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59012229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klementyna%20Ma%C5%84kowska | Klementyna Mańkowska | Klementyna Mańkowska (born Klementyna Czarkowska-Golejewska on 1 August 1910; died 4 January 2003 in the Château Sermoise, Nevers) was a member of the Polish resistance and agent of Polish and British intelligence services during World War II.
Life
Provenance and early years
Klementyna Maria Czarkowska-Golejewska was born into a local land owning family in Wysuczka, a small settlement between Lviv and Ternopil in Galicia. This is the where she grew up on her father's family estate, which she later described as "a paradise". Since 1945 the region has been part of Western Ukraine, but at the time of her birth it was part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. During the interwar period it was part of Poland which had been restored to independence after the First World War. Klementyna was the second daughter of Cyryl Czarkowski-Golejewski (1885–1940) by his marriage to Izabela Jaxa-Małachowska (1885–1958). She herself married at the start of 1933. She and her husband were both 23 when they married, and her husband, Count Andrzej Mańkowski (1910–2001) was still completing his university studies of law and economics at the nearby university. For Klementyna the marriage meant moving away from her own family, to live in the western part of Poland. Andrzej was content to entrust the management of the Mańkowski family estate at Winna Góra near Poznań to his young wife. By 1939 they were living there with their two sons. The family were well connected both in Poland and internationally. Andrzej Mańkowski had attended the international Benedictine school at Bruges in Belgium between 1922 and 1928, and the staff on the family estate included a German nanny called Teta who took care of the boys.
War
Early in September 1939 war arrived from the west and, sixteen days later, from the east. An early taste of war came to Winna Góra later that month when Lieutenant Andrzej Mańkowski (as her husband had by now become) was seriously shot and for the time being immobilised by his own subordinates because he had angrily upbraided a group of Polish soldiers for mistreating a captured German officer in ways that would have offended his own conscience and breached the Geneva Conventions. The German prisoner had been stabbed in the eye with a bayonet. At this stage they were playing host to two "old school" German officers who had arrived on a couple of motor bikes six days after the launch of the German invasion, and who were surprised to find Klementyna Mańkowska and her children ensconced in the castle. Others, elsewhere in the area, had already fled. Beyond the estate, the village was deserted. The officers assured the Mańkowskis they would need only one of the three floors of the castle, modestly furnished. There are powerful indications of a brief but intense romance involving one of them. A month later the Gestapo arrived and the family were thrown out of their home at Winna Góra. The castle had been selected as a present/trophy for Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel.
One of the German officers, Harold von Hoepfner, proposed a joint trip to Italy in order to protect Klementyna. However, her husband had been badly injured when shot by a Polish soldier under his command, and was still critically ill, by now in a hospital somewhere near Kutno. She turned down von Hoepfner's invitation: "I do not think the Wehrmacht officer would want me to give up, for him, a man who stood up heroically in defence of the German soldier". Klementyna had resolved to stay with Andrzej, but there was no longer any place for them in their home, so they moved with their children to Warsaw where they stayed with the ballerina Olga Sławska, a family friend. In early October 1939, the Germans captured Warsaw and the Mańkowskis moved on to stay with a cousin, Teresa Łubieńska whose spacious apartment home at "ulicy 6 sierpnia" ("6 Sierpnia Street") in the city centre, close to Zbawiciela Square, had become a refuge for well-connected Poles dispossessed by the war. It pulsated with social gatherings. But it quickly became clear that the men who arrived at Cousin Teresa's apartment several evenings each week were not simply party goers. They were members of a newly formed anti-Nazi grouping known as the "Muszkieterowie" ("Musketeers"), identified variously as a "resistance group" ("Widerstandsgruppe ") or as an "intelligence organisation" ("Nachrichtendienstorganisation").
The "Muszkieterowie" recruited mainly from the Polish nobility. Klementyna Mańkowska joined. She was a talented linguist and her activities were focused on "courier services": she smuggled documents, microfilms and messages concealed in rolls of toilet paper to France and Britain. However, that was very far from the full extent of her involvement. The "Muszkieterowie" were led by Stefan Witkowski an engineer-entrepreneur believed to have had long-standing connections with British intelligence. Details of his contacts are uncertain and remain, eighty years later, controversial: they were conducted independently of the (till June 1940 Paris based) Polish government in exile, and British public archives covering the relationship remain firmly closed to researchers. Witkowski very soon recognised Mańkowska's potential and put her in touch with resistance activists Aleksander Wielkopolski and Karol Anders. After this she was included in discussions on the importance of surveillance and of setting up an espionage network. One incident, in particular, convinced Wielkopolski of Mańkowska's talent for espionage. The high-ranking German officer Harold von Hoepfner, returning from Milan, turned up unexpectedly in Warsaw to see Klementyna Mańkowska. He arrived, en route to Berlin, with flowers, wine, and cheesecake. Listening from an adjacent broom cupboard, Witkowski and Wielkopolski were amazed to hear the brazen combination of grace and charm that Mańkowska applied to extracting information from her German friend about an end to the "Sitzkrieg" in the west, and the forthcoming German invasion of France. (They may or may not have been aware already that von Hoepfner and Mańkowska had almost certainly, briefly, been lovers during the early weeks of the war.) The German officer's information had been precise in respect of dates, though he seems to have kept to himself any knowledge he might have had about strategic detailed planning for the invasion. Witkowski nevertheless took the decision to hand over the information he had on the German plans for the invasion of France to British intelligence.
Witkowski now embarked on a perilous and lengthy tour of western Europe, using the fake identity of a high-ranking SS-officer called August von Thierbach. His project was nothing less than the creation of an espionage network across Europe. He sent Klementyna Mańkowska to Brittany in north-western France. Her mandate was to take charge of communications in the event that the French government should be obliged to escape abroad - presumably to or via Britain. Andrzej and Klementyna Mańkowski, like many members of the Polish aristocracy at the time, were both completely fluent in French. Andrzej Mańkowski joined the Polish expatriate division in Marseilles while the couple's two sons were placed in the care of Mańkowska's mother, at this stage still in eastern Poland.
Noirmoutier
The Germans quickly overran northern France and Mańkowska found a job as a translator-interpreter with the mayor, under the new administration, at the prefecture on the strategically important Island of Noirmoutier off the Atlantic coast. She did nothing to conceal her Polish provenance, nor, indeed, that she was a Countess. The German's were impressed by her easy fluency in French and German, and by her commitment and diligence. Despite her gender, beauty and aristocratic bearing, she was very happy to travel to military bases in order to provide translation services. The Germans were unaware of the extent to which she remembered what she saw. She accompanied the German regional governor, Karl Maier, on a visit to Saint-Nazaire because there were "lots of French" there. She accompanied him into a large covered hangar containing two of the latest Type VII submarines. Later she had time to sit and wait in the car: using the backs table-napkins Mańkowska was able to sketch plans of the interior configurations and staircases of the submarines as well as the external doors. She was interrupted when Maier stuck his head through the car window to ask her "what is this fellow on about?". The fellow, a small Frenchman with a mustache, was venting his rage because his time off to be with his wife for the birth of their child had been cancelled. Maier puffed out his already puffy face and rolled his eyes deep into his skull. "This is war, boy", he sighed. There are reports that notes provided by Mańkowska ware later critical to the planning of a major allied raid on the Saint-Nazaire submarine base.
After a few months Klementyna Mańkowska applied to her German employers for permission to take a break, back in occupied Poland. She was keen to meet up with "Muszkieterowie" comrades. While she was awaiting a response to her application she spotted a large German car on Noirmoutier. Noirmoutier was then as now, for many purposes, something of a backwater, and the presence of two important German officers in the island's best restaurant, with their staff car waiting outside, was noteworthy. Through the window of the restaurant, she could see two German colonels were using very broken French to try and order their meal from a waiter, who was successfully understanding nothing. She entered and offered her services as translator. The officers were delighted by the timely if unexpected appearance of this helpful and beautiful Polish countess, who was able quickly to smooth out any misunderstandings with the waiter. They invited her to join them. As they ate, drank and chatted, Mańkowska worked her charms: she learned from her dinner companions that they were part of the German High Command. The officers also found out some things about the countess. She told them she was terrified of the end of the war, because she had no idea who would be around to look after her. A few letters of commendation from field commanders would be of limited usefulness. The men were sympathetic. Then one of them had an idea. He said he would issue her with a document, bearing the seal of the German High Command, attesting to her pro-German credentials and requesting "all military and civilian institutions to provide her with advice and assistance". Mańkowska gratefully accepted the offer. An genuine seal of the German High Command would be particularly useful to the "Muszkieterowie". It helped Stefan Witkowski create high quality fake seals of his own which he used for his clandestine missions in different parts of Europe.
Mańkowska's leave was authorized soon afterward. By the time she arrived in Warsaw she was convinced that she had been tracked during the train journey. A German staff officer sat down next to her and asked what she was reading. He seemed unable to get over the fact that she was traveling in a first class carriage normally reserved for German military personnel. (Travel arrangements had been made by helpful field commanders in Noirmoutier.) Eventually her travelling companion stood up, bowed, and explained that he had to leave the train, "but we will definitely see each other again". In Poland she met up with Witkowski and told him about her travelling companion. "Not Gestapo, they never promise anything. Might be a coincidence, one more German officer who spotted your 100% Aryan beauty", was Witkowski's assessment. She told him where she had been and what she had been doing. She was able to hand over various details and plans on the rapidly growing Saint-Nazaire naval base. Witkowski was particularly thrilled when she handed over the seal of the German High Command. A week after she got back to western France she was arrested and taken to the Gestapo detention centre in Nantes where she was held overnight. Everyone was scrupulously polite: the arresting officer was merely following orders. He had no idea why Mańkowska was being arrested. Mańkowska behaved like a countess, insisting on packing in a small suitcase her night gown, her bathrobe, four pink jars of Elizabeth Arden cosmetics and a napkin to cover the table in the cell to which, presumably, she was about to be driven. On reaching the cell she asked the guard for an extra blanket and a sheet. This was not usual behaviour for people arrested by the Gestapo, but unwilling to risk inadvertently upsetting someone higher in the hierarchy, the confused guard obliged.
After her night in the cell at Nantes she was transported to Paris where a dungeon awaited her. Almost immediately she met Sturmbannführer Karl Schwerbel, the head of the Gestapo office in Paris for Polish affairs and people. It turned out that she was not, as she had anticipated, about to be interrogated about her "Muszkieterowie" activities and then shot. The matter was more mundane: well-intentioned German officers on the ground in Noirmoutier had concealed Mańkowska's Polish nationality when referring to her in their reports. Their wish to avoid causing trouble for her had had the opposite result. Nevertheless, she had no difficulty in convincing Schwerbel that she had been unaware of the subterfuge, and he unhesitatingly declared her innocent. Despite her complaints about the cost in time and money involved in arresting and detaining her and then sending her by car to Paris, he now expended more of the Gestapo budget in order to send her back in a first-class train compartment to the west of France and her base on the Island of Noirmoutier.
The picture postcard that Mańkowska received in Noirmoutier may not have come as a total surprise. The picture was of a seaside scene. The sender had written his message on the back:
"You may not remember our meeting, but I fell in love at first sight. I expressed surprise that you travelled in a carriage reserved for German soldiers. I said then that we would meet again because I was counting on it. I am still counting.Doctor Alexander. PS Heil Hitler"
Doctor Alexander's visit to Noirmoutier was, formally, a purely social affair. He emerged from his car wearing the same staff officer uniform and badges he had been wearing on that train. During dinner he talked about himself. He liked to call himself "Doctor": his full name was Wallraf Hans Alexander. He talked with passion of his time as a soldier during the Great War and about the old days under the Kaiser. He mentioned that he had placed "Heil Hitler" on his post card only for the benefit of the censors, which tended to confirm Mańkowską's suspicion that his current employer might be some kind of intelligence agency. He was, perhaps, working for the British.
Berlin
Meanwhile, German intelligence, convinced of Klementyna Mańkowska's pro-German sentiments, selected her as a potential agent. In June 1941 she started a new job, based in Berlin and working at the Foreign Ministry. It was the first stage in her training. While she was in Berlin she remembered a card that had been delivered for her attention a few months earlier care of her coursin Teresa Łubieńska. Harold von Hoepfner was still alive and he was in town. At dinner, with the same casual boasting that he had employed to give her advance notice of the French invasion in May 1940, he openly talked of his imminent posting as part of the vast army that would shortly be invading the Soviet Union. Mańkowska had been welcomed into the Hoepfner family's Berlin apartment as a longstanding family friend. It was important, von Hoepfner, pointed out, that the invasion of Russia should be launched soon so that they did not get caught out by the Russian winter like Napoleon. Later the name of Rudolf "Dolf" von Scheliha came up in conversation. Von Scheliha had worked as a German diplomat in the Warsaw embassy between 1932 and 1939.
He had regularly participated in hunting parties at aristocratic estates in the vast Polish countryside. He was, it turned out, a mutual friend. Mańkowska would love to meet up with him again. Von Hoepfner disappeared to make a few 'phone calls. He returned with good news. Von Scheliha was working for the Foreign Ministry, and just now he was in town. Harold von Hoepfner jotted down a telephone number and handed it over.
Dolf von Scheliha was expecting her call. When they met up she saw a stooped sixty-year-old man. (He was actually in his mid-40s.) He insisted that they should talk to each other exclusively in French, and proposed a walk around Berlin's famous Tiergarten (zoo park).
It had been made clear that for security reasons Mańkowska should not expect to be contacted directly by German intelligence during her internship with the Foreign Ministry. However, the guidelines for it had been planned in advance. During her two-month internship she would be provided with her own desk and she would be permitted to take her own notes. Information about the imminent invasion the Soviet Union - some of the information - would be made available to her. But that was far from being the only topic on which she would become better informed. Two days after the internship began three million German soldiers crossed into the Soviet Union on a mission of conquest. That day Dolf von Scheliha placed several folders market "secret" on Mańkowska's desk in the ministry. They did not concern the invasion. It appears they were preliminary detailed plans for the extermination of Europe's Jews. There were indications of the number of people to be packed into ghettos, the most effective ways of implementing mass-killings, transport planning and of plans to create a "death factory" near Warsaw at Treblinka. Mańkowska saw these planning documents six months before the Wannsee Conference at which the various government departments were presented with them. She herself later stated her belief that she had been the first foreigner to learn that the German government were planning mass-murder on a truly unprecedented scale. Despite the times and events through which she lived, Klementyna Mańkowska always maintained a resolutely positive view of human nature, but as she would write many decades later in her memoirs, faced with the evidence of the Holocaust plans, she was forced to recalibrate her optimism.
It later turned out that von Scheliha had not consulted with German intelligence before passing files about the planning for the Holocaust to Mańkowska. He had his own agenda, and believed – probably correctly – that passing the information to Mańkowska was tantamount to passing the information to Polish and British intelligence. Over the next few months, his continuing careful documentation of National Socialist atrocities in Poland created one of the most comprehensive records of the subject ever compiled. His own efforts to alert foreign governments to what was going on became increasingly intense and were probably effective. Several times he travelled to Switzerland as part of his mission to warn, but he always returned home to Berlin. In the end it became clear that Rudolf von Scheliha had become identified by the authorities as an "anti-Nazi", and had himself been under surveillance by the German authorities for a long time: sources indicate – without providing much detail – that he had been passing information to "Moscow" since the 1930s. He was detained, given a brief trial and on 22 December 1942 executed by guillotine at Berlin's Plötzensee prison.
During her internship with the Foreign Ministry in the middle part of 1941 Klementyna Mańkowska had to take a few days off work and stay home with acute food poisoning. That, at least, is what she told management. She travelled to Warsaw in order to discuss with Stefan Witkowski the rich possibilities that had been opened up through her recruitment by German intelligence. A career as a double agent beckoned. The first visitor she received at Teresa Łubieńska's Warsaw apartment was not Witkowski, however. A short plump Polish civilian knocked on the door while she was taking a cup of tea with her cousin. Uninvited, the new visitor installed himself in an armchair and introduced himself as "Witold". He enquired directly about the well-being of "Stewit" (Witkowski) and his network of "agents scattered all over Europe". He urged Mańkowska not to worry, insisting that he and she were on the same side. "Adolf nicht gut". Mańkowska was unsure what to make of the visitor and his message, the oblique delivery of which suggested that he was on a mission, probably, on behalf of British intelligence. He certainly did not appear to be operating according to the Gestapo rule book, and she could think of no reason why the German intelligence services should bother to follow her all the way to Warsaw just to convey a gratuitously opaque message that they knew she was not staying home with food poisoning.
That evening Witkowski came round. He was very happy that Mańkowska had been recruited by German intelligence but he did not hesitate to let her know how this added to his problems. There was an inherent rivalry between the "Muszkieterowie", with their longstanding direct links to British intelligence and the "Dwójka", till 1939 the Polish Military Intelligence agency, and since the Fall of France in 1940 represented in significant numbers by political exiles living in London alongside members of the Polish government-in-exile. In London, the "Dwójka" struggled jealously for recognition as the only credible Polish anti-Nazi espionage organisation, while Witkowski was convinced that much of the intelligence they picked up through their various connections was less directly sourced and more out of date than information that the "Muszkieterowie" could provide using their own network. Witkowski admitted that Mańkowska's work as a double agent was going to be affected and possibly compromised by the intensifying rivalry between two very differently configured Polish intelligence organisations. "For them, you are an internal enemy, just like me. When is this Alexander fellow going to send you to Great Britain?"
For Witkowski, Klementyna Mańkowska's transfer to England as an agent of German intelligence ("Abwehr") would provide a welcome opportunity to establish direct contact with General Sikorski, leader of the Polish government-in-exile in London. But before that could happen she needed to undergo her Abwehr training. Witkowski believed she was at considerable peril as long as she remained in Warsaw where at any time someone associated with the "Dwójka" might decide she was collaborating with the Nazis and carry out a death sentence against her. He urged her to conclude her "food poisoning" incident without delay and return to her desk in Berlin. The meeting with Witkowski may well have been a little rushed and it is impossible to know whether Mańkowska alerted him to the files she had received containing plans for the forthcoming Holocaust. It seems possible she did not. There were at this time many people, including the leaderships of foreign governments, who were unable or unwilling to believe the scale of the Shoa being planned by the German authorities, however persuasive and complete the evidence may have appeared in retrospect to those who only became aware of the atrocities after many of the mass-murders had already been committed. There is speculation that Mańkowska herself may have been among those who found it impossible to take at face value the evidence contained in the files that Dolf von Scheliha had left on her desk at the ministry.
It was anticipated by German intelligence that when she reached London Mańkowska would be able to obtain a position of trust with an appropriate ministry or government agency, and it would then be important to be able to encrypt the contents of stolen documents. Much of her training involved mastery of the necessary encryption techniques and the associated rotating sipher tables. She was taught about important codes, addresses and pseudonyms for German intelligence contacts in London. During breaks in her study, Alexander came to explain various tools of the trade including the wooden box which, using easily replaceable ingredients such as lemon juice, alcohol and cotton wool, contained the necessary elements for written communication using "invisible ink". There was a close-range miniature dart shooter disguised as a pen. There was a lipstick canister that was actually a small bullet canister.
As Mańkowska completed her training at the Abwehr training camp in Berlin it became apparent that a final decision still had not been taken over whether to send her to London. On a further visit to Cousin Teresa's apartment in Warsaw she discussed the possibilities with Witkowski. It was not impossible that the Germans had found out about her "Muszkieterowie" connections, possibly from other Polish agencies. Witkowski thought it unlikely that the "Dwójka" had "such long arms". The Abwehr option was the only chance the "Muszkieterowie" had to infiltrate an agent into Britain. The other possibilities were all too risky. It was fruitless to speculate on the background to any delays on the part of German intelligence bosses in reaching the necessary decision. Over the next twenty minutes, he handed over various items to be delivered when she reached London. His personal letter for General Sikorski described the increasingly perilous impact on the ground of the competition for influence between the "Dwójka" and the "Muszkieterowie". He handed over microfilms, which she herself had prepared some time earlier, showing German bases and fortifications along the French Atlantic coastline, and including drawings of the dry dock at St. Nazaire. There were microfilmed texts to be personally handed over to the British intelligence officer who would, he assumed, question her on her arrival in England. Unfortunately the microfilm machine had broken down, however, so the final four pages had been sewn into a navy blue ribbon which formed the bottom part of a stylish petticoat that she should wear for the journey, but which was not yet ready.
A few days earlier Mańkowska had received a visit from someone whom "Doctor Alexander" identified simply as "my boss". His uniform was faded, and his sweater was patched. Wilhelm Canaris served as head of German military intelligence between 1935 and his spectacular fall from grace early in 1944. His loyalties may already have been more conflicted than the German government appreciated. It is believed by some that there were aspects of National Socialist Germany that horrified him. He sat down beside Mańkowska and shared his thoughts: "You do not have to go. We are wondering whether to take this risk. You are prepared, but it is not clear whether the need exists to launch this mission." There was no direct answer to Mańkowska's question, "Then why have I been trained?". "But if you do go, do you have any wishes before the trip? It might end in tragedy." Mańkowska replied that she would like to see Warsaw again, and a two-day holiday to the city was duly arranged. There is speculation that Mańkowska's true mission, from the point of view of the Abwehr, was to be available in England as a backup in case of a failure by Halina Szymańska's espionage mission. Halina Szymańska was another spy of Polish provenance, who at different stages seems to have been working for more than one national intelligence agency at a time. By the time of Mańkowska's proposed mission to London, Szymańska's close connections to Wilhelm Canaris already went back several years.
That final two-day break in Warsaw provided an opportunity for Witkowski to hand over the elegant petticoat with documents secured in the thick blue ribbon round the hem. She rearranged herself to put on the petticoat while he gave her a final briefing. He reassured her that she would not be arrested when she arrived at the airport in London. Two days after her arrival three men would stop her and apparently arrest her. A brief Reuters news item would be transmitted on the late evening radio news that evening by the BBC, stating that a German spy had been intercepted and detained. That would be a message to the "Muszkieterowie" that she had arrived safely, and a message to the Abwehr that she had been arrested and her spy mission was over. She should then contact the British intelligence services before attempting to make contact with anyone else. After that she should try and arrange a personal meeting with General Sikorski and spell out the ever more dangerous situation between the "Dwójka" and the "Muszkieterowie".
On 24 March 1942 at 3.30 in the morning Mańkowska was awakened in her room at the training centre and told to get dressed. Her mission was about to begin. The instruction was not wholly unexpected and she was ready in two minutes. After half an hour her driver delivered her to the little airport where she received her final briefing from "Doctor Alexander": "If things go wrong, please don't take chances. If you feel threatened, your first priority is to look after yourself. You're flying via Nice in "Vichy". There we'll help you to get a legal British visa." Squashed between the front seats of a Ju 52 transport plane, a few hours later she landed at Nice. Somehow Witkowski had found out that the route arranged by the Abwehr to London would include a stop-over in Nice. He arranged for Mańkowska to have a breakfast meeting with Juliusz Kleeberg, who had been one of the most important Polish generals in the fight against the German/Soviet invasion in September 1939. He was one of those Polish ex-military personnel now living in precarious exile in Vichy France. Although Witkowski through his network was well informed on much that happened in countries under German occupation, his information on the situation in London seems to have been relatively sketchy. Kleeberg was able to provide Mańkowska with more up to date background. The leaders of the London-based Polish government in exile, Generals Sikorski and Sosnkowski were at the centre of a small close-knit group of insiders, determined to protect their powerbase for the future, and intolerant of dissent. Their focus was on how they would govern Poland after the war. Kleeberg's words were not encouraging: "Look and listen ... All who stand in their way are little by little eliminated. Witkowski is doing very valuable work for the allies, but Poles cannot forgive him for maintaining direct contacts with the English. Things may end badly for him".
London
Mańkowska's first few weeks in London were choreographed - presumably by the British authorities - exactly as Witkowski had told her. After her "arrest", news of it was carried in a brief item on the late evening BBC news, and she was taken to what one source describes as "the Patriotic School, an enormous red brick building occupied by MI5". Her interrogator introduced himself as Captain Malcolm Scott. The interrogation lasted for four weeks. She was carefully and systematically questioned about the training she had received from German intelligence and about the tasks that she had been assigned by the Germans. At one of the sessions Captain Scott provided two pieces of surprising information of his own: the first was more welcome than the second. Her husband and sons were also in London. Her husband had made his own way to England. Her sons had appeared separately and the British authorities had no idea, at least officially, how they had managed to make the journey. Unofficially it was presumed that they had arrived, somehow, courtesy of German intelligence. It turned out that the head of German intelligence, Wilhelm Canaris, had already given Mańkowska his personal promise that if she went ahead with the mission to England, the boys would be sent to join her. The information that they were already safely in England came as a great relief but it was not, under all the circumstances, a complete surprise. The second piece of information was less welcome than the first but also, perhaps, not totally unsurprising. Scott knew that the German intelligence agencies had tried to obtain her a set of identity documents for her, but they had been unsuccessful. The British authorities had been willing to provide her with a British passport, but the move had been opposed by the London-based Polish government in exile once they found out that she had been sent by the "Muszkieterowie". Scott said that the British authorities had been trying to convince the Polish leaders in London that Mańkowska was an Abwehr (German) agent, but the Poles remained implacably hostile to her presence in England. Because of this Scott urged her to leave London as soon as possible.
After leaving the sessions at the Patriotic School had concluded Mańkowska managed to arrange a meeting with General Sosnkowski, a leading member of the Polish government in exile. He made it clear that she was very unlikely to be able to arrange a meeting with the Polish leader, General Sikorski. He added that neither the Polish Government in exile nor the intelligence division of the Armia Krajowa ("Home Army"), the main underground resistance movement inside Poland, found it unacceptable that Stefan Witkowski maintained his own direct contacts with British Intelligence. He concluded with a piece of personal advice, which was the advice she had already received from her British interrogator, "Captain Scott of MI5", although Sosnkowski chose different words: "Please leave ... in London there is something else. An accident is not so difficult. Please eat eggs: it is harder to poison them ... Naturally I'm kidding". A few months later, at his home in Poland, Stefan Witkowski was shot dead. He was shot in the back of the head, but when it was found his body had been turned over in order to give greater prominence to the accompanying card which carried the descriptive message "Największy polski bandyta" ("The greatest Polish bandit"). It would never become entirely clear whether Witkowski was killed by the AK (Polish resistance), or if the AK had simply led the Gestapo to him. Either way, directly after his shooting, surviving "Muszkieterowie" members in Poland, including Teresa Łubieńska, started to be rounded up by the Gestapo. Stories circulated that Witkowski had been in touch not merely with British intelligence and Soviet intelligence. There are also hints that he may have collaborated with the Germans, who occupied the western half of Poland, against the Soviets, who occupied the eastern part and, as matters turned out, would turn out to be the more enduring threat. Although the mutual antipathy between the men who hoped to lead Poland's post-war government Stefan Witkowski is well attested, the precise details of the circumstances leading to Witkowski's killing remain unclear.
Edinburgh
Klementyna Mańkowska remained in Britain till 1948, but she moved to Edinburgh, far from London and far from the Polish government in exile. Andrzej continued to be based in London where he made himself useful to the authorities, but he was able to visit his wife in Edinburgh at weekends. The couple's two sons attended a British boarding school. Their daughter, Maria, was born in Edinburgh on 20 June 1944. Klementyna worked in an Edinburgh hospital, undertaking translation work for Polish doctors unable to communicate in English. She would never again resume her prewar role as a lady of the manor.
Later years
In 1948 the family moved to Congo. There are indications that at this stage they were still legally stateless. Andrzej obtained a well-remunerated job with one of the colonial governments in Africa. The family were evidently accompanied in the Congo by Klementyna's mother who died at Élisabethville (as it was then known) at the end of 1958.
By 1997, which is when Günter Blaurock, the German consul general in Lyon presented Mańkowska with the Order of Merit (Bundesverdienstkreuz Erster Klasse) on behalf of President Herzog, in respect of her wartime exploits, the ceremony took place in the presence of the Polish ambassador and Prince Bismarck at Mańkowska's home, the Château de Sermoise, near Nevers. (The Mańkowski's daughter married a French aristocrat in 1970.) Her story had become better known to younger generations as a result of the publication of her autobiographical work Espionne malgré moi, prefaced by Michel Poniatowski, in May 1994 (published the next year in German as Odyssee einer Agentin). The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, in a book review, described her life story as "too fantastic for a novel". The work wasn't published in her native Poland until January 2003. There is no English version.
Andrzej and Klementyna Mańkowski died respectively in 2001 and 2003. They both died at Sermoise near Nevers in central France.
Notes
References
People from Borshchiv Raion
People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Polish resistance members of World War II
Polish intelligence officers (1943–1990)
Recipients of the National Order of Merit (France)
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Belgian Congo people
1910 births
2003 deaths |
59020760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa%20Chase | Melissa Chase | Melissa Erin Chase is an American cryptographer known for her research on attribute-based encryption, digital credentials, and information privacy. She works at Microsoft Research.
Education
Chase graduated in 2003 from Harvey Mudd College, with a senior thesis in mathematics about the shortest path problem, advised by Ran Libeskind-Hadas.
She earned a Ph.D. from Brown University with Anna Lysyanskaya as her doctoral advisor.
Contributions
At Microsoft, Chase is one of the developers of Picnic, a digital signature scheme that Microsoft has submitted to the National Institute of Standards and Technology Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization competition. Chase spoke about the project as an invited speaker at Real World Crypto 2018 in Zurich.
References
External links
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American computer scientists
American cryptographers
Public-key cryptographers
Harvey Mudd College alumni
Brown University alumni
Women cryptographers |
59045761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwarden | Bitwarden | Bitwarden is a free and open-source password management service that stores sensitive information such as website credentials in an encrypted vault. The Bitwarden platform offers a variety of client applications including a web interface, desktop applications, browser extensions, mobile apps, and a command-line interface. Bitwarden offers a cloud-hosted service as well as the ability to deploy the solution on-premises.
History
Bitwarden debuted in August 2016 with an initial release of mobile applications for iOS and Android, browser extensions for Chrome and Opera, and a web vault. The browser extension for Firefox was later launched in February 2017. In February 2017, the Brave web browser began including the Bitwarden extension as an optional replacement password manager. In January 2018, the Bitwarden browser extension was adapted to and released for Apple's Safari browser through the Safari Extensions Gallery.
In February 2018, Bitwarden debuted as a stand-alone desktop application for macOS, Linux, and Windows. It was built as a web app variant of the browser extension and delivered on top of Electron. The Windows app was released alongside the Bitwarden extension for Microsoft Edge in the Microsoft Store a month later.
In March 2018, Bitwarden's web vault was criticized for embedding unconstrained third-party JavaScript from BootstrapCDN, Braintree, Google, and Stripe. These embedded scripts could pose as an attack vector to gain unauthorized access to Bitwarden users' passwords. These third-party scripts were removed as part of the Bitwarden 2.0 Web Vault update, released in July 2018.
In May 2018, Bitwarden released a command-line application enabling users to write scripted applications using data from their Bitwarden vaults. In June 2018, Cliqz performed a privacy and security review of the Bitwarden for Firefox browser extension and concluded that it would not negatively impact their users. Following the review, Bitwarden was made available as an optional password manager in the Cliqz web browser.
In October 2018, Bitwarden completed a security assessment, code audit, and cryptographic analysis from third-party security auditing firm Cure53.
In June 2020, Bitwarden completed another security audit from security firm Insight Risk Consulting to evaluate the security of the Bitwarden network perimeter as well as penetration testing and vulnerability assessments against Bitwarden web services and applications. In August 2020, Bitwarden achieved SOC 2 Type 2 and SOC 3 certification.
In December 2020, Bitwarden announced that it was HIPAA and Privacy Shield compliant.
Reception
In January 2021, in its first password-protection program comparison, U.S. News & World Report selected Bitwarden as "Best Password Manager". In February, with competitor LastPass about to drop a feature in its free version, CNET recommended Bitwarden as best free app for password synchronization across multiple devices, while Lifehacker recommended it as "the best password manager for most people."
Critics have praised the features offered in the software's free version, and the low price of the premium tier compared to other managers. The product was named the best "budget pick" in a Wirecutter password manager comparison. Bitwarden's secure open source implementation was also praised by reviewers. However, the software was criticized for its lack of additional features, and some reviewers noted its basic and less intuitive interface compared to other password managers.
Features
Open-source codebase
Biometric Unlock
Cloud-synchronization
Items types such as Logins, Secure Notes, Credit Cards, and Identities
End-to-end encryption of the Stored Vault Data
Password history, so you can see your previous passwords on Logins
Secure sharing of vault items with other Bitwarden users
Autofill login information into websites and other applications
Password generator
Password Strength Testing Tool
Two-factor authentication via authenticator apps, email, Duo, YubiKey, and FIDO U2F
File attachments
TOTP key storage and code generator
Data breach reports and password exposure checks through Have I Been Pwned?
Cross-platform client applications
Self-host the Bitwarden server on-premises
Login with Single Sign-On
See also
List of password managers
Password manager
Cryptography
References
External links
Bitwarden Password Manager Add-ons for Firefox
Bitwarden - Chrome Web Store
Bitwarden - Microsoft Edge Addons
Bitwarden extension - Opera add-ons
Installing Bitwarden on Raspberry Pi using Docker
Password managers
Cryptographic software
Nonfree Firefox WebExtensions
Internet Explorer add-ons
Google Chrome extensions
Microsoft Edge extensions
Windows software
MacOS software
Linux software
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
2016 software |
59073622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ride%20Sharing%20Privacy | Ride Sharing Privacy | Ride sharing networks face issues of user privacy like other online platforms do. Concerns surrounding the apps include the security of financial details (which are often required to pay for the service), and privacy of personal details and location. Privacy concerns can also rise during the ride as some drivers choose to use passenger facing cameras for their own security. As the use of ride sharing services become more widespread so do the privacy issues associated with them.
History
Ride-sharing has been a concept since World War II, but it wasn't until around the 1990s when programs started to digitize. Some of the first telephone-based ride-matching programs were Bellevue Smart Traveler from the University of Washington, Los Angeles Smart Traveler from Los Angeles's Commuter Transportation Services, and Rideshare Express from Sacramento Rideshare. However, in these telephone-based programs the operational costs started exceeding their revenues and an alternative, internet and email driven ride-matches, was proposed. This program was tested on a closed campus (it was only available to people associated with the University of Washington), which proved highly successful. Two other programs, ATHENA and MINERVA were both computerized but faced unsuccessful endings. When the internet was created in the 1990s, online ride-matching was created. Websites originally had lists or forums that people could get information for carpooling options from, but the internet provided the ability to develop platforms, which were more dynamic and interactive. This concept didn't take off because the mechanics were not any different than traditional carpooling, only the ability to find them had been made easier. Since carpooling and ride-sharing were not very popular options, the smaller population who did participate already had set agendas, so timing-wise it was not helpful to those who needed transportation outside of a regular workday commute. Larger scale companies started becoming interested in partnering with ride-matching companies in order to spread the ride-sharing platform. They are gaining more traction as availability of mobile technology and thus accessibility not from a stationary point has become more prominent.
User input/privacy with software data
Software
User Input Features
Ride-sharing applications have several common user input features:
Users can input their pick-up destination.
Users can input their drop-off destination.
Users can save a home or work address.
Users can save unique places if they are visited frequently.
Users can also pinpoint their exact location on a map.
Users can save their credit card information for easy access.
Users can invite their friends which the app pulls from their phone contact information.
Users can create their own profile.
Users can see the profiles of their potential drivers as well as any reviews that come with it.
Ride-sharing companies also have several tracking features that are unclear in terms of what user information is being collected:
The application automatically connects and tracks the user's current location and surrounding areas, so when the app opens, an accurate map is immediately opened as the home page and the location of the user are immediately tracked.
Recent addresses that have been set as either pick-up or drop-off locations are kept in the search history.
Letting the app connect to personal data that is stored in the phone, such as access to contacts, can let the app access more than just phone numbers (addresses, personal information) which have been stored under the contact in the phone.
Uber Privacy
Uber has an option where user privacy can potentially be forgotten and they are aware of what data they are collecting from the user and are being transparent:
Ability to share or un-share live location as well as having location settings always on.
Ability to receive notifications about your account and trip.
Ability to remove stored contacts which adds on another way that can link two people together if someone is tracking someone's information.
Ability to share trip details with 911 in case of emergency.
Ability to sync personal calendar with the app.
Lyft Privacy
According to Lyft's Privacy Policy, the information they collect includes:
Registration information provided to them (name, email, phone number)
If a social media account is used to register, information from that profile will be used (name, gender, profile picture, friends)
Any information the user chooses to put in the profile
Payment information to charge riders (although credit card information is not stored by them)
Any interactions with the support team
Information provided during the driver application (DOB, address, Social Security, license information etc.)
Payment information to pay drivers
Location information including saved locations
Information about the device that the app's being used on
Usage data
Calls and Texts between riders and drivers
Feedback
Contacts (if user permits it)
Cookies
Hardware
Camera inside the car
Very recently has the presence of physical cameras been implemented in ride-share vehicles. Prior to this, the only time cameras were related to cars were traffic cameras and police cars. However, there has been a rise in the amount of continuous-recording cameras that are not just surveilling the road and keeping track of what happens outside the car. The implementation of cameras inside cars to record interactions between drivers and riders is something new. However, people are concerned about their privacy because this recording goes on during their trip duration, and they do not verbally consent to their recording. However, they consent to being in a person's car, hence they must abide to the driver's rules. There are federal rules about audio recordings, federal laws only requires "one party consent."
Government policies about recording
According to the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, there are policies regarding recording audio conversations, including clarifications about the "one-party consent" rule that comes with it. Regarding audio conversations, it is illegal to record a conversation for which one is not partaking in. However, they are allowed to record if they are a member of the conversation themselves, without having to receive consent from the other party or having to let them know there is recording happening.
Concerns
The potential abuse of location-tracking
There are several areas where data could potentially be abused by the application knowing the rider's location. Since trip data is collected, if the ride-sharing company has partnerships with corporations, their partners can use the data to predict future locations and be able to pinpoint an individual's interests and market towards them. Corporations can collect information on what types of stores and what brands are most often visited by a user and can build an online profile, which is traceable. This can also relate to advertising companies, which can target personal interests and alter their online interactions to start showing ads that are catered and specific towards where the user has visited. *citation*
There are some cases where bad implications could arise. If the user were to partake in something related to their political standpoints, companies can store this for later information and potentially use it against the user if they come into contact with the company in a professional setting. This can apply to medicinal, religious, or legal affiliations as well, that a user's location and places visited cannot be justified when being looked at from an outside perspective.
Relating more to the online profile created of the user, if a person solely relies on ride-sharing services to get around, one can track how long the user has been away from their home and how far away they are from their home. This becomes an opportunity for people to stalk or rob the user because they know when is the ideal time people aren't home. *citation* Looking on a broader scale, based on the demographics of the area a user interacts with, if they frequently visit the same stores within a certain area, information can be assumed, such as estimated income. *citation*
Users have the option to save a home or work address for easy access. Most often, users put their actual address, but in some cases, users have been known to put an address a couple streets away, just for their safety in case data gets leaked. However, while this is a very basic level of deflection, putting a home address a couple streets away still gives a general location of where the user is stationed.
Location aware applications
Individuals have concerns over how, what, when, and where their location information is being stored as well as to what extent others have access to it. Not only pertaining to ride-sharing applications, but any applications that have sharing enabled of sorts, there are several types of applications that are location aware. Location based searching (LBS) occurs when a user's tracking returns items and buildings around the user's current location in order to be tracked. A map is drawn with the orientation of the surrounding buildings to determine a location. Geo-location services are having the user tracked with an environmental footprint. It's an estimate of a user's location. Mobile sensing is the process of pinpointing the user's physical device, which has sensors and information that can be collected. Location sharing is a voluntary state where the user is in live-time and their location is constantly being updated and tracked.
Making use of user information
Looking more at the applications and how a user accesses the ride-sharing service, once a user inputs data into the app, it will be accessible on the web forever. Even if they delete information or delete their account, the information has been created on an online platform and now exists whether the user consents to it or not. These applications ask for user information such as phone number, email, and profile picture, all features which can be used to trace back to the user's identity. Once this information is in the application's database, it can accessed by the application as well as indirectly by any partners of the app.
Most apps have the payment charged and completed before a user can be connected to their ride. Users have the option to store credit card information for easy access instead of having to repeatedly input payment information. While there is an added level of security, such as passcode or touch ID before every transaction, this does not ensure the safety of this information in the app. It only ensures that the current transaction is made under the consent of the user.
Reverse image search
Users are allowed to input a profile picture into their applications. Doing so has the intention of helping drivers spot their intended riders. However, this can cause an issue because if somehow a rider's image is saved and uploaded to the web, connections can be made to personal accounts. For example, with Facebook's face recognition advanced algorithm, it is easier to identify people's identities from outside pictures.
Solutions
Noise distribution
Researchers have come up with a conclusion which introduces a solution for these issues which is a system that helps with both data privacy and user anonymity. The solution is a program that creates a noise distribution so a user's certain location is offset. It is basically putting the location of the user through some encryption and reporting that location that only the system knows how to read, so it is not manipulating the actual location, but just how that data is input into the system. This solution has already been implemented into two major operating systems, Mac OS and Linux. This solution helps with those who are suspicious of using these ride-sharing applications because of the fear of their privacy being invaded or potentially data being stolen, but this software has proven that it can handle securing data as well as keeping the user anonymous. It is more like an extra layer of security that creates another blanket to hide the user.
K-anonymity
K-anonymity serves as an Anonymizing Server, which is a trusted third party server which is in charge of providing anonymous cover for users. K-anonymity is used to preserve the location privacy by creating a location cloak without knowing the actual location of the user. The software attempts to find a number of users close to the actual users because then exact locations could not be correlated back to the original user in question and these several locations which cannot be identified to the users in close proximity would protect the original user. There is no way to distinguish between all the users.
Fuzzy interference systems
Another solution is to try and use fuzzy interference systems when relating to mobile geo-services. This solution would use different details to identify the user that would not be prone to organizations abusing the obtained information. Currently, location based services can reveal several sensitive pieces of information, like closest religious institutions, which can reveal the identity of the user, which organizations utilize for purely commercial purposes. The paper proposes a solution, anonymization, which protects user's data in case of accidental breaches. There is an explanation of the fuzzy inference system and how it works *explain how it works* and then the potential implication method in taxi drivers to see if this is an effective way of protecting people's information because there isn't a concrete design with anonymization that has proven to do well. There are different levels of precision that the location system can narrow down on a user. These systems turn quantitative data into qualitative data which would obscure a user's identity and location. After a trial implementation with taxi drivers, several complications came up, mostly human misinterpretation, but in the future, investing more time into this solution and combining it with already existing solutions could provide a more effective solution. To those who are afraid of their locations being tracked and that being used to trace back to the user, this solution makes user data fuzzy so if they are being tracking, it is not completely precise. There are data tables that show experimental distances of how close a tracking software was to those who had implemented the fuzzy solution. This solution takes on a different approach because it doesn't entirely solve the problem of how to entirely protect the user's privacy, but it is working towards it since the solution has not had enough time to mature, as it is just in introductory stages. It sheds light on the fact that the location tracking software is still not private even when solutions have been taken to try and overcome this solution but leaves an open ending because it ends that with more research and resources put into it (and specifically told what areas could be developed better) it could expand further and be developed better.
Location transformation
One proposed solution is a model that would estimate how difficult it would be for outside sources to get their hands on someone's private information. There are several mechanisms proposed that would be helpful in hiding data including location obfuscation, perturbation, confusion and suppression, and cryptographic techniques.
Location obfuscation
Obfuscating a user's location means to cloud the user's location. A user's location coordinates are still being preserved, however the accuracy is just being degraded. However, this cannot be a complete solution because this would just neglect the entire reason of location-based services. So being selective in what an application is obfuscating, would help with protection.
There is a program, called NRand algorithm, which is the algorithm that determines the amount of obstruction that is put on the user location data. There are a couple issues that arise with this algorithm, including determining how much noise should be implemented and if the changing of the data is enough to alter it to an unrecognizable form from its original state.
Location perturbation
On a map, a location locks onto something in close proximity but not the exact user location because of added noise. With this added layer, if there is another location in a close enough range, a transition will be added to multiple locations and mask all points of interest.
Confusion and suppression
A dummy location is set as the true location. This is done so by pinpointing a user's specific location and transforming it into several other locations, yet keeping the true location. Suppression is a subset of these different applications where for a short period of time, when a user enters an area, the user information is temporarily suspended and the identity of the user is lost, so when they exit back out of the protected area, they have a new identity.
Cryptographic techniques
Original data is unable to be tracked because information goes through some sort of cryptographic interpreter, could be transformed into several different data points.
See also
Carpool
CCTV
Dashboard cameras
References
Transportation in the United States
Privacy |
59127566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bcachefs | Bcachefs | Bcachefs is a copy-on-write (COW) file system for Linux-based operating systems. Its primary developer, Kent Overstreet, first announced it in 2015, and efforts are ongoing to have it included in the mainline Linux kernel. It is intended to compete with the modern features of ZFS or Btrfs, and the speed and performance of ext4 or XFS.
Features
Bcachefs is a copy-on-write (COW) file system for Linux-based operating systems. Planned or existing features for Bcachefs include caching, full file-system encryption using the ChaCha20 and Poly1305 algorithms, native compression via zlib, LZ4, and Zstandard, snapshots, CRC-32C and 64-bit checksumming. It can use multiple block devices, including in RAID configurations. Bcachefs provides all the functionality of Bcache, a block-layer cache system for Linux, with which Bcachefs shares about 80% of its code.
History
Primary development has been by Kent Overstreet, the developer of Bcache, which he describes as a "prototype" for the ideas that became Bcachefs. Overstreet intends Bcachefs to replace Bcache. Overstreet has stated that development of Bcachefs began as Bcache's developers realized that its codebase had "been evolving ... into a full blown, general-purpose POSIX filesystem", and that "there was a really clean and elegant design" within it if they took it in that direction. Some time after Bcache was merged in 2013 into the mainline Linux kernel, Overstreet left his job at Google to work full-time on Bcachefs.
After a few years' unfunded development, Overstreet announced Bcachefs in 2015, at which point he called the code "more or less feature complete", and called for testers and contributors. He intended it to be an advanced file system with modern features like those of ZFS or Btrfs, with the speed and performance of file systems such as ext4 and XFS. As of 2017 Overstreet was receiving financial support for the development of Bcachefs via Patreon.
As of mid-2018, the on-disk format had settled. Patches had been submitted for review to have Bcachefs included in the mainline Linux kernel, but had not yet been accepted.
