tomaarsen/inference-free-splade-bert-tiny-nq-fresh-3e-2-lambda-corpus-1e-3-idf-lr-2e-5-lr

Inference-free SPLADE BERT-tiny trained on Natural-Questions tuples

This is a Asymmetric Inference-free SPLADE Sparse Encoder model trained on the natural-questions dataset using the sentence-transformers library. It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 30522-dimensional sparse vector space and can be used for semantic search and sparse retrieval.

Model Details

Model Description

• Model Type: Asymmetric Inference-free SPLADE Sparse Encoder
• Maximum Sequence Length: 512 tokens
• Output Dimensionality: 30522 dimensions
• Similarity Function: Dot Product
• Training Dataset:
  • natural-questions
• Language: en
• License: apache-2.0

Model Sources

• Documentation: Sentence Transformers Documentation
• Documentation: Sparse Encoder Documentation
• Repository: Sentence Transformers on GitHub
• Hugging Face: Sparse Encoders on Hugging Face

Full Model Architecture

SparseEncoder(
  (0): Router(
    (query_0_IDF): IDF ({'frozen': False}, dim:30522, tokenizer: BertTokenizerFast)
    (document_0_MLMTransformer): MLMTransformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': False}) with MLMTransformer model: BertForMaskedLM 
    (document_1_SpladePooling): SpladePooling({'pooling_strategy': 'max', 'activation_function': 'relu', 'word_embedding_dimension': 30522})
  )
)

Usage

Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

pip install -U sentence-transformers

Then you can load this model and run inference.

from sentence_transformers import SparseEncoder

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SparseEncoder("tomaarsen/inference-free-splade-bert-tiny-nq-fresh-3e-2-lambda-corpus-1e-3-idf-lr-2e-5-lr")
# Run inference
sentences = [
    'is send in the clowns from a musical',
    'Send In the Clowns "Send In the Clowns" is a song written by Stephen Sondheim for the 1973 musical A Little Night Music, an adaptation of Ingmar Bergman\'s film Smiles of a Summer Night. It is a ballad from Act Two, in which the character Desirée reflects on the ironies and disappointments of her life. Among other things, she looks back on an affair years earlier with the lawyer Fredrik, who was deeply in love with her but whose marriage proposals she had rejected. Meeting him after so long, she realizes she is in love with him and finally ready to marry him, but now it is he who rejects her: he is in an unconsummated marriage with a much younger woman. Desirée proposes marriage to rescue him from this situation, but he declines, citing his dedication to his bride. Reacting to his rejection, Desirée sings this song. The song is later reprised as a coda after Fredrik\'s young wife runs away with his son, and Fredrik is finally free to accept Desirée\'s offer.[1]',
    'The Suite Life on Deck The Suite Life on Deck is an American sitcom that aired on Disney Channel from September 26, 2008 to May 6, 2011. It is a sequel/spin-off of the Disney Channel Original Series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The series follows twin brothers Zack and Cody Martin and hotel heiress London Tipton in a new setting, the SS Tipton, where they attend classes at "Seven Seas High School" and meet Bailey Pickett while Mr. Moseby manages the ship. The ship travels around the world to nations such as Italy, France, Greece, India, Sweden and the United Kingdom where the characters experience different cultures, adventures, and situations.[1]',
]
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings.shape)
# (3, 30522)

# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings
similarities = model.similarity(embeddings, embeddings)
print(similarities.shape)
# [3, 3]

Evaluation

Metrics

Sparse Information Retrieval

• Datasets: NanoMSMARCO, NanoNFCorpus and NanoNQ
• Evaluated with SparseInformationRetrievalEvaluator

