid future disturbances varied between white people and black people. For the white inner city respondents, 51% wanted to give police more power so suspicious people on streets would be stopped and get searched. Of the inner city Black respondents, 84% favored a proposal that would reduce racial disparity and provide more jobs for black people.
Legacy
The Clifford McKissick Community School in Milwaukee was named for the black youth killed by police on August 2 as part of the riot. In 1981, his family filed a civil lawsuit alleging excessive force on the part of officer Ralph Schroeder in the shooting death of McKissick. A Circuit Court ruled in favor of the officer and found that McKissick was responsible for his own death.
A year after the riots, John Oraa Tucker, a Shorewood High School janitor who lived in the house burned on the morning of July 31 (where Nelsen and a police officer were killed, among four others who were wounded) was charged with 9 counts of attempted murder. After the longest jury trial in Milwaukee County Court history (17 days of verdict deliberation) he was cleared on the most serious charges, but found guilty of endangering the safety of the public and given a 25-year sentence. He was paroled on July 1, 1977, just under 10 years into his sentence, and moved to Wausau, Wisconsin.
Asked about the events and his convictions in an interview two weeks after his release, Tucker remarked "As long as people's minds are in the past, it puts bumps and obstacles in the way of the future. It's been a long time. Let's forget about it."
In a 1970 case heard before the Wisconsin Supreme Court, Interstate Fire & Casualty Co. v Milwaukee, a company sought $506.93 in damages done to a tavern during the riots. In its decision siding with the city, the court wrote:
In this era of "confrontation politics", "protest marches", and "civil disobedience" it is naive to think that riot statues such as that before the court will retard such occurrences or keep them from developing into damaging riots, especially considering the spontaneity with which they occur.
In 1980, twelve years after the passage of Milwaukee's equal housing ordinance, the city ranked second nationally among the most racially segregated suburban areas. As of 2000, it was the most segregated city in the country according to data gathered by the US Census Bureau. In a July 2017 study by the Wall Street Journal of the nation's 100 largest metropolitan areas, Milwaukee was listed the 11th most segregated city.
See also
2016 Milwaukee riots
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
Mass racial violence in the United States
Notes
References
1967 in Wisconsin
African-American history of Milwaukee
African-American riots in the United States
1960s in Milwaukee
Riots and civil disorder in Wisconsin
Milwaukee
July 1967 events in the United States
August 1967 events in the United States
White American riots in the United States
History of racism in Wisconsin
Housing in Wisconsin
Long, hot summer of 1967 |
47299457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20awards%20and%20nominations%20received%20by%20OK%20Go | List of awards and nominations received by OK Go | OK Go is a Chicago, Illinois, rock band consisting of Damian Kulash, Tim Nordwind, Dan Konopka, and Andy Ross, who replaced former member Andy Duncan. Originally forming in 1998, the band became popular with the music video for their song "A Million Ways" off of their album Oh No. This music video was nominated for Best Video at the MTV Europe Music Awards, giving the band their first major award nomination. They gained wider critical recognition following the release of their single "Here It Goes Again", which earned them a Grammy for Best Music Video. Since then, the band has received various awards and nominations, especially for their music videos, which frequently attract critical acclaim.
Awards
Grammys:
Best Music Video (2007) for "Here It Goes Again"
Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity:
Gold Lion (2012) in Cyber - Best Video for "All Is Not Lost"
Gold Lion (2012) in Design - Design Typography for "All Is Not Lost"
Gold Lion (2012) in Film - Interactive for "All Is Not Lost"
Silver Lion (2012) in Cyber - Websites and Microsites Publications & Media for "All Is Not Lost"
Bronze Lion (2012) in Design - Online Digital Design for "All Is Not Lost"
Bronze Lion (2012) in Cyber - Best Digitally Led Integrated Campaign for "Needing/Getting"
Bronze Lion (2012) in Film Craft - Best Use of Music for "Needing/Getting"
Bronze Lion (2015) in Promo And Activation - Sponsorship or Partnership Campaigns for "I Won't Let You Down"
Silver Lion (2016) in Entertainment for Music - Excellence in Music Video for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Lion (2016) in Film - Branded Content & Entertainment for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Bronze Lion (2016) in Film Craft - Achievement in Production for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Gold Lion (2017) in Design - Video/Moving Images for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Gold Lion (2017) in Design - Video/Moving Images for "The One Moment"
Gold Lion (2017) in Digital Craft - Video/Moving Images for "The One Moment"
Silver Lion (2017) in Film Craft - Production Design/Art Direction for "The One Moment"
Bronze Lion (2017) in Film - Viral Film for "The One Moment"
Bronze Lion (2017) in PR - Social Influencer Communication & Amplification for "The One Moment"
Bronze Lion (2017) in Film Craft - Direction for "The One Moment"