By mid-2019, the desired features of Bcachefs had reached and associated patches to LKML was submitted for peer review. As of January 2022, Bcachefs has still not been merged into the mainline Linux kernel.
References
Works cited
External links
2015 software
Compression file systems
File systems supported by the Linux kernel
Linux file system-related software |
59205557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messaging%20Layer%20Security | Messaging Layer Security | Messaging Layer Security (MLS), is a security layer for end-to-end encrypting messages in arbitrarily sized groups. It is being built by the IETF MLS working group and designed to be efficient, practical and secure.
Security properties
Security properties of MLS include message confidentiality, message integrity and authentication, membership authentication, asynchronicity, forward secrecy, post-compromise security, and scalability.
History
The idea was born in 2016 and first discussed in an unofficial meeting during IETF 96 in Berlin with attendees from Wire, Mozilla and Cisco.
Initial ideas were based on pairwise encryption for secure 1:1 and group communication. In 2017, an academic paper introducing Asynchronous Ratcheting Trees was published by University of Oxford setting the focus on more efficient encryption schemes.
The first BoF took place in February 2018 at IETF 101 in London. The founding members are Mozilla, Facebook, Wire, Google, Twitter, University of Oxford, and INRIA.
References
Cryptography
Internet privacy
Secure communication |
59270266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20hacking | Government hacking | Government hacking permits the exploitation of vulnerabilities in electronic products, especially software, to gain remote access to information of interest. This information allows government investigators to monitor user activity and interfere with device operation. Government attacks on security may include malware and encryption backdoors. The National Security Agency's PRISM program and Ethiopia's use of FinSpy are notable examples.
Hackers
Security hackers have extensive knowledge of technology (particularly electronic devices and computer programs and networks), and may use their knowledge for illegal or unethical purposes. Hackers take advantage of vulnerabilities in software and systems; the hacking consists of manipulating computer systems or electronic devices to remotely control a machine or access stored data.
Due to new technologies, it was necessary to update cryptographic algorithms. This need has raised the level of complexity of techniques used for encrypting the data of individuals to guarantee network security. Because of the difficulty of deciphering data, government agencies have begun to search for other ways to conduct criminal investigations; one such option is hacking.
Since government hacking is characterized by the use of technology to obtain information on citizens' devices, some say that government agents could also manipulate device data or insert new data. In addition to manipulating data from individuals, tools developed by the government could be used by criminals.
FBI** Brinley Galbraith
Cyberwarfare
Hacking is a set of actions which exploit the capabilities of electronic devices. Cyberwarfare is a set of practices in defense of political, socio-environmental, socio-technological and cultural causes which is waged in cyberspace (particularly the Internet). Intergovernmental cyberwarfare is a consciously defined, orderly action by a government to attack another government, focusing on the other country's resources, systems and organizations. A cyberattack, thought to be a joint US-Israeli operation, was made on Iran's nuclear power plants in 2010. The attack was made by Stuxnet, a computer worm which targets Microsoft Windows systems and Siemens devices.
Types
Government attacks on security use several methods.
Malware
This technique sends malware over the Internet to search computers remotely, usually for information which is transmitted (or stored) on anonymous target computers. Malware can control a computer's operating system, giving investigators great power. According to attorney and educator Jennifer Granick, the courts should restrict government use of malware due to its uncontrollable distribution.
Stockpiling or exploiting vulnerabilities
A government may find system vulnerabilities and use them for investigative purposes. The Vulnerability Action Process (VEP), a system-vulnerability policy, was created to allow the US government to decide whether to disclose information about security vulnerabilities. The policy does not require disclosure of security breaches to technology vendors, and discussion leading to a decision is not open to the public.
Backdoors
Because of the complexity of encryption, governments attempt to unravel and defeat such security features to obtain data. Encryption backdoors allow the strongest encryption to be ignored.
Malicious hacking
The government can hack into computers remotely, whether authorized or not by a court. To meet needs, agents CAN copy, modify, delete, and create data. With inadequate oversight of the judicial system, this practice occurs stealthily through the creation of warrants; it is possible to deny the sharing of malware details with defendants during a trial.
Harms
From the moment a government allows hacking for investigations and other reasons of state, positive or negative impacts are possible; a number of harms may occur.
Property
Generally, hackers damage devices or software and may limit their operation; data on devices involved in the attack may be lost. Replacing devices and efforts to recover data may also be costly, increasing financial damage.
Reputation
Hackers may also harm a target's image, specifically or generally. The reputation of an individual is placed at risk for a number of reasons; a person may be innocent but is hypothesized as the target of an attack. In most cases, the individual cannot perceive that he is being attacked and risks being involved in improper security practices.
Digital security
Government operations on the Internet to assist in certain operations may reduce digital security. Other users may also be vulnerable to black-market actors, who could introduce viruses into software updates or create (or maintain) hardware. Loss of confidence in the Internet could affect communications and the economy.
Criminal cases
Due to technological innovations, the US government has focused on research techniques; examples include the use of hackers and malware through software deployment. Diversified methods infiltrate and monitor others, especially when the target is an irregular activity by the computer network and an investigation must be remote. The Federal Bureau of Investigation uses Network Investigative Techniques (NITs).
The US government has increasingly used hacking as an investigative technique. Since 2002, the FBI has used malware in virtual criminal investigations. The main research targets of early NITs were individual computers. The FBI has since developed a form of hacking which attacks millions of computers in one operation. The use of this technique was encouraged by privacy technologies which ensure that users have their identity, and their activities, hidden. Malware is installed so the government can identify targets who use tools which hide their IP address, location or identity.
The best-known and legitimate form of government hacking is the watering hole attack, in which the government takes control of a criminal-activity site and distributes a virus to computers which access the site. The malware can be installed through a link clicked by a user or through access to a site. The user is not aware of the infection on their machine; the malware partially controls it, searches for identifying information and sends it to the source.
To deploy malware, the FBI requires authorization and uses search warrants issued by magistrates in accordance with Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. According to a court transcript, one operation affected 8,000 computers in 120 countries.
In one case which demonstrated this new use of technology by the government, the FBI obtained access to a server in North Carolina stored photos and videos of child victims of sexual abuse and shared them through a website accessed by thousands of users. Instead of shutting down the site, the bureau controlled it for 13 days to create hundreds of criminal cases. According to the FBI, its action was justified by the arrest of hundreds of alleged pedophiles.
Other examples
National Security Agency
Former National Security Agency agent Edward Snowden announced in June 2013 the existence of the PRISM program, which monitors the Internet.
FinSpy in Ethiopia
The Ethiopian government was accused of using FinSpy software to obtain personal data from an Ethiopian naturalized American citizen. Kidane (the person's pseudonym) reportedly had data from Skype calls, Internet searches and emails monitored by the software.
See also
Internet Security
Cybercrime
Cyberativism
Hacker culture
Timeline of global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)
References
Hacking (computer security)
Hacker culture |
59337444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20International%20Organization%20for%20Standardization%20standards%2C%2018000-19999 | List of International Organization for Standardization standards, 18000-19999 | This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue.
The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC1) have been made freely and publicly available.
ISO 18000 – ISO 18999
ISO/IEC 18000 Information technology – Radio frequency identification for item management
ISO/IEC 18004:2015 Information technology – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – QR Code bar code symbology specification
ISO/IEC 18009:1999 Information technology – Programming languages – Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor
ISO/IEC 18010:2002 Information technology - Pathways and spaces for customer premises cabling
ISO/IEC 18012 Information technology - Home Electronic System - Guidelines for product interoperability
ISO/IEC 18012-1:2004 Part 1: Introduction
ISO/IEC 18012-2:2012 Part 2: Taxonomy and application interoperability model
ISO/IEC 18013 Information technology – Personal identification – ISO-compliant driving license
ISO/IEC 18013-1:2005 Part 1: Physical characteristics and basic data set
ISO/IEC 18013-2:2008 Part 2: Machine-readable technologies
ISO/IEC 18013-3:2017 Part 3: Access control, authentication and integrity validation
ISO/IEC 18013-4:2019 Part 4: Test methods
ISO/IEC 18013-5 Part 5: Mobile driving licence (mDL) application
ISO/IEC 18014 Information technology – Security techniques – Time-stamping services
ISO/IEC TR 18015:2006 Information technology - Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces - Technical Report on C++ Performance
ISO/IEC TR 18016:2003 Information technology – Message Handling Systems (MHS): Interworking with Internet e-mail
ISO/IEC 18017:2001 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Private Integrated Services Network – Mapping functions for the employment of Virtual Private Network scenarios
ISO/IEC TR 18018:2010 Information technology - Systems and software engineering - Guide for configuration management tool capabilities
ISO/IEC 18021:2002 Information technology – User interfaces for mobile tools for management of database communications in a client-server model
ISO/IEC 18023 Information technology – SEDRIS
ISO/IEC 18023-1:2006 Part 1: Functional specification
ISO/IEC 18023-2:2006 Part 2: Abstract transmittal format
ISO/IEC 18023-3:2006 Part 3: Transmittal format binary encoding
ISO/IEC 18024 Information technology – SEDRIS language bindings
ISO/IEC 18024-4:2006 Part 4: C
ISO/IEC 18025:2005 Information technology – Environmental Data Coding Specification (EDCS)
ISO/IEC 18026:2009 Information technology – Spatial Reference Model (SRM)
ISO/IEC 18031:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Random bit generation
ISO/IEC 18032:2005 Information technology - Security techniques - Prime number generation
ISO/IEC 18033 Information technology – Security techniques – Encryption algorithms
ISO/IEC 18033-1:2015 Part 1: General
ISO/IEC 18033-2:2006 Part 2: Asymmetric ciphers
ISO/IEC 18033-3:2010 Part 3: Block ciphers
ISO/IEC 18033-4:2011 Part 4: Stream ciphers
ISO/IEC 18033-5:2015 Part 5: Identity-based ciphers
ISO/IEC 18035:2003 Information technology – Icon symbols and functions for controlling multimedia software applications
ISO/IEC 18036:2003 Information technology - Icon symbols and functions for World Wide Web browser toolbars
ISO/IEC TR 18037:2008 Programming languages - C - Extensions to support embedded processors
ISO/IEC 18041 Information technology – Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation – Environmental Data Coding Specification (EDCS) language bindings
ISO/IEC 18041-4:2016 Part 4: C
ISO/IEC 18042 Information technology – Computer graphics and image processing – Spatial Reference Model (SRM) language bindings
ISO/IEC 18042-4:2006 Part 4: C
ISO/IEC 18045:2008 Information technology - Security techniques - Methodology for IT security evaluation
ISO/IEC 18046 Information technology - Radio frequency identification device performance test methods
ISO/IEC 18046-1:2011 Part 1: Test methods for system performance
ISO/IEC 18046-2:2011 Part 2: Test methods for interrogator performance
ISO/IEC 18046-3:2012 Part 3: Test methods for tag performance
ISO/IEC 18046-4:2015 Part 4: Test methods for performance of RFID gates in libraries
ISO/IEC 18047 Information technology - Radio frequency identification device conformance test methods
ISO/IEC 18047-2:2012 Part 2: Test methods for air interface communications below 135 kHz
ISO/IEC TR 18047-3:2011 Part 3: Test methods for air interface communications at 13,56 MHz
ISO/IEC TR 18047-4:2004 Part 4: Test methods for air interface communications at 2,45 GHz
ISO/IEC 18047-6:2012 Part 6: Test methods for air interface communications at 860 MHz to 960 MHz
ISO/IEC TR 18047-7:2010 Part 7: Test methods for active air interface communications at 433 MHz
ISO/IEC 18050:2006 Information technology - Office equipment - Print quality attributes for machine readable Digital Postage Marks
ISO/IEC 18051:2012 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Services for Computer Supported Telecommunications Applications (CSTA) Phase III
ISO/IEC 18052:2012 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – ASN.1 for Computer Supported Telecommunications Applications (CSTA) Phase III
ISO/IEC TR 18053:2000 Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchange between systems - Glossary of definitions and terminology for Computer Supported Telecommunications Applications (CSTA) Phase III
ISO/IEC 18056:2012 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – XML Schema Definitions for Computer Supported Telecommunications Applications (CSTA) Phase III
ISO/IEC TR 18057:2004 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Using ECMA-323 (CSTA XML) in a Voice Browser Environment
ISO/TS 18062:2016 Health informatics – Categorial structure for representation of herbal medicaments in terminological systems
ISO 18064:2014 Thermoplastic elastomers – Nomenclature and abbreviated terms
ISO 18065:2015 Tourism and related services – Tourist services for public use provided by Natural Protected Areas Authorities – Requirements
ISO 18082:2014 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – Dimensions of non-interchangeable screw-threaded (NIST) low-pressure connectors for medical gases
ISO 18091:2014 Quality management systems – Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2008 in local government
ISO/IEC 18092:2013 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Near Field Communication – Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
ISO/IEC 18093:1999 Information technology - Data interchange on 130 mm optical disk cartridges of type WORM (Write Once Read Many) using irreversible effects - Capacity: 5,2 Gbytes per cartridge
ISO 18104:2014 Health informatics – Categorial structures for representation of nursing diagnoses and nursing actions in terminological systems
ISO/TS 18110:2015 Nanotechnologies - Vocabularies for science, technology and innovation indicators
ISO 18115 Surface chemical analysis – Vocabulary
ISO 18115-1:2013 Part 1: General terms and terms used in spectroscopy
ISO 18115-2:2013 Part 2: Terms used in scanning-probe microscopy
ISO 18117:2009 Surface chemical analysis – Handling of specimens prior to analysis
ISO 18118:2004 Surface chemical analysis - Auger electron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy - Guide to the use of experimentally determined relative sensitivity factors for the quantitative analysis of homogeneous materials
ISO/IEC TR 18120:2016 Information technology - Learning, education, and training - Requirements for e-textbooks in education
ISO/IEC TR 18121:2015 Information technology - Learning, education and training - Virtual experiment framework
ISO/TR 18128:2014 Information and documentation - Risk assessment for records processes and systems
ISO 18129:2015 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Approaches for performance diagnosis
ISO/TS 18152 Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Specification for the process assessment of human-system issues
ISO 18158:2016 Workplace air - Terminology
ISO/TS 18173:2005 Non-destructive testing - General terms and definitions
ISO/IEC 18180:2013 Information technology - Specification for the Extensible Configuration Checklist Description Format (XCCDF) Version 1.2
ISO 18185 Freight containers – Electronic seals
ISO 18189:2016 Ophthalmic optics – Contact lenses and contact lens care products – Cytotoxicity testing of contact lenses in combination with lens care solution to evaluate lens/solution interactions
ISO 18190:2016 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – General requirements for airways and related equipment
ISO 18192 Implants for surgery – Wear of total intervertebral spinal disc prostheses
ISO 18192-1:2011 Part 1: Loading and displacement parameters for wear testing and corresponding environmental conditions for test
ISO 18192-2:2010 Part 2: Nucleus replacements
ISO 18192-3:2017 Part 3: Impingement-wear testing and corresponding environmental conditions for test of lumbar prostheses under adverse kinematic conditions
ISO/TR 18196:2016 Nanotechnologies – Measurement technique matrix for the characterization of nano-objects
ISO 18215:2015 Ships and marine technology - Vessel machinery operations in polar waters - Guidelines
ISO 18232:2006 Health Informatics – Messages and communication – Format of length limited globally unique string identifiers
ISO/TS 18234 Intelligent transport systems – Traffic and travel information via transport protocol experts group, generation 1 (TPEG1) binary data format
ISO/TS 18234-1:2013 Part 1: Introduction, numbering and versions (TPEG1-INV)
ISO/TS 18234-2:2013 Part 2: Syntax, semantics and framing structure (TPEG1-SSF)
ISO/TS 18234-3:2013 Part 3: Service and network information (TPEG1-SNI)
ISO/TS 18234-4:2006 Part 4: Road Traffic Message (RTM) application
ISO/TS 18234-5:2006 Part 5: Public Transport Information (PTI) application
ISO/TS 18234-6:2006 Part 6: Location referencing applications
ISO/TS 18234-7:2013 Part 7: Parking information (TPEG1-PKI)
ISO/TS 18234-8:2012 Part 8: Congestion and Travel Time application (TPEG1-CTT)
ISO/TS 18234-9:2013 Part 9: Traffic event compact (TPEG1-TEC)
ISO/TS 18234-10:2013 Part 10: Conditional access information (TPEG1-CAI)
ISO/TS 18234-11:2013 Part 11: Location Referencing Container (TPEG1-LRC)
ISO 18241:2016 Cardiovascular implants and extracorporeal systems – Cardiopulmonary bypass systems – Venous bubble traps
ISO 18242:2016 Cardiovascular implants and extracorporeal systems – Centrifugal blood pumps
ISO 18245:2003 Retail financial services – Merchant category codes
ISO 18259:2014 Ophthalmic optics – Contact lens care products – Method to assess contact lens care products with contact lenses in a lens case, challenged with bacterial and fungal organisms
ISO/IEC TR 18268:2013 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit cards – Proximity cards – Multiple PICCs in a single PCD field
ISO 18295 Customer contact centres
ISO 18295-1:2017 Part 1: Requirements for customer contact centres
ISO 18295-2:2017 Part 2: Requirements for clients using the services of customer contact centres
ISO/IEC 18305:2016 Information technology - Real time locating systems - Test and evaluation of localization and tracking systems
ISO/TR 18307:2001 Health informatics – Interoperability and compatibility in messaging and communication standards – Key characteristics
ISO 18308:2011 Health informatics – Requirements for an electronic health record architecture
ISO 18312 Mechanical vibration and shock – Measurement of vibration power flow from machines into connected support structures
ISO 18312-1:2012 Part 1: Direct method
ISO 18312-2:2012 Part 2: Indirect method
ISO/TR 18317:2017 Intelligent transport systems – Pre-emption of ITS communication networks for disaster and emergency communication – Use case scenarios
ISO 18322:2017 Space systems – General management requirements for space test centres
ISO/IEC 18328 Identification cards – ICC-managed devices
ISO/IEC 18328-1:2015 Part 1: General framework
ISO/IEC 18328-2:2015 Part 2: Physical characteristics and test methods for cards with devices
ISO/IEC 18328-3:2016 Part 3: Organization, security and commands for interchange
ISO/TS 18339:2015 Endotherapy devices – Eyepiece cap and light guide connector
ISO/TS 18340:2015 Endoscopes – Trocar pins, trocar sleeves and endotherapy devices for use with trocar sleeves
ISO/TS 18344:2016 Effectiveness of paper deacidification processes
ISO 18365:2013 Hydrometry – Selection, establishment and operation of a gauging station
ISO/IEC 18367:2016 Information technology - Security techniques - Cryptographic algorithms and security mechanisms conformance testing
ISO 18369 Ophthalmic optics - Contact lenses
ISO 18369-1:2017 Part 1: Vocabulary, classification system and recommendations for labelling specifications
ISO 18369-2:2017 Part 2: Tolerances
ISO 18369-3:2017 Part 3: Measurement methods
ISO 18369-4:2017 Part 4: Physicochemical properties of contact lens materials
ISO/IEC 18370 Information technology - Security techniques - Blind digital signatures
ISO/IEC 18370-1:2016 Part 1: General
ISO/IEC 18370-2:2016 Part 2: Discrete logarithm based mechanisms
ISO/IEC 18372:2004 Information technology – RapidIO interconnect specification
ISO/TR 18476:2017 Ophthalmic optics and instruments – Free form technology – Spectacle lenses and measurement
ISO/IEC 18384 Information technology - Reference Architecture for Service Oriented Architecture (SOA RA)
ISO/IEC 18384-1:2016 Part 1: Terminology and concepts for SOA
ISO/IEC 18384-2:2016 Part 2: Reference Architecture for SOA Solutions
ISO/IEC 18384-3:2016 Part 3: Service Oriented Architecture ontology
ISO 18385:2016 Minimizing the risk of human DNA contamination in products used to collect, store and analyze biological material for forensic purposes – Requirements
ISO 18388:2016 Technical product documentation (TPD) – Relief grooves – Types and dimensioning
ISO 18391:2016 Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Population specification
ISO/TR 18401:2017 Nanotechnologies - Plain language explanation of selected terms from the ISO/IEC 80004 series
ISO 18404:2015 Quantitative methods in process improvement - Six Sigma - Competencies for key personnel and their organizations in relation to Six Sigma and Lean implementation
ISO 18405:2017 Underwater acoustics - Terminology
ISO 18406:2017 Underwater acoustics – Measurement of radiated underwater sound from percussive pile driving
ISO 18414:2006 Acceptance sampling procedures by attributes - Accept-zero sampling system based on credit principle for controlling outgoing quality
ISO 18415:2017 Cosmetics – Microbiology – Detection of specified and non-specified microorganisms
ISO 18416:2015 Cosmetics – Microbiology – Detection of Candida albicans
ISO 18431 Mechanical vibration and shock – Signal processing
ISO 18431-1:2005 Part 1: General introduction
ISO 18431-2:2004 Part 2: Time domain windows for Fourier Transform analysis
ISO 18431-3:2014 Part 3: Methods of time-frequency analysis
ISO 18431-4:2007 Part 4: Shock-response spectrum analysis
ISO 18434 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Thermography
ISO 18434-1:2008 Part 1: General procedures
ISO 18436 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Requirements for qualification and assessment of personnel
ISO 18436-1:2012 Part 1: Requirements for assessment bodies and the assessment process
ISO 18436-2:2014 Part 2: Vibration condition monitoring and diagnostics
ISO 18436-3:2012 Part 3: Requirements for training bodies and the training process
ISO 18436-4:2014 Part 4: Field lubricant analysis
ISO 18436-5:2012 Part 5: Lubricant laboratory technician/analyst
ISO 18436-6:2014 Part 6: Acoustic emission
ISO 18436-7:2014 Part 7: Thermography
ISO 18436-8:2013 Part 8: Ultrasound
ISO 18437 Mechanical vibration and shock – Characterization of the dynamic mechanical properties of visco-elastic materials
ISO 18437-1:2012 Part 1: Principles and guidelines
ISO 18437-2:2005 Part 2: Resonance method
ISO 18437-3:2005 Part 3: Cantilever shear beam method
ISO 18437-4:2008 Part 4: Dynamic stiffness method
ISO 18437-5:2011 Part 5: Poisson ratio based on comparison between measurements and finite element analysis
ISO/IEC 18450:2013 Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchange between systems - Web Services Description Language (WSDL) for CSTA Phase III
ISO 18451 Pigments, dyestuffs and extenders – Terminology
ISO 18451-1:2015 Part 1: General terms
ISO 18457:2016 Biomimetics – Biomimetic materials, structures and components
ISO 18458:2015 Biomimetics – Terminology, concepts and methodology
ISO 18459:2015 Biomimetics – Biomimetic structural optimization
ISO 18461:2016 International museum statistics
ISO 18465:2017 Microbiology of the food chain - Quantitative determination of emetic toxin (cereulide) using LC-MS/MS
ISO/IEC 18477 Information technology - Scalable compression and coding of continuous-tone still images
ISO/IEC 18477-1:2015 Part 1: Scalable compression and coding of continuous-tone still images
ISO/IEC 18477-2:2016 Part 2: Coding of high dynamic range images
ISO/IEC 18477-3:2015 Part 3: Box file format
ISO/IEC 18477-6:2016 Part 6: IDR Integer Coding
ISO/IEC 18477-7:2017 Part 7: HDR Floating-Point Coding
ISO/IEC 18477-8:2016 Part 8: Lossless and near-lossless coding
ISO/IEC 18477-9:2016 Part 9: Alpha channel coding
ISO 18490:2015 Non-destructive testing – Evaluation of vision acuity of NDT personnel
ISO 18495 Intelligent transport systems – Commercial freight – Automotive visibility in the distribution supply chain
ISO 18495-1:2016 Part 1: Architecture and data definitions
ISO/IEC TS 18508:2015 Information technology - Additional Parallel Features in Fortran
ISO 18513:2003 Tourism services - Hotels and other types of tourism accommodation - Terminology
ISO/TR 18529:2000 Ergonomics – Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions
ISO/TS 18530:2014 Health Informatics – Automatic identification and data capture marking and labelling – Subject of care and individual provider identification
ISO/TR 18532:2009 Guidance on the application of statistical methods to quality and to industrial standardization
ISO 18541 Road vehicles – Standardized access to automotive repair and maintenance information (RMI)
ISO 18542 Road vehicles – Standardized repair and maintenance information (RMI) terminology
ISO 18542-1:2012 Part 1: General information and use case definition
ISO 18542-2:2014 Part 2: Standardized process implementation requirements, Registration Authority
ISO 18562 Biocompatibility evaluation of breathing gas pathways in healthcare applications
ISO 18562-1:2017 Part 1: Evaluation and testing within a risk management process
ISO 18562-2:2017 Part 2: Tests for emissions of particulate matter
ISO 18562-3:2017 Part 3: Tests for emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
ISO 18562-4:2017 Part 4: Tests for leachables in condensate
ISO 18564:2016 Machinery for forestry – Noise test code
ISO/IEC 18584:2015 Information technology – Identification cards – Conformance test requirements for on-card biometric comparison applications
ISO 18587:2017 Translation services - Post-editing of machine translation output - Requirements
ISO 18589 Measurement of radioactivity in the environment - Soil
ISO 18589-1:2005 Part 1: General guidelines and definitions
ISO 18589-2:2015 Part 2: Guidance for the selection of the sampling strategy, sampling and pre-treatment of samples
ISO 18589-3:2015 Part 3: Test method of gamma-emitting radionuclides using gamma-ray spectrometry
ISO 18589-4:2009 Part 4: Measurement of plutonium isotopes (plutonium 238 and plutonium 239 + 240) by alpha spectrometry
ISO 18589-5:2009 Part 5: Measurement of strontium 90
ISO 18589-6:2009 Part 6: Measurement of gross alpha and gross beta activities
ISO 18589-7:2013 Part 7: In situ measurement of gamma-emitting radionuclides
ISO 18593:2004 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Horizontal methods for sampling techniques from surfaces using contact plates and swabs
ISO/IEC 18598:2016 Information technology - Automated infrastructure management (AIM) systems - Requirements, data exchange and applications
ISO 18600:2015 Textile machinery and accessories – Web roller cards – Terms and definitions
ISO 18601:2013 Packaging and the environment - General requirements for the use of ISO standards in the field of packaging and the environment
ISO 18602:2013 Packaging and the environment—Optimization of the packaging system
ISO 18603:2013 Packaging and the environment—Reuse
ISO 18604:2013 Packaging and the environment—Material recycling
ISO 18605:2013 Packaging and the environment—Energy recovery
ISO 18606:2013 Packaging and the environment—Organic recycling
ISO/TS 18614:2016 Packaging - Label material - Required information for ordering and specifying self-adhesive labels
ISO 18619:2015 Image technology colour management - Black point compensation
ISO 18626:2017 Information and documentation - Interlibrary Loan Transactions
ISO 18629 Industrial automation systems and integration – Process specification language
ISO/TR 18637:2016 Nanotechnologies – Overview of available frameworks for the development of occupational exposure limits and bands for nano-objects and their aggregates and agglomerates (NOAAs)
ISO/TR 18638:2017 Health informatics – Guidance on health information privacy education in healthcare organizations
ISO 18649:2004 Mechanical vibration – Evaluation of measurement results from dynamic tests and investigations on bridges
ISO 18650 Building construction machinery and equipment – Concrete mixers
ISO 18650-1:2004 Part 1: Vocabulary and general specifications
ISO/IEC TS 18661 Information technology - Programming languages, their environments, and system software interfaces - Floating-point extensions for C
ISO/IEC TS 18661-1:2014 Part 1: Binary floating-point arithmetic
ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015 Part 2: Decimal floating-point arithmetic
ISO/IEC TS 18661-3:2015 Part 3: Interchange and extended types
ISO/IEC TS 18661-4:2015 Part 4: Supplementary functions
ISO/IEC TS 18661-5:2016 Part 5: Supplementary attributes
ISO 18662 Traditional Chinese medicine - Vocabulary
ISO 18662-1:2017 Part 1: Chinese Materia Medica
ISO 18665:2015 Traditional Chinese medicine – Herbal decoction apparatus
ISO 18666:2015 Traditional Chinese medicine – General requirements of moxibustion devices
ISO 18682:2016 Intelligent transport systems – External hazard detection and notification systems – Basic requirements
ISO 18739:2016 Dentistry - Vocabulary of process chain for CAD/CAM systems
ISO 18743:2015 Microbiology of the food chain – Detection of Trichinella larvae in meat by artificial digestion method
ISO 18744:2016 Microbiology of the food chain – Detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in fresh leafy green vegetables and berry fruits
ISO/IEC 18745 Information technology – Test methods for machine readable travel documents (MRTD) and associated devices
ISO/IEC 18745-1:2014 Part 1: Physical test methods for passport books (durability)
ISO/IEC 18745-2:2016 Part 2: Test methods for the contactless interface
ISO 18746:2016 Traditional Chinese medicine – Sterile intradermal acupuncture needles for single use
ISO/TS 18750:2015 Intelligent transport systems – Cooperative systems – Definition of a global concept for Local Dynamic Maps
ISO/PAS 18761:2013 Use and handling of medical devices covered by the scope of ISO/TC 84 – Risk assessment on mucocutaneous blood exposure
ISO 18774:2015 Securities and related financial instruments – Financial Instrument Short Name (FISN)
ISO 18775:2008 Veneers – Terms and definitions, determination of physical characteristics and tolerances
ISO 18777:2005 Transportable liquid oxygen systems for medical use – Particular requirements
ISO 18778:2005 Respiratory equipment – Infant monitors – Particular requirements
ISO 18788:2015 Management system for private security operations – Requirements with guidance for use
ISO/TS 18790 Health informatics – Profiling framework and classification for Traditional Medicine informatics standards development
ISO/TS 18790-1:2015 Part 1: Traditional Chinese Medicine
ISO/IEC 18809:2000 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording AIT-1 with MIC format
ISO/IEC 18810:2001 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording AIT-2 with MIC format
ISO 18812:2003 Health informatics – Clinical analyser interfaces to laboratory information systems – Use profiles
ISO/IEC TS 18822:2015 Programming languages - C++ - File System Technical Specification
ISO/TS 18827:2017 Nanotechnologies – Electron spin resonance (ESR) as a method for measuring reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by metal oxide nanomaterials
ISO 18829:2017 Document management - Assessing ECM/EDRM implementations - Trustworthiness
ISO 18831:2016 Clothing – Digital fittings – Attributes of virtual garments
ISO 18835:2015 Inhalational anaesthesia systems – Draw-over anaesthetic systems
ISO/IEC 18836:2001 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording – MammothTape-2 format
ISO 18841:2018 Interpreting services — General requirements and recommendations
ISO/TR 18845:2017 Dentistry - Test methods for machining accuracy of computer-aided milling machines
ISO/TS 18867:2015 Microbiology of the food chain – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of food-borne pathogens – Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
ISO 18875:2015 Coalbed methane exploration and development – Terms and definitions
ISO/TS 18876 Industrial automation systems and integration - Integration of industrial data for exchange, access and sharing
ISO/TS 18876-1:2003 Part 1: Architecture overview and description
ISO/TS 18876-2:2003 Part 2: Integration and mapping methodology
ISO 18878:2013 Mobile elevating work platforms – Operator (driver) training
ISO/IEC/IEEE 18880:2015 Information technology – Ubiquitous green community control network protocol
ISO/IEC/IEEE 18881:2016 Information technology – Ubiquitous green community control network – Control and management
ISO/IEC/IEEE 18882:2017 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Ubiquitous green community control network: Heterogeneous networks convergence and scalability
ISO/IEC/IEEE 18883:2016 Information technology – Ubiquitous green community control network – Security
ISO 18913:2012 Imaging materials - Permanence - Vocabulary
ISO 18921:2008 Imaging materials - Compact discs (CD-ROM) - Method for estimating the life expectancy based on the effects of temperature and relative humidity
ISO 18925:2013 Imaging materials - Optical disc media - Storage practices
ISO 18926:2012 Imaging materials - Information stored on magneto-optical (MO) discs - Method for estimating the life expectancy based on the effects of temperature and relative humidity
ISO 18927:2013 Imaging materials - Recordable compact disc systems - Method for estimating the life expectancy based on the effects of temperature and relative humidity
ISO 18933:2012 Imaging materials – Magnetic tape – Care and handling practices for extended usage
ISO 18938:2014 Imaging materials - Optical discs - Care and handling for extended storage
ISO 19000 – ISO 19999
ISO 19001:2013 In vitro diagnostic medical devices – Information supplied by the manufacturer with in vitro diagnostic reagents for staining in biology
ISO 19005 Document management – Electronic document file format for long-term preservation
ISO/TS 19006:2016 Nanotechnologies – 5-(and 6)-Chloromethyl-2’,7’ Dichloro-dihydrofluorescein diacetate (CM-H2DCF-DA) assay for evaluating nanoparticle-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line
ISO 19011:2011 Guidelines for auditing management systems
ISO 19014 Earth Moving Machinery - Functional Safety
ISO 19017:2015 Guidance for gamma spectrometry measurement of radioactive waste
ISO 19018:2004 Ships and marine technology - Terms, abbreviations, graphical symbols and concepts on navigation
ISO 19019:2005 Sea-going vessels and marine technology - Instructions for planning, carrying out and reporting sea trials
ISO 19020:2017 Microbiology of the food chain – Horizontal method for the immunoenzymatic detection of staphylococcal enterotoxins in foodstuffs
ISO/TR 19024:2016 Evaluation of CPB devices relative to their capabilities of reducing the transmission of gaseous microemboli (GME) to a patient during cardiopulmonary bypass
ISO 19028:2016 Accessible design - Information contents, figuration and display methods of tactile guide maps
ISO/TS 19036:2006 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Guidelines for the estimation of measurement uncertainty for quantitative determinations
ISO/TR 19038:2005 Banking and related financial services – Triple DEA – Modes of operation – Implementation guidelines
ISO 19045:2015 Ophthalmic optics – Contact lens care products – Method for evaluating Acanthamoeba encystment by contact lens care products
ISO 19054:2005 Rail systems for supporting medical equipment
ISO/TR 19057:2017 Nanotechnologies – Use and application of acellular in vitro tests and methodologies to assess nanomaterial biodurability
ISO/IEC 19058:2001 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Broadband Private Integrated Services Network – Inter-exchange signalling protocol – Generic functional protocol
ISO/IEC TR 19075 Information technology database languages — Guidance for the use of database language SQL
ISO 19079:2016 Intelligent transport systems – Communications access for land mobiles (CALM) – 6LoWPAN networking
ISO 19080:2016 Intelligent transport systems – Communications access for land mobiles (CALM) – CoAP facility
ISO/TR 19083 Intelligent transport systems – Emergency evacuation and disaster response and recovery
ISO/TR 19083-1:2016 Part 1: Framework and concept of operation
ISO/IEC 19086 Information technology - Cloud computing - Service level agreement (SLA) framework
ISO/IEC 19086-1:2016 Part 1: Overview and concepts
ISO/IEC 19086-3:2017 Part 3: Core conformance requirements
ISO/TS 19091:2017 Intelligent transport systems – Cooperative ITS – Using V2I and I2V communications for applications related to signalized intersections
ISO 19092:2008 Financial services – Biometrics – Security framework
ISO/IEC 19099:2014 Information technology - Virtualization Management Specification
ISO 19101 Geographic information – Reference model
ISO 19101-1:2014 Part 1: Fundamentals
ISO/TS 19101-2:2008 Part 2: Imagery
ISO/TS 19103:2015 Geographic information – Conceptual schema language
ISO/TS 19104:2016 Geographic information – Terminology
ISO 19105:2000 Geographic information – Conformance and testing
ISO 19106:2004 Geographic information – Profiles
ISO 19107:2003 Geographic information – Spatial schema
ISO 19108:2002 Geographic information – Temporal schema
ISO 19109:2015 Geographic information – Rules for application schema
ISO 19110:2016 Geographic information – Methodology for feature cataloguing
ISO 19111:2007 Geographic information – Spatial referencing by coordinates
ISO 19111-2:2009 Part 2: Extension for parametric values
ISO 19112:2003 Geographic information – Spatial referencing by geographic identifiers
ISO 19113:2002 Geographic information – Quality principles [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 19157:2013]
ISO 19114:2003 Geographic information – Quality evaluation procedures [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 19157:2013]
ISO 19115 Geographic information – Metadata
ISO 19115-1:2014 Part 1: Fundamentals
ISO 19115-2:2009 Part 2: Extensions for imagery and gridded data
ISO/TS 19115-3:2016 Part 3: XML schema implementation for fundamental concepts
ISO 19116:2004 Geographic information – Positioning services
ISO 19117:2012 Geographic information – Portrayal
ISO 19118:2011 Geographic information – Encoding
ISO 19119:2016 Geographic information – Services
ISO/TR 19120:2001 Geographic information – Functional standards
ISO/TR 19121:2000 Geographic information – Imagery and gridded data
ISO/TR 19122:2004 Geographic information / Geomatics – Qualification and certification of personnel
ISO 19123:2005 Geographic information – Schema for coverage geometry and functions
ISO 19125 Geographic information – Simple feature access
ISO 19126:2009 Geographic information – Feature concept dictionaries and registers
ISO/TS 19127:2005 Geographic information – Geodetic codes and parameters
ISO 19128:2005 Geographic information – Web map server interface
ISO/TS 19129:2009 Geographic information – Imagery, gridded and coverage data framework
ISO/TS 19130:2010 Geographic information – Imagery sensor models for geopositioning
ISO/TS 19130-2:2014 Part 2: SAR, InSAR, lidar and sonar
ISO 19131:2007 Geographic information – Data product specifications
ISO 19132:2007 Geographic information – Location-based services – Reference model
ISO 19133:2005 Geographic information – Location-based services – Tracking and navigation
ISO 19134:2007 Geographic information – Location-based services – Multimodal routing and navigation
ISO 19135 Geographic information – Procedures for item registration
ISO 19135-1:2015 Part 1: Fundamentals
ISO/TS 19135-2:2012 Part 2: XML schema implementation
ISO 19136:2007 Geographic information – Geography Markup Language (GML)
ISO 19136-2:2015 Part 2: Extended schemas and encoding rules
ISO 19137:2007 Geographic information – Core profile of the spatial schema
ISO/TS 19138:2006 Geographic information – Data quality measures [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 19157:2013]
ISO/TS 19139:2007 Geographic information – Metadata – XML schema implementation
ISO/TS 19139-2:2012 Part 2: Extensions for imagery and gridded data
ISO 19141:2008 Geographic information – Schema for moving features
ISO 19142:2010 Geographic information – Web Feature Service
ISO 19143:2010 Geographic information – Filter encoding
ISO 19144 Geographic information – Classification systems
ISO 19144-1:2009 Part 1: Classification system structure
ISO 19144-2:2012 Part 2: Land Cover Meta Language (LCML)
ISO 19145:2013 Geographic information – Registry of representations of geographic point location
ISO 19146:2010 Geographic information – Cross-domain vocabularies
ISO 19147:2015 Geographic information – Transfer Nodes
ISO 19148:2012 Geographic information – Linear referencing
ISO 19149:2011 Geographic information – Rights expression language for geographic information - GeoREL
ISO 19150 Geographic information – Ontology
ISO/TS 19150-1:2012 Part 1: Framework
ISO 19150-2:2015 Part 2: Rules for developing ontologies in the Web Ontology Language (OWL)
ISO 19152:2012 Geographic information – Land Administration Domain Model (LADM)
ISO 19153:2014 Geospatial Digital Rights Management Reference Model (GeoDRM RM)
ISO 19154:2014 Geographic information – Ubiquitous public access – Reference model
ISO 19155:2012 Geographic information – Place Identifier (PI) architecture
ISO 19155-2:2017 Part 2: Place Identifier (PI) linking
ISO 19156 Geographic information - Observations and measurements
ISO 19157:2013 Geographic information – Data quality
ISO/TS 19157-2:2016 Part 2: XML schema implementation
ISO/TS 19158:2012 Geographic information – Quality assurance of data supply
ISO/TS 19159 Geographic information – Calibration and validation of remote sensing imagery sensors and data
ISO/TS 19159-1:2014 Part 1: Optical sensors
ISO/TS 19159-2:2016 Part 2: Lidar
ISO 19160 Addressing
ISO 19160-1:2015 Part 1: Conceptual model
ISO 19162:2015 Geographic information – Well-known text representation of coordinate reference systems
ISO/TS 19163 Geographic information – Content components and encoding rules for imagery and gridded data
ISO/TS 19163-1:2016 Part 1: Content model
ISO/TR 19201:2013 Mechanical vibration – Methodology for selecting appropriate machinery vibration standards
ISO 19204:2017 Soil quality - Procedure for site-specific ecological risk assessment of soil contamination (soil quality TRIAD approach)
ISO 19213:2017 Implants for surgery – Test methods of material for use as a cortical bone model
ISO/IEC TS 19216:2018 Programming Languages – C++ Extensions for Networking
ISO/IEC TS 19217:2015 Information technology - Programming languages - C++ Extensions for concepts
ISO/TS 19218 Medical devices – Hierarchical coding structure for adverse events
ISO/TS 19218-1:2011 Part 1: Event-type codes
ISO/TS 19218-2:2012 Part 2: Evaluation codes
ISO/TR 19231:2014 Health informatics – Survey of mHealth projects in low and middle income countries (LMIC)
ISO 19233 Implants for surgery – Orthopaedic joint prosthesis
ISO 19233-1:2017 Part 1: Procedure for producing parametric 3D bone models from CT data of the knee
ISO/TR 19234:2016 Hydrometry – Low cost baffle solution to aid fish passage at triangular profile weirs that conform to ISO 4360
ISO 19238:2014 Radiological protection - Performance criteria for service laboratories performing biological dosimetry by cytogenetics
ISO/TR 19244:2014 Guidance on transition periods for standards developed by ISO/TC 84 – Devices for administration of medicinal products and catheters
ISO 19250:2010 Water quality – Detection of Salmonella spp.