Metric	NanoMSMARCO	NanoNFCorpus	NanoNQ
dot_accuracy@1	0.28	0.46	0.3
dot_accuracy@3	0.48	0.6	0.56
dot_accuracy@5	0.54	0.64	0.7
dot_accuracy@10	0.68	0.7	0.7
dot_precision@1	0.28	0.46	0.3
dot_precision@3	0.16	0.3867	0.1867
dot_precision@5	0.108	0.34	0.14
dot_precision@10	0.068	0.264	0.072
dot_recall@1	0.28	0.0444	0.3
dot_recall@3	0.48	0.0786	0.54
dot_recall@5	0.54	0.115	0.66
dot_recall@10	0.68	0.138	0.67
dot_ndcg@10	0.4712	0.3364	0.499
dot_mrr@10	0.4061	0.5349	0.4477
dot_map@100	0.4212	0.1427	0.4481
query_active_dims	7.36	5.74	10.42
query_sparsity_ratio	0.9998	0.9998	0.9997
corpus_active_dims	181.4813	267.9966	156.2409
corpus_sparsity_ratio	0.9941	0.9912	0.9949

Sparse Nano BEIR

• Dataset: NanoBEIR_mean
• Evaluated with SparseNanoBEIREvaluator with these parameters:

  {
      "dataset_names": [
          "msmarco",
          "nfcorpus",
          "nq"
      ]
  }
  

Metric	Value
dot_accuracy@1	0.3467
dot_accuracy@3	0.5467
dot_accuracy@5	0.6267
dot_accuracy@10	0.6933
dot_precision@1	0.3467
dot_precision@3	0.2444
dot_precision@5	0.196
dot_precision@10	0.1347
dot_recall@1	0.2081
dot_recall@3	0.3662
dot_recall@5	0.4383
dot_recall@10	0.496
dot_ndcg@10	0.4355
dot_mrr@10	0.4629
dot_map@100	0.3373
query_active_dims	7.84
query_sparsity_ratio	0.9997
corpus_active_dims	191.3343
corpus_sparsity_ratio	0.9937

Training Details

Training Dataset

natural-questions

• Dataset: natural-questions at f9e894e
• Size: 99,000 training samples
• Columns: query and answer
• Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:

  	query	answer
  type	string	string
  details	min: 10 tokens mean: 11.71 tokens max: 26 tokens	min: 4 tokens mean: 131.81 tokens max: 450 tokens

• Samples:

  query	answer
  who played the father in papa don't preach	Alex McArthur Alex McArthur (born March 6, 1957) is an American actor.
  where was the location of the battle of hastings	Battle of Hastings The Battle of Hastings[a] was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England. It took place approximately 7 miles (11 kilometres) northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.
  how many puppies can a dog give birth to	Canine reproduction The largest litter size to date was set by a Neapolitan Mastiff in Manea, Cambridgeshire, UK on November 29, 2004; the litter was 24 puppies.[22]

• Loss: SpladeLoss with these parameters:

  {
      "loss": "SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss(scale=1.0, similarity_fct='dot_score')",
      "lambda_corpus": 0.03,
      "lambda_query": 0
  }
  

Evaluation Dataset

natural-questions

• Dataset: natural-questions at f9e894e
• Size: 1,000 evaluation samples
• Columns: query and answer
• Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:

  	query	answer
  type	string	string
  details	min: 10 tokens mean: 11.69 tokens max: 23 tokens	min: 15 tokens mean: 134.01 tokens max: 512 tokens

• Samples:

  query	answer
  where is the tiber river located in italy	Tiber The Tiber (/ˈtaɪbər/, Latin: Tiberis,[1] Italian: Tevere [ˈteːvere])[2] is the third-longest river in Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing 406 kilometres (252 mi) through Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio, where it is joined by the river Aniene, to the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Ostia and Fiumicino.[3] It drains a basin estimated at 17,375 square kilometres (6,709 sq mi). The river has achieved lasting fame as the main watercourse of the city of Rome, founded on its eastern banks.
  what kind of car does jay gatsby drive	Jay Gatsby At the Buchanan home, Jordan Baker, Nick, Jay, and the Buchanans decide to visit New York City. Tom borrows Gatsby's yellow Rolls Royce to drive up to the city. On the way to New York City, Tom makes a detour at a gas station in "the Valley of Ashes", a run-down part of Long Island. The owner, George Wilson, shares his concern that his wife, Myrtle, may be having an affair. This unnerves Tom, who has been having an affair with Myrtle, and he leaves in a hurry.
  who sings if i can dream about you	I Can Dream About You "I Can Dream About You" is a song performed by American singer Dan Hartman on the soundtrack album of the film Streets of Fire. Released in 1984 as a single from the soundtrack, and included on Hartman's album I Can Dream About You, it reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100.[1]