Gold Lion (2018) in Design/Digital Installations & Events for "Obsession"
Silver Lion (2018) in Design/Digital & Interactive / Social Engagement for "Obsession"
Smithsonian American Ingenuity Awards:
Ingenuity Award (2016) for Visual Arts
Producers Guild of America:
Digital 25: Leaders In Emerging Entertainment (2010)
ADFEST:
Silver Lotus (2011) in Film Craft for "Last Leaf"
Bronze Lotus (2011) in Cyber - Best Use of Viral for "Last Leaf"
Gold Lotus (2018) in Film for "Obsession"
Silver Lotus (2018) in Film Craft for "Obsession"
Silver Lotus (2018) in Interactive for "Obsession"
CLIO Awards:
Gold Award (2013) in Music - Branded Entertainment & Content for "Needing/Getting"
Gold Award (2016) in Film - Music Videos - Brand for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Award (2016) in Film - Short Form - Product/Service for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Award (2016) in Innovation - Brand for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Award (2016) in Partnerships - Brand for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Award (2016) in Film Technique - Direction for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver Award (2018) in Film Technique (Visual Effects) for "Obsession"
Silver Award (2018) in Digital/Mobile & Social Media Technique for "Obsession"
Bronze Award (2018) in Film/Short Form for "Obsession"
Bronze Award (2018) in Social Media/ Social Video for "Obsession"
Bronze Award (2018) in Branded Content/Film for "Obsession"
Bronze Award (2018) in Music for Branded Entertainment & Content for "Obsession"
A-List Awards:
Bronze (2012) in Film Advertising Craft Direction for "Needing/Getting"
Gold (2015) in Branded Entertainment Awards - Online Film for "I Won't Let You Down"
Silver (2015) in Branded Entertainment Awards - Interactive for "I Won't Let You Down"
Los Angeles Film Festival:
Best Music Video (2010) for "This Too Shall Pass"
UK Music Video Awards:
Video Of The Year (2010) for "This Too Shall Pass"
Best Rock Video (2010) for "This Too Shall Pass"
Best Art Direction & Design in a Video in Association with Creative Commission for "The Writing's on the Wall
Eurobest European Advertising Festival:
Gold (2016) in Film Craft for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Bronze (2016) in Entertainment for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Prague International Advertising Festival:
Gold (2016) in Creative Use of Technologies for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Gold (2016) in Brilliant Execution for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Webby Awards:
Special Achievement Award (2010): Film & Video Artist Of The Year
People's Voice Award (2012): Online Film & Video - Viral for "The Muppet Show Theme"
Online Film & Video - Long Form (Branded) (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down" (nominated)
People's Voice Award (2018): Film & Video - Music Video for "Obsession"
Public Knowledge IP3 Award:
IP3 Award (2007)
YouTube Music Awards:
Most Creative Video (2006) for "Here It Goes Again"
Mind-Bending Visuals (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down"
MTV Video Music Awards:
Best Visual Effects (2014) for "The Writing's on the Wall"
Best Choreography (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
MTV Video Music Awards Japan:
Best Group Video (International) (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
One Show Awards:
Gold Pencil (2012) in Online Films & Video - Music Videos for "All Is Not Lost"
Bronze Pencil (2012) in Branded Content - Music Videos for "Needing/Getting"
Merit (2012) in Craft - Interface Design for "All Is Not Lost"
Gold Pencil (2015) in Websites - Travel, Entertainment & Leisure for "I Won't Let You Down
Silver Pencil (2015) in Online Films & Video - Music Videos for "I Won't Let You Down
Gold Pencil (2017) in Innovation in Film - Online for "The One Moment
Bronze Pencil (2017) in Music Videos for "The One Moment
Bronze Pencil (2017) in Craft - Use of Visuals for "The One Moment
Merit (2017) in Craft - Innovation in Moving Image for "The One Moment
Merit (2017) in Craft - Direction for "The One Moment
Merit (2017) in Craft - Cinematography for "The One Moment
Merit (2017) in Innovation in Branded Entertainment for "The One Moment
Silver (2018) in Craft - Innovation in Moving Image Craft/Visual for "Obsession"
Bronze (2018) in Moving Image / Single for "Obsession"
Merit (2018) in Craft - Direction / Single for "Obsession"
Epica Awards:
Gold (2016) in Direction & Cinematography for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Bronze (2016) in Online Campaigns - Consumer Services & Households for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
ACC CM Festival (Japan):
Grand Prix (2015) in Film B for "I Won't Let You Down
D&AD Awards:
Graphite Pencil (2012) in Digital Advertising - Campaign Sites for "All Is Not Lost"
Graphite Pencil (2013) in TV & Cinema Advertising - Long Form Branded Content for "Needing/Getting"
Wood Pencil (2013) in Film Advertising Crafts - Use of Music for Film Advertising for "Needing/Getting"
Wood Pencil (2015) in Music Videos - Production Design for "The Writing's on the Wall
Wood Pencil (2016) in Branded Content & Entertainment - Fiction 1-5 mins for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Wood Pencil (2017) in Music Videos - Direction for "The One Moment"
Graphite Pencil (2018) in Film Advertising Crafts - Production Design for Film Advertising for "Obsession"
Wood Pencil (2018) in Branded Content & Entertainment/Sponsored for "Obsession"