ISO/TS 19256:2016 Health informatics – Requirements for medicinal product dictionary systems for health care
ISO 19262:2015 Photography - Archiving Systems - Vocabulary
ISO/TR 19263 Photography - Archiving systems
ISO/TR 19263-1:2017 Part 1: Best practices for digital image capture of cultural heritage material
ISO/TS 19264 Photography - Archiving systems - Image quality analysis
ISO/TS 19264-1:2017 Part 1: Reflective originals
ISO 19289:2015 Air quality – Meteorology – Siting classifications for surface observing stations on land
ISO/TS 19299:2015 Electronic fee collection – Security framework
ISO/TR 19300:2015 Graphic technology – Guidelines for the use of standards for print media production
ISO/TS 19321:2015 Intelligent transport systems – Cooperative ITS – Dictionary of in-vehicle information (IVI) data structures
ISO/TS 19337:2016 Nanotechnologies – Characteristics of working suspensions of nano-objects for in vitro assays to evaluate inherent nano-object toxicity
ISO 19343:2017 Microbiology of the food chain – Detection and quantification of histamine in fish and fishery products – HPLC method
ISO 19361:2017 Measurement of radioactivity - Determination of beta emitters activities - Test method using liquid scintillation counting
ISO/IEC 19369:2014 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – NFCIP-2 test methods
ISO/IEC 19395:2015 Information technology - Sustainability for and by information technology - Smart data centre resource monitoring and control
ISO 19403 Paints and varnishes – Wettability
ISO 19403-1:2017 Part 1: Terminology and general principles
ISO 19403-2:2017 Part 2: Determination of the surface free energy of solid surfaces by measuring the contact angle
ISO 19403-3:2017 Part 3: Determination of the surface tension of liquids using the pendant drop method
ISO 19403-4:2017 Part 4: Determination of the polar and dispersive fractions of the surface tension of liquids from an interfacial tension
ISO 19403-5:2017 Part 5: Determination of the polar and dispersive fractions of the surface tension of liquids from contact angles measurements on a solid with only a disperse contribution to its surface energy
ISO 19403-6:2017 Part 6: Measurement of dynamic contact angle
ISO 19403-7:2017 Part 7: Measurement of the contact angle on a tilt stage (roll-off angle)
ISO/TS 19408:2015 Footwear – Sizing – Vocabulary and terminology
ISO 19439 Enterprise integration – Framework for enterprise modelling
ISO 19440 Enterprise integration – Constructs for enterprise modelling
ISO 19443:2018 Quality management in the supply chain for the Nuclear industry, based on ISO9001, to optimize safety and quality in supplying products and services (ITNS)
ISO 19444 Document management - XML Forms Data Format
ISO 19444-1:2016 Part 1: Use of ISO 32000-2 (XFDF 3.0)
ISO 19445:2016 Graphic technology - Metadata for graphic arts workflow - XMP metadata for image and document proofing
ISO/IEC TR 19446:2015 Differences between the driving licences based on the ISO/IEC 18013 series and the European Union specifications
ISO/IEC 19459:2001 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Private Integrated Services Network – Specification, functional model and information flows – Single Step Call Transfer Supplementary Service
ISO/IEC 19460:2003 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Private Integrated Services Network – Inter-exchange signalling protocol – Single Step Call Transfer supplementary service
ISO/IEC 19464:2014 Information technology – Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) v1.0 specification
ISO 19465:2017 Traditional Chinese medicine - Categories of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) clinical terminological systems
ISO 19467:2017 Thermal performance of windows and doors - Determination of solar heat gain coefficient using solar simulator
ISO/CIE 19476:2014 Characterization of the performance of illuminance meters and luminance meters
ISO/TR 19480:2005 Polyethylene pipes and fittings for the supply of gaseous fuels or water – Training and assessment of fusion operators
ISO 19496 Vitreous and porcelain enamels - Terminology
ISO 19496-1:2017 Part 1: Terms and definitions
ISO 19496-2:2017 Part 2: Visual representations and descriptions
ISO/TR 19498:2015 Ophthalmic optics and instruments – Correlation of optotypes
ISO/IEC 19500 Information technology - Object Management Group - Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)
ISO/IEC 19500-1:2012 Part 1: Interfaces
ISO/IEC 19500-2:2012 Part 2: Interoperability
ISO/IEC 19500-3:2012 Part 3: Components
ISO/IEC 19501 Information technology – Open Distributed Processing – Unified Modeling Language (UML) Version 1.4.2
ISO/IEC 19502 Information technology – Meta Object Facility (MOF)
ISO/IEC 19503 Information technology – XML Metadata Interchange (XMI)
ISO/IEC 19505 Information technology - Object Management Group Unified Modeling Language (OMG UML)
ISO/IEC 19505-1:2012 Part 1: Infrastructure
ISO/IEC 19505-2:2012 Part 2: Superstructure
ISO/IEC 19506:2012 Information technology—Object Management Group Architecture-Driven Modernization (ADM) - Knowledge Discovery Meta-Model (KDM)
ISO/IEC 19507:2012 Information technology - Object Management Group Object Constraint Language (OCL)
ISO/IEC 19508:2014 Information technology - Object Management Group Meta Object Facility (MOF) Core
ISO/IEC 19509:2014 Information technology - Object Management Group XML Metadata Interchange (XMI)
ISO/IEC 19510:2013 Information technology - Object Management Group Business Process Model and Notation
ISO/IEC 19514:2017 Information technology - Object management group systems modeling language (OMG SysML)
ISO/IEC 19516:2020 Information technology — Object management group — Interface definition language (IDL) 4.2
ISO/IEC TR 19566 Information technology - JPEG Systems
ISO/IEC TR 19566-1:2016 Part 1: Packaging of information using codestreams and file formats
ISO/IEC TR 19566-2:2016 Part 2: Transport mechanisms and packaging
ISO/IEC TS 19568:2017 Programming Languages - C++ Extensions for Library Fundamentals
ISO/IEC TS 19570:2018 Programming Languages – Technical Specification for C++ Extensions for Parallelism
ISO/IEC TS 19571:2016 Programming Languages - Technical specification for C++ extensions for concurrency
ISO/TS 19590:2017 Nanotechnologies – Size distribution and concentration of inorganic nanoparticles in aqueous media via single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
ISO/IEC 19592 Information technology - Security techniques - Secret sharing
ISO/IEC 19592-1:2016 Part 1: General
ISO 19600 Compliance management systems - Guidelines
ISO/TR 19601:2017 Nanotechnologies – Aerosol generation for air exposure studies of nano-objects and their aggregates and agglomerates (NOAA)
ISO 19611:2017 Traditional Chinese medicine – Air extraction cupping device
ISO 19614:2017 Traditional Chinese medicine – Pulse graph force transducer
ISO/IEC 19637:2016 Information technology – Sensor network testing framework
ISO/TR 19639:2015 Electronic fee collection – Investigation of EFC standards for common payment schemes for multi-modal transport services
ISO 19649:2017 Mobile robots - Vocabulary
ISO/TR 19664:2017 Human response to vibration – Guidance and terminology for instrumentation and equipment for the assessment of daily vibration exposure at the workplace according to the requirements of health and safety
ISO/IEC 19678:2015 Information Technology - BIOS Protection Guidelines
ISO 19709 Transport packaging - Small load container systems
ISO 19709-1:2016 Part 1: Common requirements and test methods
ISO/TS 19709-2:2016 Part 2: Column Stackable System (CSS)
ISO/TS 19709-3:2016 Part 3: Bond Stackable System (BSS)
ISO/TR 19716:2016 Nanotechnologies – Characterization of cellulose nanocrystals
ISO 19719:2010 Machine tools - Work holding chucks - Vocabulary
ISO 19720 Building construction machinery and equipment – Plants for the preparation of concrete and mortar
ISO 19720-1:2017 Part 1: Terminology and commercial specifications
ISO/TR 19727:2017 Medical devices – Pump tube spallation test – General procedure
ISO 19731:2017 Digital analytics and web analyses for purposes of market, opinion and social research - Vocabulary and service requirements
ISO/IEC 19752 Information technology – Method for the determination of toner cartridge yield for monochromatic electrophotographic printers and multi-function devices that contain printer components
ISO/IEC TR 19755:2003 Information technology - Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces - Object finalization for programming language COBOL
ISO/IEC 19756:2011 Information technology - Topic Maps - Constraint Language (TMCL)
ISO/IEC 19757 Information technology – Document Schema Definition Languages (DSDL)
ISO/IEC 19757-2:2008 Part 2: Regular-grammar-based validation – RELAX NG
ISO/IEC 19757-3:2016 Part 3: Rule-based validation – Schematron
ISO/IEC 19757-4:2006 Part 4: Namespace-based Validation Dispatching Language (NVDL)
ISO/IEC 19757-5:2011 Part 5: Extensible Datatypes
ISO/IEC 19757-7:2009 Part 7: Character Repertoire Description Language (CREPDL)
ISO/IEC 19757-8:2008 Part 8: Document Semantics Renaming Language (DSRL)
ISO/IEC 19757-11:2011 Part 11: Schema association
ISO/IEC TR 19758:2003 Information technology - Document description and processing languages - DSSSL library for complex compositions
ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015 Software Engineering - Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)
ISO/IEC 19761:2011 Software engineering - COSMIC: a functional size measurement method
ISO/IEC 19762:2016 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) techniques - Harmonized vocabulary
ISO/IEC 19763 Information technology - Metamodel framework for interoperability (MFI)
ISO/IEC 19763-1:2015 Part 1: Framework
ISO/IEC 19763-3:2010 Part 3: Metamodel for ontology registration
ISO/IEC 19763-5:2015 Part 5: Metamodel for process model registration
ISO/IEC 19763-6:2015 Part 6: Registry Summary
ISO/IEC 19763-7:2015 Part 7: Metamodel for service model registration
ISO/IEC 19763-8:2015 Part 8: Metamodel for role and goal model registration
ISO/IEC TR 19763-9:2015 Part 9: On demand model selection
ISO/IEC 19763-10:2014 Part 10: Core model and basic mapping
ISO/IEC 19763-12:2015 Part 12: Metamodel for information model registration
ISO/IEC TS 19763-13:2016 Part 13: Metamodel for form design registration
ISO/IEC TR 19764:2005 Information technology – Guidelines, methodology and reference criteria for cultural and linguistic adaptability in information technology products
ISO/IEC TR 19768:2007 Information technology - Programming languages - Technical Report on C++ Library Extensions
ISO/IEC 19770 Information technology – Software asset management
ISO/IEC 19772:2009 Information technology - Security techniques - Authenticated encryption
ISO/IEC 19773:2011 Information technology - Metadata Registries (MDR) modules
ISO/IEC 19774:2006 Information technology - Computer graphics and image processing - Humanoid Animation (H-Anim)
ISO/IEC 19775 Information technology—Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation—Extensible 3D (X3D)
ISO/IEC 19775-1:2013 Part 1: Architecture and base components
ISO/IEC 19775-2:2015 Part 2: Scene access interface (SAI)
ISO/IEC 19776 Information technology - Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation - Extensible 3D (X3D) encodings
ISO/IEC 19776-1:2015 Part 1: Extensible Markup Language (XML) encoding
ISO/IEC 19776-2:2015 Part 2: Classic VRML encoding
ISO/IEC 19776-3:2015 Part 3: Compressed binary encoding
ISO/IEC 19777 Information technology - Computer graphics and image processing - Extensible 3D (X3D) language bindings
ISO/IEC 19777-1:2006 Part 1: ECMAScript
ISO/IEC 19777-2:2006 Part 2: Java
ISO/IEC 19778 Information technology - Learning, education and training - Collaborative technology - Collaborative workplace
ISO/IEC 19778-1:2015 Part 1: Collaborative workplace data model
ISO/IEC 19778-2:2015 Part 2: Collaborative environment data model
ISO/IEC 19778-3:2015 Part 3: Collaborative group data model
ISO/IEC 19780 Information technology - Learning, education and training - Collaborative technology - Collaborative learning communication
ISO/IEC 19780-1:2015 Part 1: Text-based communication
ISO/IEC TR 19782:2006 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Effects of gloss and low substrate opacity on reading of bar code symbols
ISO/IEC 19784 Information technology – Biometric application programming interface
ISO/IEC 19784-1:2006 Part 1: BioAPI specification
ISO/IEC 19784-2:2007 Part 2: Biometric archive function provider interface
ISO/IEC 19784-4:2011 Part 4: Biometric sensor function provider interface
ISO/IEC 19785 Information technology – Common Biometric Exchange Formats Framework
ISO/IEC 19785-1:2015 Part 1: Data element specification
ISO/IEC 19785-2:2006 Part 2: Procedures for the operation of the Biometric Registration Authority
ISO/IEC 19785-3:2015 Part 3: Patron format specifications
ISO/IEC 19785-4:2010 Part 4: Security block format specifications
ISO/IEC 19788 Information technology – Learning, education and training – Metadata for learning resources
ISO/IEC 19790:2012 Information technology – Security techniques – Security requirements for cryptographic modules
ISO/IEC TR 19791:2010 Information technology - Security techniques - Security assessment of operational systems
ISO/IEC 19792:2009 Information technology - Security techniques - Security evaluation of biometrics
ISO/IEC 19793 Information technology - Open Distributed Processing—Use of UML for ODP system specifications
ISO/IEC 19794 Information technology – Biometric data interchange formats
ISO/IEC 19794-1:2011 Part 1: Framework
ISO/IEC 19794-2:2011 Part 2: Finger minutiae data
ISO/IEC 19794-3:2006 Part 3: Finger pattern spectral data
ISO/IEC 19794-4:2011 Part 4: Finger image data
ISO/IEC 19794-5:2011 Part 5: Face image data
ISO/IEC 19794-6:2011 Part 6: Iris image data
ISO/IEC 19794-7:2014 Part 7: Signature/sign time series data
ISO/IEC 19794-8:2011 Part 8: Finger pattern skeletal data
ISO/IEC 19794-9:2011 Part 9: Vascular image data
ISO/IEC 19794-10:2007 Part 10: Hand geometry silhouette data
ISO/IEC 19794-11:2013 Part 11: Signature/sign processed dynamic data
ISO/IEC 19794-14:2013 Part 14: DNA data
ISO/IEC 19794-15:2017 Part 15: Palm crease image data
ISO/IEC 19795 Information technology – Biometric performance testing and reporting
ISO/IEC 19795-1:2006 Part 1: Principles and framework
ISO/IEC 19795-2:2007 Part 2: Testing methodologies for technology and scenario evaluation
ISO/IEC TR 19795-3:2007 Part 3: Modality-specific testing
ISO/IEC 19795-4:2008 Part 4: Interoperability performance testing
ISO/IEC 19795-5:2011 Part 5: Access control scenario and grading scheme
ISO/IEC 19795-6:2012 Part 6: Testing methodologies for operational evaluation
ISO/IEC 19795-7:2011 Part 7: Testing of on-card biometric comparison algorithms
ISO/IEC 19796 Information technology - Learning, education and training - Quality management, assurance and metrics
ISO/IEC 19796-1:2005 Part 1: General approach
ISO/IEC 19796-3:2009 Part 3: Reference methods and metrics
ISO/TR 19814:2017 Information and documentation - Collections management for archives and libraries
ISO/IEC 19831:2015 Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface (CIMI) Model and RESTful HTTP-based Protocol – An Interface for Managing Cloud Infrastructure
ISO/TR 19838:2016 Microbiology – Cosmetics – Guidelines for the application of ISO standards on Cosmetic Microbiology
ISO/IEC TS 19841:2015 Technical Specification for C++ Extensions for Transactional Memory
ISO/TS 19844:2016 Health informatics – Identification of medicinal products – Implementation guidelines for data elements and structures for the unique identification and exchange of regulated information on substances
ISO/IEC 19845:2015 Information technology - Universal business language version 2.1 (UBL v2.1)
ISO 19859:2016 Gas turbine applications – Requirements for power generation
ISO 19891 Ships and marine technology - Specifications for gas detectors intended for use on board ships
ISO 19891-1:2017 Part 1: Portable gas detectors for atmosphere testing of enclosed spaces
ISO/TR 19948:2016 Earth-moving machinery – Conformity assessment and certification process
ISO 19952:2005 Footwear – Vocabulary
ISO/TS 19979:2014 Ophthalmic optics – Contact lenses – Hygienic management of multipatient use trial contact lenses
ISO 19980:2012 Ophthalmic instruments – Corneal topographers
ISO/IEC 19987:2015 Information technology - EPC Information services - Specification
ISO/IEC 19988:2015 Information technology - GS1 Core Business Vocabulary (CBV)
ISO 19993 Timber structures—Glued laminated timber—Face and edge joint cleavage test
Notes
References
External links
International Organization for Standardization
ISO Certification Provider
ISO Consultant
International Organization for Standardization |
59356113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KeepSolid | KeepSolid | KeepSolid VPN Unlimited is a personal virtual private network software developed by KeepSolid Inc. It was founded in 2018 in New York.
Features
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited applies AES-128 and AES-256 encryption to the user traffic. For the cryptographic handshake, it uses a Diffie-Hellman method (DH) with a minimum of 4096-bit key, and Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman 256-bit protocol (ECDHE). Depending on the platform, the software also offers a number of VPN protocols to choose from: OpenVPN, L2TP/IPsec, and IKEv2.
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited is available for iOS, Android, macOS, Windows, Linux, Windows Phone, Apple TV, as well as Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome browsers.
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited utilizes a proprietary solution named KeepSolid Wise, intended to allow the software to bypass VPN blocking. The technology routes the VPN traffic via TCP 443 and UDP 33434 ports, which makes the traffic harder to detect and block.
Additional features
In addition to basic VPN functionality, KeepSolid VPN Unlimited offers several extensions:
Personal VPN Server. A dedicated VPN server. It provides users with better connection speed due to the fact that its whole capacity is used by a single profile.
Personal Static IP. Normally, VPN users are assigned random IP addresses with each session, which can cause certain inconvenience on websites that forbid dynamic IPs. Personal static IP is meant to fix this problem by binding a single IP to a user’s account.
Additional devices per account. By default, KeepSolid VPN Unlimited only supports up to 5 devices per a single user account. Adding more devices is possible as an extension.
Business VPN solution. With KeepSolid VPN Unlimited being designed with private users in mind, its corporate-oriented counterpart Business VPN is marketed at SMEs.
Servers
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited is claimed to have servers in over 70 countries with over 400 servers, including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Ireland, Isle of Man, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Romania, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States.
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited claims to provide high-quality, secure servers, and to strive to develop their server presence. Along with common VPN servers, the software features 3 streaming servers - for Netflix, BBC iPlayer, and Hulu, respectively. While torrents are forbidden on most of the servers, at least 5 servers officially allow torrenting.
Reception
KeepSolid VPN Unlimited was founded in 2013, starting off with 2 servers in the USA and the Netherlands and being available only for iOS. The initial reception was mixed - reviewers noted the software’s fast performance and connection speeds, intuitive interface, and affordable pricing, but expressing security and privacy concerns. Since then, KeepSolid has addressed the reported issues to some extent. They have published an article on their blog, explaining why they considered some of the criticism to currently be at variance with the facts, while also recognizing some of it. A number of critics have also noticed an improvement in the quality of KeepSolid VPN Unlimited service.
As of now, KeepSolid VPN Unlimited maintains an average rating of 4/5 on Mac App store, iOS App Store, Google Play, and other stores. In 2017-2018, it was rated from “above average” to “high” by local and international reviewers and users. PCMag rated KeepSolid VPN Unlimited among the top Windows and iOS VPN apps, due to its performance in testing.
Other products
KeepSolid Sign is an e-signature app, which is used to legally electronically sign contract and agreements.
Roadmap Planner is an online and offline tool that offers a way to see “a helicopter view” of the projects in its timeline, keep track of parallel ongoing tasks, check big events, and share ideas with members of a team.
Private Browser is a browser for smartphones (both iOS and Android-based), which employs a VPN technology to encrypt users traffic.
KeepSolid Goals is a project management tool to set goals with mind maps, break them down into tasks, collaborate with teams in projects and hit results.
VPN Lite is a freemium service that doesn’t require registration and also features a turbo streaming server in the paid version.
Fammle is a family organizer which helps to manage busy schedules and keep all the family matters in one app.
KeepSolid SmartDNS is a service gives access to regionally blocked websites and prevents speed drops while browsing the web.
References
Virtual private network services
Software companies established in 2013 |
59491648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PewDiePie%20vs%20T-Series | PewDiePie vs T-Series | PewDiePie vs T-Series was an online rivalry between two YouTube channels, PewDiePie (run by Felix Kjellberg) and T-Series (run by an Indian record company of the same name) for the title of the most-subscribed YouTube channel. T-Series has held the title of most-viewed YouTube channel since February 2017, and PewDiePie had been the most-subscribed YouTube channel since August 2013. The rivalry between the two YouTube channels began when T-Series' subscriber count began to near PewDiePie's in late 2018.
Many YouTubers voiced their support for PewDiePie, including Markiplier, Jacksepticeye, MrBeast, DanTDM, KSI, H3h3Productions and Logan Paul. Many of his fans made efforts to gain subscribers for his YouTube channel in numerous ways, including organised marches and supportive YouTube videos. Supporters of PewDiePie often used the slogan "Subscribe to PewDiePie". The activism of some supporters extended beyond legal grounds; vandalism, hacking of websites, social media accounts, personal devices and the creation of malware had taken place to urge people to subscribe. "Bitch Lasagna", a diss track by PewDiePie, and use of anti-Indian remarks by his fans, led to several prominent Indian YouTubers publicly opposing PewDiePie and backing T-Series with YouTube videos and response diss tracks.
T-Series temporarily overtook PewDiePie in subscribers on numerous occasions in 2019. On 28 April 2019, PewDiePie released a video calling for his supporters to end their efforts to keep him as the most subscribed YouTube channel, and with the significant lead now held by T-Series, the competition is generally presumed to have ended with T-Series winning.
Background and overview
Felix Kjellberg, better known online as PewDiePie, is a Swedish YouTuber who makes comedic videos. He has traditionally been known for his Let's Play videos, and his channel was the most subscribed on YouTube from 15 August 2013 until 22 February 2019, when he was surpassed by T-Series, although PewDiePie took back the title shortly after approximately 8 minutes. His fan base at the time of the competition was generally known as the "9-year-old army".
T-Series is an Indian music record label and film production company. On YouTube, it has a multi-channel network consisting of 29 channels (excluding Lahari Music), run by a team of 13 people. The main T-Series channel primarily contains Indian music videos (Bollywood music and Indi-pop) as well as Bollywood film trailers, and releases several videos every day, having uploaded over 13 thousand videos as of August 2019.
The competition between the two channels began after T-Series began to near PewDiePie in subscribers in late 2018. T-Series temporarily overtook PewDiePie in subscribers on numerous occasions in early 2019, and on 27 March 2019, it became the most subscribed YouTube channel for five consecutive days, before PewDiePie regained the lead. PewDiePie then held the lead for 2 weeks, before T-Series passed him permanently, reaching 100 million subscribers on 29 May 2019.
Activism
Support of PewDiePie
From YouTubers
The first prominent YouTuber to support PewDiePie was MrBeast, who bought billboards and radio advertisements in North Carolina urging people to subscribe to PewDiePie's channel. He also created a video of himself saying "PewDiePie" 100,000 times in a period of over 12 hours. MrBeast and his friends attended Super Bowl LIII, wearing T-shirts reading "Sub 2 PewDiePie". The group was prominently displayed in an ESPN tweet after Stephen Gostkowski had missed a field goal during the first quarter.
Other prominent YouTubers such as Markiplier, Jacksepticeye and Logan Paul made videos or tweets announcing their support for PewDiePie in the competition, often under the slogan "Subscribe to PewDiePie". YouTuber Justin Roberts, a member of the group Team 10, bought a billboard in New York's Times Square reading the same. Markiplier made a tongue-in-cheek live stream titled "I literally won't shut up until you subscribe to PewDiePie" urging his viewers to subscribe to PewDiePie's channel. Jacksepticeye ran a live stream with the same purpose, jokingly threatening to delete his channel if T-Series surpassed PewDiePie.
Smaller YouTubers also promoted PewDiePie. In reaction to MrBeast's advertising campaign, Saimandar Waghdhare, an independent Indian YouTuber with the channel "Saiman Says", responded to MrBeast's advertising campaign by posting a sarcastic video in which he pretends to support T-Series, later releasing a video in which he instead declares his support to PewDiePie. Musician Davie504 flew from Hong Kong to Noida and played "Bitch Lasagna", PewDiePie's satirical diss track against T-Series, outside their headquarters on a bass guitar.
YouTube Rewind 2018: Everyone Controls Rewind, the 2018 video edition of the annual YouTube Rewind series, became the most-disliked video on the platform after heavy backlash. One of the cited reasons for the criticism was the lack of coverage of the competition between PewDiePie and T-Series. YouTuber Jaiden Animations, however, had contributed to the video, and her animation included several hidden icons and objects related to PewDiePie.
Hackings
A hacker under the pseudonym "HackerGiraffe" sent print jobs to around 50,000 vulnerable printers in November, and another hacker under the pseudonym "j3ws3r" did the same to around 80,000 printers in December. Messages were printed out saying "PewDiePie is in trouble and he needs your help to defeat T-Series!" and urged printer users to subscribe to PewDiePie, unsubscribe from T-Series, and fix their printer's security settings. HackerGiraffe claimed that he had discovered more than 800,000 vulnerable printers using the search engine Shodan used for finding vulnerable devices. In January 2019, more than 65,000 of Google's Chromecast streaming dongles were hacked by HackerGiraffe and j3ws3r, displaying a message on smart TVs urging people to subscribe to PewDiePie and adjust their security settings. However, despite positive feedback from some people, one of the hackers anonymously revealed to the BBC that he suffered a breakdown due to the prospect of facing jail time and angry messages urging him to commit suicide, but did not regret lowering the number of vulnerable personal devices. Also in January, dozens of Nest cameras were compromised by a hacker under the pseudonym "SydeFX" using credential stuffing, who spoke to victims through the cameras, demanding they subscribe to PewDiePie.
Hacking was not limited to hardware. In December 2018, one of the Wall Street Journal websites was hacked to display a message apologizing for articles accusing PewDiePie of anti-Semitism and to tell readers to subscribe to his YouTube channel. The hacker j3ws3r also took down T-Series' website with a denial-of-service attack. In February 2019, Bob Buckhorn, the mayor of Tampa, Florida, had his Twitter account hacked to post malicious tweets, one of these encouraging users to subscribe to PewDiePie. On 22 March 2019, a user on the PewDiePie subreddit developed ransomware by the name PewCrypt that encrypted files on Microsoft Windows machines. The attacker claimed he would release an encryption key when PewDiePie hit the 100 million subscriber milestone, however, the author claimed that if T-Series claimed that goal first, the decryption tool would be deleted permanently.
Other activism
On 4 November 2018, a group of young fans began to hand out posters in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, which PewDiePie acknowledged in a YouTube video. On 27 February 2019, Basketball Club Žalgiris based in Kaunas, Lithuania, had cheerleaders performing "Bitch Lasagna" during a time-out.
Several marches were held in support of PewDiePie. On 27 February 2019, a parade was held in Tallinn, Estonia in support of PewDiePie. Up to several hundreds of people took part in the march, which went through Tallinn's Old Town and other busy areas of the city centre. During the 2019 India–Pakistan standoff, T-Series removed the music of Pakistani pop artists from its channel. In response, there was a march in Pakistan where protesters held signs reading "Unsubscribe T-Series" and expressed their support for PewDiePie. On 10 March 2019, a rally was held in Moscow for internet freedom, coordinated by the Libertarian Party of Russia. During the rally protesters played "Bitch Lasagna" and held signs which read "Sub to PewDiePie".
On 12 March 2019, indie game developer Thomas Brush released a video game on itch.io based on PewDiePie vs T-Series called Zero Deaths, which takes place in a post-apocalyptic setting where PewDiePie must defend Marzia Bisognin, his wife, from fake YouTube subscribers known as "sub bots".
On 29 April 2019, a plane flew over New York City with a banner attached saying "Subscribe to PewDiePie". More than 21,000 people watched PewDiePie's live stream on DLive showing the plane with its banner fly over the city. During the live stream, PewDiePie said that the event (which happened after his request to end efforts against T-Series) was "a nice little wrap up" to the Subscribe to PewDiePie meme. The flight and banner, which cost more than $4,500, were crowdfunded by PewDiePie's fanbase.
The right-wing populist UK Independence Party announced their support for PewDiePie in a tweet. In an October 2019 interview with Kevin Roose of The New York Times, Kjellberg said of UKIP's support that "It's kind of funny how a political party would post about a meme" but that "it's also kind of like, Ehh, don't drag me into your politics."
Criminal acts
Although PewDiePie told his fans not to do "anything illegal" in their activism, some supporters committed criminal acts of vandalism to spread the "Subscribe to PewDiePie" meme. In March 2019, the Brooklyn War Memorial was vandalized with graffiti reading "Subscribe to PewDiePie". The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation said that they would remove it. PewDiePie later condemned the action, and stated that he had made a donation to the park. Another vandalism case occurred two days prior when "SUB 2 pewdiepie" was written on a school's property in Oxford, United Kingdom.
In the moments leading up to the 15 March 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, the perpetrator said, "Remember lads, subscribe to PewDiePie", as he live-streamed the shootings.
Support of T-Series
The rivalry between PewDiePie and T-Series received more attention in India due to controversial actions by PewDiePie and his fans. PewDiePie's "Bitch Lasagna" diss track contained some derogatory lyrics about Indian people that some Indians found offensive. Many of PewDiePie's fans had engaged in negatively spamming and trolling the T-Series channel, which included swarming T-Series' videos with PewDiePie-related comments, disliking videos, and flagging their videos with false reports. A number of PewDiePie's fans and supporters had also been making anti-Indian remarks and using racial slurs.
The actions of such fans led to several independent Indian YouTubers announcing their opposition to PewDiePie and support for T-Series. In November 2018, Indian-Canadian comedian and YouTuber Jus Reign uploaded a video called "In Defense of T-Series", where he talks about T-Series, mentions his childhood listening to their music, and shows a short music video at the end celebrating T-Series. In response to PewDiePie's "Bitch Lasagna" diss track, several Indian YouTubers responded with their own Hindi-language diss tracks against PewDiePie. Tatva K released his diss track "Pew Ki Pie" in November 2018, followed by Asif Bantaye releasing his diss track "PENDUBHAI" in December 2018. On 1 January 2019, Indian YouTuber CarryMinati, released a diss track called "Bye PewDiePie", which garnered nearly 5million views in 24 hours.
Response
PewDiePie
In August 2018, PewDiePie posted a video titled "this channel will overtake PewDiePie" in which he jokingly rallied his fans against T-Series. The video also referenced the KSI vs. Logan Paul YouTube boxing match, which similarly involved a rivalry between two major YouTubers. On 5 October 2018, PewDiePie, in collaboration with musician Party In Backyard, posted a diss track against T-Series, titled "Bitch Lasagna". The title of the song is in reference to a viral Facebook Messenger screenshot, in which an Indian man, in broken English, demands nude photos of a Western woman, and when his requests remain unanswered, refers to her as "bitch lasagna". In the song, he insults T-Series and their video contents, makes references to contemporary Indian stereotypes and accuses the company of using sub bots to gain false subscriptions.
After he was asked about his "serious opinions" about the situation, PewDiePie said: "I don't really care about T-Series, I genuinely don't, but I think if YouTube does shift in a way where it does feel more corporate, [then] something else will take its place. I think people enjoy this connection so much, I think something else will just show up, if it feels too corporate." He also blamed YouTube for a lack of support toward individual YouTubers. Speaking to Metro in November 2018, PewDiePie said that he was "surprised no one has stepped up sooner", referring to T-Series competing for the most-subscribed spot.
In December 2018, PewDiePie made a video calling on his viewers to support the Indian non-governmental organization Child Rights and You, in response to some of his fans' anti-Indian sentiment. In the video, Kjellberg says "No more 'f*ck India', let's (instead) help India." He raised , including a donation by Minecraft creator Markus Persson, and also ran a charity live stream the next day.
On 3 February 2019, PewDiePie live-streamed himself playing Fortnite on YouTube in an attempt to stop T-Series from surpassing him. He later ran two more live streams for the same purpose, playing Roblox on one occasion, and minigames in Minecraft on another.
On 27 March 2019, T-Series surpassed PewDiePie. Following this, PewDiePie suggested through Twitter that the "winner" of the competition would be whoever reached 100 million subscribers first. On 31 March, he posted another diss track: an upbeat synth-pop/hip-hop music video with YouTubers RoomieOfficial and Boyinaband, titled "Congratulations", which sarcastically congratulated T-Series for surpassing him. In the music video, PewDiePie mocks how T-Series sent him a cease and desist letter alleging that his actions and lyrics of "Bitch Lasagna" were defamatory. The video also criticizes T-Series for alleged tax evasion and the fact that the company was founded through the selling of pirated songs. Following PewDiePie's upload of the song, he regained the number one spot.
On 28 April 2019, PewDiePie requested in a video that his viewers end the "Subscribe to PewDiePie" meme, stating that it "started out of love and support, so let's end it with that." He also discussed the mental toll the Christchurch shooter's mention of his name had on him, stating "to have my name associated with something so unspeakably vile has affected me in more ways than I've let shown. I just didn't want to address it right away, and I didn't want to give the terrorist more attention. I didn't want to make it about me, because I don't think it has anything to do with me. To put it plainly, I didn't want hate to win ... But it's clear to me now the 'Subscribe to PewDiePie' movement should have ended then."
PewDiePie tweeted that he felt "sickened" to have his name uttered by the attacker, and expressed his condolences to the victims' loved ones. Those who had helped to popularize the meme, like Ethan Klein, were repulsed that the phrase had been used as a call to arms by the attacker, and urged people to stop spreading the meme, hoping that it would die out. The perpetrator of the 27 April 2019 Poway synagogue shooting also mentioned PewDiePie, claiming without evidence that the shooting was planned and financed by PewDiePie.
Following the 2019 Christchurch shootings, Kevin Roose of The New York Times wrote that the perpetrator's goal behind saying "subscribe to PewDiePie" during his livestream of the attack "may have been to pull a popular internet figure into a fractious blame game and inflame political tensions everywhere." CNN-News18 reported a tweet cautioning that the shooter's intended consequence was that haters of PewDiePie would be inclined to blame PewDiePie rather than the shooter in order to "further [the accusers'] political agenda."
T-Series
In September 2018, T-Series president and head of its digital division Neeraj Kalyan said "It's a matter of pride for all Indians that an Indian YouTube Channel will soon be world's biggest channel on YouTube". He also addressed PewDiePie fans, stating "No amount of spamming will be able to hold back the power of good music." Kalyan further added that the channel's overseas viewership had increased as a result of the subscriber race, stating that "people in the West, or in the East as far as Japan were not even aware of us. They now know about us because of all that controversy."
T-Series chairman and managing director Bhushan Kumar, son of late founder Gulshan Kumar, told the BBC in December 2018 that he had never heard of PewDiePie until "a few months ago". He stated he was "really not bothered about this race" and voiced his confusion as to why PewDiePie was "taking this so seriously", adding that they were "not competing with him." In February 2019, Kumar was reported by The Washington Post to have said that "Everybody knows T-Series across the world now. If we had become number one on our own, nobody would have known about us."
On 6 March 2019, Kumar tweeted "We're on the brink of becoming the world's biggest @YouTube channel. We can make history. We can make India win. Subscribe to @TSeries", posting a video encouraging Indians to subscribe to T-Series' channel. In the video, he stated "this is a historic movement for all of us, so let's come together and subscribe to T-Series' YouTube channel and make India proud."
In April 2019, T-Series sought a court order from the Delhi High Court to remove PewDiePie's diss tracks from YouTube. Despite PewDiePie's statement that these diss tracks were "done in good fun", the court issued a temporary injunction in favour of T-Series on 8 April 2019. The complaint against Kjellberg claimed that his songs were "defamatory, disparaging, insulting, and offensive," and noted that comments on the videos were "abusive, vulgar, and also racist in nature." Access to the diss tracks on YouTube was blocked in India. In August 2019, it was reported that T-Series and PewDiePie had settled their legal disputes outside of court.
In an May 2019 interview with Sangeeta Tanwar from Quartz India, when asked the question "What does being the number one channel on YouTube mean to you? Does it help business?" Kumar responded saying:
YouTube
Referring to T-Series' rise to prominence on YouTube, YouTube Asia Pacific's managing director Gautam Anand told The New York Times: "As more and more of India came along, video became the way that they were interacting with the internet", mentioning that 85 percent of Indian internet users used YouTube. He furthered, "Even if you're not literate, you still enjoy watching video", and mentioned: "India is a really great bright spot. It's one of the fastest-growing markets even within Asia."
On 13 December 2018, YouTube removed a large number of bot and inactive subscribers from the platform. The change affected the subscriber count of both channels in the competition: PewDiePie lost over 40,000 subscribers and T-Series lost more than 200,000 subscribers from its main channel.
Media
Anthony Cuthbertson of The Independent described the rivalry as a shift in how established media companies viewed YouTube. The Guardians Nosheen Iqbal described T-Series as "a challenger from the streets of Delhi", referring to the origins of its founder Gulshan Kumar, who was a fruit juice seller when he founded the company.
Vox's Aja Romano noted that the competition represented the growing divide of subcultures on YouTube—on one side were the creators who had developed their own channels over the course of YouTube's history, and on the other side corporations who used YouTube as a platform to advertise their shows from external platforms.
Patricia Hernandez of The Verge compared the rivalry to the KSI vs Logan Paul YouTube boxing match. She described PewDiePie's antagonism as "all for show" and stated that "rivalries play a huge role on YouTube because they give viewers narratives where pseudo-heroes and villains exist with low (if any) stakes."
The Washington Post reported that the success of T-Series represented the fast growth of Internet in India, with an increase from 20 million Indians with Internet access in 2000 to 560 million in 2018. The Post noted that India became the second-largest mobile phone market in 2018, and highlighted mobile data plans in India, noting the importance of voice technology because of the low rate of literacy in India. Journalist Ravi Agrawal said that India quickly progressed to cheap mobile phones by skipping slower initial technological advances in the west. Vice reported that T-Series' success lay in focusing on regional audiences and having no competitors in online music in India.
References
External links
PewDiePie vs T-Series live subscription count by Social Blade
2018 controversies
2019 controversies
2018 in Internet culture
2019 in Internet culture
Internet in India
Internet in Sweden
Internet memes introduced in 2018
T-Series vs PewDiePie
Rivalry
T-Series (company)
YouTube
YouTube controversies
2010s fads and trends
Mass media rivalries |
59576301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20International%20Organization%20for%20Standardization%20standards%2C%2022000-23999 | List of International Organization for Standardization standards, 22000-23999 | This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue.
The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC1) have been made freely and publicly available.
ISO 22000 – ISO 22999
ISO 22000:2018 Food safety management systems – Requirements for any organization in the food chain
ISO/TS 22002 Prerequisite programmes on food safety
ISO/TS 22002-1:2009 Part 1: Food manufacturing
ISO/TS 22002-2:2013 Part 2: Catering
ISO/TS 22002-3:2011 Part 3: Farming
ISO/TS 22002-4:2013 Part 4: Food packaging manufacturing
ISO/TS 22002-5:2019 Part 5: Transport and storage
ISO/TS 22002-6:2016 Part 6: Feed and animal food production
ISO/TS 22003:2013 Food safety management systems – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of food safety management systems
ISO 22004:2014 Food safety management systems – Guidance on the application of ISO 22000
ISO 22005:2007 Traceability in the feed and food chain – General principles and basic requirements for system design and implementation
ISO 22006:2009 Quality management systems - Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2008 to crop production)
ISO/IEC 22050:2002 Information technology – Data interchange on 12,7 mm, 384-track magnetic tape cartridges – Ultrium-1 format
ISO/IEC 22051:2002 Information technology – Data interchange on 12,7 mm, 448-track magnetic tape cartridges – SDLT1 format
ISO 22077 Health informatics – Medical waveform format
ISO 22077-1:2015 Part 1: Encoding rules
ISO/TS 22077-2:2015 Part 2: Electrocardiography
ISO/TS 22077-3:2015 Part 3: Long term electrocardiography
ISO/IEC 22091:2002 Information technology – Streaming Lossless Data Compression algorithm (SLDC)
ISO/IEC 22092:2002 Information technology - Data interchange on 130 mm magneto-optical disk cartridges - Capacity: 9,1 Gbytes per cartridge
ISO 22093 Industrial automation systems and integration – Physical device control – Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS)
ISO 22095:2020 Chain of Custody
ISO 22096:2007 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Acoustic emission
ISO/TR 22100 Safety of machinery – Relationship with ISO 12100
ISO/TR 22100-3:2016 Part 3: Implementation of ergonomic principles in safety standards
ISO/TS 22117:2010 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Specific requirements and guidance for proficiency testing by interlaboratory comparison
ISO 22118:2011 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection and quantification of food-borne pathogens – Performance characteristics
ISO 22119:2011 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of food-borne pathogens – General requirements and definitions
ISO 22128:2008 Terminology products and services - Overview and guidance
ISO/TR 22134:2007 Practical guidelines for socioterminology
ISO/TS 22163:2017 Railway applications – Quality management system – Business management system requirements for rail organizations: ISO 9001:2015 and particular requirements for application in the rail sector
ISO 22174:2005 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of food-borne pathogens – General requirements and definitions
ISO/TS 22220:2011 Health informatics – Identification of subjects of health care
ISO/TR 22221:2006 Health informatics – Good principles and practices for a clinical data warehouse
ISO 22222:2005 Personal financial planning—Requirements for personal financial planners
ISO 22241 Diesel engines – NOx reduction agent AUS 32
ISO 22241-1 Quality requirements
ISO 22241-2 Test methods
ISO 22241-3 Handling, transportation and storing
ISO/IEC TR 22250 Information technology – Document description and processing languages – Regular Language Description for XML (RELAX)
ISO/IEC TR 22250-1:2002 RELAX Core
ISO 22266 Mechanical vibration – Torsional vibration of rotating machinery
ISO 22266-1:2009 Part 1: Land-based steam and gas turbine generator sets in excess of 50 MW
ISO 22274:2013 Systems to manage terminology, knowledge and content - Concept-related aspects for developing and internationalizing classification systems
ISO/IEC 22275:2018 Information technology – Programming languages, their environments, and system software interfaces – ECMAScript® Specification Suite
ISO/IEC TS 22277:2017 Technical Specification – C++ Extensions for Coroutines
ISO 22300:2018 Security and resilience – Vocabulary
ISO 22301:2019 Security and resilience – Business continuity management systems – Requirements
ISO/TR 22302:2014 Natural gas - Calculation of methane number
ISO 22303:2008 Tobacco - Determination of tobacco specific nitrosamines - Method using buffer extraction
ISO/TS 22304:2008 Tobacco - Determination of tobacco specific nitrosamines - Method using alkaline dichloromethane extraction
ISO/TR 22305:2006 Cigarettes - Measurement of nicotine-free dry particulate matter, nicotine, water and carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke - Analysis of data from collaborative studies reporting relationships between repeatability, reproducibility and tolerances
ISO 22306:2007 Fibre-reinforced cement pipe, joints and fittings for gravity systems
ISO 22307:2008 Financial services – Privacy impact assessment
ISO 22308:2005 Cork stoppers - Sensory analysis
ISO 22309:2011 Microbeam analysis - Quantitative analysis using energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) for elements with an atomic number of 11 (Na) or above
ISO 22310:2006 Information and documentation - Guidelines for standards drafters for stating records management requirements in standards
ISO 22311:2012 Societal security – Video-surveillance – Export interoperability
ISO/TR 22312:2011 Societal security – Technological capabilities (WITHDRAWN)
ISO 22313:2020 Security and resilience – Business continuity management systems – Guidance on the use of ISO 22301
ISO 22314:2006 Plastics - Glass-fibre-reinforced products - Determination of fibre length
ISO 22315:2015 Societal security – Mass evacuation – Guidelines for planning
ISO 22316:2017 Security and resilience - Organizational resilience—Principles and attributes
ISO/TS 22317:2015 Societal security – Business continuity management systems – Guidelines for business impact analysis
ISO/TS 22318:2015 Societal security – Business continuity management systems – Guidelines for supply chain continuity
ISO 22319:2017 Security and resilience – Community resilience – Guidelines for planning the involvement of spontaneous volunteers
ISO 22320:2018 Security and resilience – Emergency management – Guidelines for incident management
ISO 22322:2015 Societal security – Emergency management – Guidelines for public warning
ISO 22324:2015 Societal security – Emergency management – Guidelines for colour coded alert
ISO 22325:2016 Security and resilience – Emergency management – Guidelines for capability assessment
ISO 22326:2018 Security and resilience – Emergency management – Guidelines for monitoring facilities with identified hazards
ISO 22327:2018 Security and resilience – Emergency management – Guidelines for implementation of a community-based landslide early warning system
ISO/TS 22330:2018 Security and resilience – Business continuity management systems – Guidelines for people aspects on business continuity
ISO/TS 22331:2018 Security and resilience – Business continuity management systems – Guidelines for business continuity strategy
ISO/TR 22335:2007 Surface chemical analysis - Depth profiling - Measurement of sputtering rate: mesh-replica method using a mechanical stylus profilometer
ISO/TR 22351:2015 Societal security – Emergency management – Message structure for exchange of information
ISO/TS 22367:2008 Medical laboratories - Reduction of error through risk management and continual improvement
ISO 22368-1:2004 Crop protection equipment - Test methods for the evaluation of cleaning systems - Part 1: Internal cleaning of complete sprayers
ISO 22369-1:2006 Crop protection equipment - Drift classification of spraying equipment - Part 1: Classes
ISO 22374:2005 Dentistry - Dental handpieces - Electrical-powered scalers and scaler tips
ISO/TS 22375:2018 Security and resilience - Guidelines for complexity assessment process
ISO 22380:2018 Security and resilience – Authenticity, integrity and trust for products and documents – General principles for product fraud risk
ISO 22381:2018 Security and resilience – Authenticity, integrity and trust for products and documents – Guidelines for interoperability of product identification and authentication systems
ISO 22382:2018 Security and resilience – Authenticity, integrity and trust for products and documents – Guidelines for the content, security and issuance of excise tax stamps
ISO 22389-1:2010 Timber structures - Bending strength of I-beams - Part 1: Testing, evaluation and characterization
ISO 22390:2010 Timber structures - Laminated veneer lumber - Structural properties
ISO 22391-1:2009 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Polyethylene of raised temperature resistance (PE-RT) - Part 1: General
ISO 22392:2020 Security and resilience – Community resilience – Guidelines for conducting peer reviews
ISO 22394:2010 Hardmetals - Knoop hardness test
ISO 22395:2018 Security and resilience – Community resilience – Guidelines for supporting vulnerable persons in an emergency
ISO 22396:2020 Security and resilience – Community resilience – Guidelines for information exchange between organisations
ISO 22397:2014 Societal security – Guidelines for establishing partnering arrangements
ISO 22398:2014 Societal security – Guidelines for exercises
ISO/PAS 22399:2007 Societal security – Guideline for incident preparedness and operational continuity management (WITHDRAWN)
ISO/TR 22411:2008 Ergonomics data and guidelines for the application of ISO/IEC Guide 71 to products and services to address the needs of older persons and persons with disabilities
ISO 22412:2017 Particle size analysis - Dynamic light scattering (DLS)
ISO 22413:2010 Transfer sets for pharmaceutical preparations – Requirements and test methods
ISO 22432:2011 Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Features utilized in specification and verification
ISO/TS 22475 Geotechnical investigation and testing – Sampling methods and groundwater measurements
ISO/TS 22475-3:2007 Part 3: Conformity assessment of enterprises and personnel by third party
ISO 22493:2014 Microbeam analysis - Scanning electron microscopy - Vocabulary
ISO 22514 Statistical methods in process management - Capability and performance
ISO 22514-1:2014 Part 1: General principles and concepts
ISO 22514-2:2017 Part 2: Process capability and performance of time-dependent process models
ISO 22514-3:2008 Part 3: Machine performance studies for measured data on discrete parts
ISO 22514-4:2016 Part 4: Process capability estimates and performance measures
ISO 22514-6:2013 Part 6: Process capability statistics for characteristics following a multivariate normal distribution
ISO 22514-7:2012 Part 7: Capability of measurement processes
ISO 22514-8:2014 Part 8: Machine performance of a multi-state production process
ISO 22523:2006 External limb prostheses and external orthoses – Requirements and test methods
ISO/IEC 22533:2005 Information technology - Data interchange on 90 mm optical disk cartridges - Capacity: 2,3 Gbytes per cartridge
ISO/IEC 22534:2005 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Application session services
ISO/IEC 22535:2009 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Corporate telecommunication networks – Tunnelling of QSIG over SIP
ISO/IEC 22536:2013 Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchange between systems - Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1) - RF interface test methods
ISO/IEC 22537:2006 Information technology - ECMAScript for XML (E4X) specification
ISO/TR 22588:2005 Optics and photonics – Lasers and laser-related equipment – Measurement and evaluation of absorption-induced effects in laser optical components
ISO 22600 Health informatics – Privilege management and access control
ISO 22600-1:2014 Part 1: Overview and policy management
ISO 22600-2:2014 Part 2: Formal models
ISO 22600-3:2014 Part 3: Implementations
ISO 22665:2012 Ophthalmic optics and instruments – Instruments to measure axial distances in the eye
ISO 22675:2016 Prosthetics – Testing of ankle-foot devices and foot units – Requirements and test methods
ISO/TR 22676:2006 Prosthetics – Testing of ankle-foot devices and foot units – Guidance on the application of the test loading conditions of ISO 22675 and on the design of appropriate test equipment
ISO 22716:2007 Cosmetics – Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) – Guidelines on Good Manufacturing Practices
ISO 22717:2015 Cosmetics – Microbiology – Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
ISO 22718:2015 Cosmetics – Microbiology – Detection of Staphylococcus aureus
ISO 22727:2007 Graphical symbols - Creation and design of public information symbols - Requirements
ISO 22742:2010 Packaging - Linear bar code and two-dimensional symbols for product packaging
ISO 22745 Industrial automation systems and integration - Open technical dictionaries and their application to master data
ISO 22745-2:2010 Part 2: Vocabulary
ISO/IEC TR 22767:2005 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Using CSTA for SIP phone user agents (uaCSTA)
ISO/TS 22789:2010 Health informatics – Conceptual framework for patient findings and problems in terminologies
ISO/TS 22809:2007 Non-destructive testing – Discontinuities in specimens for use in qualification examinations
ISO 22829:2017 Resistance welding equipment – Transformers – Integrated transformer-rectifier units for welding guns operating at 1 000 Hz
ISO 22837:2009 Vehicle probe data for wide area communications
ISO 22839:2013 Intelligent transport systems – Forward vehicle collision mitigation systems – Operation, performance, and verification requirements
ISO 22840:2010 Intelligent transport systems – Devices to aid reverse manoeuvres – Extended-range backing aid systems (ERBA)
ISO/PAS 22853:2005 Ships and marine technology – Computer applications – Specification of Maritime Safety Markup Language (MSML)
ISO 22857:2013 Health informatics – Guidelines on data protection to facilitate trans-border flows of personal health data
ISO 22868:2011 Forestry and gardening machinery – Noise test code for portable hand-held machines with internal combustion engine – Engineering method (Grade 2 accuracy)
ISO 22870:2016 Point-of-care testing (POCT) – Requirements for quality and competence
ISO 22877:2004 Castors and wheels – Vocabulary, symbols and multilingual terminology
ISO 22935 Milk and milk products – Sensory analysis
ISO 22935-1:2009 Part 1: General guidance for the recruitment, selection, training and monitoring of assessors
ISO 22951:2009 Data dictionary and message sets for preemption and prioritization signal systems for emergency and public transport vehicles (PRESTO)
ISO 22964:2017 Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the detection of Cronobacter spp.