• Loss: SpladeLoss with these parameters:

  {
      "loss": "SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss(scale=1.0, similarity_fct='dot_score')",
      "lambda_corpus": 0.03,
      "lambda_query": 0
  }
  

Training Hyperparameters

Non-Default Hyperparameters

• eval_strategy: steps
• per_device_train_batch_size: 64
• per_device_eval_batch_size: 64
• learning_rate: 2e-05
• num_train_epochs: 1
• warmup_ratio: 0.1
• fp16: True
• batch_sampler: no_duplicates
• router_mapping: {'query': 'query', 'answer': 'document'}
• learning_rate_mapping: {'IDF\.weight': 0.001}

All Hyperparameters

Click to expand

• overwrite_output_dir: False
• do_predict: False
• eval_strategy: steps
• prediction_loss_only: True
• per_device_train_batch_size: 64
• per_device_eval_batch_size: 64
• per_gpu_train_batch_size: None
• per_gpu_eval_batch_size: None
• gradient_accumulation_steps: 1
• eval_accumulation_steps: None
• torch_empty_cache_steps: None
• learning_rate: 2e-05
• weight_decay: 0.0
• adam_beta1: 0.9
• adam_beta2: 0.999
• adam_epsilon: 1e-08
• max_grad_norm: 1.0
• num_train_epochs: 1
• max_steps: -1
• lr_scheduler_type: linear
• lr_scheduler_kwargs: {}
• warmup_ratio: 0.1
• warmup_steps: 0
• log_level: passive
• log_level_replica: warning
• log_on_each_node: True
• logging_nan_inf_filter: True
• save_safetensors: True
• save_on_each_node: False
• save_only_model: False
• restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint: False
• no_cuda: False
• use_cpu: False
• use_mps_device: False
• seed: 42
• data_seed: None
• jit_mode_eval: False
• use_ipex: False
• bf16: False
• fp16: True
• fp16_opt_level: O1
• half_precision_backend: auto
• bf16_full_eval: False
• fp16_full_eval: False
• tf32: None
• local_rank: 0
• ddp_backend: None
• tpu_num_cores: None
• tpu_metrics_debug: False
• debug: []
• dataloader_drop_last: False
• dataloader_num_workers: 0
• dataloader_prefetch_factor: None
• past_index: -1
• disable_tqdm: False
• remove_unused_columns: True
• label_names: None
• load_best_model_at_end: False
• ignore_data_skip: False
• fsdp: []
• fsdp_min_num_params: 0
• fsdp_config: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}
• fsdp_transformer_layer_cls_to_wrap: None
• accelerator_config: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}
• deepspeed: None
• label_smoothing_factor: 0.0
• optim: adamw_torch
• optim_args: None
• adafactor: False
• group_by_length: False
• length_column_name: length
• ddp_find_unused_parameters: None
• ddp_bucket_cap_mb: None
• ddp_broadcast_buffers: False
• dataloader_pin_memory: True
• dataloader_persistent_workers: False
• skip_memory_metrics: True
• use_legacy_prediction_loop: False
• push_to_hub: False
• resume_from_checkpoint: None
• hub_model_id: None
• hub_strategy: every_save
• hub_private_repo: None
• hub_always_push: False
• gradient_checkpointing: False
• gradient_checkpointing_kwargs: None
• include_inputs_for_metrics: False
• include_for_metrics: []
• eval_do_concat_batches: True
• fp16_backend: auto
• push_to_hub_model_id: None
• push_to_hub_organization: None
• mp_parameters:
• auto_find_batch_size: False
• full_determinism: False
• torchdynamo: None
• ray_scope: last
• ddp_timeout: 1800
• torch_compile: False
• torch_compile_backend: None
• torch_compile_mode: None
• include_tokens_per_second: False
• include_num_input_tokens_seen: False
• neftune_noise_alpha: None
• optim_target_modules: None
• batch_eval_metrics: False
• eval_on_start: False
• use_liger_kernel: False
• eval_use_gather_object: False
• average_tokens_across_devices: False
• prompts: None
• batch_sampler: no_duplicates
• multi_dataset_batch_sampler: proportional
• router_mapping: {'query': 'query', 'answer': 'document'}
• learning_rate_mapping: {'IDF\.weight': 0.001}