Wood Pencil (2018) in Film Advertising Crafts/Direction - Film Advertising for "Obsession"
Wood Pencil (2018) in Music Videos/Direction for Music Videos for "Obsession"
AICP Awards:
Show (2016) in Production for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Show (2017) in Production for "The One Moment"
Next Award (2010) in Viral/Web Film for "This Too Shall Pass"
Next Award (2016) in Viral/Web Film for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Next Award (2016) in Branded Content for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Spikes Asia:
Gold Spike (2015) in Film - Branded Content & Entertainment for "I Won't Let You Down
Gold Spike (2015) in Film Craft - Achievement in Production for "I Won't Let You Down
Silver Spike (2015) in Branded Content & Entertainment - Original Use of Music for "I Won't Let You Down
Silver Spike (2015) in Media - Use of Branded Content & Sponsorship for "I Won't Let You Down
Bronze Spike (2015) in Digital - Social Video for "I Won't Let You Down
Grand Prix (2018) in Digital Craft/Technological Achievement in Digital Craft for "Obsession"
Gold Spike (2018) in Film Craft/Production Design / Art Direction for "Obsession"
Gold Spike (2018) in Design/Digital & Interactive Design for "Obsession"
Gold Spike (2018) in Digital - Brand / Product Video for "Obsession"
Silver Spike (2018) in Digital/Influencer - Talent for "Obsession"
Silver Spike (2018) in Film Craft/Visual Effects for "Obsession"
Silver Spike (2018) in Film/Consumer Durables for "Obsession"
Bronze Spike (2018) in Film Craft/Direction for "Obsession
Bronze Spike (2018) in Film Craft - Use of Original Music for "Obsession
Golden Drum Awards:
Gold (2016) in Film - Online Films for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver (2016) in New or Innovative for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Silver (2016) in Branded Content for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
London International Awards:
Silver (2015) in Music Video Cinematography for "I Won't Let You Down
FWA Awards:
Site of the Day (Nov 24, 2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
Code Awards:
Best Craft (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
NYC Drone Film Festival:
Best of X-Factor Category (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
Japan Media Arts Festival:
Jury Selection (2015) - Entertainment Division for "I Won't Let You Down
Good Design Award (Japan):
Good Design Award (2015) - Publicity, Advertisement and Media Contents for "I Won't Let You Down
Space Shower Music Video Awards:
Special Prize (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
Soundie Awards:
Best Creativity / Screenplay (2017) for "The One Moment"
ACC Tokyo Creativity Awards
Gold (2018) in Branded Communication B for "Obsession"
Silver (2018) in Film B for "Obsession"
Bronze (2018) in Branded Communication D for "Obsession"
New York Festivals Advertising Awards
First Prize Award (2018) in Film - Cinema/Online/ TV: Products & Services for "Obsession"
Second Prize Award (2018) in Branded Entertainment: Craft for "Obsession"
Second Prize Award (2018) in Branded Entertainment: Products & Services for "Obsession"
Third Prize Award (2018) in Digital (Cyber) Communications: Viral for "Obsession"
Third Prize Award (2018) in Film: Craft/Art Direction for "Obsession"
Third Prize Award (2018) in Film: Craft/Best Production Value for "Obsession"
Nominations
Grammy:
Best Music Video (2012) for "All Is Not Lost"
Best Music Video (2017) for "Upside Down & Inside Out"
Webby Awards:
Interactive Advertising & Media - Viral Marketing (2011) for "This Too Shall Pass"
Online Film & Video - Music (2012) for "The Muppet Show Theme" (Honoree)
Online Film & Video - Music (2013) for "Needing/Getting (Honoree)"
Online Film & Video - Music (2015) for "I Won't Let You Down
SXSW Interactive Awards:
Interactive Awards Finalist (2013) in Music for "Needing/Getting"
MTV Europe Music Awards:
Best Video (2006) for "A Million Ways"
MTV Video Music Awards
Best Video (That Should Have Won a Moon Man) (2009) for "Here It Goes Again"
Best Direction (2014) for "The Writing's on the Wall"
Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity:
Shortlisted (2018) in Digital Craft Lions/ Motion Graphics Design & Animation for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Digital Craft Lions/ Video / Moving Image for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Entertainment Lions for Music/Brand or Product Integration into Music Content for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Entertainment Lions for Music/Excellence in Music / Brand Partnership for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Film Craft Lions/Direction for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Film Craft Lions/Innovation in Production for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Film Craft Lions/Visual Effects for "Obsession"
Shortlisted (2018) in Social & Influencer Lions/Content Creation for "Obsession
Shortlisted (2018) in Social & Influencer Lions/Content Marketing /Social Video for "Obsession"
CLIO Awards:
Shortlist (2018) in use of Music/Innovation for "Obsession"
Spikes Asia:
Shortlist (2018) in Design/Motion Graphics Design & Animation for "Obsession"
Shortlist (2018) in Entertainment/Excellence in Brand or Product Integration into Existing Content for "Obsession
Shortlist (2018) in Music/Excellence in Music Video for "Obsession
AdFest:
Finalist (2018) in Branded Content for "Obsession"
Finalist (2018) in Film Craft for "Obsession"
References
Awards
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