ISO/TR 22971:2005 Accuracy (trueness and precision) of measurement methods and results - Practical guidance for the use of ISO 5725-2:1994 in designing, implementing and statistically analysing interlaboratory repeatability and reproducibility results
ISO/TR 22979:2017 Ophthalmic implants – Intraocular lenses – Guidance on assessment of the need for clinical investigation of intraocular lens design modifications
ISO 23000 – ISO 23999
ISO/IEC 23000 Information technology - Multimedia application format (MPEG-A)
ISO/IEC 23001 Information technology – MPEG systems technologies
ISO/IEC 23001-1:2006 Part 1: Binary MPEG format for XML
ISO/IEC 23001-2:2008 Part 2: Fragment request units
ISO/IEC 23001-3:2008 Part 3: XML IPMP messages
ISO/IEC 23001-4:2017 Part 4: Codec configuration representation
ISO/IEC 23001-5:2008 Part 5: Bitstream Syntax Description Language (BSDL)
ISO/IEC 23001-7:2016 Part 7: Common encryption in ISO base media file format
ISO/IEC 23001-8:2016 Part 8: Coding-independent code points
ISO/IEC 23001-9:2016 Part 9: Common encryption of MPEG-2 transport streams
ISO/IEC 23001-10:2015 Part 10: Carriage of timed metadata metrics of media in ISO base media file format
ISO/IEC 23001-12:2015 Part 12: Sample Variants in the ISO base media file format
ISO/IEC 23002 Information technology – MPEG video technologies
ISO/IEC 23003 Information technology – MPEG audio technologies
ISO/IEC 23003-1:2007 Part 1: MPEG Surround
ISO/IEC 23003-2:2010 Part 2: Spatial Audio Object Coding (SAOC)
ISO/IEC 23003-3:2012 Part 3: Unified speech and audio coding
ISO/IEC 23003-4:2015 Part 4: Dynamic Range Control
ISO/IEC 23004 Information technology - Multimedia Middleware
ISO/IEC 23004-1:2007 Part 1: Architecture
ISO/IEC 23004-2:2007 Part 2: Multimedia application programming interface (API)
ISO/IEC 23004-3:2007 Part 3: Component model
ISO/IEC 23004-4:2007 Part 4: Resource and quality management
ISO/IEC 23004-5:2008 Part 5: Component download
ISO/IEC 23004-6:2008 Part 6: Fault management
ISO/IEC 23004-7:2008 Part 7: System integrity management
ISO/IEC 23004-8:2009 Part 8: Reference software
ISO/IEC 23005 Information technology - Media context and control
ISO/IEC 23005-1:2016 Part 1: Architecture
ISO/IEC 23005-2:2016 Part 2: Control information
ISO/IEC 23005-3:2016 Part 3: Sensory information
ISO/IEC 23005-4:2016 Part 4: Virtual world object characteristics
ISO/IEC 23005-5:2016 Part 5: Data formats for interaction devices
ISO/IEC 23005-6:2016 Part 6: Common types and tools
ISO/IEC 23005-7:2017 Part 7: Conformance and reference software
ISO/IEC 23006 Information technology - Multimedia service platform technologies
ISO/IEC 23006-1:2013 Part 1: Architecture
ISO/IEC 23006-2:2016 Part 2: MPEG extensible middleware (MXM) API
ISO/IEC 23006-3:2016 Part 3: Conformance and reference software
ISO/IEC 23006-4:2013 Part 4: Elementary services
ISO/IEC 23006-5:2013 Part 5: Service aggregation
ISO/IEC 23007 Information technology - Rich media user interfaces
ISO/IEC 23007-1:2010 Part 1: Widgets
ISO/IEC 23007-2:2012 Part 2: Advanced user interaction (AUI) interfaces
ISO/IEC 23007-3:2011 Part 3: Conformance and reference software
ISO/IEC 23008 Information technology - High efficiency coding and media delivery in heterogeneous environments
ISO/IEC 23009 Information technology - Dynamic adaptive streaming over HTTP (DASH)
ISO/IEC 23009-1:2014 Part 1: Media presentation description and segment formats
ISO/IEC 23009-2:2014 Part 2: Conformance and reference software
ISO/IEC TR 23009-3:2015 Part 3: Implementation guidelines
ISO/IEC 23009-4:2013 Part 4: Segment encryption and authentication
ISO/IEC 23009-5:2017 Part 5: Server and network assisted DASH (SAND)
ISO/IEC/IEEE 23026:2015 Systems and software engineering - Engineering and management of websites for systems, software, and services information
ISO 23081 Information and documentation - Managing metadata for records
ISO 23081-1:2006 Part 1: Principles
ISO 23081-2:2009 Part 2: Conceptual and implementation issues
ISO/TR 23081-3:2011 Part 3: Self-assessment method
ISO/TS 23165:2006 Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Guidelines for the evaluation of coordinate measuring machine (CMM) test uncertainty
ISO 23185:2009 Assessment and benchmarking of terminological resources - General concepts, principles and requirements
ISO/TR 23211:2009 Hydrometry – Measuring the water level in a well using automated pressure transducer methods
ISO/IEC 23270:2018 Information technology – Programming languages – C#
ISO/IEC 23271:2012 Information technology – Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)
ISO/IEC TR 23272:2011 Information technology - Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) - Information Derived from Partition IV XML File
ISO/IEC 23289:2002 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Corporate telecommunication networks – Signalling interworking between QSIG and H.323 – Basic services
ISO/IEC 23290:2004 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Private Integrated Services Network (PISN) – Mapping functions for the tunnelling of QSIG through H.323 networks
ISO 23317:2014 Implants for surgery – In vitro evaluation for apatite-forming ability of implant materials
ISO 23328 Breathing system filters for anaesthetic and respiratory use
ISO 23328-1:2003 Part 1: Salt test method to assess filtration performance
ISO 23328-2:2002 Part 2: Non-filtration aspects
ISO/IEC 23360 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1
ISO 23500:2014 Guidance for the preparation and quality management of fluids for haemodialysis and related therapies
ISO 23539:2005 Photometry - The CIE system of physical photometry
ISO 23599:2012 Assistive products for blind and vision-impaired persons - Tactile walking surface indicators
ISO 23600:2007 Assistive products for persons with vision impairments and persons with vision and hearing impairments - Acoustic and tactile signals for pedestrian traffic lights
ISO 23601:2009 Safety identification - Escape and evacuation plan signs
ISO 23603:2005 Standard method of assessing the spectral quality of daylight simulators for visual appraisal and measurement of colour
ISO/TR 23605:2009 Technical product specification (TPS) – Application guidance – International model for national implementation
ISO/IEC 23651:2003 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording – AIT-3 format
ISO 23718:2007 Metallic materials – Mechanical testing – Vocabulary
ISO 23733 Textiles – Chenille yarns – Test method for the determination of linear density
ISO 23747:2015 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – Peak expiratory flow meters for the assessment of pulmonary function in spontaneously breathing humans
ISO/TS 23768 Rolling bearings - Parts library
ISO/TS 23768-1:2011 Part 1: Reference dictionary for rolling bearings
ISO 23771:2015 Textile machinery – Guide to the design of textile machinery for reduction of the noise emissions
ISO/TS 23810:2012 Cardiovascular implants and artificial organs – Checklist for preoperative extracorporeal circulation equipment setup
ISO 23813:2007 Cranes – Training of appointed persons
ISO 23814:2009 Cranes – Competency requirements for crane inspectors
ISO 23833:2013 Microbeam analysis – Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) – Vocabulary
ISO 23853:2004 Cranes – Training of slingers and signallers
ISO 23907:2012 Sharps injury protection – Requirements and test methods – Sharps containers
ISO 23908:2011 Sharps injury protection – Requirements and test methods – Sharps protection features for single-use hypodermic needles, introducers for catheters and needles used for blood sampling
ISO/IEC 23912:2005 Information technology - 80 mm (1,46 Gbytes per side) and 120 mm (4,70 Gbytes per side) DVD Recordable Disk (DVD-R)
ISO/IEC 23915:2005 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Corporate Telecommunication Networks – Signalling Interworking between QSIG and SIP – Call Diversion
ISO/IEC 23916:2005 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Corporate Telecommunication Networks – Signalling Interworking between QSIG and SIP – Call Transfer
ISO/IEC 23917:2005 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – NFCIP-1 – Protocol Test Methods
ISO 23950:1998 Information and documentation – Information retrieval (Z39.50) – Application service definition and protocol specification
ISO 23953 Refrigerated display cabinets
ISO 23953-1:2015 Part 1: Vocabulary
ISO/IEC 23988:2007 Information technology - A code of practice for the use of information technology (IT) in the delivery of assessments
Notes
References
External links
International Organization for Standardization
ISO Certification Provider
ISO Consultant
International Organization for Standardization |
59576303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20International%20Organization%20for%20Standardization%20standards%2C%2026000-27999 | List of International Organization for Standardization standards, 26000-27999 | This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue.
The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC1) have been made freely and publicly available.
ISO 26000 – ISO 26999
ISO 26000:2010 Guidance on social responsibility
ISO 26101:2017 Acoustics – Test methods for the qualification of free-field environments
ISO/TR 26122:2008 Information and documentation - Work process analysis for records
ISO 26162 Management of terminology resources — Terminology databases
ISO 26162-1:2019 Part 1: Design
ISO 26162-2:2019 Part 2: Software
ISO 26243:2007 Cards for staple fibres spinning – Vocabulary and principles of construction
ISO 26261 Fireworks – Category 4
ISO 26261-1:2017 Part 1: Terminology
ISO 26262 Road Vehicles - Functional Safety
ISO 26322 Tractors for agriculture and forestry - Safety
ISO 26322-1:2008 Part 1: Standard tractors
ISO 26322-2:2010 Part 2: Narrow-track and small tractors
ISO/IEC 26300:2006 Information technology – Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument) v1.0
ISO 26324:2012 Information and documentation - Digital object identifier system
ISO 26362:2009 Access panels in market, opinion and social research - Vocabulary and service requirements
ISO 26428 Digital cinema (D-cinema) distribution master
ISO 26428-1:2008 Part 1: Image characteristics
ISO 26428-2:2008 Part 2: Audio characteristics
ISO 26428-3:2008 Part 3: Audio channel mapping and channel labeling
ISO 26428-9:2009 Part 9: Image pixel structure level 3 - Serial digital interface signal formatting
ISO 26428-11:2011 Part 11: Additional frame rates
ISO 26428-19:2011 Part 19: Serial digital interface signal formatting for additional frame rates level AFR2 and level AFR4
ISO 26429 Digital cinema (D-cinema) packaging
ISO 26429-3:2008 Part 3: Sound and picture track file
ISO 26429-4:2008 Part 4: MXF JPEG 2000 application
ISO 26429-6:2008 Part 6: MXF track file essence encryption
ISO 26429-7:2008 Part 7: Composition playlist
ISO 26429-8:2009 Part 8: Packing list
ISO 26429-9:2009 Part 9: Asset mapping and file segmentation
ISO 26429-10:2009 Part 10: Stereoscopic picture track file
ISO 26430 Digital cinema (D-cinema) operations
ISO 26430-1:2008 Part 1: Key delivery message
ISO 26430-2:2008 Part 2: Digital certificate
ISO 26430-3:2008 Part 3: Generic extra-theater message format
ISO 26430-4:2009 Part 4: Log record format specification
ISO 26430-5:2009 Part 5: Security log event class and constraints
ISO 26430-6:2009 Part 6: Auditorium security messages for intra-theater communications
ISO 26430-9:2009 Part 9: Key delivery bundle
ISO 26433:2009 Digital cinema (D-cinema) - XML data types
ISO/IEC/IEEE 26511:2011 Systems and software engineering - Requirements for managers of user documentation
ISO/IEC/IEEE 26512:2011 Systems and software engineering - Requirements for acquirers and suppliers of user documentation
ISO/IEC 26513:2009 Systems and software engineering - Requirements for testers and reviewers of user documentation
ISO/IEC 26514:2008 Systems and software engineering - Requirements for designers and developers of user documentation
ISO/IEC/IEEE 26515:2011 Systems and software engineering - Developing user documentation in an agile environment
ISO/IEC/IEEE 26531:2015 Systems and software engineering - Content management for product life-cycle, user and service management documentation
ISO/IEC 26550:2015 Software and systems engineering - Reference model for product line engineering and management
ISO/IEC 26551:2016 Software and systems engineering - Tools and methods for product line requirements engineering
ISO/IEC 26555:2015 Software and systems engineering - Tools and methods for product line technical management
ISO/IEC 26557:2016 Software and systems engineering - Methods and tools for variability mechanisms in software and systems product line
ISO/IEC 26558:2017 Software and systems engineering - Methods and tools for variability modelling in software and systems product line
ISO/IEC 26559:2017 Software and systems engineering - Methods and tools for variability traceability in software and systems product line
ISO 26683 Intelligent transport systems – Freight land conveyance content identification and communication
ISO 26683-1:2013 Part 1: Context, architecture and referenced standards
ISO 26683-2:2013 Part 2: Application interface profiles
ISO 26684:2015 Intelligent transport systems (ITS) – Cooperative intersection signal information and violation warning systems (CIWS) – Performance requirements and test procedures
ISO 26722:2014 Water treatment equipment for haemodialysis applications and related therapies
ISO 26782:2009 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – Spirometers intended for the measurement of time forced expired volumes in humans
ISO 26800:2011 Ergonomics - General approach, principles and concepts
ISO 26824:2013 Particle characterization of particulate systems - Vocabulary
ISO 26825:2008 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – User-applied labels for syringes containing drugs used during anaesthesia – Colours, design and performance
ISO/IEC TR 26905:2006 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Enterprise Communication in Next Generation Corporate Networks (NGCN) involving Public Next Generation Networks (NGN)
ISO 26906:2015 Hydrometry – Fishpasses at flow measurement structures
ISO/IEC 26907:2009 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – High-rate ultra-wideband PHY and MAC standard
ISO/IEC 26908:2009 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – MAC-PHY interface for ISO/IEC 26907
ISO 26909:2009 Springs - Vocabulary
ISO/IEC 26925:2009 Information technology - Data interchange on 120 mm and 80 mm optical disk using +RW HS format - Capacity: 4,7 Gbytes and 1,46 Gbytes per side (recording speed 8X)
ISO/IEC TR 26927:2011 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Corporate telecommunication networks – Mobility for enterprise communications
ISO/TR 26999:2012 Intelligent transport systems – Systems architecture – Use of process-oriented methodology in ITS International Standards and other deliverables
ISO 27000 – ISO 27999
ISO/IEC 27000:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Overview and vocabulary
ISO/IEC 27001:2013 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Requirements
ISO/IEC 27002:2022 Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security controls
ISO/IEC 27003:2017 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Guidance
ISO/IEC 27004:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management – Monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation
ISO/IEC 27005:2011 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security risk management
ISO/IEC 27006:2015 Information technology – Security techniques – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of information security management systems
ISO/IEC 27007:2017 Information technology – Security techniques – Guidelines for information security management systems auditing
ISO/IEC TR 27008:2011 Information technology – Security techniques – Guidelines for auditors on information security controls
ISO/IEC 27009:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Sector-specific application of ISO/IEC 27001 – Requirements
ISO/IEC 27010:2015 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management for inter-sector and inter-organizational communications
ISO/IEC 27011:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for Information security controls based on ISO/IEC 27002 for telecommunications organizations
ISO/IEC 27013:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidance on the integrated implementation of ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 20000-1
ISO/IEC 27014:2013 Information technology - Security techniques - Governance of information security
ISO/IEC TR 27016:2014 Information technology - Security techniques - Information security management - Organizational economics
ISO/IEC 27017:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Code of practice for information security controls based on ISO/IEC 27002 for cloud services
ISO/IEC 27018:2019 Information technology - Security techniques - Code of practice for protection of personally identifiable information (PII) in public clouds acting as PII processors
ISO/IEC 27019:2017 Information technology - Security techniques - Information security management guidelines based on ISO/IEC 27002 for process control systems specific to the energy utility industry
ISO/IEC TR 27023:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Mapping the revised editions of ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 27002
ISO/IEC 27031:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidelines for information and communication technology readiness for business continuity
ISO/IEC 27032:2012 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidelines for cybersecurity
ISO/IEC 27033 Information technology - Security techniques - Network security
ISO/IEC 27033-1:2015 Part 1: Overview and concepts
ISO/IEC 27033-2:2012 Part 2: Guidelines for the design and implementation of network security
ISO/IEC 27033-3:2010 Part 3: Reference networking scenarios - Threats, design techniques and control issues
ISO/IEC 27033-4:2014 Part 4: Securing communications between networks using security gateways
ISO/IEC 27033-5:2013 Part 5: Securing communications across networks using Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
ISO/IEC 27033-6:2016 Part 6: Securing wireless IP network access
ISO/IEC 27034 Information technology - Security techniques - Application security
ISO/IEC 27034-1:2011 Part 1: Overview and concepts
ISO/IEC 27034-2:2015 Part 2: Organization normative framework
ISO/IEC 27034-6:2016 Part 6: Case studies
ISO/IEC 27035 Information technology - Security techniques - Information security incident management
ISO/IEC 27035-1:2016 Part 1: Principles of incident management
ISO/IEC 27035-2:2016 Part 2: Guidelines to plan and prepare for incident response
ISO/IEC 27036 Information technology - Security techniques - Information security for supplier relationships
ISO/IEC 27036-1:2014 Part 1: Overview and concepts
ISO/IEC 27036-2:2014 Part 2: Requirements
ISO/IEC 27036-3:2013 Part 3: Guidelines for information and communication technology supply chain security
ISO/IEC 27036-4:2016 Part 4: Guidelines for security of cloud services
ISO/IEC 27037:2012 Information technology – Security techniques – Guidelines for identification, collection, acquisition and preservation of digital evidence
ISO/IEC 27038:2014 Information technology - Security techniques - Specification for digital redaction
ISO/IEC 27039:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Selection, deployment and operations of intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS)
ISO/IEC 27040:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Storage security
ISO/IEC 27041:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidance on assuring suitability and adequacy of incident investigative method
ISO/IEC 27042:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidelines for the analysis and interpretation of digital evidence
ISO/IEC 27043:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Incident investigation principles and processes
ISO/IEC 27050 Information technology - Security techniques - Electronic discovery
ISO/IEC 27050-1:2016 Part 1: Overview and concepts
ISO 27185:2012 Cardiac rhythm management devices - Symbols to be used with cardiac rhythm management device labels, and information to be supplied - General requirements
ISO 27186:2010 Active implantable medical devices – Four-pole connector system for implantable cardiac rhythm management devices – Dimensional and test requirements
ISO 27327 Fans – Air curtain units
ISO 27327-2:2014 Part 2: Laboratory methods of testing for sound power
ISO 27427:2013 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – Nebulizing systems and components
ISO 27500:2016 The human-centred organization — Rationale and general principles
ISO/TS 27527:2010 Health informatics – Provider identification
ISO 27668 Gel ink ball pens and refills
ISO 27668-1:2017 Part 1: General use
ISO 27668-2:2009 Part 2: Documentary use (DOC)
ISO/TS 27687:2008 Nanotechnologies – Terminology and definitions for nano-objects – Nanoparticle, nanofibre and nanoplate [Withdrawn: replaced with ISO/TS 80004-2:2015]
ISO/IEC 27701:2019 Security techniques — Extension to ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 27002 for privacy information management — Requirements and guidelines
ISO 27729:2012 Information and documentation - International standard name identifier (ISNI)
ISO 27730:2012 Information and documentation - International standard collection identifier (ISCI)
ISO 27789:2013 Health informatics – Audit trails for electronic health records
ISO/TS 27790:2009 Health informatics – Document registry framework
ISO 27799:2016 Health informatics—Information security management in health using ISO/IEC 27002
ISO/TR 27809:2007 Health informatics – Measures for ensuring patient safety of health software
ISO/HL7 27931:2009 Data Exchange Standards – Health Level Seven Version 2.5 – An application protocol for electronic data exchange in healthcare environments
ISO/HL7 27932:2009 Data Exchange Standards – HL7 Clinical Document Architecture, Release 2
ISO/HL7 27951:2009 Health informatics – Common terminology services, release 1
ISO/HL7 27953 Health informatics – Individual case safety reports (ICSRs) in pharmacovigilance
ISO/HL7 27953-1:2011 Part 1: Framework for adverse event reporting
ISO/HL7 27953-2:2011 Part 2: Human pharmaceutical reporting requirements for ICSR
ISO 27991:2008 Ships and marine technology - Marine evacuation systems - Means of communication
Notes
References
External links
International Organization for Standardization
ISO Certification Provider
ISO Consultant
International Organization for Standardization |
59639426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZeroTier | ZeroTier | ZeroTier Inc. is a software company with a freemium business model based in Irvine, California. ZeroTier provides proprietary software, SDKs and commercial products and services to create and manage virtual software defined networks. The company's flagship end-user product ZeroTier One is a client application that enables devices such as PCs, phones, servers and embedded devices to securely connect to peer-to-peer virtual networks.
Software tools
ZeroTier provides a suite of proprietary tools, licensed under a Business Source License 1.1, intended to support development and deployment of virtual data centers:
The main product line consists of these following tools:
ZeroTier One, first released in 2014, a portable client application that provides connectivity to public or private virtual networks.
Central, a web-based UI portal for managing virtual networks.
libzt (SDK), a linkable library that provides the functionality of ZeroTier One but that can be embedded in applications or services.
LF (pronounced "aleph"), a fully decentralized fully replicated key/value store.
Client
The ZeroTier client is used to connect to virtual networks previously created in the ZeroTier Central web-based UI. Endpoint connections are peer-to-peer and end-to-end encrypted. STUN and hole punching are used to establish direct connections between peers behind NAT. Direct connection route discovery is made with the help of a global network of root servers via a mechanism similar to ICE in WebRTC.
Controller
Virtual networks are created and managed using a ZeroTier controller. Management is done using an API, proprietary web-based UI (ZeroTier Central), open-source web-based or CLI alternative. Using root servers other than those hosted by ZeroTier Inc. is impeded by the software's license.
Security
The following considerations apply to ZeroTier's use as an SDWAN or VPN application:
Asymmetric public key encryption is Curve25519, a 256-bit elliptic curve variant.
All traffic is encrypted end to end on OSI layer 1 using 256-bit Salsa20 and authenticated using the Poly1305 message authentication (MAC) algorithm. MAC is computed after encryption (encrypt-then-MAC) and the cipher/MAC composition used is identical to the NaCl reference implementation.
Packages
ZeroTier One is available on multiple platforms and in multiple forms:
Microsoft Windows installer (.msi)
Apple Macintosh (.pkg)
iOS for iPhone/iPad/iPod
Docker
Source code on GitHub
Linux binaries (DEB & RPM)
Linux snap package (works across distributions)
Linux library
Android App on Google Play
Qnap (.qpkg)
Synology packages (.spk)
Western Digital MyCloud NAS EX2, EX4, EX2 Ultra (.bin)
FreeBSD has a port and a package
OpenWRT has a community maintained port on GitHub
MikroTik's RouterOS
Similar projects
FreeLAN
GNUnet
IPOP
LogMeIn Hamachi
OpenVPN
tinc
WireGuard
Netmaker
Twingate
See also
ICE
WebRTC
VPN
References
External links
TeamViewer VPN Linux-to-Windows equivalent
Virtual private networks
Anonymity networks
Tunneling software
Internet software for Linux
MacOS Internet software
Windows Internet software |
59693398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiantum%20%28cipher%29 | Adiantum (cipher) | Adiantum is a cipher construction for disk encryption, which uses the ChaCha and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) ciphers, and Poly1305 cryptographic message authentication code (MAC).
It was designed in 2018 by Paul Crowley and Eric Biggers at Google specifically for low-powered mobile devices running Android Go. It has been included in the Linux kernel since version 5.0.
HPolyC is an earlier variant of Adiantum, which uses a different construction for the Poly1305 hash function.
Adiantum is implemented in Android 10 as an alternative cipher for device encryption, particularly on low-end devices lacking hardware-accelerated support for AES. The company stated that Adiantum ran five times faster than AES-256-XTS on ARM Cortex-A7 CPUs. Google had previously exempted devices from mandatory device encryption if their specifications affected system performance if enabled. Due to the introduction of Adiantum, device encryption becomes mandatory on all Android devices beginning on Android 10.
References
External links
Android Open Source Project: Enabling Adiantum
Ciphers
Computer-related introductions in 2018
Google |
59714120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultaneous%20Authentication%20of%20Equals | Simultaneous Authentication of Equals | In cryptography, Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE) is a password-based authentication and password-authenticated key agreement method.
Authentication
SAE is a variant of the Dragonfly Key Exchange defined in , based on Diffie–Hellman key exchange using finite cyclic groups which can be a primary cyclic group or an elliptic curve. The problem of using Diffie–Hellman key exchange is that it does not have an authentication mechanism. So the resulting key is influenced by a pre-shared key and the MAC addresses of both peers to solve the authentication problem.
Use
IEEE 802.11s
SAE was originally implemented for use between peers in IEEE 802.11s. When peers discover each other (and security is enabled) they take part in an SAE exchange. If SAE completes successfully, each peer knows the other party possesses the mesh password and, as a by-product of the SAE exchange, the two peers establish a cryptographically strong key. This key is used with the "Authenticated Mesh Peering Exchange" (AMPE) to establish a secure peering and derive a session key to protect mesh traffic, including routing traffic.
WPA3
In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. The new standard uses 128-bit encryption in WPA3-Personal mode (192-bit in WPA3-Enterprise) and forward secrecy. The WPA3 standard also replaces the pre-shared key (PSK) exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals as defined in IEEE 802.11-2016 resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode. The Wi-Fi Alliance also claims that WPA3 will mitigate security issues posed by weak passwords and simplify the process of setting up devices with no display interface.
Security
In 2019 Eyal Ronen and Mathy Vanhoef (co-author of the KRACK attack) released an analysis of WPA3's Dragonfly handshake and found that "an attacker within range of a victim can still recover the password" and the bugs found "allow an adversary to impersonate any user, and thereby access the Wi-Fi network, without knowing the user's password."
See also
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
Key-agreement protocol
KRACK
IEEE 802.1X
References
Further reading
Password authentication
Authentication protocols
Key-agreement protocols
Computer network security
Cryptographic protocols
IEEE 802.11 |
59823154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunistic%20Wireless%20Encryption | Opportunistic Wireless Encryption | Opportunistic Wireless Encryption (OWE) is a Wi-Fi standard which ensures that the communication between each pair of endpoints is protected from other endpoints. Unlike conventional Wi-Fi, it provides "Individualized Data Protection" such that data traffic between a client and access point is "individualized". Other clients can still sniff and record this traffic, but they can't decrypt it.
OWE is an extension to IEEE 802.11. it is an encryption technique similar to that of Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE) and is specified by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in RFC 8110 with devices certified as Wi-Fi Certified Enhanced Open by the Wi-Fi Alliance.
See also
Wi-Fi Protected Access
References
Further reading
Internet privacy |
59823228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OWE%20%28disambiguation%29 | OWE (disambiguation) | OWE is Opportunistic Wireless Encryption, an encryption standard for open Wi-Fi networks.
OWE or Owe may also refer to:
Oriental Wrestling Entertainment, founded by the wrestler Cima
Owe, a surname or given name
See also
Big Owe, a nickname for the Olympic Stadium, Montreal, Canada |
59825006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nate%20Cardozo | Nate Cardozo | Nate Cardozo is an American privacy and civil rights lawyer. He spent much of his career as a staff attorney at the San Francisco-based Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), where his portfolio included cybersecurity, privacy litigation, and protecting coders' rights. His practice focused on encryption and information security.
In January 2019, Cardozo left EFF to join Facebook as the privacy policy manager of WhatsApp.
See also
Electronic Frontier Foundation
Encryption
References
External links
Cardozo's blog posts on the EFF DeepLinks blog
21st-century American lawyers
Living people
American people of Jewish descent
Lawyers from Washington, D.C.
Year of birth missing (living people) |
59831672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaoyuan%20Tu | Xiaoyuan Tu | Xiaoyuan Tu (born 1967) is a Chinese researcher and computer scientist specializing in machine learning, behavior modeling, physics modeling, biomechanical modeling, motion control interfaces, and intelligent virtual characters. She holds a Ph.D in computer science from University of Toronto and currently serves as a lead scientist and software engineer at Apple Inc, researching and developing next generation motions control and recognition technology.
Education
Tu attended Tsinghua University where she earned BEng in control theory and information science. She then continued her education at McMaster University earning her MSc in computer science with a focus on algorithms for parallel computation between the years 1990 and 1991. Immediately thereafter she enrolled in University of Toronto where she completed her Ph.D in computer science in 1996 as well as the ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award for her dissertation "Artificial Animals for Computer Animation: Biomechanics, Locomotion, Perception, and Behavior". She is both the first woman and the first Canadian academic to receive this award.
Industry
After completing her Ph.D, Tu spent a brief period of time at Silicon Graphics as a researcher and at Stanford University as a guest lecturer prior to being hired at Intel as a research scientist. There she worked to research and develop a 3D animation testbed for the creation of intelligent virtual characters. In addition to this she was the lead developer on an interactive commerce interface.
In May 2000 she left her position at Intel to create the company AiLive Inc with Wei Yen. There she assumed the role of co-founder, lead scientist and product manager, working to implement machine learning algorithms as middleware in video games. Additionally, she worked to implement LiveMotion, a program focused on motion recognition, tracking and control in games. This technology was used in the creation of Nintendo's Wii MotionPlus controller and helped enable a generation of motion controlled games for the platform.
After leaving AiLive Inc in December 2009 she entered a position at Apple where she currently works to develop and implement motion recognition and control in next generation iOS devices. Projects she has been instrumental in designing and implementing include:
Orientation Recognition
Raise to Talk
iOS Motion Activity Classification
Compass Algorithms
iOS CoreMotion Technology
In her time at Apple she has also been credited as an inventor on several patents filed by Apple including AirDrop data encryption, improvement to Magnetometer mapping on iOS devices, as well as Apple CarPlay automation.
Awards
ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award - "Artificial Animals for Computer Animation: Biomechanics, Locomotion, Perception, and Behavior"
Technical Excellence Award from the Canadian Academy of Multimedia and Arts
Books
Artificial animals for computer animation (1999)
References
1967 births
Living people
Chinese computer scientists
Chinese women computer scientists
Tsinghua University alumni
McMaster University alumni
University of Toronto alumni
Chinese women in business
Apple Inc. employees
Silicon Graphics people
Intel people |
59842040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph%20removal%20lemma | Graph removal lemma | In graph theory, the graph removal lemma states that when a graph contains few copies of a given subgraph, then all of the copies can be eliminated by removing a small number of edges.
The special case in which the subgraph is a triangle is known as the triangle removal lemma.
The graph removal lemma can be used to prove Roth's theorem on 3-term arithmetic progressions, and a generalization of it, the hypergraph removal lemma, can be used to prove Szemerédi's theorem. It also has applications to property testing.
Formulation
Let be a graph with vertices. The graph removal lemma states that for any
, there exists a constant such that for any -vertex graph with fewer than subgraphs isomorphic to , it is possible to eliminate all copies of by removing at most edges from .
An alternative way to state this is to say that for any -vertex graph with subgraphs isomorphic to , it is possible to eliminate all copies of by removing edges from . Here, the indicates the use of little o notation.
In the case when is a triangle, resulting lemma is called triangle removal lemma.
History
The original motivation for the study of triangle removal lemma was Ruzsa–Szemerédi problem. Initial formulation due to Imre Z. Ruzsa and Szemerédi from 1978 was slightly weaker than the triangle removal lemma used nowadays and can be roughly stated as follows: every locally linear graph on vertices contains edges. This statement can be quickly deduced from a modern triangle removal lemma. Ruzsa and Szemerédi provided also an alternative proof of Roth's theorem on arithmetic progressions as a simple corollary.
In 1986 during their work on generalizations of Ruzsa–Szemerédi problem to arbitrary -uniform graphs, Erdős, Frankl, and Rödl provided statement for general graphs very close to the modern graph removal lemma: if graph is a homomorphic image of , then any -free graph on vertices can be made -free by removing edges.
The modern formulation of graph removal lemma was first stated by Füredi in 1994. The proof generalized earlier approaches by Ruzsa and Szemerédi and Erdős, Frankl, and Rödl, also utilizing Szemerédi regularity lemma.
Graph counting lemma
A key component of the proof of graph removal lemma is the graph counting lemma about counting subgraphs in systems of regular pairs. Graph counting lemma is also very useful on its own. According to Füredi, it is used "in most applications of regularity lemma".
Heuristic argument
Let be a graph on vertices, whose vertex set is and edge set is . Let be sets of vertices of some graph such that for all pair is -regular (in the sense of regularity lemma). Let also be the density between sets and . Intuitively, regular pair with density should behave like a random Erdős–Rényi-like graph, where every pair of vertices is selected to be an edge independently with probability . This suggests that the number of copies of on vertices such that should be close to the expected number from Erdős–Rényi model:
where and are the edge set and the vertex set of .
Precise statement
The straightforward formalization of above heuristic claim is as follows. Let be a graph on vertices, whose vertex set is and edge set is . Let be arbitrary. Then there exists such that for any as above, satisfying for all , the number of graph homomorphisms from to such that vertex is mapped to is not smaller then
Blow-up Lemma
One can even find bounded degree subgraphs of blow-ups of in a similar setting. The following claim appears in the literature under name of the blow-up lemma and was first proven by Komlós, Sárközy and Szemerédi. Precise statement here is a slightly simplified version due to Komlós, who referred to it also as the key lemma, as it is used in numerous regularity-based proofs.
Let be an arbitrary graph and . Construct by replacing each vertex of by independent set of size and replacing every edge of by complete bipartite graph on . Let be arbitrary reals, be a potiive integer and let be a subgraph of with vertices and with maximum degree . Define . Finally, let be a graph and be disjoint sets of vertices of such that whenever then is a -regular pair with density at least . Then if and , the number of injective graph homomorphisms from to is at least .
In fact, one can only restrict to counting homomorphisms such that any vertex of such that is mapped to a vertex in .
Proof
We will provide proof of the counting lemma in the case when is a triangle (triangle counting lemma). The proof of the general case, as well as the proof of the blow-up lemma, are very similar and do not require different techniques.
Take . Let be the set of those vertices in which have at least neighbors in and at least neighbors in . Note that if there were more than vertices in with less than neighbors in , then these vertices together with whole would witness -irregularity of the pair . Repeating this argument for shows that we must have . Now take arbitrary and define and as neighbors of in and respectively. By definition and so by regularity of we obtain existence of at least
triangles containing . Since was chosen arbitrarily from the set of size at least , we obtain a total of at least
which finishes the proof as .
Proof
Proof of the triangle removal lemma
To prove the triangle removal lemma, consider an -regular partition of the vertex set of . This exists by the Szemerédi regularity lemma. The idea is to remove all edges between irregular pairs, low-density pairs, and small parts, and prove that if at least one triangle still remains, then many triangles remain. Specifically, remove all edges between parts and if
This procedure removes at most edges. If there exists a triangle with vertices in after these edges are removed, then the triangle counting lemma tells us there are at least
triples in which form a triangle. Thus, we may take
Proof of the graph removal lemma
The proof of the case of general is analogous to the triangle case, and uses graph counting lemma instead of triangle counting lemma.
Induced Graph Removal Lemma
A natural generalization of the Graph Removal Lemma is to consider induced subgraphs. In property testing it is often useful to consider how far a graph is from being induced H-free. A graph is considered to contain an induced subgraph if there is an injective map such that is an edge of if and only if is an edge of . Notice that non-edges are considered as well. is induced -free if there is no induced subgraph . We define as -far from being induced -free if we cannot add or delete edges to make induced -free.
Formulation
A version of the Graph Removal for induced subgraphs was proved by Alon, Fischer, Krivelevich, and Szegedy in 2000. It states that for any graph with vertices and , there exists a constant such that if an -vertex graph has fewer than induced subgraphs isomorphic to , then it is possible to eliminate all induced copies of by adding or removing fewer than edges.
The problem can be reformulated as follows: Given a red-blue coloring of the complete graph (Analogous to the graph on the same vertices where non-edges are blue, edges are red), and a constant , then there exists a constant such that for any red-blue colorings of has fewer than subgraphs isomorphic to , then it is possible to eliminate all copies of by changing the colors of fewer than edges. Notice that our previous "cleaning" process, where we remove all edges between irregular pairs, low-density pairs, and small parts, only involves removing edges. Removing edges only corresponds to changing edge colors from red to blue. However, there are situations in the induced case where the optimal edit distance involves changing edge colors from blue to red as well. Thus, the Regularity Lemma is insufficient to prove Induced Graph Removal Lemma. The proof of the Induced Graph Removal Lemma must take advantage of the strong regularity lemma.
Proof
Strong Regularity Lemma
The strong regularity lemma is a strengthened version of Szemerédi's Regularity Lemma. For any infinite sequence of constants , there exists an integer such that for any graph , we can obtain two (equitable) partitions and such that the following properties are satisfied:
refines , that is every part of is the union of some collection of parts in .
is -regular and is -regular.
The function is defined to be the energy function defined in Szemerédi regularity lemma. Essentially, we can find a pair of partitions where is regular compared to , and at the same time are close to each other. (This property is captured in the third condition)
Corollary of the Strong Regularity Lemma
The following corollary of the strong regularity lemma is used in the proof of the Induced Graph Removal Lemma. For any infinite sequence of constants , there exists such that there exists a partition and subsets for each where the following properties are satisfied:
is -regular for each pair
for all but pairs
The main idea of the proof of this corollary is to start with two partitions and that satisfy the Strong Regularity Lemma where . Then for each part , we uniformly at random choose some part that is a part in . The expected number of irregular pairs is less than 1. Thus, there exists some collection of such that every pair is -regular!
The important aspect of this corollary is that pair of are -regular! This allows us to consider edges and non-edges when we perform our cleaning argument.
Proof of Sketch of the Induced Graph Removal Lemma
With these results, we are able to prove the Induced Graph Removal Lemma. Take any graph with vertices that has less than copies of . The idea is to start with a collection of vertex sets which satisfy the conditions of the Corollary of the Strong Regularity Lemma. We then can perform a "cleaning" process where we remove all edges between pairs of parts with low density, and we can add all edges between pairs of parts with high density. We choose the density requirements such that we added/deleted at most edges.
If the new graph has no copies of , then we are done. Suppose the new graph has a copy of . Suppose the vertex is embedded in . Then if there is an edge connecting in , then does not have low density. (Edges between were not removed in the cleaning process) Similarly, if there is not an edge connecting in , then does not have high density. (Edges between were not added in the cleaning process)
Thus, by a similar counting argument to the proof of the triangle counting lemma, that is the graph counting lemma, we can show that has more than copies of .
Generalizations
The graph removal lemma was later extended to directed graphs and to hypergraphs.
Quantitative bounds
Usage of regularity lemma in the proof of graph removal lemma forces to be extremely small, bounded by tower function of hight polynomial in that is (here is the tower of twos of height ). Tower function of height is necessary in all regularity proofs as is implied by results of Gowers on lower bounds in regularity lemma. However, in 2011 Fox provided a new proof of graph removal lemma which does not use regularity lemma, improving the bound to (here is number of vertices of removed graph ). His proof, however, uses regularity-related ideas such as energy increment, but with different notion of energy, related to entropy. This proof can be also rephrased using Frieze-Kannan weak regularity lemma as noted by Conlon and Fox. In the special case of bipartite it was shown that is sufficient.
There is a large gap between upper and lower bounds for in the general case. The current best result true for all graphs is due to Alon and states that for each nonbipartite there exists constant such that is necessary for the graph removal lemma to hold while for bipartite the optimal has polynomial dependence on , which matches the lower bound. Construction for nonbipartite case is a consequence of Behrend construction of large Salem-Spencer set. Indeed, as triangle removal lemma implies Roth's theorem, existence of large Salem-Spencer set may be translated to an upper bound for in the triangle removal lemma. This method can be leveraged for arbitrary nonbipartite to give aforementioned bound.
Applications
Additive combinatorics
Graph theory
Property testing
See also
Counting lemma
References
Graph theory |
59935183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald%20Geisler | Harald Geisler | Harald Geisler is an artist known for his typographic projects about the role of writing in society. He was born 1980 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany and graduated in 2009 at the University of Art and Design Offenbach am Main.
In 2009 Geisler started creating typefaces and since then released 28 typefaces. With an emphasis on handwriting he developed a method to design fonts that focuses on movement rather than outlines. In 2013 while drawing a font based on Sigmund Freud's manuscripts he started to store multiple versions of each letter in the font instead of fixed ligatures, and created a technique called polyalphabetic substitution that would alter between multiple versions of each letter based on the surrounding letters. This means that when a typist types, the ligatures in each word change so that they are not overused, giving the writing a more realistic look. The technique was based on the rotating barrels of an Enigma encryption machine.
His work is controversially discussed among designers and aims to engage a wider audience in a discourse about typography. His projects are often financed through crowdfunding.
Typefaces
Sigmund Freud Typeface
The idea of the Sigmund Freud typeface is inspired by imagining a person writing a letter to his or hers shrink in Sigmund Freud's handwriting. It is based on eight handwritten documents from 1883 to 1938 selected from the archive of the Sigmund Freud Museum Vienna. in 2015 the font was used in the Times, replacing Times New Roman font in a headline of an article discussing the value of handwriting.
Albert Einstein Font
The Albert Einstein Font is based on Albert Einstein's handwriting. The font holds five variations of each letter that are based on manuscripts from the Albert Einstein Archives in Jerusalem. The letters were recreated using a digital pen to reconstruct the original movement that was used to create them. The project was supported by the Albert Einstein Estate and the production of the font was funded through a Kickstarter Campaign supported by 2334 Backers.
Conspired Lovers
Conspired Lovers is based on Geisler's own handwriting. The design of the font is inspired by love-letter writing.
Notable works
Pen-pals Project
The Pen-pals Project was a historic reenactment of the letter exchange between Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud in 1932, discussing the possibility to "free mankind from the menace of war". In 2017, commemorating the 85th anniversary of the exchange, Geisler reproduced and send the letters from the same location and time of year. Supporters of the project on the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter received copies of the letters or addressed copies to politicians.
Typographic Wall Calendar
The Typographic Wall Calendar is a poster series about the notation of time. It is compiled of the number of used keyboard keys that enumerate the year, laid out in a grid and read from left to right. The first print of the series was produced in 2009.
Typographic Postcards
Started as a spin off from the Typographic Wall Calendar Series and since then produced 28 typographic cards based on the topic of writing.
Publications
Designing Programmes
In collaboration with Karl Gerstner, Geisler created in 2007 an updated version of Gerstner's "Designing Programmes" form 1964.
See also
Albert Einstein in popular culture#In typography
References
German typographers and type designers
21st-century German artists
Artists from Frankfurt
German male artists
1980 births
Living people |
59961754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indistinguishability%20obfuscation | Indistinguishability obfuscation | In cryptography, indistinguishability obfuscation (abbreviated IO or iO) is a type of software obfuscation with the defining property that obfuscating any two programs that compute the same mathematical function results in programs that cannot be distinguished from each other. Informally, such obfuscation hides the implementation of a program while still allowing users to run it. Formally, IO satisfies the property that obfuscations of two circuits of the same size which implement the same function are computationally indistinguishable.
Indistinguishability obfuscation has several interesting theoretical properties. Firstly, iO is the "best-possible" obfuscation (in the sense that any secret about a program that can be hidden by any obfuscator at all can also be hidden by iO). Secondly, iO can be used to construct nearly the entire gamut of cryptographic primitives, including both mundane ones such as public-key cryptography and more exotic ones such as deniable encryption and functional encryption (which are types of cryptography that no-one previously knew how to construct), but with the notable exception of collision-resistant hash function families. For this reason, it has been referred to as "crypto-complete". Lastly, unlike many other kinds of cryptography, indistinguishability obfuscation continues to exist even if P=NP (though it would have to be constructed differently in this case), though this does not necessarily imply that iO exists unconditionally.
Though the idea of cryptographic software obfuscation has been around since 1996, indistinguishability obfuscation was first proposed by Barak et al. (2001), who proved that iO exists if P=NP is the case. For the P!=NP case (which is harder, but also more plausible), progress was slower: Garg et al. (2013) proposed a construction of iO based on a computational hardness assumption relating to multilinear maps, but this assumption was later disproven. A construction based on "well-founded assumptions" (hardness assumptions that have been well-studied by cryptographers, and thus widely assumed secure) had to wait until Jain, Lin, and Sahai (2020). (Even so, one of these assumptions used in the 2020 proposal is not secure against quantum computers.)
Currently known indistinguishability obfuscation candidates are very far from being practical. As measured by a 2017 paper, even obfuscating the toy function which outputs the logical conjunction of its thirty-two Boolean data type inputs produces a program nearly a dozen gigabytes large.
Formal definition
Let be some uniform probabilistic polynomial-time algorithm. Then is called an indistinguishability obfuscator if and only if it satisfies both of the following two statements:
Completeness or Functionality: For any Boolean circuit C of input length n and input , we have
Indistinguishability: For every pair of circuits of the same size k, the distributions and are computationally indistinguishable. In other words, for any probabilistic polynomial-time adversary A, there is a negligible function (i.e., a function that eventually grows slower than for any polynomial p) such that, for every pair of circuits of the same size k, we have
History
The origin of this idea came from Amit Sahai in 1996 from the notion of a zero-knowledge proof.