Training Logs

Epoch	Step	Training Loss	Validation Loss	NanoMSMARCO_dot_ndcg@10	NanoNFCorpus_dot_ndcg@10	NanoNQ_dot_ndcg@10	NanoBEIR_mean_dot_ndcg@10
0.0129	20	1.8729	-	-	-	-	-
0.0259	40	4.3293	-	-	-	-	-
0.0388	60	7.3157	-	-	-	-	-
0.0517	80	7.3718	-	-	-	-	-
0.0646	100	5.171	-	-	-	-	-
0.0776	120	3.5119	-	-	-	-	-
0.0905	140	2.6883	-	-	-	-	-
0.1034	160	2.2642	-	-	-	-	-
0.1164	180	1.9244	-	-	-	-	-
0.1293	200	1.6712	1.2603	0.3854	0.3158	0.4024	0.3679
0.1422	220	1.4993	-	-	-	-	-
0.1551	240	1.3321	-	-	-	-	-
0.1681	260	1.2798	-	-	-	-	-
0.1810	280	1.1572	-	-	-	-	-
0.1939	300	1.0751	-	-	-	-	-
0.2069	320	1.0125	-	-	-	-	-
0.2198	340	0.9666	-	-	-	-	-
0.2327	360	0.935	-	-	-	-	-
0.2456	380	0.8799	-	-	-	-	-
0.2586	400	0.8102	0.7086	0.4184	0.3178	0.4684	0.4015
0.2715	420	0.7882	-	-	-	-	-
0.2844	440	0.8081	-	-	-	-	-
0.2973	460	0.7592	-	-	-	-	-
0.3103	480	0.7707	-	-	-	-	-
0.3232	500	0.7704	-	-	-	-	-
0.3361	520	0.7467	-	-	-	-	-
0.3491	540	0.7128	-	-	-	-	-
0.3620	560	0.7659	-	-	-	-	-
0.3749	580	0.6987	-	-	-	-	-
0.3878	600	0.7579	0.6132	0.4346	0.3186	0.4910	0.4147
0.4008	620	0.7029	-	-	-	-	-
0.4137	640	0.6148	-	-	-	-	-
0.4266	660	0.6393	-	-	-	-	-
0.4396	680	0.6764	-	-	-	-	-
0.4525	700	0.6586	-	-	-	-	-
0.4654	720	0.5964	-	-	-	-	-
0.4783	740	0.6263	-	-	-	-	-
0.4913	760	0.6045	-	-	-	-	-
0.5042	780	0.5662	-	-	-	-	-
0.5171	800	0.6092	0.5510	0.4367	0.3269	0.4902	0.4179
0.5301	820	0.6066	-	-	-	-	-
0.5430	840	0.5914	-	-	-	-	-
0.5559	860	0.608	-	-	-	-	-
0.5688	880	0.5745	-	-	-	-	-
0.5818	900	0.5733	-	-	-	-	-
0.5947	920	0.5631	-	-	-	-	-
0.6076	940	0.5444	-	-	-	-	-
0.6206	960	0.5588	-	-	-	-	-
0.6335	980	0.5975	-	-	-	-	-
0.6464	1000	0.5211	0.5213	0.4450	0.3315	0.4922	0.4229
0.6593	1020	0.5496	-	-	-	-	-
0.6723	1040	0.5321	-	-	-	-	-
0.6852	1060	0.5474	-	-	-	-	-
0.6981	1080	0.5752	-	-	-	-	-
0.7111	1100	0.5567	-	-	-	-	-
0.7240	1120	0.5332	-	-	-	-	-
0.7369	1140	0.5591	-	-	-	-	-
0.7498	1160	0.5345	-	-	-	-	-
0.7628	1180	0.5521	-	-	-	-	-
0.7757	1200	0.5581	0.5031	0.4640	0.3333	0.4904	0.4292
0.7886	1220	0.538	-	-	-	-	-
0.8016	1240	0.5487	-	-	-	-	-
0.8145	1260	0.5273	-	-	-	-	-
0.8274	1280	0.5431	-	-	-	-	-
0.8403	1300	0.5618	-	-	-	-	-
0.8533	1320	0.5379	-	-	-	-	-
0.8662	1340	0.5302	-	-	-	-	-
0.8791	1360	0.5268	-	-	-	-	-
0.8920	1380	0.5336	-	-	-	-	-
0.9050	1400	0.5189	0.4937	0.4716	0.3359	0.4971	0.4348
0.9179	1420	0.5221	-	-	-	-	-
0.9308	1440	0.4935	-	-	-	-	-
0.9438	1460	0.5454	-	-	-	-	-
0.9567	1480	0.5224	-	-	-	-	-
0.9696	1500	0.5315	-	-	-	-	-
0.9825	1520	0.5307	-	-	-	-	-
0.9955	1540	0.5303	-	-	-	-	-
-1	-1	-	-	0.4712	0.3364	0.4990	0.4355