In 2001, Barak et al., showing that black-box obfuscation is impossible, also proposed the idea of an indistinguishability obfuscator, and constructed an inefficient one.Although this notion seemed relatively weak, Goldwasser and Rothblum (2007) showed that an efficient indistinguishability obfuscator would be a best-possible obfuscator, and any best-possible obfuscator would be an indistinguishability obfuscator. (However, for inefficient obfuscators, no best-possible obfuscator exists unless the polynomial hierarchy collapses to the second level.)
Candidate constructions
Barak et al. (2001) proved that an inefficient indistinguishability obfuscator exists for circuits; that is, the lexicographically first circuit that computes the same function. If P = NP holds, then an indistinguishability obfuscator exists, even though no other kind of cryptography would also exist.
A candidate construction of IO with provable security under concrete hardness assumptions relating to multilinear maps was published by Garg et al. (2013), but this assumption was later invalidated. (Previously, Garg, Gentry, and Halevi (2012) had constructed a candidate version of a multilinear map based on heuristic assumptions.)
Starting from 2016, Lin began to explore constructions of IO based on less strict versions of multilinear maps, constructing a candidate based on maps of degree up to 30, and eventually a candidate based on maps of degree up to 3. Finally, in 2020, Jain, Lin, and Sahai proposed a construction of IO based on the symmetric external Diffie-Helman, learning with errors, and learning plus noise assumptions, as well as the existence of a super-linear stretch pseudorandom generator in the function class NC0. (The existence of pseudorandom generators in NC0 (even with sub-linear stretch) was a long-standing open problem until 2006.) It is possible that this construction could be broken with quantum computing, but there is an alternative construction that may be secure even against that (although the latter relies on less established security assumptions).
Practicality?
There have been attempts to implement and benchmark IO candidates. For example, as of 2017, an obfuscation of the function at a security level of 80 bits took 23.5 minutes to produce and measured 11.6 GB, with an evaluation time of 77 ms. Additionally, an obfuscation of the Advanced Encryption Standard hash function at a security level of 128 bits would measure 18 PB and have an evaluation time of about 272 years.
An open-source software implementation of an IO candidate was created in 2015.
Mathematical details
Existence
It is useful to divide the question of the existence of iO by using Russell Impagliazzo's "five worlds", which are five different hypothetical situations about average-case complexity:
Algorithmica: In this case P = NP, but iO exists.
Heuristica: In this case NP problems are easy on average; iO does not exist.
Pessiland: In this case, , but one-way functions do not exist; as a result, iO does not exist.
Minicrypt: In this case, one-way functions exist, but secure public-key cryptography does not; iO does not exist (because explicit constructions of public-key cryptography from iO and one-way functions are known).
Cryptomania: In this case, secure public-key cryptography exists; iO is believed to exist in this case. (The subcase of cryptomania in which iO does exist is known as obfustopia.)
Potential applications
Indistinguishability obfuscators, if they exist, could be used for an enormous range of cryptographic applications, so much so that it has been referred to as a "central hub" for cryptography, the "crown jewel of cryptography", or "crypto-complete". Concretely, an indistinguishability obfuscator (with the additional assumption of the existence of one-way functions) could be used to construct the following kinds of cryptography:
Indistinguishability obfuscation for programs in the RAM model and for Turing machines
IND-CCA-secure public-key cryptography
Short digital signatures
IND-CCA-secure key encapsulation schemes
Perfectly zero-knowledge non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs and succinct non-interactive arguments
Constant-round concurrent zero-knowledge protocols
Multilinear maps with bounded polynomial degrees
Injective trapdoor functions
Fully homomorphic encryption
Witness encryption
Functional encryption
Secret sharing for any monotone NP language
Semi-honest oblivious transfer
Deniable encryption (both sender-deniable and fully-deniable)
Multiparty, non-interactive key exchange
Adaptively secure succinct garbled RAM
Correlation intractable functions
Attribute-based encryption
Oblivious transfer
Traitor tracing
Graded encoding schemes
Additionally, if iO and one-way functions exist, then problems in the PPAD complexity class are provably hard.
However, indistinguishability obfuscation cannot be used to construct every possible cryptographic protocol: for example, no black-box construction can convert an indistinguishability obfuscator to a collision-resistant hash function family, even with a trapdoor permutation, unless with an exponential loss of security.
See also
Black-box obfuscation, a stronger form of obfuscation proven to be impossible
References
Cryptographic primitives
Software obfuscation |
60021817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A5rdguiden%201177 | Vårdguiden 1177 | Vårdguiden 1177 is a Swedish service providing healthcare by telephone and the central national infrastructure for Swedish healthcare online.
Services
1177's e-services
Electronic identification log in requirement
From December 10, 2019, 1177.se began requiring patients to log in with BankID or Freja eID. Telia e-identification, and login with foreign eID via software for countries that have joined the EU regulation Electronic Identification, Authentication and Trust Services (eIDAS) regulation also work.
1177's phone services
Incidences
2.7 million leaked phone calls
In February 2019, Computer Sweden revealed that all calls made to 1177 since 2013 that were answered by the subcontractor Medicall were stored as audio files on a server that lacked both encryption and user authentication.
See also
Healthcare in Sweden
References
Health care companies of Sweden |
60035242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME%20Fractal | GNOME Fractal | Fractal is an instant messaging client and collaboration software for the GNOME desktop based on the Matrix protocol.
It is free software under the GNU General Public License version 3.
Fractal can be installed on various Linux distributions via Flathub, which is the recommended installation method, although some distributions provide packages through their official repositories.
Features
Fractal integrates well into the GNOME desktop with a clean and easy-to-use user interface design that is optimized for collaboration in big groups. The functionality was still limited in early releases from spring 2018, when features such as video chat and end-to-end encryption were missing.
The user interface targets both smartphones and desktop systems and adapts to different screen sizes and formats.
Architecture
Fractal is written in Rust and has a graphical user interface that, like any GNOME software, is based on the GTK widget toolkit. For the adaptive user interface, it uses a software library called libhandy that is developed by the computer manufacturer Purism. Logon credentials can be stored in any local password manager that provides the Secret Service API. The functionality is to be split into separate frontends for mass chat and personal instant messaging using a common backend, tentatively called Discussions and Messages, respectively.
History
The first code was committed to Fest (formerly known as ruma-gtk) on December 29, 2016, from which the Fractal codebase was forked by Daniel García Moreno in August 2017. For the first release (v0.1.0) on November 10, 2017 it was called Guillotine.
With the release of version 0.1.22 on March 27, 2018 it entered beta status. With GNOME version 3.30 of September 5, 2018, it reached release status and became part of The GNOME Project.
Over that summer, two students worked on Fractal, which was sponsored as part of the Google Summer of Code program, including the development of localization and spell-checking support. Computer manufacturer Purism is working to integrate it into the crowd-funded Linux smartphone Librem 5, scheduled for market release in "Q4 2019". Purism is therefore sponsoring the development of some features such as support for Matrix' end-to-end encryption (E2EE) that was standardized in 2018. E2EE is implemented as a separate software module whose basic functionality was available by autumn 2018.
References
External links
Official website
Source code repository
Free instant messaging clients
GNOME Applications
Free software programmed in Rust
2018 software
Instant messaging clients that use GTK |
60099319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20printing%20protocols | List of printing protocols | A printing protocol is a protocol for communication between client devices (computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc.) and printers (or print servers). It allows clients to submit one or more print jobs to the printer or print server, and perform tasks such as querying the status of a printer, obtaining the status of print jobs, or cancelling individual print jobs...
Dedicated protocols
Protocols listed here are specific for printing.
The Line Printer Daemon protocol/Line Printer Remote protocol (or LPD, LPR) is a network protocol for submitting print jobs to a remote printer. The original implementation of LPD was in the Berkeley printing system in the 2.10 BSD UNIX operating system in 1988; the LPRng project also supports that protocol. The LPD Protocol Specification is documented in RFC 1179. LPD printing normally happens over port 515.
AppSocket, also known as Port 9100, RAW, JetDirect, or Windows TCPmon is a protocol that was developed by Tektronix. It is considered as 'the simplest, fastest, and generally the most reliable network protocol used for printers' though 'it also offers no security and is often an attack vector with printers'. AppSocket printing normally happens over port 9100.
The Internet Printing Protocol (IPP) is an Internet protocol for communication between client devices (computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc.) and printers (or print servers). IPP can run locally or over the Internet. Unlike other printing protocols, IPP also supports access control, authentication, and encryption, making it a much more capable and secure printing mechanism than older ones. IPP is supported by over 98% of printers sold today. IPP printing normally happens over port 631. It is the default protocol in Android and iOS.
Generic protocols
These protocols put the printer as similar class to remote disks, scanners and multimedia devices. This is especially true for multi-function printers, that also produce image files (scans and faxes) and send them back through the network.
Telnet is based on simply transferring data safely to/from TCP ports that are now being used for printing purposes. This approach is sometimes called raw TCP/IP, Stream, or direct sockets printing.
Server Message Block (SMB) is an application-layer network protocol for file and printer sharing originally developed by IBM in the mid-80s. It is the default method used by Windows based computers to share files and printers.
Wireless protocols
Wireless protocols is designed for wireless devices. This kind of protocol is based on one kind of printing protocols plus Zero-configuration networking (zeroconf) mechanisms. In this way, printers can be used by wireless devices seamlessly. Note that the printer itself is not necessary to be wireless.
AirPrint is a feature in Apple Inc.'s macOS and iOS operating systems for printing via a wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), either directly to AirPrint-compatible printers, or to non-compatible shared printers by way of a computer running Microsoft Windows, Linux, or macOS. AirPrint is based on mDNS (Bonjour, more specifically) and Internet Printing Protocol (IPP). It was originally intended for iOS devices and connected via a Wi-Fi network only, and thus required a Wi-Fi access point. However, with the introduction of AirPrint to the macOS desktop platform in 2012, Macs connected to the network via ethernet connection could also print using the AirPrint protocol—not just those connected via Wi-Fi.
Mopria Alliance provides a protocol which is adopted by Android and available in Windows 10. It uses mDNS for service discovery and Internet Printing Protocol (IPP) for printing, just like AirPrint.
Windows devices use Web Services for Devices (WSD) for service discovery and Line Printer Daemon protocol (LPR) or JetDirect (RAW) for printing. Windows 10 also supports Mopria Alliance's way.
Internet protocols
The computer and the printer usually should locate in the same local area network (LAN) when use all of above protocols. Internet printing protocols is designed for Internet printing.
Google Cloud Print
The service ended on December 31, 2020.
See also
Common Unix Printing System
System V printing system
Spooling
References
External links
TCP/IP Printing Overview on Brooksnet website
Printing protocols
Computer printing |
60102607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeWe | MeWe | MeWe is an American social media and social networking service owned by Sgrouples, a company based in Culver City, California. MeWe's light approach to content moderation has made it popular among American conservatives, conspiracy theorists, and anti-vaxxers. Due to concerns with possible pro-China censorship of Facebook, the site also gained popularity in Hong Kong in November 2020.
The site's interface has been described as similar to that of Facebook, although the service describes itself as the "anti-Facebook" due to its focus on data privacy.
Platform
Features
By 2015, as MeWe neared the end of its beta testing cycle, the press called MeWe's software "not dissimilar to Facebook". In 2020, Mashable described MeWe as replicating Facebook's features.
The MeWe site and application has features common to most social media and social networking sites: users can post text and images to a feed, react to others' posts using emoji, post animated GIFs, create specialized groups, post disappearing content, and chat.
Online chat may occur between two or more people or among members of a group. Person-to-person online chat is similar to that in most other social media and social networking sites, and supports text, video calling, and voice calling. "Secret Chat" is limited to the paid subscription tier of MeWe, and uses double ratchet encryption to ensure that chats are private and not visible even to MeWe employees.
MeWe reported in June 2018 that the site had 90,000 active groups, 60,000 of which were "public" and open to all users. Following the influx of Hong Kong users in 2020, MeWe CEO Weinstein announced that the website would provide a Traditional Chinese language version by the end of the year.
User base and content
United States
Although MeWe has not intentionally positioned itself as a social network for conservatives, Mashable noted in November 2020 that its active userbase trends conservative. The platform's choice not to moderate misinformation on the platform has attracted conservatives who felt mainstream social networks were censoring their posts, and those who have been banned from those platforms. MeWe is considered an alt-tech platform.
MeWe's loose moderation has made it popular among conspiracy theorists, including proponents of the far-right QAnon conspiracy theory, which was banned from Facebook in 2020, and the "Stop the Steal" conspiracy theory relating to the 2020 United States presidential election. According to Rolling Stone, MeWe has "played host to general interest communities related to music and travel, but it has also come to be a haven for anti-vaxxers, QAnon conspiracy theorists, and, as reported by OneZero, far-right militia groups." Vice has described MeWe as a "major anti-vaxx forum". BBC News has described some of the content on MeWe as "extreme" and compared it to that of Gab. Business Insider has reported that some of the most popular groups on MeWe focus on "extreme views, like anti-vaccine rhetoric, white supremacy, and conspiracy theories" and that in 2020 the platform was used to organize anti-lockdown protests. According to Megan Squire, groups belonging to the Boogaloo movement began using the platform after their removal from Facebook.
Shortly after the 2020 United States presidential election, MeWe and other alt-tech platforms experienced a wave of signups from Trump supporters, following crackdowns on election-related misinformation and promotion of violence on mainstream social networks. On November 11, MeWe was the second-most downloaded free app on the Apple App Store, behind its fellow alt-tech social network Parler. However, Mashable noted MeWe's practice of creating accounts on behalf of users and businesses who were not users of the site may have served to inflate the amount of activity on the platform. MeWe and other alt-tech networks again spiked in popularity shortly after the January 6, 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, though this subsided shortly after, with downloads falling more than 80% from January to February 2021.
On January 22, 2021, MeWe's CEO said in an interview with NPR that "MeWe is serious about putting limits on what people can say" and that he doesn't like sites where "anything goes", describing such sites as "disgusting". He also said that MeWe would be hiring more moderation staff. In the coverage, NPR noted that MeWe's stated rules are still "more lax than Facebook and Twitter," and that MeWe had not yet banned groups dedicated to QAnon.
Hong Kong
MeWe gained popularity in Hong Kong in November 2020 with users migrating from Facebook due to concerns with possible pro-China censorship and moderation. The popularity of MeWe in Hong Kong has been attributed to the city's suspicion of any restraint on free speech, after the Chinese government imposed significant restrictions on the expression of dissent following the 2019–20 protests, including the Hong Kong national security law. MeWe communities in Hong Kong generally reflect everyday-life interests, with social media consultants in Hong Kong reporting that they have not seen extremist content in the communities they manage.
Reception
In a 2015 review of the beta MeWe service, British writer John Leonard called MeWe "well-designed and pretty intuitive", but questioned whether the company's business model was a viable one. Andrew Orr, reviewing the site in April 2018, felt that service was a good one but that it did not have any advantages over existing social media sites. That, he felt, would make it difficult for MeWe to attract users.
In 2019, science communicators Rachel Alter, Tonay Flattum-Riemers, and Lucky Tran wrote in a column in The Guardian that anti-vaccination activists, if banned entirely from mainstream social networking sites, might "go underground" by moving elsewhere, and that anti-vaccine figures "are already talking about moving their platforms to alternative sites like MeWe." In 2020, data scientist Wong Ho-wa criticized the site for its lack of multi-factor authentication. MeWe intends to add support for two-factor authentication in the first or second quarter of 2021.
Business
In 1998, entrepreneur Mark Weinstein established SuperGroups.com, a social media website. The site was closed by its largest investor in 2001. Gathering largely the same leadership team, Weinstein incorporated Sgrouples Inc. in 2011. MeWe was incorporated as a subsidiary of Sgrouples, and based in Culver City, California. Over the next six years, Sgrouples raised about $10 million from investors including lynda.com founder Lynda Weinman, fashion designer Rachel Roy, and authors Jack Canfield and Marci Shimoff.
MeWe finished its initial financing round in July 2018 by raising $5.2 million in new funds. The company began work on upgrading MeWe and initiating work on an enterprise version called MeWePRO.
MeWe emphasizes its commitment to privacy and remaining ad-free. MeWe has said they will never use cookies or spyware to generate content about users, and that it will not track user activity in any way or sell user data to a third party. MeWe has described itself as the "anti-Facebook" due to its focus on data privacy, lack of moderation, and simple newsfeed algorithm.
The MeWe business model does not rely on advertising revenue; rather, MeWe generates revenue from subscription fees and by selling custom emoji. In December 2019, MeWe announced it would be introducing a premium tier and a separate two-tiered enterprise tier includes voice and video conferencing, as well as integrations with Office 365.
Mark Weinstein is the founder and chief executive officer of MeWe. Advisors to MeWe include computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee and filmmaker Cullen Hoback.
References
2012 establishments in California
Alt-tech
American social networking websites
Android (operating system) software
Companies based in Culver City, California
Companies' terms of service
Internet properties established in 2012
IOS software
Multilingual websites
Proprietary cross-platform software
Technology companies established in 2012
Websites with far-right material
Conspiracist media |
60172836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure%20Reliable%20Transport | Secure Reliable Transport | Secure Reliable Transport (SRT) is an open source video transport protocol that utilises the UDP transport protocol.
Overview
SRT provides connection and control, reliable transmission similar to TCP; however, it does so at the application layer, using UDP protocol as an underlying transport layer. It supports packet recovery while maintaining low latency (default: 120 ms). SRT also supports encryption using AES.
The protocol was derived from the UDT project, which was designed for fast file transmission. It provided the reliability mechanism by utilising similar methods for connection, sequence numbers, acknowledgements and re-transmission of lost packets. It utilises selective and immediate (NAK-based) re-transmission.
SRT added several features on top of that in order to support live streaming mode:
Controlled latency, with source time transmission (timestamp-based packet delivery)
Relaxed sender speed control
Conditional "too late" packet dropping (prevents head-of-line blocking caused by a lost packet that wasn't recovered on time)
Eager packet re-transmission (periodic NAK-report)
Packet header
SRT packets are created at the application layer and handed to the transport layer for delivery. Each unit of SRT media or control data created by an application begins with the SRT packet header.
Data packet
The fields in the header are as follows:
Packet Sequence Number (31 bits)
PP (2 bits): Packet Position Flag
O (1 bit): Order Flag
KK (2 bits): Key-based Encryption Flag
R (1 bit): Retransmitted Packet Flag
Message Number (26 bits)
Data (variable length)
Control packet
The fields in the header are as follows:
Control Type (15 bits): Control Packet Type
Subtype (16 bits)
Type-specific Information (32 bits)
Control Information Field (variable length)
History
Secure Reliable Transport is an open source video transport protocol developed originally by Haivision. According to SRT Alliance, an organisation that promotes the technology, it optimises streaming performance. This helps minimise effects of jitter and bandwidth changes, while error-correction mechanisms help minimise packet loss. SRT supports end-to-end encryption with AES. When performing retransmissions, SRT only attempts to retransmit packets for a limited amount of time based on the latency as configured by the application.
According to Marc Cymontkowski, the architect of SRT, in addition to sending MPEG transport streams over the public internet, it is also being used for IoT connectivity, metadata exchange, as a communication protocol, as well as for uncompressed data delivery.
The reference implementation of the protocol was originally published under the Lesser General Public License version 2.1, but was relicensed under the Mozilla Public License on 22 March 2018.
SRT is supported in the free software multimedia frameworks GStreamer, FFmpeg, OBS Studio and in VLC free software media player.
The UDP-based Data Transfer Protocol (UDT) project has been a base for the SRT project.
The SRT C API is largely based in design on the UDT API
SRT was designed for low-latency live video transmission.
Haivision released the SRT protocol and reference implementation as open source at the 2017 NAB Show.
In March 2020, an individual Internet-Draft, draft-sharabayko-mops-srt, was submitted for consideration to the Media OPerationS (MOPS) working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force.
SRT Alliance
SRT Alliance is an organisation whose members develop, use and promote the Secure Reliable Transport protocol and software based on it. The founding members of the alliance are Haivision and Wowza Streaming Engine.
Implementations
There's currently one available implementation, which is the open-source SRT library.
The C language API is mainly based on the previous UDT API, with further changes as new features are added. The API is very similar to the one of TCP.
SRT offers actually three working modes, of which the first two were derived from UDT:
File-stream mode: like TCP
File-message mode: similar to SCTP protocol – sending blocks of data with clearly defined boundaries
Live mode: the data should be sent in small packets (usually up to 1316 bytes, if the transmitted stream is MPEG-TS) with already appropriate time intervals between them. The same single packets with the same time intervals between them are then delivered at the receiver side.
The SRT library also offers these features:
Encryption using a pre-shared key. Encryption support was originally provided by OpenSSL, now also alternatively, Nettle (GNU TLS) or mbedTLS can be used.
SRT Access Control (aka "StreamID") can be used by applications to identify resources and use user-password access method while using the same service port number for multiple purposes.
The optional Forward Error Correction mechanism.
Further and more detailed documentation can be found in the Source code documentation.
See also
Reliable Internet Stream Transport, intended to fill a gap in the market for professional protocols as opposed to the 'prosumer' SRT.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Application layer protocols
Streaming
Video software |
60207552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEAAN | HEAAN | HEAAN (Homomorphic Encryption for Arithmetic of Approximate Numbers) is an open source homomorphic encryption (HE) library which implements an approximate HE scheme proposed by Cheon, Kim, Kim and Song (CKKS).
The first version of HEAAN was published on GitHub on 15 May 2016, and later a new version of HEAAN with a bootstrapping algorithm
was released.
Currently, the latest version is Version 2.1.
CKKS plaintext space
Unlike other HE schemes, the CKKS scheme supports approximate arithmetics over complex numbers (hence, real numbers).
More precisely, the plaintext space of the CKKS scheme is for some power-of-two integer . To deal with the complex plaintext vector efficiently, Cheon et al. proposed plaintext encoding/decoding methods which exploits a ring isomorphism .
Encoding method
Given a plaintext vector and a scaling factor , the plaintext vector is encoded as a polynomial
by computing where denotes the coefficient-wise rounding function.
Decoding method
Given a message polynomial and a scaling factor , the message polynomial is decoded to a complex vector by computing .
Here the scaling factor enables us to control the encoding/decoding error which is occurred by the rounding process. Namely, one can obtain the approximate equation by controlling where and denote the encoding and decoding algorithm, respectively.
From the ring-isomorphic property of the mapping , for and , the following hold:
,
,
where denotes the Hadamard product of the same-length vectors.
These properties guarantee the approximate correctness of the computations in the encoded state when the scaling factor is chosen appropriately.
Algorithms
The CKKS scheme basically consists of those algorithms: key Generation, encryption, decryption, homomorphic addition and multiplication, and rescaling. For a positive integer , let be the quotient ring of modulo . Let , and be distributions over which output polynomials with small coefficients. These distributions, the initial modulus , and the ring dimension are predetermined before the key generation phase.
Key generation
The key generation algorithm is following:
Sample a secret polynomial .
Sample (resp. ) uniform randomly from (resp. ), and .
Output a secret key , a public key , and an evaluation key .
Encryption
The encryption algorithm is following:
Sample an ephemeral secret polynomial .
For a given message polynomial , output a ciphertext .
Decryption
The decryption algorithm is following:
For a given ciphertext , output a message .
The decryption outputs an approximate value of the original message, i.e., , and the approximation error is determined by the choice of distributions .
When considering homomorphic operations, the evaluation errors are also included in the approximation error.
Basic homomorphic operations, addition and multiplication, are done as follows.
Homomorphic addition
The homomorphic addition algorithm is following:
Given two ciphertexts and in , output .
The correctness holds as .
Homomorphic multiplication
The homomorphic multiplication algorithm is following:
Given two ciphertext and in , compute . Output .
The correctness holds as .
Note that the approximation error (on the message) exponentially grows up on the number of homomorphic multiplications. To overcome this problem, most of HE schemes usually use a modulus-switching technique which was introduced by Brakerski, Gentry and Vaikuntanathan.
In case of HEAAN, the modulus-switching procedure is called rescaling. The Rescaling algorithm is very simple compared to Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan's original algorithm.
Applying the rescaling algorithm after a homomomorphic multiplication, the approximation error grows linearly, not exponentially.
Rescaling
The rescaling algorithm is following:
Given a ciphertext and a new modulus , output a rescaled ciphertext .
The total procedure of the CKKS scheme is as following: Each plaintext vector which consists of complex (or real) numbers is firstly encoded as a polynomial by the encoding method, and then encrypted as a ciphertext . After several homomorphic operations, the resulting ciphertext is decrypted as a polynomial and then decoded as a plaintext vector which is the final output.
Security
The IND-CPA security of the CKKS scheme is based on the hardness assumption of the ring learning with errors (RLWE) problem, the ring variant of very promising lattice-based hard problem Learning with errors (LWE).
Currently the best known attacks for RLWE over a power-of-two cyclotomic ring are general LWE attacks such as dual attack and primal attack.
The bit security of the CKKS scheme based on known attacks was estimated by Albrecht's LWE estimator.
Library
Version 1.0, 1.1 and 2.1 have been released so far. Version 1.0 is the first implementation of the CKKS scheme without bootstrapping.
In the second version, the bootstrapping algorithm was attached so that users are able to address large-scale homomorphic computations.
In Version 2.1, currently the latest version, the multiplication of ring elements in was accelerated by utilizing fast Fourier transform (FFT)-optimized number theoretic transform (NTT) implementation.
References
Cryptographic primitives
Public-key cryptography
Lattice-based cryptography
Homomorphic encryption |
60222591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%2010 | Android 10 | Android 10 (codenamed Android Q during development) is the tenth major release and the 17th version of the Android mobile operating system. It was first released as a developer preview on March 13, 2019, and was released publicly on September 3, 2019.
Android 10 was officially released on September 3, 2019, for supported Google Pixel devices, as well as the third-party Essential Phone and Redmi K20 Pro in selected markets. The OnePlus 7T was the first device with Android 10 pre-installed. In October 2019, it was reported that Google's certification requirements for Google Mobile Services will only allow Android 10-based builds to be approved after January 31, 2020.
, 27.71% of Android devices run Android 10 (API 29), making it the second most used version of Android.
History
Google released the first beta of Android 10 under the preliminary name "Android Q" on March 13, 2019, exclusively on their Pixel phones, including the first-generation Pixel and Pixel XL devices where support was extended due to popular demand. Having been guaranteed updates only up to October 2018, the first-generation Pixel and Pixel XL devices received version updates to Android 10. The Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL were included, after being granted an extended warranty period which guaranteed Android version updates for them for at least 3 years from when they were first available on the Google Store. A total of six beta or release-candidate versions were released before the final release.
The beta program was expanded with the release of Beta 3 on May 7, 2019, being made available on 14 partner devices from 11 OEMs; twice as many devices compared to Android Pie's beta. Beta access was removed from the Huawei Mate 20 Pro on May 21, 2019, due to U.S. government sanctions, but was later restored on May 31.
Google released Beta 4 on June 5, 2019, with the finalized Android Q APIs and SDK (API Level 29). Dynamic System Updates (DSU) were also included in Beta 4. The Dynamic System Update allows Android Q devices to temporarily install a Generic System Image (GSI) to try a newer version of Android on top of their current Android version. Once users decide to end testing the chosen GSI image, they can simply reboot their device and boot back into their normal device's Android version.
Google released Beta 5 on July 10, 2019, with the final API 29 SDK as well as the latest optimizations and bug fixes. Google released Beta 6, the final release candidate for testing, on August 7, 2019.
On August 22, 2019, it was announced that Android Q would be branded solely as "Android 10", with no codename. Google ended the practice of giving major releases titles based on desserts, arguing that this was not inclusive to international users (due either to the aforementioned foods not being internationally known, or being difficult to pronounce in some languages). Android VP of engineering Dave Burke did reveal during a podcast that, in addition, most desserts beginning with the letter Q were exotic, and that he personally would have chosen queen cake. He also noted that there were references to "qt"—an abbreviation of quince tart—within internal files and build systems relating to the release.
The statue for the release is likewise the numeral 10, with the Android robot logo (which, as part of an accompanying rebranding, has also been changed to only consist of a head) resting inside the numeral "0".
Features
Navigation
Android 10 introduces a revamped full-screen gesture navigation system and new app open and close animations, with gestures such as swiping from either side edge of the display to go back, swiping up to go to the home screen, swiping up and holding to access Overview, swiping diagonally from a bottom corner of the screen to activate the Google Assistant, and swiping along the gesture bar at the bottom of the screen to switch apps. The use of an edge swiping gesture as a "Back" command was noted as potentially causing conflicts with apps that utilize sidebar menus and other functions accessible by swiping. An API can be used by apps to opt out of handling a back gesture within specific areas of the screen, a sensitivity control was added for adjusting the size of the target area to activate the gesture, and Google later stated that the drawer widget would support being "peeked" by long-pressing near the edge of the screen, and then swiped open. The traditional three-key navigation system used since Android "Honeycomb" remains supported as an option, along with the two-button "pill" style navigation introduced in Android 9.0 Pie.
Per Google certification requirements, OEMs are required to support Android 10's default gestures and three-key navigation. OEMs are free to add their own gestures alongside them. However, they must not be enabled by default, they must be listed in a separate area one level deeper than other navigation settings, and they cannot be promoted using notifications. The two-key gesture navigation system used on Android Pie is deprecated, and may not be included on devices that ship with Android 10. However, it can still be included as an option for continuity purposes on devices upgraded from Pie.
User experience
Android 10 includes a system-level dark mode. Third-party apps can automatically engage a dark mode when it is active.
Apps can also present "settings panels" for specific settings (such as, for example, internet connection and Wi-Fi settings if an app requires internet) via overlay panels, so that the user does not have to be taken outside of the app in order to configure them.
Privacy and security
Several major security and privacy changes are present in Android 10: apps can be restricted by users to only having access to location data when they are actively being used in the foreground. There are also new restrictions on the launching of activities by background apps. For security (due to its use by clickjacking malware) and performance reasons, Android 10 Go Edition forbids use of overlays, except for apps that received the permission before a device was upgraded to Android 10.
Encryption
In February 2019, Google unveiled Adiantum, an encryption cipher designed primarily for use on devices that do not have hardware-accelerated support for the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), such as low-end devices. Google stated that this cipher was five times faster than AES-256-XTS on an ARM Cortex-A7 CPU. Therefore, device encryption is now mandatory on all Android 10 devices, regardless of specifications, using Adiantum if their CPU is not capable of hardware-accelerated AES. In addition, implementation of "file-based encryption" (first introduced in Android Nougat) is also mandatory for all devices.
On devices shipping with Android 10, security patches for selected system components (such as ANGLE, Conscrypt, media frameworks, networking components, and others) may be serviced via Google Play Store, without requiring a complete system update ("Project Mainline"). In order to license Google mobile services, manufacturers must support these updates for specific modules, while the remainder are marked as "recommended" but optional. Selected modules within this system use the new APEX package format, a variation of APK files designed for housing and servicing low-level system components.
Scoped storage
A major change to storage access permissions known as "Scoped storage" is supported on Android 10, and will become mandatory for all apps beginning with Android 11. Apps are only allowed to access files in external storage that they had created themselves (preferably contained within an app-specific directory), and audio, image, and video files contained within the Music, Pictures, or Videos directories. Any other file may only be accessed via user intervention through the backwards-incompatible Google Storage Access Frameworks.
Apps must have a new "read privileged phone state" permission in order to read non-resettable device identifiers, such as IMEI number.
Transport Layer Security
TLS 1.3 support is also enabled by default.
Platform
Platform optimizations have been made for foldable smartphones, including app continuity when changing modes, changes to multi-window mode to allow all apps to run simultaneously (rather than only the actively-used app running, and all others being considered "paused"), and additional support for multiple displays.
"Direct Share" has been succeeded by "sharing shortcuts". As before, it allows apps to return lists of direct targets for sharing (such as a combination of an app and a specific contact) for use within share menus. Unlike Direct Share, apps publish their targets in advance and do not have to be polled at runtime, improving performance.
Native support has been added for MIDI controllers, the AV1 video codec, the Opus audio codec, and HDR10+. There is also a new standard API for retrieving depth information from camera photos, which can be used for more advanced effects. Native support for aptX Adaptive, LHDC, LLAC, CELT and AAC LATM codecs was added as well.
Android 10 supports WPA3 encryption protocol and Enhanced Open, which introduce opportunistic encryption for Wi-Fi. Android 10 adds support for Dual-SIM dual-standby (DSDS), but is initially only available on the Pixel 3a and Pixel 3a XL.
Android 10 Go Edition has performance improvements, with Google stating that apps would launch 10% quicker than on Pie.
RISC-V Support
Recently, Android 10 has been ported to the RISC-V architecture by Chinese-owned T-Head Semiconductor. T-Head Semiconductor managed to get Android 10 running on a triple-core, 64-bit, RISC-V CPU of their own design.
See also
Android version history
References
External links
Android (operating system)
2019 software |
60250398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua%20Schulte | Joshua Schulte | Joshua Adam Schulte (born September 25, 1988) is a former Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee who was accused of being involved in a 2016 leak of classified documents to WikiLeaks, the Vault 7 documents, which The New York Times called "the largest loss of classified documents in the agency's history and a huge embarrassment for C.I.A. officials."
Career
Schulte graduated from the University of Texas at Austin in 2011 with a degree in computer engineering. While studying at the University of Texas, he began working for IBM. Then, from January 2010 to May 2010, he was employed as a systems engineer by the National Security Agency (NSA), including time spent within the Technology Directorate.
Around the time that he ended his employment with the NSA, he began working for the CIA as a software engineer. By November 2016, he had left the CIA to move to New York, and, up until his arrest and detention on August 24, 2017, worked as a senior software engineer for Bloomberg LP.
Leaks of classified information
Schulte allegedly stole backup files from a program called Confluence on April 20, 2016, prior to the program's hacking tools being leaked. On March 7, 2017, WikiLeaks began to publish content code-named "Vault 7". The confidential documents, dated from 2013–2016, included details on the CIA's software capabilities, such as the ability to compromise cars, smart TVs, web browsers, and popular operating systems.
On May 15, 2018, both The Washington Post and The New York Times published news articles about Schulte being a suspect in a federal investigation concerning the unauthorized disclosure of classified information to WikiLeaks.
Later that same day, the government "alerted the court to a violation, a potential breach of the protective order" in which "various search warrants and search warrant affidavits" were leaked to the press. The government alleged that Schulte, while in the course of making phone calls from prison sometime in May 2018, had distributed "Protected Search Warrant Materials to his family members for purposes of dissemination to other third parties, including members of the media," some of which included classified information. In the government's view, they considered this "a clear breach of the protective order. It is unacceptable, particularly unacceptable given that this defendant has a pattern of violating the Court's orders."
About a month later, on June 18, 2018, the grand jury issued a superseding indictment, adding ten more counts to the original three: illegal gathering of national defense information, illegal transmission of lawfully possessed national defense information, illegal transmission of unlawfully possessed national defense information, unauthorized access to a computer to obtain classified information, theft of government property, unauthorized access to a computer to obtain information from a department or agency of the United States, causing transmission of a harmful computer program, information, code, or command, making false statements, obstruction of justice, and criminal copyright infringement.
An additional superseding indictment was issued on October 31, 2018, which added two more charges—contempt of court, and illegal transmission and attempted transmission of unlawfully possessed national defense information—bringing the amount to a total of fifteen.
Outlined in a letter to the court later that day, the government revealed that Schulte had been—within a period sometime in early October 2018—discovered using "one or more smuggled contraband cellphones to communicate clandestinely with third parties" outside of New York's Metropolitan Correctional Center, where he was being held, and that the grand jury had issued "dozens of subpoenas and pen register orders," revealing that Schulte was using "approximately 13 email and social media accounts (including encrypted email accounts)."
Discovery
During a court hearing on August 8, 2018, counsel for Schulte told the court that they believed "that the government owes Mr. Schulte a Brady disclosure." In response, the government said they were "prepared to make all appropriate disclosures as soon as possible." The government delivered a Brady disclosure to Schulte on September 25, 2018.
On December 12, 2018, the court imposed severe security measures in the areas containing discovery material. Since then, Schulte has been required to be in full restraints and secured to a bolt in the floor while in the Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility (SCIF), and stripped searched upon leaving the SCIF at the end of each session.
On February 12, 2019, the government informed the court that, in consulting with the Metropolitan Correctional Center, it was determined that "the hard drives containing the defendant's discovery were misplaced," but another copy would be provided.
Sex crimes allegations
During a raid of Schulte's Manhattan apartment on March 15, 2017, as well as at least one more on March 23, 2017, federal agents confiscated approximately 60 electronic devices, including a desktop computer locked under three layers of encryption.
On March 20, 2017, investigators returned to Schulte's apartment and asked for consent to search his cell phone. According to his counsel, "Schulte, in front of the agents, opened the phone, put in the password, handed it over to them to make sure that nothing on the phone could be destroyed or altered and handed it right to the authorities." Afterwards, through technical analysis, agents retrieved passwords from his cell phone that unlocked multiple layers of encryption on his desktop computer, where investigators discovered a single classified document as well as over 10,000 images and videos depicting child pornography including "sadistic and masochistic images and videos of children as young as a few years old who had been brutally sexually assaulted." The government found that Schulte had "neatly organized" this material "according to his preferences, and stored it for a period of years." In the government's view, there was "no set of circumstances that can confidently assure the Court that he's not going to continue to try to download child pornography, encourage others to download it and share it and just generally engage in very dangerous sexual activity."
The government argued that Schulte was "both a flight risk and a danger to the community." Defense counsel countered that Schulte "had no basis of knowing if there's any alleged child pornography or had any reason to believe that he was in any way, shape or form in contact with any child pornography." The court concluded that Schulte's contention of being victimized by people who used his servers to store child pornography without his knowledge or consent "just doesn't seem likely" and ordered that he be detained.
Three weeks later, on September 6, 2017, Schulte was indicted by a grand jury in the Southern District of New York on suspicion of receipt of child pornography, possession of child pornography, and transportation of child pornography. A week later, Schulte entered a plea of not guilty, and was released on bail two days afterward.
On November 15, 2017, the Loudoun County, Virginia Commonwealth's Attorney's Office determined that they had enough evidence based on pictures supplied by the FBI to charge Schulte with two crimes: object sexual penetration and the unlawful creation of an image of another. On December 7, 2017, at the request of the FBI, Schulte was arrested by NYPD officers in connection to the charges in Virginia.
On December 14, 2017, U.S. Magistrate Judge Paul A. Crotty revoked bail in New York and had Schulte remanded to the custody of the United States Marshal of the Southern District of New York. Schulte has since been detained at the Metropolitan Correctional Center in Manhattan.
Trial
Schulte's trial on charges of disclosing classified information to WikiLeaks, after allegedly stealing it from the secretive CIA unit where he worked, began in New York on February 4, 2020, with opening statements by the respective sides. Federal prosecutors asserted that Schulte committed "the single biggest leak of classified national defense information in the history of the CIA" to take revenge on his former colleagues and bosses. Schulte's lead defense attorney, Sabrina Shroff, told jurors that her client was "a pain in the ass to everyone at the CIA," but argued that "Being a difficult employee does not make you a criminal." Schulte pleaded not guilty.
On March 9, 2020, after hearing four weeks of testimony and deliberating for six days, the jury convicted Schulte on two counts: contempt of court and making false statements to the FBI. However, jurors were deadlocked on eight other counts, including the most serious of illegal gathering and transmission of national defense information. Although the judge declared a mistrial, the government can retry the case. Additionally, Schulte faces a separate federal trial on charges of possessing child pornography.
References
External links
Trial transcripts United States of America v. Joshua Adam Schulte (2020) in United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
1988 births
Living people
People from Lubbock, Texas
University of Texas at Austin alumni
American computer specialists
People of the Central Intelligence Agency |
60256288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Center%20for%20Digital%20Certification | National Center for Digital Certification | The National Center for Digital Certification (NCDC) is a government agency in Saudi Arabia responsible for the management of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI). NCDC is governed by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology and aims at providing trust services for the secure information exchange and transmission between participants including government sectors, citizens and the business sector.
History
NCDC was established in 2001 where its primary task is managing the Public Key Infrastructure and encryption was assigned to King Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). However, in 2005, NCDC was transferred to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology.
NCDC Services
The main task of NCDC is to nationally provide secure, efficient, and reliable systems for information exchange and transmission. these services include issue and processing Digital Certificates from a government certificate authority, and checking certificates validity using application based on Public Key Infrastructure (PKI).
References
Government agencies of Saudi Arabia
2000s establishments in Saudi Arabia |
60350501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Silicon%20Valley%20characters | List of Silicon Valley characters | Silicon Valley is an American comedy television series created by Mike Judge, John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky. The series stars Thomas Middleditch, T.J. Miller, Josh Brener, Martin Starr, Kumail Nanjiani, Christopher Evan Welch, Amanda Crew, Zach Woods, Matt Ross, Suzanne Cryer, Jimmy O. Yang, Stephen Tobolowsky, and Chris Diamantopoulos. The series' first season premiered on HBO on April 6, 2014.
Overview
Main characters
Richard Hendricks
Richard Hendricks, portrayed by Thomas Middleditch, is a Stanford dropout and coder at tech company Hooli. Richard quits his job to pursue his compression application Pied Piper. The company initially starts out as a simple data compression platform, but when this, and a videochat that Dinesh created with the algorithm fails, Richard pivots toward creating a new, decentralized internet, called PiperNet. For the most part, Richard is shy and weak-willed, and does not have much of a temper, but when he finally reaches his limit, is prone to intimidating explosions of anger. Richard is constantly struggling with the demands of the business world, preferring instead to disappear into the coding of his application, but realizes that as CEO he must do more.
Throughout most of the series, Richard is determined to make Pied Piper a company different from the dreary Hooli and the condescending, aloof Gavin Belson, but as the series progresses, it becomes clear that the many trials and tribulations of trying to get his business to succeed have made him cynical, narcissistic and unappeasable, in much the same vein as the man from whom he once sought to distinguish himself. This is exemplified in the season 5 premiere, wherein Richard uses Gavin's tactic of spending large amounts of company money and resources to bankrupt two weaker, recently merged companies, ostensibly to acquire their coders, but in reality to get petty vengeance on the two CEOs, who had tried to screw him over. Richard has also grown more aggressive and outspoken toward his friends, even insulting Gilfoyle without fear. However, Richard has also grown more competent and prideful in business by season 5, effectively using Gavin's ego to stall his 51% attack on Pied Piper and gain back 51% of the company, allowing Richard to finally release PiperNet the way he wants it without more interference.
In season 6, Richard once again struggles between executing business tactics and not compromising his own moral values. He proclaims in front of the United States Senate that Pied Piper will not collect user data and the implementation of a decentralized internet will prevent such actions from taking place, but soon finds that one of Pied Piper's developers, Collin, is actively mining user data. He attempts to blackmail Collin by using APIs to collect his phone calls, but the plan backfires when Collin shows off the technology to interested investors. Collin would later join Chilean billionaire Maximo Reyes's alliance with YaoNet, Pied Piper's main competitor after Richard turned down an offer from Reyes to purchase a $1 billion stake in Pied Piper because Richard refused to collect user data. Pied Piper is able to fend off YaoNet when they purchase the cash-strapped Hooli by going around Gavin Belson and convinces his board to sign on. Later, Belson, forced into retirement, publishes a code of conduct known as "Tethics" for all major companies to sign on. Richard refused initially out of anger at Belson's blatant hypocrisy, but soon discovers that Belson had plagiarized from the mission statements of companies such as Applebee's and Starbucks. Richard then attempts to close a deal with AT&T but was turned down initially. While running the internet service at Russ Hanneman's RussFest, Richard discovers YaoNet's presence at the festival. He and the team initially fend off YaoNet, but soon learns from Laurie Bream that YaoNet was only observing the performance of PiperNet and that it is not more advanced compared to YaoNet. Richard initially breaks down at the revelation, but later reverts the system with artificial intelligence, leading to success at RussFest and a $100 million deal with AT&T. However, days before PiperNet's launch, Richard discovers that the network's AI has become so advanced that it can bypass advanced encryptions, meaning that it can potentially end privacy if implemented on a large scale. Although initially reluctant, Richard agrees to intentionally sabotage PiperNet in order to prevent the AI from potentially ending internet privacy. After PiperNet's launch caused thousands of rats to emerge onto streets all over the country, Richard shuts down Pied Piper in shame. He would later travel the world and is revealed to have become a "Gavin Belson Professor of Technology Ethics" at Stanford University ten years after the initial PiperNet launch.
Erlich Bachman
Erlich Bachman, portrayed by T.J. Miller (seasons 1–4), is an arrogant entrepreneur who founded an innovation incubator in his home after the purchase of his airfare collator Aviato. Erlich still holds on to his glory days in the valley, wearing Aviato T-shirts and driving a Ford Escape adorned with Aviato logos. Under the incubator agreement, Erlich owns 10% of Pied Piper, and is later appointed to the company's board of directors after Richard realizes how important Erlich is to the business. Erlich is a frequent user of marijuana. It is revealed in the season 2 finale that Erlich no longer codes because of severe carpal tunnel syndrome. Despite being relatively unsuccessful in his own entrepreneurial ventures, he is a charismatic public speaker and negotiator, and is often seen as the "face" of Pied Piper. In season 3 he begins to have a less active role in Pied Piper. He begins to start his own VC firm with Big Head but then declares bankruptcy.
After selling his Pied Piper shares to cover his debts, he gets rehired into the company as a PR representative. When Richard starts his new company using the Pied Piper trademark, Erlich then owns 10% of the new company while keeping his PR job at the old company which is eventually deleted. Erlich then decides to focus on Jian-Yang's product which also fails. After another failed deal with Kenan Feldspar and quitting his job at Bream-Hall, Erlich then decides that he and Richard will never be successful and moves away to Tibet to join Gavin Belson at a monastery at the end of season 4. After Gavin was informed that Jack Barker was being held hostage, he immediately proceeds to take Erlich with him to leave Tibet. However, Erlich then becomes incubated upon consuming opium at an Inn, and Gavin pays the innkeeper enough money to take care of Erlich for five years.
Erlich is never heard from again afterward, although Richard reveals in "Exit Event" that he tried to look for Erlich in Tibet.
Nelson "Big Head" Bighetti
Nelson "Big Head" Bighetti, portrayed by Josh Brener, is a former tenant of Erlich's incubator and Richard's best friend who also works at Hooli. He is unintelligent and naïve, but still manages to acquire significant influence as a result of the struggle between Hooli and Pied Piper. After work on Pied Piper commences, Big Head is offered a huge raise and promotion by Gavin Belson to help Hooli develop its copycat software, Nucleus, out of spite and because Richard was forced to limit his staff. He is continually promoted so rapidly that buzz develops about him, and he ends up on the cover of Wired magazine.
He is later removed from the Nucleus project due to his lack of technical knowledge, and has absolutely no responsibilities at Hooli. He was later promoted further to make it appear that he was the actual creator of Pied Piper while working at Hooli, but he is unaware of this. After a disastrous binding arbitration with Pied Piper, Gavin makes Big Head redundant and pays him $20 million in severance, which he blows through very quickly when Erlich tricks him into entering into a business arrangement with him, naming their firm, "Bachmanity". Big Head then buys a majority stake in PiperChat following the sale of a technology blog he and Erlich owned. Due to his poor business skills, his father takes over control of his share on his behalf.
In season 4, Big Head takes a position as a Computer Science instructor at Stanford University. In season 5, after discovering that he never formally severed his arrangement with Erlich, Big Head is legally Erlich's next-of-kin and gains ownership of Erlich's house and 10% ownership of Pied Piper from Jian-Yang. Big Head moves into Erlich's house but keeps in touch with Jian-Yang, allowing him to move back into the house after Jian-Yang loses everything in China.
In season 6, Big Head continues to run the Hacker Hostel with Jian-Yang but is aloof to his unethical activities. After Jian-Yang refused to give Pied Piper the backdoor key of his algorithm, Big Head reveals that he has recited it and gives it to Richard. In the series finale "Exit Event", it is revealed that Big Head's father's stake has been bought by Russ Hanneman, although Big Head himself is unaware of it. Later, it is shown that ten years after PiperNet's launch, Big Head has become the President of Stanford University and has hired Richard to work as a "Gavin Belson Professor of Technology Ethics".
Bertram Gilfoyle
Bertram Gilfoyle, portrayed by Martin Starr, is a LaVeyan Satanist network engineer and system architect. Initially an undocumented immigrant from Canada, Gilfoyle successfully applied for a visa after being pressured by Dinesh. Gilfoyle credits himself as an online security expert, and as such is responsible for system administration and server configuration at Pied Piper. Gilfoyle has a girlfriend Tara (Milana Vayntrub) who is also a LaVeyan Satanist, with the two having an open and long-standing relationship, though Tara still lies to Gilfoyle about sleeping with other men. Gilfoyle often plays mocking pranks on Dinesh, but the two do appear to be friends or at most, frenemies despite this, with the two often bonding over their shared moral ambiguity.
While he is usually indifferent to Richard and lacks loyalty toward him, Gilfoyle highly respects Richard as a coder and admits that Pied Piper is nothing without Richard. Like Dinesh, Gilfoyle is quick-witted and merciless, but in contrast, highly apathetic, sardonic and brutally honest. He acts as the systems architect of Pied Piper.
Gilfoyle is very confident in his abilities and has proven his worth to the Pied Piper team on multiple occasions, such as building the server farm "Anton", to save the company the struggle of paying for generic, mediocre servers in an office space. Due to this, Gilfoyle takes great pride in his security tech, becoming very nervous and confused whenever his tech is compromised. In season 5, Gilfoyle is promoted to senior management along with Dinesh with the title of "Chief Systems Architect".
By Season 6, Gilfoyle is promoted to VP of Architecture at Pied Piper but refuses to take anyone under his management, preferring to work on the Systems Architecture by himself. This leads to continual conflict with Head of HR Tracy Robertson. After Pied Piper was shut down, Gilfoyle and Dinesh began to run a large cybersecurity firm together.
Dinesh Chugtai
Dinesh Chugtai, portrayed by Kumail Nanjiani, is a talented programmer specializing in Java originally from Karachi, Pakistan who is typically the victim of Gilfoyle's embarrassing games and pranks. Dinesh exhibits a quick-witted and merciless temperament toward everyone on the team, and often behaves in a deceitful and unhelpful manner, such as when he plots the death of a man who was dating the girl that he liked. Dinesh is also shown to be especially materialistic and uncomfortable with women. Dinesh always seems to run into bad luck, such as getting involved with cyber criminals to opportunities for recognition.
Like Gilfoyle, Dinesh usually lacks loyalty to Richard, exemplified in season 4, when Dinesh was briefly CEO of PiperChat, he refused to give Richard algorithm usage data in exchange for use of the algorithm as promised. Dinesh has proven that when given the opportunity or a small stream of good luck, he is more than willing to ditch his friends. However, Richard keeps Dinesh on account that despite his disloyal acts, Dinesh is still very good at what he does. In season 5, Dinesh is promoted to senior management along with Gilfoyle and gains an obsession with being the "top Tesla driver" in the company. In Season 6, Dinesh is promoted to VP of Engineering but is usually disrespected by his employees. In the series finale "Exit Event", Dinesh initially recuses himself from participating in the Pied Piper team's attempt to sabotage the launch of PiperNet, believing that his pride and greed will be in the way. However, when he is notified that the faulty code meant to disrupt PiperNet was reverted, Dinesh personally walked to the top of the Salesforce Tower to install the faulty code, successfully crashing PiperNet. After Pied Piper closed, Dinesh and Gilfoyle began to run a large cybersecurity firm together.
Peter Gregory
Peter Gregory, portrayed by Christopher Evan Welch (season 1), is the billionaire founder and CEO of Raviga Capital as well a 5% equity owner of Pied Piper after his $200,000 investment. Gregory is extremely intelligent, but socially awkward, eccentric and fastidious. Historically, Gregory and Gavin Belson were friends, however their relationship soured as each went to run their own competing tech companies, making interactions between them awkward. Welch died after the fifth episode of season 1 was completed, but the character remained present off-screen for the remainder of the season. Gregory later died in the season 2 premiere. Monica is saddened by Gregory's death and still highly reveres him, becoming very disappointed whenever the values Gregory believed in and instilled in the Valley are dishonored, notably by Laurie Bream's profit-motivated approach to business.
In season 4 it is revealed that Peter Gregory theorized decentralized internet years before Richard Hendricks did, but he was limited by the technology of his time.
Monica Hall
Monica Hall, portrayed by Amanda Crew, is an employee of Raviga Capital and associate partner under both Peter Gregory and later Laurie Bream. Monica is often charged with engaging with clients on a more personable and approachable way than either Gregory or Bream are, and as such forms a close friendship with Richard after she convinces him to launch Pied Piper on his own. In season 4, Monica was demoted by Laurie after she voted against selling Pied Piper to the highest bidder, which turns out to be Erlich's company Bachmanity rather than Hooli. Later, Monica realizes that Ed Chen, an up-and-coming colleague at Raviga, is attempting to remove Laurie, she notifies her, earning Laurie's trust in the process. They soon both depart Raviga to form a new VC firm, Bream/Hall and proceeds to fund Pied Piper. In season 5, upon realizing that Laurie plans to take advantage of Pied Piper once they get their Series B funding, Monica finally severs all business ties with her and moves to Pied Piper as its new chief financial officer. In season 6, Monica continues to assist and advise Richard on business affairs and helped in Pied Piper's successful acquisition of Hooli. In "Exit Event", it was revealed that ten years after PiperNet's launch, Monica has moved to Washington, D.C. and is working for a "think tank", although later it was indicated that she was in fact working for the NSA.
Donald "Jared" Dunn
Donald "Jared" Dunn, portrayed by Zach Woods, is an ex-VP of Hooli who quits the company in order to join the Pied Piper team as its COO and business advisor. Like Richard, Jared is anxious and vulnerable, but gains confidence as the series progresses and the company's success necessitates it. Jared is a graduate of Vassar College and provides the business skills that the largely engineering-oriented team lacks, which Gilfoyle admits is very helpful due to their disdain for the business side of startups, providing business strategies to the team such as scrum and SWOT analysis. He is also exceedingly optimistic, kind-hearted and staunchly loyal to Richard, sacrificing his high-paying and financially secure job at Hooli to lend his business expertise to Pied Piper.
His birth name is Donald, but his former boss, Gavin, once referred to him as Jared, and the nickname stuck, despite the Pied Piper team knowing it's not his real name. He is frequently roasted by the other employees of Pied Piper, aside from Richard who often protects him, though he tends to be oblivious of this or too uptight to actually understand the insult. Jared is usually depicted as the most empathetic person on the team, given most of the team's moral ambiguity. Over the course of the series, Jared drops bits and pieces of his considerably dark backstory, such as being the product of a forced adoption to finding his biological father in the Ozarks. In season 5, Jared is promoted to chief operating officer of Pied Piper. In season 6, Jared leaves Pied Piper, feeling that it is no longer the company he loved and has refocused his efforts to advising developers at the incubator. His loyalty and respect for Richard have deteriorated following this decision. Jared later returns to help Pied Piper successfully acquire Hooli, but request that he and Gwart, the coder he is mentoring, be released from their contracts. Gwart would later leave to work for Laurie Bream. Later on Jared tracks down his birth parents, and learns that they gave him up for adoption because they thought they don't have enough room for a third child, only to discover later that they do. The experience traumatized Jared, causing him to become increasingly committed to helping other people. In the finale "Exit Event", Jared convinces Richard to sabotage PiperNet by using the example of J. Robert Oppenheimer's regret for developing the atomic bomb. After Pied Piper closed, Jared begins to work at a nursing home.
Gavin Belson
Gavin Belson, portrayed by Matt Ross (recurring season 1, starring season 2–6), is the CEO and founder of tech giant Hooli and the series' main antagonist, who embodies the soulless corporate culture that Richard is desperate to avoid with Pied Piper. Belson constantly spews forth pseudo-philosophical rants to his employees, who remain enamored with his work, but at the same time demonstrates complete ignorance and a mean spirit.
Jian-Yang
Jian-Yang, portrayed by Jimmy O. Yang (recurring season 1, starring season 2–6), is another tenant of Erlich's incubator, and the only person who lives there that is not involved with Pied Piper in any capacity. He speaks English with a mixed Cantonese-Mandarin accent. Jian-Yang and Erlich have frequent disagreements, given Erlich's racist bullying from the start. In general, Jian-Yang appears to play naive, but then takes advantage of Erlich's naïveté or stupidity. For example, after Erlich complains how difficult it is for a landowner to evict a tenant, Jian-Yang decides to take advantage of this fact and lives rent-free in Erlich's house for a year. As payback for Erlich's racist abuse, Jian-Yang often insults and makes prank calls to Erlich, and takes a sadistic enjoyment in tormenting him. At the end of the show, Jian-Yang has assumed Erlich's identity.
Laurie Bream
Laurie Bream, portrayed by Suzanne Cryer (season 2–6), is the replacement for Peter Gregory as CEO of Raviga Capital, and later co-founder of Bream Hall Capital with Monica. Like her predecessor, Laurie is highly intelligent and socially inept, but appears to rely more on tangible metrics than Peter. Further, unlike him, she is completely devoid of empathy, emotion or any kind of idealism, concerning herself only with making a profit. Little is known about Laurie's personal life, except that she's recently had her fourth child, and is taking low dose MDMA for severe post-partum depression.
In season 2, Laurie initially offers Pied Piper $20 million in Series A funding at a $100 million valuation, but Richard instead takes half of Laurie's offer upon advice from Monica. After Hooli files a lawsuit against Richard, Laurie drops Pied Piper from Raviga's portfolio. After Richard won against Hooli in binding arbitration, Laurie buys Russ Hanneman's stake and three board seats in Pied Piper, and immediately removes Richard as CEO in an emergency board meeting.
In season 3, Laurie offers Richard to stay on as CTO and reserve his board seat, which Richard initially refuses until he met with Jack Barker, Laurie's choice for CEO. After a disagreement between the Pied Piper team and Jack on what platform to develop, Laurie sides with Pied Piper upon realizing the value of their platform and fires Barker, later reinstalling Richard as CEO. After it was discovered that Jared had been using click farms to increase Pied Piper's Daily Active Users (DAU), Laurie proceeds to sell Pied Piper to the highest bidder. Initially thought to be Hooli, Laurie later sells Pied Piper to Bachmanity, owned by Erlich and Big Head, after they outbid Hooli by one dollar. However, Monica is demoted as a result for voting against Laurie.
In season 4, Laurie becomes pregnant with her fourth child and faces a hostile takeover from Ed Chen. She proceeds to partner with Monica upon learning her loyalty and forms a new VC called Bream-Hall together, later agreeing to fund Pied Piper once again after its concept of a decentralized internet was successfully proven. In season 5, Laurie initially offers Pied Piper $30 million in series B funding, but later reveals that she plans to leverage them into collecting user data and other actions, leading to Pied Piper pulling out and fund itself through its ICO, PiperCoin. Laurie later partners up with Yao, a Chinese businessman who owns YaoNet, the version of Pied Piper developed by Jian-Yang, and attempts a failed hostile takeover of Pied Piper's network.
In season 6, Laurie is revealed to have split from Yao and has moved YaoNet's operations to the U.S. She later partners with Maximo Reyes, the Chilean businessman who attempted to buy a $1 billion stake in Pied Piper. The Pied Piper team later found her at RussFest, where she revealed that she was spying on PiperNet's abilities. In the series finale "Exit Event", Laurie is revealed to be in prison ten years after the initial PiperNet launch, although the reason for her imprisonment was never told.
Russ Hanneman
Russ Hanneman, portrayed by Chris Diamantopoulos (recurring season 2–3, starring season 4 and 6, guest season 5), is a brash, loud and fiery billionaire investor who provides Pied Piper with their Series A funding. He initially earned his fortune by "putting radio on the internet" (a parody of how Mark Cuban earned his wealth), and is very protective of his billionaire identity. At the end of season 2, Russ sells his share of Pied Piper to Raviga Capital after it won against Hooli in binding arbitration, helping him to become a billionaire again. Russ is later found broke due to putting all of his money into 36 ICOs, with only one of them being successful but losing the thumb drive containing the coin. In season 6, Russ approaches Richard and helps him avoid investigation from the Attorney General of California through his possession of dirt on the attorney general, and in exchange, Richard agrees to provide internet for Russ's three-day festival in the Nevada desert, RussFest. Although there were initial issues, the Pied Piper team successfully implemented a large decentralized service through artificial intelligence, leading to Russ purchasing a stake in Pied Piper before the launch of PiperNet. In the series finale "Exit Event", Russ reveals in a documentary produced ten years after PiperNet's launch that he has managed to earn his wealth back by investing in hair transplants.
Jack Barker
" Action" Jack Barker, portrayed by Stephen Tobolowsky (recurring season 3, starring season 4), is briefly the CEO of Pied Piper and later Hooli. He has a self-designed business model called the "Conjoined Triangle of Success", and often applies it in his career. In season 3, Jack is picked by Laurie Bream as the new CEO of Pied Piper, which Richard initially opposes until Barker tells him that he will turn down Laurie's offer if Richard leaves as well. The Pied Piper team, however, soon becomes disillusioned with his business approach, including his excessive spending on a new office and sales team. Barker later demands the Pied Piper team to make a data storage box, which the team initially tries to sabotage until it was inadvertently discovered by him. After discovering his attempts to undermine her, Laurie fires Jack as CEO. After running into Gavin Belson at an airport, Jack is hired as Hooli's head of development and immediately begins to work on the box he had planned to produce with Pied Piper with Endframe.
In season 4, Jack and Gavin secure a deal with Chinese producers to make the Hooli-Endframe boxes. But on their way back, Jack requested the pilot to drop him off first at Jackson Hole, Wyoming instead of Mountain View. Upon finding out that the route caused him to travel a longer distance, Gavin is enraged. In retaliation, he moves Jack's office to the data storage room. Despite this, Jack remains optimistic, leading Gavin to track down his call history with his grandchildren. After Gavin is fired following the numerous COPPA violations in PiperChat, Jack replaces him as CEO and finds a way around the COPPA fines. After the Hooli boxes suffer a setback in their rollout at HooliCon, Jack acquires the VR company owned by Kennan Feldspar and uses it for a demo at the conference. However, the mobile demo, along with the unbeknownst installment of Pied Piper's internet, causes numerous Hooli phones to explode at HooliCon and elsewhere. Instead of a firmware update, Barker orders for 9 million Hooli phones to be replaced in a three-day span. He travels to Hooli's factory in China and attempts to boost production through a motivational speech, but is instead taken hostage by the workers. Gavin, who is in Tibet, learns of Hooli's failures and Barker's hostage situation and heads to the factory to successfully negotiate Jack's release. This helps Gavin regains the Hooli board's trust, and he regains his position as CEO and ousts Jack.
Recurring characters
Aly Mawji as Aly Dutta/Naveen Dutt (seasons 1–3), a Hooli coder who bullies Richard and Big Head. He is charged with working on Nucleus as a lead engineer.
Brian Tiechnell as Jason Winter (seasons 1–3), a Hooli programmer who bullies Richard and Big Head. He is also charged with working on Nucleus as a lead engineer. He along with Aly quits Hooli after being fed up with Gavin's antics.
Jill E. Alexander as Patrice (seasons 1–3, 5), a Hooli employee. She is fired by Gavin after showing distaste toward his animal abuse.
Andy Daly as Dr. Crawford, a Silicon Valley doctor whom Richard regularly sees.
Ben Feldman as Ron LaFlamme, Pied Piper's young, laid-back but competent outside counsel.
Gabriel Tigerman as Gary Irving (seasons 1–3), the human resources manager at Hooli.
Bernard White as Denpok, Gavin's sycophantic spiritual advisor.
Kara Swisher as herself, a tech journalist who often interviews some of the show's characters.
Matt McCoy as Pete Monahan (seasons 2–4), a disgraced former lawyer who represents Richard, Erlich and Pied Piper at the binding arbitration of the Hooli lawsuit.
Jake Broder as Dan Melcher (seasons 1, 4), a former TechCrunch Judge who is kicked out after he beats up Bachman for sleeping with his wife. He later returns in season four as the CTO of an insurance company.
Alice Wetterlund as Carla Walton (seasons 2–3), a programmer and friend of Gilfoyle and Dinesh's who joins the Pied Piper team. She later quits along with the other new hires after the failures with Homicide and Intersite. She later blackmails Pied Piper to pay her in exchange for non-disclosure of Pied Piper's "Skunkworks" plan but refusing to return to the team.
Chris Williams as Hoover (season 3–6), Hooli's head security officer. He admires Gavin and is determined to make each of his requests, though Gavin often disregards him. He is a veteran.
Annie Sertich as C.J. Cantwell (season 3), a tech blogger. Erlich buys her blog after she is coerced into revealing Big Head was her source. Later the blog is bought out by Gavin himself after she hears about Gavin's illegal dumping of an elephant in the San Francisco Bay.
Ken Lerner as Arthur, Big Head's business manager when he creates an incubator.
Henry Phillips as John Stafford, the downtrodden datacenter employee who shows other characters to their new underground offices, and offers to show the main cast individual racks where their "box" might be located once it is created.
Haley Joel Osment as Keenan Feldspar (season 4), the developer of a VR headset who tries to buy out Pied Piper. When Richard rejects the deal, he signs with Hooli.
Tim Chiou as Ed Chen (season 4), a venture capitalist that works at Raviga who currently serves as the firm's Managing Director.
Emily Chang as herself (seasons 3–6), a journalist who interviews various characters.
Tzi Ma as Yao (season 5), a Chinese businessman and manufacturing plant owner who works with Belson and Laurie.
Aaron Sanders (seasons 5-6) as Holden, the much-abused protege of Jared.
Aristotle Athari (seasons 5-6) as Gabe, a Pied Piper employee who works in quality assurance and annoys Dinesh. He has an Archelis wearable chair.
Helen Hong as Tracy (season 6), the head of Human resources at Pied Piper.
Arturo Castro as Maximo Reyes (season 6), an Chilean billionaire who purchased a stake in Pied Piper in season 6.
Avi Nash as Wajeed (seasons 2 and 6), Dinesh's cousin and founder of Bro
References
Characters
Fictional characters from Los Angeles
Silicon Valley
Fictional programmers
Lists of American comedy television series characters |
60362829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable%20Internet%20Stream%20Transport | Reliable Internet Stream Transport | Reliable Internet Stream Transport (RIST) is an open-source, open-specification transport protocol designed for reliable transmission of video over lossy networks (including the Internet) with low latency and high quality. It is currently under development in the Video Services Forum's "RIST Activity Group."
RIST is intended as a more reliable successor to Secure Reliable Transport, and as an open alternative to proprietary commercial options such as Zixi, VideoFlow, QVidium, and DVEO (Dozer).
Technology
Technically, RIST seeks to provide reliable, high performance media transport by using RTP / UDP at the transport layer to avoid the limitations of TCP. Reliability is achieved by using NACK-based retransmissions (ARQ). SMPTE-2022 Forward Error Correction can be combined with RIST but is known to be significantly less effective than ARQ.
RIST Simple Profile was published in October 2018 and includes the following features:
The base stream uses RTP for compatibility with existing equipment.
Retransmission requests use RTCP. Two types of retransmission requests are defined:
A Bitmask NACK, defined in RFC 4585.
A Range NACK, defined as an APP RTCP packet.
Bonding of multiple links for load sharing.
Seamless switching using SMPTE-2022-7.
Out-of-band transmission of protection data.
The RIST AG is working on an update to RIST Simple Profile that adds link probing to allow for dynamic ARQ protection.
RIST Main Profile was published in March 2020 and adds the following features to Simple Profile:
Tunneling based on RFC 8086, with bidirectional send/receive in the same tunnel.
Multiplexing of multiple streams into the same tunnel.
In-band data support in the tunnel, useful for remote management.
Client/Server architecture.
Firewall traversal.
DTLS encryption.
Pre-Shared Key encryption, with multicast support, access control, and authentication.
Advanced authentication options using either public key certificates or TLS-SRP.
Bandwidth optimization based on NULL packet deletion.
Support for high bit-rate streams by extending the RTP sequence number.
The RIST AG has defined a number of Main Profile compliance levels. Approval of this document is expected soon.
RIST Enhanced Profile is currently under development.
VideoFlow has provided IPR that covers both Simple Profile and Main Profile under RAND-Z terms.
Open source implementations and tools
libRIST: an open-source RIST implementation that includes both Simple and Main Profiles.
gstreamer plugin for RIST
Upipe
WireShark dissector for RIST
Discord
References
Multimedia
Network protocols |
60391877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMazing | IMazing | iMazing is a mobile device management software that allows users to transfer files and data between iOS devices (iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch) and macOS or Windows computers.
History
Created by DigiDNA, the software was initially released in 2008 as DiskAid, enabling users to transfer data and files from the iPhone or iPod Touch to Mac or Windows computers. DiskAid was renamed iMazing in 2014. Version 2.0 was released on September 13, 2016.
In August 2021, version 2.14 of iMazing added a spyware detection feature. The feature is based on Amnesty International’s Mobile Verification Toolkit to detect Pegasus Spyware following the publication of Pegasus Project.
Description
With iMazing, an iPhone or iPad can be used similarly to an external hard drive. It performs tasks that iTunes doesn’t offer, including incremental backups of iOS devices, browsing and exporting text and voicemail messages, managing apps, encryption, and migrating data from an old phone to a new one.
The menu bar app iMazing Mini enables automatic, wireless and encrypted backups of iPhones. The iMazing HEIC Converter is a free desktop app for Mac and PC that lets users convert photos from HEIC format to JPG or PNG.
See also
iTunes
Apple Configurator
References
2008 software
IOS software
Windows software
Mobile applications
Data management software |
60483849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ola%20Bini | Ola Bini | Ola Bini, (born Ola Martin Gustafsson in 1982) is a Swedish programmer and Internet activist, working for the Digital Autonomy Center in Ecuador on issues of privacy, security and cryptography. He has been in Ecuador since 2013.
In April 2019 Bini was arrested in Ecuador apparently due to his association with Julian Assange and WikiLeaks.
Work
Ola Bini has been involved in the design and implementation of programming languages (JRuby, Ioke, Seph). According to his website, he works on technologies to improve privacy.
Karolinska Institutet
According to his 2007 book, Ola Bini worked at the Karolinska Institutet from 2001 to 2007 as a systems developer and systems architect.
ThoughtWorks
In June 2007, Bini left the Karolinska Institutet to join ThoughtWorks for work on the Ruby programming language, including the JRuby core. That year Bini authored the book Practical JRuby on Rails Web 2.0 Projects: Bringing Ruby on Rails to Java, referencing his work for "ThoughtWorks Studios, the product development division of ThoughtWorks, Ltd." He spoke about JRuby and Ioke at Google I/O 2009. In 2011 he authored a second book about creating web development applications, Using JRuby: Bringing Ruby to Java.
The company has since described him as "the creator of programming languages Seph and Ioke", and noted him as a speaker at the Swecha Freedom Fest doing outreach to students in India. At ThoughtWorks, Bini was a co-worker of Aaron Swartz, whose loss he lamented, saying "We’ve spent some time together, and we work for the same company. I was hoping to one day actually be able to work on a project with him."
Bini moved to Ecuador in 2013 as part of his work doing cybersecurity consulting for ThoughtWorks, which contracted with the government of Ecuador that year to advise them on a new law affecting software development. Two weeks after his arrival, he gave a talk "Ecuador as a Privacy Paradise" at a state university event.
The Jan/April 2015 issue of LineaSur Foreign Policy Journal, published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Human Mobility of Ecuador, cited an interview with Bini in shaping the government's perspective on Internet privacy policy:With the arrival of the “Internet of things” and the accumulation of data by companies that process and resell “big data,” the need for clear rules and guarantees of rights is urgent. Many Internet connected devices that are already for sale do not have the necessary securities and expose the population to technical failures, improper surveillance, and criminal acts. (See the interview with Ola Bini [“Desafíos técnicos,” 2015]). An interview of Bini with this title was published in El Ciudadano in May 2015, in which he called attention to the dangers of cars and other devices vulnerable to internet intrusion.
According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Bini is "a free software developer, who worked to improve the security and privacy of the Internet for all its users. He has worked on several key open source projects, including JRuby, several Ruby libraries, as well as multiple implementations of the secure and open communication protocol OTR. Ola’s team at ThoughtWorks contributed to Certbot, the EFF-managed tool that has provided strong encryption for millions of websites around the world."
Bini left ThoughtWorks in 2017 and remained in Ecuador.
Centro de Autonomía Digital
Bini joined Centro de Autonomía Digital after leaving ThoughtWorks in 2017.
The Centro de Autonomía Digital, a small non-profit organization incorporated in Ecuador and Spain "with the purpose of making the internet a safer place for everyone", of which he is the technical director, published a statement in 2019 detailing his contributions and noting that he had been ranked by Computerworld as Sweden's number 6 developer (in 2008), and that he "created two programming languages" and is "a long time Free Software and privacy and transparency activist." The statement listed his contributions to loke, Seph, JesCov, JRuby, JtestR, Yecht, JvYAMLb, JvYAML-gem, RbYAML, Ribs, ActiveRecord-JDBC, Jatha, Xample, and JOpenSSL.
DECODE Project
Bini contributed to the European Union's DECODE Project, aimed at "giving people ownership of their personal data", as an advisory board member.
Arrest in Ecuador
Ola Bini was arrested in an action that appeared to be coordinated with the revocation of asylum and arrest of Julian Assange, whom he counted as a personal friend and visited a dozen times during the time while he was being granted refuge in the Ecuadorian embassy. The government did not file charges, but made a statement that Bini had been arrested for an "alleged participation in the crime of assault on the integrity of computer systems" that was being investigated. The action appeared to reflect a broad repudiation of the political goals of Rafael Correa by his former Vice President Lenin Moreno: in reference to Bini's arrest, Interior Minister María Paula Romo told media "It’s up to the justice system to determine if he committed a crime. But we can’t allow Ecuador to become a center for piracy and spying. That period in our history is over."
The Ecuadorian president, Lenin Moreno, announced on July 27, 2018 that he had begun talks with the British authorities to withdraw the Assange asylum. On April 11, 2019, the asylum was removed and Assange was arrested. Ola Bini was arrested the same day at the Quito airport when he was preparing to board a long-scheduled flight to Japan, to which he had planned to travel for training in Bujinkan Budo Taijutsu, a martial art he had practiced since 2007.
He was initially sentenced to 90 days in prison in north Quito and his bank accounts were frozen.
The arrest came a few hours after Assange was evicted from the Ecuadorian embassy in London. Bini carried at least 30 electronic storage devices. In response defense attorney Carlos Soria told Reuters "They are trying to link him with some sort of possible espionage case without any proof or evidence. He is a personal friend of Julian Assange, he is not a member of WikiLeaks, and being friends with somebody is not a crime — neither is having computers in your home." The attorney published a more detailed list of objections.
Romo alleged that Bini had been involved in the plot with two Russian hackers and the former Foreign Minister Ricardo Patiño, who had granted asylum to Assange in 2012, asserting that Bini had travelled with the Foreign Minister to Peru, Spain, and Venezuela. Patiño responded, "The interior minister said the Swedish man that was arrested yesterday worked with me. I have never met him. Worse travelled with him. Nor do I know Russian hackers. The only Russians I know are: President Putin, the foreign minister Lavrov and the Russian ambassador." The following week Ecuador requested an Interpol Red Notice for Patiño, who fled the country after prosecutors attempted to charge him for encouraging protestors to block roads and enter public institutions the previous year.
Bini's parents, Dag Gustafsson and Gorel Bin, said that their son had been threatened in prison and they would remain in Ecuador until he was released. They spoke at a press conference concerning his appeal and gave a half-hour interview with TeleSUR English.
Bini's lawyers lodged an appeal against his detention on the grounds that he was arrested without a warrant and no evidence of an alleged crime was provided. Bin's appeal with the Provincial Court of Pichincha was decided 2-1 against Bini on May 3: Judge Inés Romero favored the appeal, but judges Juana Pacheco and Fabián Fabara opposed it.
On 20 June 2019, after Bini had been in prison for 70 days, the Pichincha provincial court ruled that his detention was illegal and arbitrary and granted his habeas corpus request, ordering that he be released the following day. The charge of assault on a computer system remained in place. He was required to remain in Ecuador and to attend the prosecutor’s office weekly.
On May 18 a server was taken from the offices of Telconet, which Ola Bini was described as renting for US$5000 per month. This action was initially described as a seizure during a search of company offices, but the company maintained that no search had occurred and the server was handed over under a mutual agreement.
Sources in the Ecuadorian prosecutor's office and the United States Justice Department told Associated Press that Bini would be questioned by the United States on June 27.
A pre-trial hearing on 16 December 2020 ruled that there was enough evidence against Bini to proceed to trial.
After several delays, judge Yadira Proaño issued on June 27, 2021 the order to begin the trial. Two weeks later, Proaño was removed from the trial after the defense alleged "procedural fraud" related to delays in the case.
Reactions
Analysis and commentary
Bini's lawyer Carlos Soria, said the case was created to justify the removal of Assange from the embassy and to improve Moreno's public image which had been tarnished by the corruption scandal known as the INA papers.
News reports of the case have suggested that it, like the revocation of Assange's asylum, might be a response to the publication of the "INA Papers" in March 2019, which detailed offshore financial transactions of Lenin Moreno and family members. The papers, which prompted investigation by the legislature, may have been referred to by Interior Minister Romo when she claimed to have "sufficient evidence that [Bini] was collaborating in attempts to destabilize the government." The papers were published on an independent web site and were disclosed in a news story by La Fuente; Wikileaks has denied any role in obtaining or publishing the documents, and claims Assange himself was closely monitored and cut off from communication within the embassy.
An open letter from a group of concerned leading citizens, including Noam Chomsky, Pamela Anderson, and Brian Eno, was published as an editorial in Aftonbladet. It called on the Swedish government to become politically involved in the case at a level beyond ordinary consular assistance.
Organizations
The Electronic Frontier Foundation issued a statement that Ecuadorean authorities have "no reason" to detain Bini, writing that "One might expect the Ecuadorean administration to hold up Bini as an example of the high-tech promise of the country, and use his expertise to assist the new administration in securing their infrastructure — just as his own European Union made use of Ola’s expertise when developing its government-funded DECODE privacy project... At EFF, we are familiar with overzealous prosecutors attempting to implicate innocent coders by portraying them as dangerous cyber-masterminds, as well as demonizing the tools and lifestyle of coders that work to defend the security of critical infrastructure, not undermine it. These cases are indicative of an inappropriate tech panic, and their claims are rarely borne out by the facts."
Article 19 called for Bini's release, stating "ARTICLE 19 is concerned that the arrest and illegal detention of Ola Bini is part of a crackdown against the community of developers who build digital security technology tools which enable Internet freedoms and secure communication online." Amnesty International has also commented on his case.
A Free Ola Bini website was established, with a solidarity letter citing many supporting organizations, which urges readers to join a Code Pink campaign supporting his release.
Luis Enríquez, coordinator of the cyber-rights observatory at the Universidad Andina Simon Bolívar in Ecuador said "the Ecuadorian justice system has not acted independently".
Amnesty International said it was concerned that Bini’s right to the presumption of innocence had been affected by the actions and statements of high-ranking Ecuadorian officials.
In August 2021, the organisations Access Now and the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society published a report into internet security that included a discussion of Bini's case. The report said the case contained irregularities and was an example of the Ecuadorian government's persecution of the internet security community.
Valeria Betancourt, from the Association for Progressive Communications, described Bini's case as the "antithesis of due process and the rule of law".
References
1982 births
Living people
Swedish computer programmers |
60492006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury%20management%20system | Treasury management system | A treasury management system (TMS) is a software application which automates the process of managing a company's financial operations. It helps companies to manage their financial activities, such as cash flow, assets and investments, automatically.
A TMS is commonly used to maintain financial security and minimize reputational risk. It can be used by a company's internal management, and may be purchased from a technical supplier.
Functions
A TMS can use data to analyze and report payments, cash management and flow, banking and accounting. Its functions are:
Real-time cash management: Cash management aims to increase available cash and reduce shortfalls as quickly as possible. It enables companies to eliminate unnecessary expenses and possible financial risk. A TMS provides a range of uses for cash balances, and can access business accounts at any time. Users can view accounts in detail, including savings and lending balances and transaction histories.
Cash-flow forecasting: This projects expectations of revenue, operating expenses and profit, and is a primary business task. A TMS can predict estimated annual sales and expenses (including time frames), influencing a company's direction.
Payment reconciliation: A TMS' payment-reconciliation software reports discrepancies in account transactions between internal and external sources. Reconciliation automatically ensures that a business's financial transactions match those of a bank, credit-card company or other financial institution for investigation by accounting staff and analysis of discrepancies. The software includes auditing and local work-process approval, standardizing workflow and collating and integrating financial documents for review.
Debt management: Debt may help a business achieve its objectives, and a TMS can manage debt to minimize its cost.
Trade finance: A TMS can manage trade finance, a driver of economic development. It includes lending facilities, issuing letters of credit, export factoring (assets against invoices or accounts receivable), and export credit and delivery insurance. A TMS reduces the amount of paperwork involved in trade finance, and can help free up cash (via factoring) and centralize data. Trade-finance software offers businesses automated processing of import and export documentation, remittances and negotiation.
Technology: TMS software has become more sophisticated to deal with globalization. With a single local function, TMS technology might rely on a spreadsheet or bank system for bank reporting, financial evaluation and lending management.
There are two types of the TMS: local and cloud-hosted (or cloud-based) systems. Local systems are installed on a business's home server, and enable maximum control of features and security protocols. Cloud-hosted systems are more economical, more serviceable and can be deployed more quickly.
Trends
TMSs are transferring to, and improving, the cloud-based system. Software as a service (SaaS, a subscription system) can upgrade more quickly and is becoming more popular. The most important part of a cloud-based system is data protection, and improved data encryption or databases in a country with tight data security laws is a TMS trend; market consolidation is also a trend, enhancing functionality. An increasing number of companies have adopted cloud-based systems, which are evolving in features and security.
See also
Treasury management
References
Management accounting
Financial software |
60520180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGTOT | SIGTOT | SIGTOT was a one-time tape machine for encrypting teleprinter communication that was used by the United States during World War II and after for the most sensitive message traffic. It was developed after security flaws were discover in an earlier rotor machine for the same purpose, called SIGCUM. SIGTOT was designed by Leo Rosen and used the same Bell Telephone 132B2 mixer as SIGCUM. The British developed a similar machine called the 5-UCO. Later an improved mixer, the SSM-33, replaced the 131B2,
The phenomenon, codenamed TEMPEST, of sensitive information leaking by way of unintended electromagnetic radiation for the circuits used inside encryption machine was first discovered coming from the 131B2 mixers used in SIGTOT.
SIGTOT required large amounts of key tape to operate on a continual basis, which was needed for traffic flow security. In 1955, NSA produced some 1,660,000 rolls of one time tape. The logistical problems involved in the generation, supply and destruction of sufficient quantities of key tape limited its use to only the most sensitive traffic. In the 1950s. the U.S. Army Security Agency began developing a replacement, an effort later taken over by the newly formed National Security Agency and resulting in the fielding of the KW-26 (ROMULUS) system.
References
History of cryptography
Encryption devices |
60577742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20censorship%20and%20surveillance%20in%20Europe | Internet censorship and surveillance in Europe | This list of Internet censorship and surveillance in Europe provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship and surveillance that is occurring in countries in Europe.
Detailed country by country information on Internet censorship and surveillance is provided in the Freedom on the Net reports from Freedom House, by the OpenNet Initiative, by Reporters Without Borders, and in the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices from the U.S. State Department Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. The ratings produced by several of these organizations are summarized below as well as in the Censorship by country article.
Classifications
The level of Internet censorship and surveillance in a country is classified in one of the four categories: pervasive, substantial, selective, and little or no censorship or surveillance. The classifications are based on the classifications and ratings from the Freedom on the Net reports by Freedom House supplemented with information from the OpenNet Initiative (ONI), Reporters Without Borders (RWB), and the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices by the U.S. State Department Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
Pervasive censorship or surveillance: A country is classified as engaged in pervasive censorship or surveillance when it often censors political, social, and other content, is engaged in mass surveillance of the Internet, and retaliates against citizens who circumvent censorship or surveillance with imprisonment or other sanctions. A country is included in the "pervasive" category when it:
is rated as "not free" with a total score of 71 to 100 in the Freedom on the Net (FOTN) report from Freedom House,
is rated "not free" in FOTN or is not rated in FOTN and
is included on the "Internet enemies" list from Reporters Without Borders, or
when the OpenNet Initiative categorizes the level of Internet filtering as pervasive in any of the four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which they test.
Substantial censorship or surveillance: Countries included in this classification are engaged in substantial Internet censorship and surveillance. This includes countries where a number of categories are subject to a medium level of filtering or many categories are subject to a low level of filtering. A country is included in the "substantial" category when it:
is not included in the "pervasive" category, and
is rated as "not free" in the Freedom on the Net (FOTN) report from Freedom House, or
is rated "partly free" or is not rated in FOTN, and
is included on the "Internet enemies" list from Reporters Without Borders, or
when the OpenNet Initiative categorizes the level of Internet filtering as pervasive or substantial in any of the four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which they test.
Selective censorship or surveillance: Countries included in this classification were found to practice selective Internet censorship and surveillance. This includes countries where a small number of specific sites are blocked or censorship targets a small number of categories or issues. A country is included in the "selective" category when it:
is not included in the "pervasive" or "substantial" categories, and
is rated as "partly free" in the Freedom on the Net (FOTN) report from Freedom House, or
is included on the "Internet enemies" list from Reporters Without Borders, or
is not rated in FOTN and the OpenNet Initiative categorizes the level of Internet filtering as selective in any of the four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which they test.
Little or no censorship or surveillance: A country is included in the "little or no censorship or surveillance" category when it is not included in the "pervasive", "substantial" or "selective" categories.
This classification includes countries that are listed as "free" on the Freedom on the Net list from Freedom House, are not listed as "Enemies of the Internet" by Reporters Without Borders (RWB), and for which no evidence of Internet filtering was found by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) in any of the four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which they test. Other controls such as voluntary filtering, self-censorship, and other types of public or private action to limit child pornography, hate speech, defamation, or theft of intellectual property often exist. The various nation sections, below, include ratings by ONI, RWB, etc.
Pervasive censorship or surveillance
Belarus
Rated "not free" by Freedom House in Freedom on the Net in 2011 (score 69), 2012 (score 69), 2013 (score 67), 2014 (score 62), 2015 (score 64), 2016 (score 62), 2017 (score 64), and 2018 (score 64).
Listed as selective in the political, social, conflict/security and Internet tools areas by ONI in November 2010.
Listed as an Internet enemy by RWB in 2012.
The Internet in Belarus, as a space used for circulating information and mobilizing protests, has been hard hit as the authorities increased the list of blocked websites and partially blocked the Internet during protests. As a way to limit coverage of demonstrations some Internet users and bloggers have been arrested and others have been invited to “preventive conversations” with the police. Law No. 317-3, which took effect on 6 January 2012, reinforced Internet surveillance and control measures.
The Belarus government has moved to second- and third-generation controls to manage its national information space. Control over the Internet is centralized with the government-owned Beltelecom managing the country's Internet gateway. Regulation is heavy with strong state involvement in the telecommunications and media market. Most users who post online media practice a degree of self-censorship prompted by fears of regulatory prosecution. The president has established a strong and elaborate information security policy and has declared his intention to exercise strict control over the Internet under the pretext of national security. The political climate is repressive and opposition leaders and independent journalists are frequently detained and prosecuted.
Substantial censorship or surveillance
Russia
Rated "partly free" by Freedom House in Freedom on the Net in 2009 (score 49), 2011 (score 52), 2012 (score 52), 2013 (score 54), and 2014 (score 60) and as "not free" in 2015 (score 62), 2016 (score 65), 2017 (score 66), and 2018 (score 67).
Listed as selective in the political and social areas and as no evidence in conflict/security and Internet tools by ONI in December 2010.
Listed as under surveillance by RWB from 2010 to 2013.
Listed as an Internet Enemy by RWB in 2014.
The absence of overt state-mandated Internet filtering in Russia before 2012 had led some observers to conclude that the Russian Internet represents an open and uncontested space. In fact, the Russian government actively competes in Russian cyberspace employing second- and third-generation strategies as a means to shape the national information space and promote pro-government political messages and strategies. This approach is consistent with the government's strategic view of cyberspace that is articulated in strategies such as the doctrine of information security. The DoS attacks against Estonia (May 2007) and Georgia (August 2008) may be an indication of the government's active interest in mobilizing and shaping activities in Russian cyberspace.
In July 2012, the Russian State Duma passed the Bill 89417-6 which created a blacklist of Internet sites containing alleged child pornography, drug-related material, extremist material, and other content illegal in Russia. The Russian Internet blacklist was officially launched in November 2012, despite criticism by major websites and NGOs.
Selective censorship or surveillance
Moldova
Listed as selective in the political area and as no evidence in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in December 2010.
While State authorities have interfered with mobile and Internet connections in an attempt to silence protestors and influence the results of elections, Internet users in Moldova enjoy largely unfettered access despite the government's restrictive and increasingly authoritarian tendencies. Evidence of second- and third-generation controls is mounting. Although filtering does not occur at the backbone level, the majority of filtering and surveillance takes place at the sites where most Moldovans access the Internet: Internet cafés and workplaces. Moldovan security forces have developed the capacity to monitor the Internet, and national legislation concerning illegal activities is strict.
Ukraine
Rated "free" in the Freedom on the Net report by Freedom House in 2012 (score 27) and 2013 (score 28), and as "partly free" in 2014 (score 33), 2015 (score 37), 2016 (score 38), and 2017 (score 45).
Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in December 2010.
The Freedom on the Net 2013 report found the Internet in Ukraine to be "largely unhindered" with "no practice of institutionalized blocking or filtering, or a regulatory framework for censorship of content online", but that "there have been attempts at creating legislation which could censor or limit content" and would "present indirect threats to freedom of information online."
Ukraine possesses relatively liberal legislation governing the Internet and access to information. The Law on Protection of Public Morals of 20 November 2003, prohibits the production and circulation of pornography; dissemination of products that propagandize war or spread national and religious intolerance; humiliation or insult to an individual or nation on the grounds of nationality, religion, or ignorance; and the propagation of "drug addition, toxicology, alcoholism, smoking and other bad habits."
The constitution and laws provide for freedom of speech and press. However, the government does not always respect these rights in practice. Local media observers express concern over high monetary damages that at times were demanded and awarded for alleged libel.
The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, however, in practice authorities generally do not respect these prohibitions. Law enforcement bodies are known to monitor the Internet, at times without appropriate legal authority. There have been occasional agitations of interference by law enforcement agencies with prominent bloggers and online publications.
United Kingdom
Rated "free" by Freedom House in Freedom on the Net in 2009 (score 23), 2011 (score 24), 2012 (score 23), 2013 (score 23), 2014 (score 24), 2015 (score 24), 2016 (score 23), and 2017 (score 24).
Listed as an Internet Enemy by RWB in 2014.
Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in December 2010.
The United Kingdom has a notable libertarian tradition, manifested by, among other things, solid guarantees of freedom of expression, freedom of information, and protection of privacy. Freedom of expression and protection of privacy over the Internet is guaranteed by law. Nonetheless, over the last few years there has been a shift toward increased surveillance and police measures. Combating terrorism and preventing child abuse have been widely used as a justification by state agencies and private commercial actors (e.g., Internet service providers) for the implementation of interception and direct filtering measures. Nevertheless, in 2010 the OpenNet Initiative found no evidence of technical filtering in the political, social, conflict/security, or Internet tools areas. However, the UK openly blocks child pornography web sites, for which ONI does not test.
BT Group's ISP passes Internet traffic through a service called Cleanfeed which uses data provided by the Internet Watch Foundation to identify pages believed to contain indecent photographs of children. When such a page is found, the system creates a 'URL not found page' error rather than deliver the actual page or a warning page. Other ISPs use different systems such as WebMinder.
In July and again in October 2011, the English High Court ruled that British Telecom must block access to a website (newzbin.com) which "provides links to pirated movies". In September 2011, in response to the court ruling and with encouragement from government, leading UK ISPs are reported to have privately agreed in principle to quickly restrict access to websites when presented with court orders. In May 2012 the High Court ordered UK ISPs to block The Pirate Bay to prevent further copyright-infringing movie and music downloads from the website.
On 22 July 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that by default pornography and other abusive material (such as suicide, alcohol and violence-related content) to most households in the UK would be filtered from the Internet by the end of 2013 unless a household chooses to receive it.
The UK has also announced plans requiring pornography sites worldwide to add age verification to prevent children from viewing them. UK based websites which fail to comply will be fined, while overseas sites will be blocked.
In June 2018 Tom Winsor, Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Constabulary, said technologies like encryption should be breakable if law enforcers have a warrant. Winsor said the public was running out of patience with organisations like Facebook, Telegram and WhatsApp. Winsor said, “There is a handful of very large companies with a highly dominant influence over how the internet is used. In too many respects, their record is poor and their reputation tarnished. The steps they take to make sure their services cannot be abused by terrorists, paedophiles and organised criminals are inadequate; the commitment they show and their willingness to be held to account are questionable.”