Environmental Impact

Carbon emissions were measured using CodeCarbon.

• Energy Consumed: 0.031 kWh
• Carbon Emitted: 0.012 kg of CO2
• Hours Used: 0.09 hours

Training Hardware

• On Cloud: No
• GPU Model: 1 x NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3090
• CPU Model: 13th Gen Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-13700K
• RAM Size: 31.78 GB

Framework Versions

• Python: 3.11.6
• Sentence Transformers: 4.2.0.dev0
• Transformers: 4.52.3
• PyTorch: 2.6.0+cu124
• Accelerate: 1.5.1
• Datasets: 2.21.0
• Tokenizers: 0.21.1

Citation

BibTeX

Sentence Transformers

@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,
    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",
    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = "11",
    year = "2019",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",
}

SpladeLoss

@misc{formal2022distillationhardnegativesampling,
      title={From Distillation to Hard Negative Sampling: Making Sparse Neural IR Models More Effective},
      author={Thibault Formal and Carlos Lassance and Benjamin Piwowarski and Stéphane Clinchant},
      year={2022},
      eprint={2205.04733},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.IR},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.04733},
}

SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss

@misc{henderson2017efficient,
    title={Efficient Natural Language Response Suggestion for Smart Reply},
    author={Matthew Henderson and Rami Al-Rfou and Brian Strope and Yun-hsuan Sung and Laszlo Lukacs and Ruiqi Guo and Sanjiv Kumar and Balint Miklos and Ray Kurzweil},
    year={2017},
    eprint={1705.00652},
    archivePrefix={arXiv},
    primaryClass={cs.CL}
}

FlopsLoss

@article{paria2020minimizing,
    title={Minimizing flops to learn efficient sparse representations},
    author={Paria, Biswajit and Yeh, Chih-Kuan and Yen, Ian EH and Xu, Ning and Ravikumar, Pradeep and P{'o}czos, Barnab{'a}s},
    journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2004.05665},
    year={2020}
    }