Little or no censorship or surveillance
Albania
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The constitution and the law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Austria
Austria is not individually classified in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net reports, or by ONI, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
The Austrian constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Authorities work to restrict access to Web sites containing information that violates the law, such as neo-Nazi and child pornography sites.
The law prohibits incitement, insult, or contempt against a group because of its members' race, nationality, or ethnicity if the statement violates human dignity and the government strictly enforces these laws. The law prohibits public denial, belittlement, approval, or justification of the Nazi genocide or other Nazi crimes against humanity in a print publication, a broadcast, or other media and the government strictly enforces these laws. Strict libel and slander laws discourage reporting of governmental abuse.
Belgium
Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for Europe.
Subject to warrants requested by the prosecutor several Belgian Internet providers including Belgacom, Telenet, Base, Scarlet, EDPnet, Dommel, Proximus, Mobistar, Mobile Vikings, Tele2, and Versatel have been filtering several websites at the DNS level since April 2009. This is done when the websites are engaged in illegal activities or when they display information that is "contrary to public order or morality". People who browse the Internet using one of these providers and hit a blocked website are redirected to a page that claims that the content of the website is illegal under Belgian law and therefore blocked.
The law mostly extends to "Unlicensed Gambling Sites", "Sites Promoting Hate, Bigotry and Anti-Semitism" and "File Sharing Sites".
Bosnia and Herzegovina
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.
The law provides for freedom of speech and press; however, the government does not always respect press freedom in practice. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina law prohibits hate speech. The Republika Srpska law does not specifically proscribe hate speech, although the law prohibits causing ethnic, racial, or religious hatred. Independent analysts note a continuing tendency of politicians and other leaders to label unwanted criticism as hate speech. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Bulgaria
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority.
The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. The penal code provides for from one to four years' imprisonment for incitement to "hate speech."
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these provisions in practice. The security services can access electronic data with judicial permission when investigating cyber and serious crimes. However, NGOs criticize gaps in the law that allow the prosecution service to request such data directly from the service providers without court authorization. There are no reports that the government attempts to collect personally identifiable information in connection with a person's peaceful expression of political, religious, or ideological opinions or beliefs.
Croatia
No ONI country profile, but shown as no evidence in all areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.
The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of speech and the press; however, growing economic pressures lead journalists to practice self-censorship. Hate speech committed over the Internet is punishable by six months' to three years' imprisonment and libel is a criminal offense. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. In general individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access is widely available and used by citizens throughout the country. An estimated 51 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet in 2010.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is not individually classified in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net reports, or by ONI and does not appear on the RWB lists.
There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Individuals and groups engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.
The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. However, the law provides for some exceptions to these freedoms, for example, in cases of "hate speech", Holocaust denial, and denial of Communist-era crimes. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Several Internet providers and mobile operators in the Czech Republic block content promoting child pornography, child prostitution, child trafficking, pedophilia, illegal sexual contact with children, and racist materials based on URLs from the Internet Watch Foundation list and on individual direct requests made by customers.
Denmark
No evidence of filtering found by ONI in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Denmark, but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
Denmark's biggest Internet service provider TDC A/S launched a DNS-based child pornography filter on 18 October 2005 in cooperation with the state police department and Save the Children, a charity organisation. Since then, all major providers have joined and as of May 2006, 98% of the Danish Internet users were restricted by the filter. The filter caused some controversy in March 2006, when a legal sex site named Bizar.dk was caught in the filter, sparking discussion about the reliability, accuracy and credibility of the filter.
ONI found that Denmark's access to the Internet is "absolutely unrestricted". The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press and prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, correspondence or friends. The government generally respects these rights in practice.
As of 18 October 2005, TDC A/S had blocked access to AllOfMP3.com, a popular MP3 download site, through DNS filtering.
On 4 February 2008 a Danish court ordered the Danish ISP Tele2 to shut down access to the file-sharing site thepiratebay.org for its Danish users.
On 23 December 2008, the list of 3,863 sites filtered in Denmark was released by WikiLeaks.
In November 2011 a site selling diet pills, 24hdiet.com, was blocked by Danish ISPs, the first use of a new law on the blocking of foreign websites that sell drugs.
In August 2012 Google removed ads from ticket website Viagogo after an investigation found that the site was violating Danish law by overcharging and manipulating tickets before sending them to the buyer.
Estonia
Rated "free" in Freedom on the Net by Freedom House in 2009 (score 13), 2011 (score 10), 2012 (score 10), 2013 (score 9) 2014 (score 8), and 2015 (score 7).
Not individually classified by ONI, but is included in the regional overview for the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Freedom of speech and freedom of expression are protected by Estonia's constitution and by the country's obligations as an EU member state. Anonymity is unrestricted, and there have been extensive public discussions on anonymity and the respectful use of the Internet. Work is underway to bring Estonian law into compliance with the European Council Framework on "combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law".
Restrictions on Internet content and communications in Estonia are among the lightest in the world. Electronic communications companies are required to preserve traffic and location data for one year, as defined by the EU Data Retention Directive. They may only provide this data to surveillance agencies or security authorities when presented with a court order. A 2008 court case made web service providers responsible for reader comments, but that ruling is being appealed at the European Court of Human Rights. There have been instances of content removal involving civil court orders to remove inappropriate or off-topic reader comments from online news, discussion forums, and other sites. In 2012, over 80,000 videos were removed from YouTube and other streaming services for possible copyright infringement. The Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) restricts the collection and public dissemination of an individual's personal data. No personal information that is considered sensitive—such as political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, ethnic or racial origin, sexual behavior, health, or criminal convictions—can be processed without the consent of the individual. Estonian law only considers distribution and sale of digital copies without royalties paid as illegal. Non-profit personal use is unregulated.
Prior to the blocking of remote gambling sites in 2010 the Internet in Estonia was free of censorship. Early in 2010 Estonia started DNS filtering of remote gambling sites that violate the renewed Gambling Act (2008). The Gambling Act requires that servers for legal remote gambling must be physically located in Estonia. In March 2010 the Tax and Customs Board had compiled a blocking list containing 175 sites which ISPs are to enforce. the list had grown to include over 800 sites.
Finland
Classified as no evidence of filtering in all areas by ONI in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Finland, but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
In 2006, a new copyright law known as Lex Karpela set some restrictions on publishing information regarding copy protection schemes.
Also in 2006 the government started Internet censorship by delivering Finnish ISPs a secret blocking list maintained by Finnish police. Implementation of the block was voluntary, but some ISPs implemented it. The list was supposed to contain only sites with child pornography, but ended up also blocking, among others, the site lapsiporno.info that criticized the move towards censorship and listed sites that were noticed to have been blocked.
In 2008 a government-sponsored report has considered establishing similar filtering in order to curb online gambling.
In 2012 Internet service providers Elisa, Sonera and DNA have been ordered by court to block traffic to The Pirate Bay.
France
Rated "free" in Freedom on the Net by Freedom House in 2013 (score 20), 2014 (score 20), and 2015 (score 24).
Listed as no evidence in the political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by ONI in November 2010.
Listed as Under Surveillance by RWB from 2011 to the present.
France continues to promote freedom of the press and speech online by allowing unfiltered access to most content, apart from limited filtering of child pornography and web sites that promote terrorism, or racial violence and hatred. The French government has undertaken numerous measures to protect the rights of Internet users, including the passage of the Loi pour la Confiance dans l'Économie Numérique (LCEN, Law for Trust in the Digital Economy) in 2004. However, the passage of a new copyright law threatening to ban users from the Internet upon their third violation has drawn much criticism from privacy advocates as well as the European Union (EU) parliament.
With the implementation of the "three-strikes" legislation and a law providing for the administrative filtering of the web and the defense of a "civilized" Internet, 2010 was a difficult year for Internet freedom in France. The offices of several online media firms and their journalists were targeted for break-ins and court summons and pressured to identify their sources. As a result, France has been added to the Reporters Without Borders list of "Countries Under Surveillance".
A June 2011 draft executive order implementing Article 18 of the Law for Trust in the Digital Economy (LCEN) would give several French government ministries the power to restrict online content “in case of violation, or where there is a serious risk of violation, of the maintenance of public order, the protection of minors, the protection of public health, the preservation of interests of the national defense, or the protection of physical persons.” According to Félix Tréguer, a Policy and Legal Analyst for the digital rights advocacy group La Quadrature du Net, this is "a censorship power over the Internet that is probably unrivaled in the democratic world." In response to criticism, on 23 June 2011 the minister for the Industry and the Digital economy, Éric Besson, announced that the Government would rewrite the order, possibly calling for a judge to review the legality of the content and the proportionality of the measures to be taken. Any executive order has to be approved by the French Council of State, which will have to decide whether Internet censorship authorization can be extended to such an extent by a mere executive order. It has also been suggested that, because e-commerce legislation is to be harmonized within the European Union, the draft should be reviewed by the European Commission.
Germany
Rated "free" in Freedom on the Net by Freedom House in 2011 (score 16), 2012 (score 15), 2013 (score 17), 2014 (score 17), and 2015 (score 18).
Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in December 2010.
Internet censorship in Germany is practiced by law as well as the effect of some court decisions. An example of content censored by law is the removal of web sites from Google search results that deny the holocaust, which is a felony under German law.
In Germany, occasional take down requests and access restrictions are imposed on German ISPs, usually to protect minors or to suppress hate speech and extremism. In April 2009, the German government signed a bill that would implement large-scale filtering of child pornography websites, with the possibility for later expansion. However, that law was repealed in 2011 since Internet service providers quickly take down child pornography after they receive knowledge about it, a fact that had already been pointed out by Internet freedom organisations and political parties such as the Freie Demokratische Partei and the Piratenpartei before the law came into effect.
While censorship is not widespread and the constitution and law guarantee speech and press freedom, there are laws that allow blocking of offensive sites or media on websites unwilling to pay licensing fees. A well known example is the GEMA-YouTube dispute.
While file-sharing sites are mostly accessible, access to the sites is often discreetly enforced, and could lead to the user paying a €1000 fine for copyright infringement.
Effective 2018 Germany started enforcing the Netzwerkdurchsetzungsgesetz (NetzDG), a law that demands social media sites move quickly to remove "hate speech", "fake news" and "illegal material". Sites that do not remove "obviously illegal" posts could face fines of up to €50 million. The law gives the networks 24 hours to act after they have been told about law-breaking material. Critics argue the short timeframes coupled with the potentially large fines will lead social networks to be overly cautious and delete huge amounts of content — even things that are perfectly legal. An earlier draft of the NetzDG bill barred "defamation of the President of the Federation", but the clause was removed after criticism.
Greece
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The law provides for prosecution of individuals who "intentionally incite others to actions that could provoke discrimination, hatred, or violence against persons or groups of persons on the basis of their race or ethnic origin or who express ideas insulting to persons or to groups of persons because of their race or ethnic origin." In practice the government has never invoked these provisions. The law provides criminal penalties for defamation, however, in most criminal defamation cases, authorities released defendants on bail pending trial and they served no time in jail. The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence. However, NGOs such as the Greek Helsinki Monitor report that authorities do not always respect these provisions in practice.
On 29 June 2009, Georgios Sanidas, the soon-to-be-retired Prosecutor of the Greek Supreme Court (Areios Pagos), declared that "Internet-based communications are not covered by current privacy laws" and are thus open to surveillance by the police. Such surveillance would be, according to Sanidas's mandate, completely legal. Following this proclamation, Greek bloggers, legal experts and notable personalities from the media have claimed that Sanidas's mandate contravenes both the Greek constitution and current EU laws regarding the privacy of Internet communications. Furthermore, this mandate has been greatly criticised as being a first step towards full censorship of all Internet content.
Greenland
As a territory of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland has a democratically elected home-rule government whose powers may encompass all matters except foreign and national security affairs, police services, and monetary matters. Greenlanders have the same rights throughout the kingdom as other citizens.
The Danish government places no restrictions on access to the Internet and there are no credible reports that e-mail or Internet chat rooms are monitored without appropriate legal authority. Authorities continue to employ an Internet filter designed to block child pornography. In no known cases did the filter affect legitimate sites. The Danish Constitution provides for freedom of speech and press with some limitations such as cases involving child pornography, libel, blasphemy, hate speech, and racism, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.
In April 2013, the registrar for the .gl domain unilaterally voluntarily suspended resolution of thepiratebay.gl, intended to be a new primary Domain Name for the famous Bittorrent search engine The Pirate Bay. This caused transient inconvenience to some file sharing Internet users.
Hungary
Rated "free" in Freedom on the Net by Freedom House in 2012 (score 19), 2013 (score 23), 2014 (score 24), and 2015 (score 24).
No ONI country profile, but shown as no evidence in all areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Iceland
Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
Censorship is prohibited by the Icelandic Constitution and there is a strong tradition of protecting freedom of expression that extends to the use of the Internet. However, questions about how best to protect children, fight terrorism, prevent libel, and protect the rights of copyright holders are ongoing in Iceland as they are in much of the world.
The five Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland—are central players in the European battle between file sharers, rights holders, and Internet service providers (ISPs). While each country determines its own destiny, the presence of the European Union (EU) is felt in all legal controversies and court cases. Iceland, while not a member of the EU, is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and has agreed to enact legislation similar to that passed in the EU in areas such as consumer protection and business law.
Internet service providers in Iceland use filters to block Web sites distributing child pornography. Iceland's ISPs in cooperation with Barnaheill—Save the Children Iceland participate in the International Association of Internet Hotlines (INHOPE) project. Suspicious links are reported by organizations and the general public and passed on to relevant authorities for verification.
In 2012 and 2013 Ögmundur Jónasson, Minister of Interior, proposed two bills to the Icelandic parliament that would limit Icelander's access to the Internet. The first proposed limitations on gambling and the second on pornography. Neither bill was passed by parliament and a new government has since been formed following the parliamentary election held on 27 April 2013.
Ireland
Not individually classified by ONI.
Internet censorship in Ireland is a controversial issue with the introduction of a graduated response policy in 2008 followed by an effort to block certain file sharing sites starting in February 2009. Grassroots campaigns including "Blackout Ireland" and "Boycott Eircom" have been established to protest the censorship.
Beyond these issues there are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Irish law provides for freedom of speech including for members of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system act jointly to ensure freedom of speech and of the press.
Currently, Eircom is using the "three-strikes" program for users who are attempting to access the blocked sites and is still met with a lot of backlash.
Italy
Rated "free" by Freedom House in Freedom on the Net in 2011 (score 26), 2012 (score 23), 2013 (score 23), 2014 (score 22), and 2015 (score 23).
Listed as selective in the social area and as no evidence in political, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in December 2010.
Internet filtering in Italy is applied against child pornography, gambling, and some P2P web-sites. The Pirate Bay website and IP address are unreachable from Italy, blocked directly by Internet service providers. A controversial verdict issued by the Court of Bergamo and later confirmed by the Supreme Court, allowed the blocking, stating that it was useful in order to prevent copyright infringement. Pervasive filtering is applied to gambling websites that do not have a local license to operate in Italy. An anti-terrorism law, amended in 2005 by then-Minister of the Interior Giuseppe Pisanu after the terrorists attacks in Madrid and London, restricts the opening of new Wi-Fi Hotspots. In August 2013 restrictions on Wi-Fi access were largely removed by the Decreto Fare decree.
Latvia
No ONI country profile, but shown as no evidence in all areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2009, approximately 67 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet.
In September 2010 the government's Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB), which enforces campaign laws, removed a satirical film, The Last Bear Slayer, from the on-demand playlist of the partially state-owned cable provider, Lattelecom. The KNAB stated that the film might have constituted election advertising. Reporters Without Borders charged that the prohibition constituted improper censorship, but noted it was ineffective because the film was widely available on the Internet.
On June 1, 2014, new subsection 22 of section 19 of Electronic Communications Law was enforced to enable blocking unlicensed gambling websites. Since then LOTTERIES AND GAMBLING SUPERVISORY INSPECTION OF LATVIA maintains the list of blocked websites
Lithuania
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. Individuals and groups generally engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, but authorities prosecute people for openly posting material on the Internet that authorities considered to be inciting hatred.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. However, the constitutional definition of freedom of expression does not protect certain acts, such as incitement to national, racial, religious, or social hatred, violence and discrimination, or slander, and disinformation. It is a crime to disseminate information that is both untrue and damaging to an individual's honor and dignity. Libel is punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or up to two years for libelous material disseminated through the mass media. While it is illegal to publish material "detrimental to minors' bodies" or thought processes, information promoting the sexual abuse and harassment of minors, promoting sexual relations among minors, or "sexual relations", the law is not often invoked and there are no indications that it adversely affects freedom of the media.
Montenegro
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet. Until ordered to cease doing so in March 2011, one of the country's principal Internet service providers gave police direct access to all forms of communications carried on its servers. It is unknown whether authorities made use of this access to monitor e-mail or Internet Web sites or chat rooms. There is no evidence that the government collects or discloses personally identifiable information about individuals based on the individual's peaceful expression of political, religious, or ideological opinion or belief.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, but there are some restrictions. The law criminalizes inciting hatred and intolerance on national, racial, and religious grounds, and there have been prosecutions on these grounds.
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence without court approval or legal necessity, and prohibit police from searching a residence or conducting undercover or monitoring operations without a warrant. The Agency for National Security (ANB), however, reportedly uses wiretapping and surveillance inappropriately against opposition parties, the international community, NGOs, and other groups without appropriate legal authority. NGOs claimed that police and the state prosecutor's office illegally monitor citizens' electronic communications and fail to account for how many people or Internet addresses they monitor.
Netherlands
Not individually classified by ONI.
Government-mandated Internet censorship is nonexistent due to the house of representatives speaking out against filtering on multiple occasions, although there have been proposals to filter child pornography.
In 2008 the Minister of Justice proposed a plan to block websites known to contain child pornography. A blacklist created by the Meldpunt ter bestrijding van Kinderpornografie op Internet (Hotline combating Child Pornography on the Internet) would have been used by Internet service providers to redirect the websites to a stop page. In 2011 the plan was withdrawn due to an "almost complete lack of websites to block" because the sharing of the material was no longer done by conventional websites, but by other services. The House of Representatives reaffirmed this by voting against the filter later that year, effectively killing any plans for government censorship.
In January 2012, the Internet service providers Ziggo and XS4all were required by a court order in a case brought by the Bescherming Rechten Entertainment Industrie Nederland (BREIN) to block the website of The Pirate Bay due to copyright infringement. This blocking raised questions within the government, customers, and the Internet providers themselves, not only because of the blocking, but also about its randomness and the role of BREIN, an industry trade association that can change the blacklist.
This law was dropped in January 2014 following a referendum by the ministry with a new law stating that file sharing for private use is allowed while commercial distribution is forbidden.
, Ziggo and XS4All are once again ordered to block The Pirate Bay, this time by the Dutch Court. If the Supreme Court orders this block to stay permanent, it could possibly lead to other sites being blocked thus nullifying the status of Net Neutrality in the Netherlands.
North Macedonia
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press; however, the government does not always respect these rights in practice. The law prohibits speech that incites national, religious, or ethnic hatred, and provides penalties for violations. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Norway
Classified as no evidence of filtering by ONI in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Norway, but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
Norway prohibits "hate speech", and defines it as publicly making statements that threaten or ridicule someone or that incite hatred, persecution or contempt for someone due to their race, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, religion or philosophy of life. A public Free Speech committee (1996–1999) recommended to abolish the hate speech law but the Norwegian Parliament instead voted to expand it.
Norway's major Internet service providers have a DNS filter which blocks access to sites authorities claim are known to provide child pornography, similar to Denmark's filter. A list claimed to be the Norwegian DNS blacklist was published at WikiLeaks in March 2009. The minister of justice, Knut Storberget, sent a letter threatening ISPs with a law compelling them to use the filter should they refuse to do so voluntarily (dated 29 August 2008). Since September 2015 Norway's largest ISPs also block The Pirate Bay and other similar services.
Poland
Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for Europe.
Internet censorship legislation that included the creation of a register of blocked web sites was abandoned by the Polish Government in early 2011, following protests and petitions opposing the proposal.Moderate moderation of content on Polish language services and Polish language social media,no evidence of censorship of media in foreign languages.
Portugal
Portugal is not individually classified by ONI or in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
Internet access in Portugal is not restricted. There are neither government restrictions on access to the Internet nor reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The law criminalizes the denigration of ethnic or religious minorities and the engagement in offensive practices such as Holocaust denial. Prison sentences for these crimes run between six months to eight years.
In March 2015, Portuguese ISP's were ordered to block The Pirate Bay and many of its proxies by a court order, following the European trend, after a lawsuit brought by the Association for Copyright Management, Producers and Publishers (GEDIPE). This is the first time websites were blocked by ISP's in Portugal.
Since July 2015 MAPiNET, the Civic Movement to Combat Piracy on the Internet, has blocked hundreds of websites for copyright infringement.
Romania
Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Romania, but it is included in the regional overview for Europe.
Internet censorship in Romania is mainly related to the filtering of sites with pornographic content hosted in Romania and the protection of children. Although proposals have been made to censor pornographic sites, so far no sites have been blocked with the exception of a few unlicensed casino-like websites.
Serbia
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet, e-mail, or Internet chat rooms. Most observers believe authorities selectively monitor communications, eavesdrop on conversations, and read mail and e-mail. Human rights leaders also believe that authorities monitor their communications.
The constitution and law provides for freedom of speech and press. However, the constitution specifically allows restrictions on speech "to protect the rights and reputation of others, to uphold the authority and objectivity of the courts and to protect public health, morals of a democratic society and national security of the Republic of Serbia." While the law does not include a specific provision on hate speech, it is a criminal offense to "incite" national, racial, or religious intolerance. In June 2011 the Constitutional Court banned the extreme right-wing organization Nacionalni Stroj (National Front) for promoting racist hate speech.
The law obliges telecommunications operators to retain for one year data on the source and destination of a communication; the beginning, duration, and end of a communication; the type of communication; terminal equipment identification; and the location of the customer's mobile terminal equipment. While these data can be accessed by intelligence agencies without court permission, a court order is required to access the contents of these communications.
Slovakia
Slovakia is not individually classified by ONI or in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight; however, police monitor Web sites containing hate speech and attempt to arrest or fine the authors.
The constitution and the law provide for freedom of speech and press. While the government mostly respects these rights in practice, in some instances, it limits these rights to impede criticism and limits actions of groups it considers extremist. The law prohibits the defamation of nationalities, punishable by up to three years in prison, and denial of the Holocaust, which carries a sentence of six months to three years in prison. Criminal penalties for defamation are rarely used. The constitution and the law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. Police must present a warrant before conducting a search or within 24 hours afterwards.
A new draft law under consideration in 2011 would allow the nation's tax office to block web servers that provide online gambling without a Slovak license. Opponents argue that the economic interests served by the law are not sufficient to justify online censorship.
Slovenia
Slovenia is not individually classified by ONI or in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. However, the law prohibits hate speech, including incitement to intolerance as well as violence. The law provides criminal penalties for defamation that harms a person's honor or name. Under the law Internet service providers are responsible for blocking access to Internet gambling web sites that are not licensed by the Slovenian government.
Spain
Spain is not individually classified by ONI or in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. The law prohibits, subject to judicial oversight, actions including public speeches and the publication of documents that the government interprets as glorifying or supporting terrorism. The law provides that persons who provoke discrimination, hatred, or violence against groups or associations for racist; anti-semitic; or other references to ideology, religion or belief, family status, membership within an ethnic group or race, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, illness, or disability may be punished with imprisonment for one to three years.
Since January 2015, Vodafone Spain blocks thepiratebay.org as requested by the Ministry of Interior. And since 29 March 2015 thepiratebay is blocked on multiple URLs from all ISPs.
In September 2017, a judge ordered to close or block all websites organising the Catalan independence referendum, including the whole subdomain gateway.ipfs.io from the InterPlanetary File System. The vote was previously declared as illegal by the Spanish constitutional court.
, all previously blocked sites have once again been unblocked, with the focus shifting to taking the sites down directly.
Sweden
Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Sweden, but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The law criminalizes expression considered to be hate speech.
Sweden's major Internet service providers have a DNS filter which blocks access to sites authorities claim are known to provide child pornography. The Swedish police are responsible for updating this list.
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. The law permits the signals intelligence agency, National Defense Radio Establishment, to monitor the content of all cross-border cable-based Internet traffic to combat "external threats" such as terrorism and organized crime. Monitoring is only possible after obtaining court permission and upon the explicit request of government or defense agencies. In 2012 parliament passed the EU Data Retention Directive that compels Internet service providers to store data on online communications within the country for six months so that law enforcement agencies have access to it if a court so orders.
On 9 December 2014 The Pirate Bay (TPB) was raided at the Nacka station, a nuclear-proof data center built into a mountain complex near Stockholm. Despite the rise of various TPB clones and rumors of reincarnations, thepiratebay.se domain remained inaccessible. On 13 December 2014 Isohunt created a site called The Old Pirate Bay, which appears to be a resurrection of the thepiratebay. On 21 December 2014 after nearly two weeks of downtime the official domain of The Pirate Bay showed signs of life. ThePirateBay.se was only waving a pirate flag, but that's enough to give many Pirate Bay users hope for a full recovery. A few minutes ago came another big change when The Pirate Bay's main domain started pointing to a new IP-address connected to a server hosted in Moldova.
On 13 February 2017 Sweden's Patent and Market Court of Appeal decided that a broadband provider must block its customers from accessing file sharing site The Pirate Bay, overruling a district court ruling to the contrary from 2015. This is the first time a website was openly blocked in Sweden. The rest of the ISPs are expected to follow the same court orders.
Switzerland
Switzerland is not individually classified by ONI or in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2013 report, and does not appear on the RWB lists.
There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The law penalizes public incitement to racial hatred or discrimination, spreading racist ideology, and denying crimes against humanity and it is a crime to publish information based on leaked “secret official discussions.”
In November 2011 the Swiss government ruled that downloading infringing copies of films, music and video games for personal use will remain legal, because it is not detrimental to copyright owners.
In 2010 the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland found that IP addresses are personal information and that under Swiss privacy laws they may not be used to track Internet usage without the knowledge of the individuals involved.
See also
Internet censorship and surveillance in Africa
Internet censorship and surveillance in Asia
Internet censorship and surveillance in Oceania
Internet censorship and surveillance in the Americas
References
External links
OpenNet Initiative web site.
Reporters Without Borders web site.
"Internet Monitor", a research project of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University to evaluate, describe, and summarize the means, mechanisms, and extent of Internet access, content controls and activity around the world.
"Open Observatory of Network Interference (OONI)", A free software project under the Tor Project which collects and processes network measurements with the aim of detecting network anomalies, such as censorship, surveillance and traffic manipulation.
"Mapping Digital Media: Reports and Publications", Open Society Foundations.
"Web Index", a composite statistic designed and produced by the World Wide Web Foundation, is a multi-dimensional measure of the World Wide Web's contribution to development and human rights globally. It covered 86 countries as of 2014, incorporating indicators that assess universal access, freedom and openness, relevant content, and empowerment, which indicate economic, social, and political impacts of the Web.
Internet Censorship, A Comparative Study, Jonathan Werve, Global Integrity, 19 February 2008, puts online censorship in cross-country context.
Surveillance
Internet censorship in Europe
Censorship in Europe |
60596275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent%20Waters | Brent Waters | Brent R. Waters is an American computer scientist, specializing in cryptography and computer security. He is currently a Professor of Computer Science at the University of Texas at Austin.
Career
Waters attended the University of California, Los Angeles, where he graduated in 2000 with a BS in computer science. He earned a PhD in computer science from Princeton University in 2004.
Waters completed his post-doctoral work at Stanford University from 2004 to 2005, hosted by Dan Boneh, and then worked at SRI International as a computer scientist until 2008. In 2008, he joined the University of Texas at Austin, where he currently holds the title of Professor in the Department of Computer Science. In July 2019, he joined NTT Research to work in their Cryptography and Information Security (CIS) Laboratory.
In 2005, Waters first proposed the concepts of attribute-based encryption and functional encryption with Amit Sahai.
Awards
Waters was awarded the Sloan Research Fellowship in 2010. In 2011, he was awarded the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers and a Packard Fellowship. In 2015, he was awarded the Grace Murray Hopper Award for the introduction and development of the concepts of attribute-based encryption and functional encryption. In 2019, he was named a Simons Investigator in theoretical computer science. He was elected an ACM Fellow in 2021.
Selected publications
References
External links
Brent Waters at University of Texas
Living people
American cryptographers
Computer security specialists
Modern cryptographers
American computer scientists
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Princeton University alumni
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Grace Murray Hopper Award laureates
Simons Investigator
Year of birth missing (living people) |
60680798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QQ%20browser | QQ browser | QQ Browser is a web browser developed by Chinese technology company Tencent. It utilizes two browser engines: WebKit and Trident. Previously, Tencent had developed Tencent Explorer (Tencent TE) and Tencent TT two browsers based on the Trident typesetting engine, and integration The QQ browser of the WebKit engine 5, QQ browser 6.
History
On November 20, 2000, Tencent released the first version of Tencent Explorer (Tencent Explorer, referred to as TE) and bundled it with the OICQ 2000 Preview1 1115 (now Tencent QQ). This browser is one of the earliest page viewers in mainland China, rendering pages using the Trident layout engine (known as the Internet Explorer webpage renderer).
The first version of Tencent TE includes the "Who is with me" feature, which allows OICQ users who are browsing the same web page to communicate online, but this feature raises users' concerns about personal data security. In order to eliminate user concerns, Tencent issued a statement on April 24, 2003, stating that browsing the webpage does not reveal personal data when using this feature; if users do not want to use this feature but also want to use the browser, you can choose "Invisible" mode.
In 2003, Tencent rewrote its source code on the basis of Tencent TE, and released the first version of the new browser on November 11, Tencent TT (Tencent Traveler). At this point, the software officially stripped from Tencent QQ and became an independent software. Compared with Tencent TE, Tencent TT has added personalized functions such as software skin replacement. At the same time, it also provides auxiliary functions such as mouse gesture and smart screen ads. But the "Smart Shielded Ads" feature records the content that users browse online, and stores the records in the TTraveler2.dat file in the software installation directory.
Tencent rewrote the program again in 2008 and released version 4.0 on May 7. From this version, TT opens the web page and browses it in multiple threads to improve speed and performance, but still centered on the Trident layout engine. The final version of the 4.X series is the 4.8 (1000) version released on January 5, 2011.
Dual-core QQ browser (2010－present)
On May 25, 2010, Tencent released QQ Browser 5.0 Preview1 version, QQ browser began to use Webkit and Trident dual-core.
The QQ browser is jointly promoted with Search Dog Browser and Maple Browser (ChromePlus) which are also rendered using the double typesetting engine.
QQ Browser 7.0 Preview (2012)
In October 2012, the preview version of QQ Browser 7.0 was released on the Tencent Experience Center website and was open for testing. The QQ browser 7.0 preview version adopts the new version of the interface, and the brand is consistent with the mobile QQ Browser. Version 7.0 removes the WebKit engine and greatly simplifies functionality.
QQ Browser 8.0 (2014)
In November 2014, QQ browser released the official version of 8.0. The new version redesigned the appearance of the browser and added a series of new features to improve the smoothness of the browser.
QQ Browser 9.0 (2015)
In June 2015, QQ browser 9.0 was released. Based on the Chromium V43 engine, it achieved a 0.3 second cold boot and a 0.1 second hot boot. The web page reached “seconds open”.
QQ Browser 9.3 (2016)
In January 2016, QQ browser 9.3 was released, and the engine was upgraded to Chromium V47, which optimized the startup speed and web page opening speed.
QQ Browser 9.6 (2017)
On October 18, 2017, QQ browser 9.6 was released and the engine was upgraded to Chromium V53.
Security issues
The Windows and Android versions both send personal data to Tencent's servers without any encryption or with encryption that can be easily decrypted.
Arbitrary code execution is also possible during software updates.
aiww event
On May 30, 2011, some netizens found that Tencent appeared in the picture on the “Tencent Soft-{}-piece Center” QQ browser introduction page. The name of “aiww” (Chinese artist Ai Weiwei) appeared. In 2011, the words "freedom of personal freedom" and "64" were used, and the words "released" in the introductory text of the browser were also bolded. After the event, the words became "Love" and "99".
See also
Sogou
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Tencent TT browser product history，Tencent TT
QQ version history details，Tencent QQ
Web browsers
Tencent
2012 software
Internet properties established in 2012 |
60692090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20voting%20in%20Switzerland | Electronic voting in Switzerland | Electronic voting in Switzerland started in 2003 in the canton of Geneva, where the residents of Anières cast their vote using the Internet. This was the first trial of e-voting in Switzerland. In the following years, the number of people able to use electronic voting grew as more and more cantons began adopting such a system.
The Swiss government has multiple reasons for using electronic voting. It can reduce costs and increase the speed of counting ballots. Swiss living aboard are able to vote more reliably. It could also help raise voter turnout (declining since the 1970s) since voting over the internet is considered by most to be more convenient.
There are multiple electronic voting systems used in the country, notably CHVote (open source software developed by Geneva) and sVote (from Swiss Post, proprietary software developed by Scytl).
In 2019, concerns emerged about the security of e-voting. A committee of politicians and computer experts is launching a people's initiative aimed at banning online voting for at least five years, until the system is proven secure. The controversy grew after researchers from the University of Melbourne discovered Swiss Post's system had a security flaw in its commitment scheme.
History
During the late 1990s, the idea of modernizing elections by providing a remote form of voting spread among European countries. In that matter, Switzerland was no exception, but unlike others it had already been using a form of remote voting systems, the postal voting. It was previously well established that the initialization of postal voting had increased turnout rates by 4 percent on average, and unsurprisingly promoters of internet voting hoped that this new form of voting would quickly get accepted by the voters and ideally further increase the turnout rates especially amongst the young.
In terms of the progression of internet voting, several parliamentary motions were put forward at the beginning of the 2000s. The actual implementation process however was rolled out at a slow rate since it involved numerous evaluations and testing of different models. In this regard, the role of the federal agencies would mostly be limited to facilitating experiments rather than implementing trials, which was what actually happened when Geneva, Neuchatel, and Zurich took up the internet voting challenge and the federal agencies initially only provided financing. The result of this approach is that the three cantons had developed three different internet voting methods. Among these models, those of Geneva and Zurich have only one significant difference, which is that while the Zurich model is operated by a private company the one in Geneva is managed by the canton itself. Neuchatel's system differs from the two in the sense that internet voting is integrated into an e-government portal that required citizens to first register at the municipality. In Geneva and Zurich cases, there is no initial registration required since the voters are mailed the necessary information before every election. The first internet voting trials were conducted in 2003 in a municipality of Geneva, and within two years Zurich and Neuchatel had also held their first trials.
In the early phase of Internet voting trials, Swiss voters abroad were not included. This soon changed when the Swiss government acknowledged its desire to make internet voting available to the large expatriate community. One of the most significant leading factors to this inclusion is the role played by the Organization of the Swiss Abroad (OSA), the main advocacy organization for expatriate interests, which was firmly behind the internet voting initiative. The community of Swiss living abroad was a natural target group since the difficulties they faced while using postal voting were well-known. Also facilitating the process for this group was hoped to further boost the turnout rates since they make up 10 percent of the electorate. Since their low participation and lack of media attention on this group the Swiss abroad were considered to be an ideal test group. Moreover, if this new platform had a significant effect on the turnout rates, it would further strengthen the domestic debate. The legal basis was laid shortly, and by June 2008 Neuchatel had become the first canton to offer internet voting to its community that lives abroad. The two other pioneer cantons were quick to follow with Geneva in 2009 and Zurich in 2010. However, what is interesting is that all Swiss cantons can make internet voting available to their expatriate voters even if their own domestic residents are not yet allowed. By 2009 Basel-City had become the first of the non-pilot cantons to use it for its voters abroad and within a two years timeframe by nine other cantons joined (Argovia, Berne, Fribourg, Grisons, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Thurgau).
Although trials were successful in several cantons, in the beginning, the new mode of remote voting was not envisioned to have a smooth transition and was not expected to be widely used in all Swiss cantons before many years. One of the main reasons for this was the different traditions and voting procedures in different cantons. Another reason was the typically slow adoption of new systems in Switzerland. However, in 2019 Swiss Post took an initiative to enable e-voting in the whole of Switzerland.
Usage of Internet Voting (2003–2015)
The argument that internet voting would increase voter turnout was frequently used in parliamentary debates by advocates; also its high usage would justify the means such as the high financial costs and allocated resources. To keep track of the internet voting usage rates a database was maintained that reported results in as much as detail since the first vote in 2003.
Studies about the evolution of e-voting user rates in the three pilot cantons portrait two main social effects that explain the usage pattern over time; the novelty and the convenience effects. Geneva and Zurich illustrate the novelty effect, where drastic downward falls are observed on the usage rates right after initialization. This fall might be due to some voters testing the new system of voting just because it is new, but then return to their usual voting method due to habits. In the Geneva case, the disadvantageous effect of long-term interruption of e-voting (between 2005 and 2009) on the usage rates is depicted. Before the interruption, rate used to be 20% and afterward it was only 15%. In general, the convenience of the postal voting has kept the internet voting levels low; however, they are speculated to eventually grow as younger voters are much more inclined to use the internet. The fact that the voters in Neuchatel first need to register at the municipality to gain access to the e-government portal had an effect of lack of convenience. However, a small-sized increase in e-voting is observed in 2011, which can be explained by the introduction of the opportunity to file taxes electronically through the same e-government portal, which seem to enticed some citizens to try and use internet voting.
Usage rates of the expatriate have a growth rate of 2% each year. In Neuchatel,
the requirement to sign up in person to use the e-government system at the municipality has resulted in lower rates, since this is an even higher burden to those who live abroad. Studies also show that Geneva scores lower than the rest of the cantons, which is speculated to be because of the “fake” expatriates who live just across the border in France to avoid housing prices in Geneva.
The two main conclusions that can be made from these studies are; first, the expiries’ natural higher incentive in e-voting due to convenience is reflected in moderately higher usage rates; second, over the years the online channel has gained popularity among Swiss expatriates in contrast to Swiss residents who tend to drop the new channel after the novelty effect wears out.
Socio-Demographic profile of Internet voters
Studies are done to assess what is known about internet voters on the individual level and examine their socio-demographic characteristics.
The results are based on within-voter comparison which is the differences between internet voters and other voters (postal or ballot box voters)
Age
Studies have concluded that young voters tend to use internet voting more often compared to older voters. Interestingly, not the voters aged between 18 and 29 use the platform most intensively but rather voters in 30–39 years range. Also, the results indicate that younger voters to use e-voting not because they are young but because they tend to have more IT skills and higher internet affinity.
Gender
Studies have found out that men are over-presented among internet voters. However, the size of the gender bias varies from study to study. Also, the findings suggest that it is the gender difference regarding variables such as IT skills that create this gap in e-voting rates rather than gender per se.
Income
Studies on Swiss residents shows that voters living in high-income households use the internet channel disproportionally more often; however, no study has looked at the effect of income differences in expatriate context yet.
Cities/Rural areas
Postal polling's success has not been the same in all parts of Switzerland. Rather, it is generally popular in cities where people are accustomed to convenience and simplicity. In more rural regions, the walk to the ballot box is more common. In those areas, it is expected to see a great increase in voter turnout with e-voting.
Education
Like the other factors, education is also positively correlated to internet voting usage. People with the highest educational attainment tend to be the most over-represented. According to a study for instance, more than one-third of voters with a university degree voted electronically whereas this number is only 2.8 percent for voters with compulsory education. Overall, voters with high education are most likely over to be overrepresented among internet voters in both residents and expatriate trials.
To conclude the studies has found that internet voting has primarily been a service to the young and privileged, who tend to live in comparatively more wealthy households, have relatively higher education, be male and between 18 and 49 years old.
Advantages and disadvantages
E-voting clearly has both pros and cons and some of the advantages and disadvantages are listed below.
Advantages
Convenience
E-voting is a location and time-independent way of voting, which makes it extremely comfortable and convenient for voters who have the means.
Increasing participation
E-voting offers people an alternative way of voting for those who may not be able to use the traditional way. This might concern mainly absent, ill, disabled or old citizens. Also, article 6 of the federal law on political rights states that the cantons must assist people with disabilities on the exercise of their political right which would be achieved by e-voting. Additionally, individuals with disabilities may prefer the use of their home computers where they provide conveniences over traditional forms of writing and communication. Also, for example, e-voting systems could be equipped with added features to assist those with visual or hearing impairments and appeal to a greater audience.
Reducing process costs
With e-voting after having built the infrastructure and accepting the high investment cost, the cost would get redeemed in a few years and the process cost would get lower compared to the traditional vocation channels such as polls or postal ballots.
Increasing efficiency
Usage of e-voting may induce an efficiency increase since the process could get accelerated, arranged more accurately and invalid polls could be prevented.
Disadvantages
High investment costs
The development of the infrastructure of e-voting is costly, since it includes computers, building up servers, hiring experts and buying the software. For example, the cost of the pilot system used in Zurich during 2004-2006 amounted to 7.9 million CHF for the canton Zurich and 0.5 million CHF for the communities that attended the project. Moreover, another 3,2 million CHF resulting from the trial period. Which all adds up to 11,2 million CHF. Appraisals assume that the implementation of e-voting in the whole country would cost 400 to 600 million CHF.
Complexity and missing transparency
E-voting is a very complicated process that requires expertise to comprehend fully. For that reason, only a few operate with the system, on whom every citizen depends and has to trust. Thus, the whole system might be interpreted as a “black box” by the community, which pulls transparency to bare minimum and damages credibility and trust.
Security
A significant disadvantage of e-voting is the level of protection it requires and the fact that it will never be a hundred percent secure, having said that neither going to the polls nor postal voting is fully secure. Although there were not any security breaches or security relating problems during the trials, this does not mean there won't be in the future.
Voting quality
Political parties make use of the new possibilities to advertise and propagate their message online at low costs. For users, this might result in information overload and confusion about the origins of information as well as a reduction in political discussion and interactions among e-voters. Studies suggest that a de-ritualization of the voting procedure can be observed and voting without much reflection or in an emotional (or irrational) state may have negative effects on the process of opinion formation.
Case analysis
An important motivation for the Swiss government to pass e-voting is fast changes in information and communications technologies and indeed political life. Switzerland considered e-voting to make participation in elections easier, add new and appealing forms of participation, increase participation rate and protect the democratic principle “one person – one vote” against traditional abuse. Hans-Urs Wili from the Federal Chancellery points out that introduction of e-voting is necessary if direct democracy as it exists today in Switzerland is to be kept alive.
The Swiss Government wanted to keep pace with these changes and they started pilot projects for introducing e-voting in the early 2000s. The main approach used by the Swiss government has been to prioritize security instead of the speed of adoption. For this reason, Switzerland started with 3 cantons, Geneva, Neuchatel and Zurich. It was a joint project of the Confederation and the cantons. The Swiss Confederation funded up to %80 of the trials and the results of the projects had to be made public to the other cantons. In 2006 the three pilot projects were evaluated and it was observed that the internet voting system could be used by up to 20% of the cantonal electoral roll (later extended to 30%), and by up to 10% of the Swiss electoral roll.
Geneva Case
Geneva is considered as a “designated candidate” for the introduction of e-voting for several different reasons. One is the fact that there is a centralized electronic voting registry. In Geneva, local voters’ registries have been linked electronically since before the start of the e-voting project on the contrary of many other cantons. Geneva was also well prepared for an e-voting project, since its cantonal voting law authorizes the cantonal authorities to test new voting methods in light of technological developments. Another interesting aspect was that Geneva's high percentage of expatriates.
Geneva has the most advanced pilot project. The cantonal administration, in partnership with Hewlett Packard and Wisekey of Geneva, developed an e-voting application. The Geneva system doesn't need any additional software; the user is guided through the process on the e-voting website. In this system, voters receive their voting card that contains a personal ID code 3 weeks before elections. This code changes in every polling occasion and the chance to find it randomly is one in five billion. Voters need this code to be recognized by the servers when voting on the Internet. Voters then submit their vote and can alter the choice before confirming their identity once again. To confirm their identity, they need to enter the date of birth and commune of origin. The system confirms that the vote has been successfully transmitted and recorded. The electronic ballot is encrypted and sent to one of the servers. The votes are then forwarded to an electronic ballot box in a centralized location. Two keys are necessary in order to open the electronic ballot box. To ensure security, different political parties have the keys. It is impossible to match a ballot and a voter because voter's identity and ballot are kept in two distinct files. E-voting lasts 3 weeks and ends the day before the election.
Geneva's system based its security on using standard security mechanisms, such as the encryption of the communications by using SSL and encryption of the ballots in the voting server using standard cryptographic algorithms. It is indicated to be secure and usable enough. However, there are mainly two concerns. First, if a computer is already infected with malware, it is not guaranteed to secure the voting process. Second, a lot of data about Geneva's e-voting system is kept secret. The construction of the e-voting system necessitates that the voter has to have confidence, and to create this confidence, Federal Council requires publication of the source code of the software to provide verifiability. Also voters are encouraged to know how the electronic ballot box and the voting register work, how the servers are monitored and what happens if an attack is detected.
Zurich Case
The e-voting project in the canton of Zurich was launched in 2002. The very first implementations of the Zurich's system were introduced for student elections at University of Zurich in 2004. Following the system's success in student elections, it was tested out for public elections.
In principle, Zurich's e-voting system is quite similar to Geneva's but it has additional features. In addition to Internet-based voting, Zurich's system also permitted votes to be cast via text message and interactive television systems (ITV). However, in 2007, it was announced that SMS-voting would be discontinued.
Zurich hired Unisys to implement and manage its online voting system. Main security characteristic of the Zurich's system was the usage of different codes to select the candidates. Voters received a special voting card with a unique code per candidate and had to use the code of their candidate instead of selecting them. This mechanism preserves the privacy of the voters even if they use an insecure communication channel such as SMS.
On the contrary of Geneva's system, Zurich doesn't have a centralized registry for voters. To solve this problem, e-voting is implemented at the commune level and have the communes pass on the results to the canton.
Swiss Post System
Swiss Post's e-voting system is designed by Barcelona-based company Scytl. In this system, voters authenticate themselves to the voting website using their birthdate and an initialization code they receive from Swiss Post by mail. After voters make their selections, the votes are encrypted before going to the Swiss Post servers, where they are cryptographically shuffled to lose any trace between vote and voter. Votes are only decrypted during the counting process.
This system is under many critics. Experts find serious problems with this system such as its poor design, high level of complexity and possibility of letting someone alter votes during the shuffling phase without detection.
To prove the system's security against attacks, Swiss Post has launched a public penetration test and bug bounty program.
Security measurements
Switzerland doesn't expect e-voting to be %100 secure but it has to be as secure and reliable as the traditional voting methods (i.e. postal voting and voting at polling stations). Articles 27a-27q of the Order on Political Rights indicate security measurements needed to be fulfilled to obtain a secure and reliable system. According to these articles, an e-voting system has to ensure that all the received votes are anonymous and can't be traced. Identifying a voter's vote must be impossible and votes must be encrypted after submission and only decoded when they are to be counted. Voting must remain perfectly anonymous. Furthermore, the voting system must ensure that a vote has been received, and if there is an altered vote, only the newest version is counted. The procedure must not encourage voters to vote without reflection and voters must be able to alter their choice before submitting their vote.
Additionally, the system must ensure that only entitled voters can take part in the ballot, each voter must have one vote and will vote only once. It must be impossible for any third party to capture, modify or divert votes or influence the result of the ballot or to find out the content of the votes. All the votes cast must be taken into account during the count and that any fraud must be impossible.
Security is not only satisfied with having a secure software. The system also must make sure that the voting process cannot be affected by the technological environment. In this context, the most important problem is whether a computer, which is used to vote, contains any malware. In this case, an attacker may access all the data stored in the computer including any personal information and be able to manipulate them. In the existence of such a malware, elections can be influenced by malware by storing data transmitted during the voting process, simulating the voting process and vote later, or voting at the same time the voter votes. By doing so, these attacks can violate the principle of” one man, one vote” and allow the capture, modification or deviation of electronic votes.
Another important point is that e-voting server where all the votes are stored until counting must be absolutely secure and invulnerable to attacks. If an attacker can reach the main server, he/she can exchange the ballots and influence the main result of the election. If the votes are changed before counting, it is impossible to realize this change in counting. The traditional ballot box at the polling station cannot be manipulated this way. It is opened in front of public and nobody has possibility to exchange the ballot paper before. Similarly, the electoral register must also be secure to avoid attacks which try to manipulate entries.
An election system's principal function is to establish the correct election result based on the votes submitted by the voters and all the irregularities caused by attacks or software bugs must be detected in a reliable way. To verify an election's integrity, protocols ensuring individual and complete verifiability must be implemented, and tests must be done to ensure completeness, integrity, consistency, evidence and authenticity of the voting process. To improve the confidence in e-voting systems, Federal Council also requires publication of the source code of these systems and a public intrusion test is required, which will allow interested parties to try to hack the systems that want to be certified at the third level.
Opinion of the swiss public
General opinion
According to a survey conducted in 2016, the Swiss public generally thinks that introducing the possibility of voting electronically would be an improvement to the voting system, although this opinion is nuanced. Age class and region have a different view. Older people see e-voting as less necessary than younger people. In the francophone region of Switzerland, the E-Voting offer is viewed significantly more desirable than in the Italian speaking Ticino.
In total more than half the respondents mentioned an advantage of comfort. The youngest voters stated this reason disproportionately often. Other advantages mentioned were simplification of voting (29%), increase participation or enhance the quality of the decisions made (26%).
When ask about the disadvantages, a significant portion (40%) answered with concerns regarding the risk of manipulation and security. One in five feared the possibilities of scams and counterfeiting when E-Voting is used. Sympathizers of the SVP or CVP parties and respondents from rural regions often mentioned that the exchange between the citizens would be reduced.
Swiss expatriates have been shown to have a much more positive attitude towards e-voting. They deem such a system could prove to be very useful. This is probably related to the rather low reliability of the postal system (mainly delays) that this type of voters have experienced.
Trust in E-voting
The Swiss population shows greater trust in voting at the polling station or with the postal system than via the internet. This result can be expected since most voters do not have access to such a system, and therefore no experience with it. Although the skepticism in e-voting is higher, e-voting is not completely mistrusted. Trust depends on multiple factors, the most important one being the age of the voter, with younger voters tending to be more confident in the e-voting system. The higher an individual's education, the less he generally believes in the security of e-voting. Trust is also notably higher in the French-speaking part of the country than in the Italian-speaking part. This correlates with the demand for e-voting of these groups.
References
Switzerland
Elections in Switzerland
Politics of Switzerland |
60721382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerns%20over%20Chinese%20involvement%20in%205G%20wireless%20networks | Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks | Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks stem from allegations that cellular network equipment sourced from Chinese vendors may contain backdoors enabling surveillance by the Chinese government (as part of its intelligence activity internationally) and Chinese laws, such as the China Internet Security Law, which compel companies and individuals to assist the state intelligence agency on the collection of information whenever requested. The allegations came against the backdrop of the rising prominence of Chinese telecommunication vendors Huawei and ZTE in the 5G equipment market, and the controversy has led to other countries debating whether Chinese vendors should be allowed to participate in 5G deployments.
Four members of the Five Eyes international intelligence alliance—Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the US—have declared the use of Huawei telecommunications equipment, particularly in 5G networks, poses "significant security risks", while Canada is carrying out its own security review. The United States, Australia and Vietnam have banned Chinese companies from providing its 5G equipment due to security concerns. The United Kingdom is also expected to implement a complete ban following resistance from MPs.
These concerns led to The Clean Network, a US government-led, bi-partisan effort to address what it describes as "the long-term threat to data privacy, security, human rights and principled collaboration posed to the free world from authoritarian malign actors." It has resulted in an "alliance of democracies and companies," "based on democratic values." According to the United States, The Clean Network is intended to implement internationally accepted digital trust standards across a coalition of trusted partners.
Background
5G succeeds 4G LTE wireless technology; developments have been focused on enabling low-latency communications, and promises of a minimum peak network speed of 20 gigabits per/second (20 times faster than the equivalent on 4G LTE networks), and uses within Internet of things and smart city technology.
The initial development of 2G, 3G, and 4G technologies were centred upon Japan, Europe, and the United States, respectively. China's five-year plan for 2016–2020 and the Made in China 2025 initiative both identified 5G as a "strategic emerging industry", with goals for Chinese companies to become more competitive and innovative in the global market, and avert the country's prior reputation for low-quality and counterfeit goods. All wireless carriers in China are state-owned, which has helped the government to expedite the development of 5G networks, and access to wireless spectrum. It has been argued that early access to 5G would give China an advantage in developing services that can leverage the technology. Domestic vendors such as Huawei and ZTE have subsequently leveraged China's position to market 5G-compatible equipment for international deployments; Huawei had seen significant growth in the 2010s, aided by its ability to undercut competitors, a large number of international partnerships, the increasing success of its smartphone business, the amount it has invested in R&D, competitive deployment support and investments by the China Development Bank. As of 2019, the only other major manufacturers of 5G equipment are the European rivals of Ericsson and Nokia: they, along with Huawei and ZTE, account for two-thirds of the overall market.
Huawei has faced various allegations of intellectual property theft and corporate espionage, including copying proprietary source code from Cisco Systems equipment, and an employee stealing a robotic arm for smartphone stress testing from a T-Mobile US laboratory. In January 2019, US authorities indicted Huawei and its vice-chairwoman and CFO Meng Wanzhou on charges of theft of trade secrets (including allegations that Huawei's Chinese division had a program to issue bonuses for employees who successfully obtain confidential information from competitors. In regards to the aforementioned T-Mobile robotic arm, Huawei's US division disavowed the employee's actions and this program, as it is not in line with local business practices), and having used a shell company to mask investments in Iran that violated US sanctions (including resale of technology of US origin); in October 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported that Huawei was the largest provider of telecommunications equipment in Iran.
In 2012, it was reported by The Wall Street Journal that Canadian telecom equipment firm Nortel Networks had been the subject of an intrusion by Chinese hackers from 2000 through its bankruptcy in 2009, who had accessed internal documents and other proprietary information. The company's former security adviser Brian Shields alleged that the intrusion was a state-sponsored attack that may have benefited domestic competitors such as Huawei and ZTE, and acknowledged that there was circumstantial evidence that connected the company's downfall to the beginning of Huawei's international growth. He warned against cooperation with Chinese vendors, arguing that "they've got this Communist Party over there right in their corporate offices. What are these people doing? Why is it such a close relationship with the Chinese government?"
Allegations surrounding Chinese surveillance via network infrastructure cite the 2017 National Intelligence Law, and the 2014 Counter-Espionage Law. The National Intelligence Law gives intelligence agencies the ability to compel citizens and organizations to cooperate in investigations, and that China will protect any organization or individual that helps the Chinese government. The 2014 Counter-Espionage law states that "when the state security organ investigates and understands the situation of espionage and collects relevant evidence, the relevant organizations and individuals shall provide it truthfully and may not refuse." Softbank CTO Miyagawa Jyunichi explained that unlike a 4G core network (where data is encrypted and transmitted using a tunneling protocol that makes it difficult to extract communication data from the network), if technology like mobile edge computing is used, processing servers could be placed near 5G base stations, to enable information processing on the base station side of the carrier network. This makes it possible to extract user data via these servers, which theoretically allows for surveillance.
The United States government claims that the Chinese government can force wireless infrastructure vendors to incorporate software backdoors or hardware that would allow China to spy on the US or its allies.
US security concerns surrounding Huawei have pre-dated the current 5G-related controversies; in 2007, Bain Capital attempted to acquire network equipment vendor 3Com with minority financing from Huawei. However, the transaction faced scrutiny from the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States, which deemed it a threat to national security due to Huawei founder Ren Zhengfei having been a former engineer for the People's Liberation Army, and concerns that China could gain access to intrusion detection technology that 3Com had developed for the US government and armed forces. When Huawei bought out its joint venture with Symantec in 2012, The New York Times reported that Symantec had fears that the partnership "would prevent it from obtaining United States government classified information about cyberthreats".
It has been argued that Huawei has ties to the Chinese government: the CIA has cited anonymous British sources claiming that entities such as the National Security Commission of the Communist Party of China and the People's Liberation Army have provided funding to Huawei. US senator Marco Rubio referred to Huawei and ZTE as being "state-directed", and warned that the US had to be "vigilant" in preventing them from "undermining and endangering America's 5G networks". He also stated that Huawei "undermine[s] foreign competition by stealing trade secrets and intellectual property, and through artificially low prices backed by the Chinese government." During testimony to the Senate Intelligence Committee in 2018, US intelligence chiefs warned against the company, with FBI director Christopher A. Wray stating that they were "concerned about the risks of allowing any company or entity that is beholden to foreign governments that don't share our values to gain positions of power inside our telecommunications networks."
Fellow senator Mark Warner argued that "no major Chinese company is independent of the Chinese government and Communist Party", and warned that the Chinese government can exploit consumer electronics products from these companies, such as smartphones. He claimed that "software reviews of existing Huawei products are not sufficient to preclude the possibility of a vendor pushing a malicious update that enables surveillance in the future. Any supposedly safe Chinese product is one firmware update away from being an insecure Chinese product." Robert Strayer, US State Department ambassador for cyber and international communications, stated at MWC Barcelona in 2019 that they were "asking other governments and the private sector to consider the threat posed by Huawei and other Chinese information technology companies." The country has threatened to withdraw some co-operations with its allies if they install Huawei equipment on telecommunication networks.
Australia
Australia banned Chinese vendors from providing equipment for 5G networks, citing the aforementioned intelligence laws as a factor. Other countries like Japan have cited security concerns and have successfully persuaded carriers to exclude Huawei or ZTE equipment in their 5G networks.
Belgium
Belgium is seat of the European Commission, other EU institutions, the NATO headquarters, SHAPE and other high-ranking institutions. On 9 October 2020 Orange S.A. and its competitor Proximus (ex belgacom) have declared that Nokia and Ericsson are going to deliver 5G equipment.
Brazil
In November 2020, Brazil backed America’s "Clean Network" initiative. In November 2021, as Brazil held its tender for 5G wireless networks, Perpétua Almeida, a federal lawmaker who led the commission for the 5G tender for the lower house of Brazilian Congress said that banning Huawei never made sense and that Brazil had to maintain an independent position amidst the US-China dispute over the company.
Canada
Rogers cooperated with Ericsson to build their 5G network. Bell Canada has worked with both Ericsson and Nokia. Telus is working with Ericsson, Nokia and Samsung.
Netherlands
In April 2019, Dutch telecom KPN said that it would select a Western supplier to build its core 5G mobile network, making it one of the first European operators to eliminate Huawei. On 15 October 2020, KPN said in a statement that it will "collaborate with Ericsson" for the implementation of its core 5G technology. The US government had expressed fears that if KPN's 5G backbone contained Huawei equipment it would be vulnerable to spying by the Chinese state.
In March 2021, Reuters reported that Amsterdam-based telecom and pay TV company United Group is considering removal of Huawei equipment from its networks. United Group's operations are primarily in Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, and Serbia. United Group's CEO said that "switching to something that is more US-approved is the right approach" although he is concerned about the costs associated with doing so.
France
In January 2020, the head of France’s cybersecurity agency ANSSI said his agency had not uncovered any evidence of Huawei spying through its equipment in Europe. In June 2020 ANSSI informed French telecommunications companies that they would not be allowed to renew licenses for 5G equipment made from Huawei after 2028.
Germany
In March 2019, Germany's Federal Network Agency announced that all wireless networks, including 5G and all other standards, will be subject to heightened security requirements. This includes mandatory security testing by the Federal Office for Information Security before equipment is deployed, and operators being required to report any abnormalities. Operators are also being encouraged to source equipment from multiple vendors.
New Zealand
In late November 2018, the New Zealand signals intelligence agency Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB) blocked telecommunications company Spark from using Huawei equipment in its planned 5G upgrade, claiming that it posed a "significant network security risk." The NZ ban followed a similar ban in Australia in August 2018.
In mid July 2020, GCSB Minister Andrew Little confirmed that New Zealand would not join the United Kingdom and United States in excluding Huawei from the country's 5G networks on national security grounds. Telecommunications Users Association chief executive Craig Young welcomed the Government's announcement, saying that a ban would force companies with Huawei equipment to replace expensive equipment due to the integrated nature of the country's 2G, 3G and 4G networks. In response to the Government's announcement, Huawei NZ's deputy managing director Andrew Bowater emphasized the company's commitment to helping customers deal with the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand.
The Philippines
On 21 May 2019, as the result of an inquiry performed in cooperation with other foreign law enforcement agencies, the Philippine National Police concluded that there was no evidence that Huawei has been involved in espionage.
Poland
On 11 January 2019, Poland announced that two people working on a 5G Huawei network had been arrested: Wang Weijing (a Huawei executive), and Piotr Durbaglo, a consultant having worked for Polish domestic security, but currently working for Orange on 5G network testing.
Romania
In November 2020, Romania’s prime minister Ludovic Orban stated that Huawei "does not meet [security] conditions" to be part of building 5G networks in the country. The remarks come after Romanian Prime Minister Ludovic Orban said Huawei "does not meet conditions" to be part of 5G networks in the country. "With respect to 5G, [China] cannot be our partner," Orban told media in an interview published on 1 November.
In February 2021, the Government of Romania approved a memorandum to limit the companies from non-EU countries that have no trade agreements with Romania or the European Union from participating in public tenders. In March 2021, prime minister Florin Citu announced that Romania's Government will evaluate an ordinance that will exclude companies from non-EU countries that do not have trade agreements with the European Union, including China, from participating in infrastructure projects in Romania.
Japan
In May 2019, Japan announced that effective 1 August 2019, the telecom, integrated circuitry, and mobile phone manufacturing industries would be added to laws allowing the government to block foreign investments within sensitive sectors for security reasons. The government stated that these regulations were due to "the increased importance of securing cyber security in recent years", but did not name any specific companies or countries. The announcement followed trade talks the same day between Trump and prime minister Shinzō Abe.
Serbia
Serbia will prohibit the use of 5G equipment supplied by untrusted vendors. Where such equipment is already present, Serbia committed to removal and other mediation efforts in a timely fashion. Officials from Serbia said this was a reference to Chinese companies such as Huawei Technologies.
Slovakia
In October 2020, Slovakia signed up to join the Clean Network initiative.
South Korea
In South Korea, LG Uplus is the only carrier to have adopted Huawei equipment for its 5G equipment due to its favourable pricing, unlike the other two carriers that have rejected Huawei for security reasons. LG Uplus does not believe that there are problems in the security of Huawei equipment, which has resulted in boycott movements against the carrier for their perceived negligence in security by choosing Huawei as its supplier. In light of the differences in the decisions by the carriers to use Huawei, Second Vice Foreign Minister Lee Tae-ho said that the decision was one for the companies and not the government to decide
Experts and politicians have speculated that the South Korean government is not willing to ban Huawei equipment, fearing a repeat of the Chinese retaliation that resulted from the deployment of THAAD which reportedly cost South Korea $5.1 billion in lost revenues.
Sweden
In Sweden, the Post and Telecom Authority (PTS) decided in October 2020 that Huawei and ZTE are not allowed to deliver parts for the 5G net in Sweden. In case that parts of them already have been installed they have to be removed until January 2025. PTS was advised by the Swedish military and security services that China was "one of the biggest threats against Sweden."
In June 2021, a Swedish court upheld the ban on Huawei from selling its products in Sweden.
Taiwan
Taiwan has issued guidelines banning the use of Mainland Chinese telecommunications equipment for all its government departments, organizations and government-controlled companies.
United Kingdom
In October 2018, BT Group announced that it had been phasing out Huawei equipment from "core" components of its wireless infrastructure (excluding parts such as phone mast antennas), including its 5G services, and the Emergency Services Network project.
In December 2018, Gavin Williamson, the UK's Defence Secretary, expressed "grave" and "very deep concerns" about the company providing technology to upgrade Britain's services to 5G. He accused Beijing of acting "sometimes in a malign way". Alex Younger, the head of MI6, also raised questions about Huawei's role.
In 2019, the UK National Cyber Security Centre concluded that the risk from using Huawei equipment for their 5G infrastructure, was manageable. Former head of GCHQ, Robert Hannigan in that year, wrote in an op-ed in the Financial Times that the NCSC had "never found evidence of malicious Chinese state cyber activity through Huawei" and "assertions that any Chinese technology in any part of a 5G network represents an unacceptable risk are nonsense" while advocating that "the UK and other European countries should hold their nerve and base decisions on Chinese involvement in future telecoms on technical expertise and rational assessment of risk, rather than political fashion or trade wars".
The UK is expected to ban Huawei and remove it from its network by 2023 having initially attempted to ban it from core networks and limit its involvement in its non-core network to 35%. The review was announced following concern from MPs, intelligence officials and allies. Liu Xiaoming, Chinese ambassador to the UK, called the persecution of Huawei a kind of "a witch-hunt" and assured that as a private-owned company, the brand has nothing to do with the Chinese authorities. Several Conservative Party members, on their part, have warned against using Huawei.
The costs involved in removing Huawei technology from the UK networks are likely to be significant as the company accounts for about three quarters of the radio access across Britain's 4G network infrastructure. At the same time, a significant portion of the initial stages of the 5G network come from Huawei.
In April 2020, the China Research Group was founded by Conservative MPs; as part of its remit, the group aims to look into "how the development, ownership and regulation of platform technologies that underpin future economic growth and innovation are being influenced" by China.
On 7 October 2020, the Defence Select Committee released a report claiming that there was clear evidence of collusion between Huawei and Chinese state and the Chinese Communist Party. The committee said that the government should now consider assessing equipment from other vendors in a similar fashion.
United States
A 2012 White House-ordered security review found no evidence that Huawei spied for China and said instead that security vulnerabilities on its products posed a greater threat to its users. The details of the leaked review came a week after a US House Intelligence Committee report which warned against letting Huawei supply critical telecommunications infrastructure in the United States.
The United States has engaged in several domestic actions designed to hinder Chinese telecom providers from doing business in the country. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 barred the US federal government from obtaining equipment from several Chinese vendors, including Huawei and ZTE.
On 15 May 2019, president Donald Trump signed executive order 13873 to declare a national emergency under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, allowing for restrictions to be imposed on commerce with "foreign adversaries" that involve information and communications technology. Trump stated that the US needed to protect itself against "foreign adversaries" that create and exploit security vulnerabilities in information and communications systems: the order made no specific references to any country or vendor. The same day, the US Department of Commerce also added Huawei and various affiliates to its Entity List under the Export Administration Regulations (restricting its ability to perform commerce with US companies), citing that it had been indicted for "knowingly and willfully causing the export, reexport, sale and supply, directly and indirectly, of goods, technology and services (banking and other financial services) from the United States to Iran and the government of Iran without obtaining a license from the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)". Some US media reports suggested that the timing of the latter was not coincidental.
In February 2020, the Wall Street Journal reported that US officials claimed Huawei has had the ability to covertly exploit backdoors intended for law enforcement officials since 2009. These backdoors are found on carrier equipment like antennas and routers.
Vietnam
In July 2019, It was reported that Vietnamese telecom companies were looking to avoid Huawei equipment for their 5G networks.
Chinese response
Founder Ren Zhengfei has described the claims of Huawei committing espionage as politically motivated as the US wanted to remain the global leader in technology and also argued that the West could face a "second Cold War" if it did not accept new entrants such as China. Ren has also stated that Huawei had never given data to the Chinese government, would not allow the Chinese government access to data (noting that his membership in the Communist Party of China would not affect this ability), nor would it assist in espionage against the United States, even if required by law.
In a speech at the Mobile World Congress 2019, Huawei's rotating chairman Guo Ping similarly addressed the allegations, stating that innovation "is nothing without security", and pledging that Huawei had never placed backdoors in its equipment, would never place backdoors, and would not allow other parties to do so. Ping also called out the US government for engaging in surveillance activities of its own, including PRISM, and the National Security Agency having hacked Huawei in the past, arguing that "if the NSA wants to modify routers or switches to eavesdrop, a Chinese company will be unlikely to co-operate". In a Financial Times editorial, Ping stated that Huawei "hampers US efforts to spy on whomever it wants," and stated again that it "has not and will never plant backdoors."
On 14 May 2019, chairman Liang Hua stated at a conference in London that Huawei was willing to accept a "no spy" pact with the British government to ease concerns over its involvement in local 5G deployments. The National Security Council had made a decision to only allow Huawei to provide "non-core" components due to the security concerns.
Houlin Zhao, secretary-general of the International Telecommunication Union, has also suggested that the US allegations are politically motivated.
In a statement published by Chinese Communist Party-owned tabloid Global Times in response to Trump's May 2019 executive order, Huawei stated that the move would "only force the US to use inferior and expensive alternative equipment, lagging behind other countries", and that they were willing to "communicate with the US to ensure product security".
In September 2019, Ren told The Economist and The New York Times that Huawei was open to the possibility of selling a blanket license for its 5G intellectual property to a US company. He saw it as an effort to spur domestic competition, and quell fears over espionage allegations by allowing the licensee to analyze and iterate upon the technology as they see fit.
In an op-ed for the South China Morning Post, Chandran Nair, founder of the self-described pan-Asian Hong Kong-based think-tank The Global Institute for Tomorrow, described the dispute as being "a sequel of the Yellow Peril", and compared it to examples of US anti-Japanese sentiment in the 1980s. Nair has in other op-eds questioned the legitimacy of Meng's arrest and supported China's model of development.
An opinion piece published in Wired Magazine written by the vice President of the Law institute at the state-backed Chinese Academy of Social Sciences concluded that the Chinese government could not force Huawei to make backdoors and cited two reviews which were both commissioned by Huawei of the two aforementioned intelligence laws by attorneys from Zhong Lun and Clifford Chance which also concluded that there was no law requiring companies to place backdoors in their hardware. The opinion was criticized by three current and former American law professors.
See also
China–United States trade war
Criticism of Huawei (Espionage and security concerns)
Crypto AG (US CIA owned encryption company selling to governments around the world)
Advanced Persistent Threat
Chinese intelligence activity abroad
Chinese cyberwarfare
Chinese espionage in the United States
GhostNet
Cyber-warfare
Economic and Industrial Espionage
Honker Union
Internet censorship in China
Operation Aurora
RedHack (from Turkey)
Titan Rain
Shadow Network
References
5G (telecommunication)
Mobile telecommunications
Espionage in China
China–United States relations |
60725083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsten%20Nohl | Karsten Nohl | Karsten Nohl (born 11 August 1981) is a German cryptography expert and hacker. His areas of research include Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) security, radio-frequency identification (RFID) security, and privacy protection.
Life
Nohl grew up in the Rhineland area of Germany and studied electrical engineering at the Heidelberg University of applied sciences from 2001 to 2004. From 2005 to 2008, he earned his PhD at the University of Virginia on Implementable Privacy for RFID Systems. Since 2010 Nohl has served as the Managing Director and Chief Scientist of the Berlin-based consultancy and think tank, Security Research Labs. Karsten has also served as interim CISO for the Indian corporation Jio from 2014 to 2017, as well as, for the Malaysian corporation Axiata in 2017.
Areas of Research
RFID Security
Mifare Security
Together with Henryk Plötz and CCC Berlin's, Starbug, Nohl gave a presentation in December 2007 on how the encryption algorithm used in Mifare Classic RFID smart cards was cracked. The Mifare Classic Card has been used in many micropayment applications, such as the Oyster card, CharlieCard, or the OV Chipkaart for payment.
Legic Security
Together with Henryk Plötz, Nohl gave a presentation in December 2009 documenting the flawed security of Legic Prime RFID security. The talk demonstrated how the system employed multiple layers of strange and obscure techniques in lieu of standard encryption and cryptographic protocols. This allowed cards to be read, emulated, and even for arbitrary master tokens to be created.
Car Immobilizer
At SIGINT-2013, Nohl gave a presentation on the insecurity of electronic car immobilizers used to prevent vehicle theft, documenting vulnerabilities in the three most widely used systems: DST40 (Texas Instruments), Hitag 2 (NXP Semiconductors) and Megamos (EM Micro).
Mobile Network Security
deDECTed.org
Nohl was part of the project group deDECTed.org [11], which in 2008 at 25C3 pointed out serious deficiencies in the DECT protocol.
In April 2010, Nohl, together with Erik Tews and Ralf-Philipp Weinmann, published details on the cryptographic analysis of DECT proprietary and secret encryption algorithm used (DECT standard cipher), which is based on reverse engineering of DECT hardware and descriptions from a patent specification.
A5/1 Security Project
In the summer of 2009 Nohl introduced the A5 / 1 Security Project. The project demonstrated an attack on the GSM encryption standard A5/1 using Rainbow Tables. With the help of volunteers, the key tables were calculated in a few months and published on the 26C3 in December 2009.
The GSM Association described Nohl's plans as illegal and denied that wiretapping was actually possible. He replied that his research was purely academic.
As early as 2008, the hacker group THC had begun with the pre-calculation of key tables for A5 / 1, but probably never published the tables because of legal problems.
GSM Sniffing
At the 27C3 in December 2010, Nohl, together with Sylvain Munaut, demonstrated how mobile calls can be cut and decrypted with the help of converted cheap mobile phones and the open-source software OsmocomBB. The pair showed that the GSM encryption can be cracked "in about 20 seconds" and that calls can be recorded and played back.
GPRS Security
At Chaos Communication Camp 2011, Nohl and Luca Melette gave a presentation showing how GPRS networks do not securely encrypt their mobile traffic. The pair stated that they had recorded data transmissions in the networks of several German mobile providers, including Deutsche Telekom, O2 Germany, Vodafone and E-Plus. Several mobile service providers used either no or only insufficient encryption. With a modified mobile phone, mobile traffic could be read from within a radius of five kilometers.
SIM Card DES-Hack
At both Black Hat 2013 and OHM 2013, Nohl demonstrated that many SIM cards use the outdated and insecure DES encryption, undermining the privacy and security of mobile phone users. Through "Over The Air (OTA)" communication, such as SMS messages, it is possible to provide a SIM card with updates, applications, or new encryption keys. Such messages are digitally signed with DES, 3DES or AES. Nohl generated a Rainbow Table for 56-bit DES within a year based a on specially signed error message with known plain text. The resulting attack scenario: an attacker sends the victim a signed text message. With the help of the Rainbow Table it is then possible to crack the DES key of a SIM card in minutes and crack the internal key. (Known Plaintext Attack). This allows an attacker to send a signed SMS, which in turn loads a Java app onto the SIM card. These apps are capable of multiple actions, including sending SMS or sharing the location of the device. An attacker could, for example, command a device to send SMS messages to foreign premium services at the cost of the device owner. In principle, the Java Virtual Machine should make sure that every Java app can only access predefined interfaces. Nohl found that the Java sandbox implementations of at least two major SIM card manufacturers, including market leader Gemalto, are insecure and it is possible for a Java app to escape the sandbox environment and thus gain access to the entire SIM card. This makes it possible to duplicate SIM cards including the IMSI, authentication key (Ki) and payment information stored on the card.
GSM Security Map und SnoopSnitch
At the 30C3 in December 2013, Nohl introduced the Android app "GSMmap". Initially designed for use on a Galaxy S2 or S3 (including root access), the app collects information on the level a mobile network secures its traffic. The collected data can be uploaded, with the app user’s consent, to a database that evaluates the security of mobile networks worldwide, based on selected protection capability criteria. The results of this analysis are displayed on the "GSM Security Map" website, where the security level of mobile providers are visualized on an interactive world map and made available for download as "country reports".
At the 31C3 in December 2014, Nohl presented the Android app "SnoopSnitch" as a possible countermeasure against various mobile network security attacks. On various smartphones models with Qualcomm chipset and root access, mobile network traffic can be collected and analyzed locally with "SnoopSnitch,” where the app gives the user information about the encryption and authentication algorithm being used by the network, the possibility for SMS and SS7 attacks, as well as the potential presence of IMSI-catchers.
The data collected via “SnoopSnitch” can also be uploaded, with the user’s consent, to a database to support additional security analysis, which is shared on the "GSM Security Map" website.
SS7 Hacking
Also at the 31C3, Nohl presented a side channel attack using Signaling System 7 (SS7) on UMTS communication and described other SS7-based attacks that can allow the reading of text messages, the determination of location coordinates, and various scenarios for fraud.
Android Patching
In April 2018, Nohl presented on security in the mobile Android environment. Nohl and his colleagues analyzed Android firmware images from various smartphone vendors. In some cases, a so-called "patch gap" was found, where vendors had not applied all security patches that otherwise should have been present based on the monthly patch level date specified in the firmware. Nohl released an updated version of the open source “Snoopsnitch” app with new features to allow users to run tests on their Android phones to check for a "patch gap" on their device.
Security of payment and booking systems
Attacks on the Electronic Cash protocol
At the 32C3, Nohl and colleagues presented an attack on the EC card protocols ZVT and Poseidon, which are a dialect of ISO 8583. Both protocols are the most common payment protocols in German-speaking countries.
Security gaps in travel booking systems
At the 33C3, Nohl and colleagues highlighted security holes in Amadeus, Sabre, and Travelport, three of the largest Global Distribution Systems (GDS) which combined, handle approximately 90% of worldwide flight reservations and a large proportion of hotel, car rental, and other travel bookings.
IT Security research
BadUSB
At Black Hat 2014, Nohl and Jacob Lell presented on security risks associated with USB devices. The USB standard is versatile and includes many different classes of devices. Their research is based on the reprogramming of USB controller chips, which are widely used and found in USB sticks. There is no effective protection against reprogramming, so a harmless USB device can be converted and used as a malicious device in many ways.
Possible scenarios for abuse include:
A USB device can emulate a keyboard and issue commands on behalf of the logged-in user to install malware on their computer, malware which would also infect other USB devices connected.
A USB device can pretend to be a network card, change the computer's DNS setting, and redirect traffic.
A modified USB stick or a USB hard drive can load a small virus during the boot process, which infects the operating system before booting.
Preventing such attacks is not yet possible because malware scanners have no access to the firmware version of USB devices and behavior detection is difficult. USB firewalls that can block only certain device classes do not (yet) exist. The usual process to remove malware - reinstalling the operating system - fails here because the USB stick that installs the operating systems may itself already be infected, as well as a built-in webcam or other USB devices.
In addition, a proof of concept for Android devices was released to test the security.
External links
Security Research Labs: GSM Security Map
Snoopsnitch: An Android app for analyzing mobile traffic data. Gives the user information about the encryption and authentication algorithm, SMS and SS7 attacks and IMSI catcher.
References
German cryptographers
1981 births
Living people |
60836676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer%20Robertson%20%28Quadriga%29 | Jennifer Robertson (Quadriga) | Jennifer Kathleen Margaret Robertson (born Jennifer Griffith, 1988) is a Canadian real estate developer, best known as the heir and widow of the CEO of the controversial QuadrigaCX cryptocurrency exchange.
Robertson and Gerald Cotten were in a relationship for several years, prior to their October 2018 marriage. In December, 2018, Robertson and Cotten were on a trip to India to sponsor an orphanage when he suffered severe intestinal distress related to his chronic Crohn's disease. Although he was given hospital care, his condition worsened, and allegedly, he died less than a day after admission.
The India Times reported that limited funds had been made available to build the Jennifer Robertson and Gerald Cotten House; the couple had yet to release funds for the orphanage's operation.
After Cotten's death Robertson inherited millions of dollars in real estate holding.
Approximately a month after Cotten's death Robertson informed shareholders that, although she had consulted computer security experts that the funds her husband had been managing were in "cold storage", and his files did not contain encryption keys required to manage them.
In April 2019, Robertson voluntarily agreed not to sell or transfer any of her assets.
On October 8, 2019, Robertson returned $12 million CAD to Quadriga, from her husband's estate. Bloomberg News described this as a voluntary settlement. It listed the assets she was keeping, which included her wedding band, her personal vehicle, her personal retirement savings fund, and $90,000 cash.
Robertson said she was not involved in how her husband managed Quadriga, and had initially assumed her inheritance came from “legitimately earned profits, salary and dividends.”
Robertson has written a book, Bitcoin Widow: Love, Betrayal and the Missing Millions, with Stephen Kimber, about her relationship with Cotten and the collapse of Quadriga. Bitcoin Widow was No. 6 best-seller in non-fiction in Canada for the week ending 26 January 2022 and No 6 in Canadian non-fiction for the week ending 16 February 2022 in the Toronto Star, and No. 8 non-fiction in Canada, No. 3 Canadian non-fiction and No. 1 in Biography for the week ending 29 January 2022 in the Globe and Mail.
References
Real estate and property developers
Living people
Canadian real estate businesspeople
1988 births |
60929882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux%20%28machine-learning%20framework%29 | Flux (machine-learning framework) | Flux is an open-source machine-learning software library and ecosystem written in Julia. Its current stable release is v0.12.8. It has a layer-stacking-based interface for simpler models, and has a strong support on interoperability with other Julia packages instead of a monolithic design. For example, GPU support is implemented transparently by CuArrays.jl This is in contrast to some other machine learning frameworks which are implemented in other languages with Julia bindings, such as TensorFlow.jl, and thus are more limited by the functionality present in the underlying implementation, which is often in C or C++. Flux joined NumFOCUS as an affiliated project in December of 2021.
Flux's focus on interoperability has enabled, for example, support for Neural Differential Equations, by fusing Flux.jl and DifferentialEquations.jl into DiffEqFlux.jl.
Flux supports recurrent and convolutional networks. It is also capable of differentiable programming through its source-to-source automatic differentiation package, Zygote.jl.
Julia is a popular language in machine-learning and Flux.jl is its most highly regarded machine-learning repository. A demonstration compiling Julia code to run in Google's tensor processing unit (TPU) received praise from Google Brain AI lead Jeff Dean.
Flux has been used as a framework to build neural networks that work with homomorphic encrypted data without ever decrypting it. This kind of application is envisioned to be central for privacy to future API using machine-learning models.
Flux.jl is an intermediate representation for running high level programs on CUDA hardware. It was the predecessor to CUDAnative.jl which is also a GPU programming language.
See also
Differentiable programming
Comparison of deep-learning software
References
Machine learning
Free software programmed in Julia
Software using the MIT license |
60953954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schl%C3%BCsselger%C3%A4t%2041 | Schlüsselgerät 41 | The Schlüsselgerät 41 ("Cipher Machine 41"), also known as the SG-41 or Hitler mill, was a rotor cipher machine, first produced in 1941 in Nazi Germany, that was designed as a potential successor for the Enigma machine. It saw limited use by the Abwehr (military intelligence) towards the end of World War II.
History
The SG-41 was created under order of the Heereswaffenamt (Inspectorate 7/VI organisation) as a collaboration between German cryptographer Fritz Menzer and Wanderer, a leading typewriter manufacturer. The machine also acquired the nickname "Hitler mill" because of the large crank attached to the side of the unit. Instead of using a lampboard like the Enigma, the SG-41 printed both the plaintext and ciphertext of the message onto two paper tapes. Due to wartime shortages of light metals such as aluminium and magnesium, the SG-41 weighed approximately , which made it unsuitable for the front lines.
Menzer intended for the SG-41 to fully replace Enigma, which he considered to no longer be secure; the Luftwaffe and Heer ordered around 11,000 units.
A total of 1,000 units were produced. Various sources have reported production figures as low as 500 units due to materiel shortages, but production was halted after 1,000 units, as it was considered too heavy for use on the front. In December 1943, General Fritz Thiele ordered production to cease by the end of 1944. Beginning on 12 October 1944, the first deliveries to the Abwehr began. In the final months of the war, the SG-41 was used instead of the Abwehr Enigma.
Function
Functionally, the machine had greater similarities with the Boris Hagelin C-Series. The SG-41 had six encryption rotors, compared to the Enigma, which had either three or four, in addition to a number of advanced features, making it much more resistant to cryptanalysis than the Enigma or other contemporary Hagelin machines. While the Enigma rotors advanced by one for each letter enciphered, the SG-41's wheels interacted with each other and moved irregularly, both forwards and backwards. Similar functionality was not adopted in a mass-produced cipher machine until 1952 with the advent of the Hagelin CX-52.
Cryptanalysis
The Allied codebreakers in Bletchley Park considered the device a "mystery". Only a handful of messages were able to be deciphered during the war, namely when two messages were "in depth" i.e. encrypted with the same key. The inner workings of the device were unclear until after the war, so it was not possible to perform a systematic cryptanalysis on the messages. Allied codebreakers referred to it as a "remarkable machine".
SG-41Z
In the final months of the war, an additional 550 units were built, which are referred to as the SG-41Z. This model only allowed the numbers 0–9 to be enciphered and was used by the Luftwaffe for weather reports.
Find near Aying
On 5 May 2017, two hobbyist treasure hunters found an SG-41 using a metal detector in a forest near the Bavarian city of Aying, buried approximately deep. The hobbyists donated their find to the Deutsches Museum in Munich instead of selling it privately. The museum intends to conserve it in its current condition and display it in a new permanent exhibit, BildSchriftCodes.
See also
Schlüsselgerät 39
References
Products introduced in 1941
Broken stream ciphers
Cryptographic hardware
Cryptography
Rotor machines
History of telecommunications in Germany
Signals intelligence of World War II
World War II military equipment of Germany
Encryption devices
Enigma machine
Military communications of Germany |
60992857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated%20learning | Federated learning | Federated learning (also known as collaborative learning) is a machine learning technique that trains an algorithm across multiple decentralized edge devices or servers holding local data samples, without exchanging them. This approach stands in contrast to traditional centralized machine learning techniques where all the local datasets are uploaded to one server, as well as to more classical decentralized approaches which often assume that local data samples are identically distributed.
Federated learning enables multiple actors to build a common, robust machine learning model without sharing data, thus allowing to address critical issues such as data privacy, data security, data access rights and access to heterogeneous data. Its applications are spread over a number of industries including defense, telecommunications, IoT, and pharmaceutics.
Definition
Federated learning aims at training a machine learning algorithm, for instance deep neural networks, on multiple local datasets contained in local nodes without explicitly exchanging data samples. The general principle consists in training local models on local data samples and exchanging parameters (e.g. the weights and biases of a deep neural network) between these local nodes at some frequency to generate a global model shared by all nodes.
The main difference between federated learning and distributed learning lies in the assumptions made on the properties of the local datasets, as distributed learning originally aims at parallelizing computing power where federated learning originally aims at training on heterogeneous datasets. While distributed learning also aims at training a single model on multiple servers, a common underlying assumption is that the local datasets are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) and roughly have the same size. None of these hypotheses are made for federated learning; instead, the datasets are typically heterogeneous and their sizes may span several orders of magnitude. Moreover, the clients involved in federated learning may be unreliable as they are subject to more failures or drop out since they commonly rely on less powerful communication media (i.e. Wi-Fi) and battery-powered systems (i.e. smartphones and IoT devices) compared to distributed learning where nodes are typically datacenters that have powerful computational capabilities and are connected to one another with fast networks.
Centralized federated learning
In the centralized federated learning setting, a central server is used to orchestrate the different steps of the algorithms and coordinate all the participating nodes during the learning process. The server is responsible for the nodes selection at the beginning of the training process and for the aggregation of the received model updates. Since all the selected nodes have to send updates to a single entity, the server may become a bottleneck of the system.
Decentralized federated learning
In the decentralized federated learning setting, the nodes are able to coordinate themselves to obtain the global model. This setup prevents single point failures as the model updates are exchanged only between interconnected nodes without the orchestration of the central server. Nevertheless, the specific network topology may affect the performances of the learning process. See blockchain-based federated learning and the references therein.
Heterogeneous federated learning
An increasing number of application domains involve a large set of heterogeneous clients, e.g., mobile phones and IoT devices. Most of the existing Federated learning strategies assume that local models share the same global model architecture. Recently, a new federated learning framework named HeteroFL was developed to address heterogeneous clients equipped with very different computation and communication capabilities. The HeteroFL technique can enable the training of heterogeneous local models with dynamically-varying computation and non-iid data complexities while still producing a single accurate global inference model.
Main features
Iterative learning
To ensure good task performance of a final, central machine learning model, federated learning relies on an iterative process broken up into an atomic set of client-server interactions known as a federated learning round. Each round of this process consists in transmitting the current global model state to participating nodes, training local models on these local nodes to produce a set of potential model updates at each node, and then aggregating and processing these local updates into a single global update and applying it to the global model.
In the methodology below, a central server is used for aggregation, while local nodes perform local training depending on the central server's orders. However, other strategies lead to the same results without central servers, in a peer-to-peer approach, using gossip or consensus methodologies.
Assuming a federated round composed by one iteration of the learning process, the learning procedure can be summarized as follows:
Initialization: according to the server inputs, a machine learning model (e.g., linear regression, neural network, boosting) is chosen to be trained on local nodes and initialized. Then, nodes are activated and wait for the central server to give the calculation tasks.
Client selection: a fraction of local nodes is selected to start training on local data. The selected nodes acquire the current statistical model while the others wait for the next federated round.
Configuration: the central server orders selected nodes to undergo training of the model on their local data in a pre-specified fashion (e.g., for some mini-batch updates of gradient descent).
Reporting: each selected node sends its local model to the server for aggregation. The central server aggregates the received models and sends back the model updates to the nodes. It also handles failures for disconnected nodes or lost model updates. The next federated round is started returning to the client selection phase.
Termination: once a pre-defined termination criterion is met (e.g., a maximum number of iterations is reached or the model accuracy is greater than a threshold) the central server aggregates the updates and finalizes the global model.
The procedure considered before assumes synchronized model updates. Recent federated learning developments introduced novel techniques to tackle asynchronicity during the training process, or training with dynamically varying models. Compared to synchronous approaches where local models are exchanged once the computations have been performed for all layers of the neural network, asynchronous ones leverage the properties of neural networks to exchange model updates as soon as the computations of a certain layer are available. These techniques are also commonly referred to as split learning and they can be applied both at training and inference time regardless of centralized or decentralized federated learning settings.
Non-iid data
In most cases, the assumption of independent and identically distributed samples across local nodes does not hold for federated learning setups. Under this setting, the performances of the training process may vary significantly according to the unbalancedness of local data samples as well as the particular probability distribution of the training examples (i.e., features and labels) stored at the local nodes. To further investigate the effects of non-iid data, the following description considers the main categories presented in the preprint by Peter Kairouz et al. from 2019.
The description of non-iid data relies on the analysis of the joint probability between features and labels for each node.
This allows to decouple each contribution according to the specific distribution available at the local nodes.
The main categories for non-iid data can be summarized as follows:
Covariate shift: local nodes may store examples that have different statistical distributions compared to other nodes. An example occurs in natural language processing datasets where people typically write the same digits/letters with different stroke widths or slants.
Prior probability shift: local nodes may store labels that have different statistical distributions compared to other nodes. This can happen if datasets are regional and/or demographically partitioned. For example, datasets containing images of animals vary significantly from country to country.
Concept drift (same label, different features): local nodes may share the same labels but some of them correspond to different features at different local nodes. For example, images that depict a particular object can vary according to the weather condition in which they were captured.
Concept shift (same features, different labels): local nodes may share the same features but some of them correspond to different labels at different local nodes. For example, in natural language processing, the sentiment analysis may yield different sentiments even if the same text is observed.
Unbalancedness: the amount of data available at the local nodes may vary significantly in size.
The loss in accuracy due to non-iid data can be bounded through using more sophisticated means of doing data normalization, rather than batch normalization.
Algorithmic hyper-parameters
Network topology
The way the statistical local outputs are pooled and the way the nodes communicate with each other can change from the centralized model explained in the previous section. This leads to a variety of federated learning approaches: for instance no central orchestrating server, or stochastic communication.
In particular, orchestrator-less distributed networks are one important variation. In this case, there is no central server dispatching queries to local nodes and aggregating local models. Each local node sends its outputs to several randomly-selected others, which aggregate their results locally. This restrains the number of transactions, thereby sometimes reducing training time and computing cost.
Federated learning parameters
Once the topology of the node network is chosen, one can control different parameters of the federated learning process (in opposition to the machine learning model's own hyperparameters) to optimize learning:
Number of federated learning rounds:
Total number of nodes used in the process:
Fraction of nodes used at each iteration for each node:
Local batch size used at each learning iteration:
Other model-dependent parameters can also be tinkered with, such as:
Number of iterations for local training before pooling:
Local learning rate:
Those parameters have to be optimized depending on the constraints of the machine learning application (e.g., available computing power, available memory, bandwidth). For instance, stochastically choosing a limited fraction of nodes for each iteration diminishes computing cost and may prevent overfitting, in the same way that stochastic gradient descent can reduce overfitting.
Technical limitations
Federated learning requires frequent communication between nodes during the learning process. Thus, it requires not only enough local computing power and memory, but also high bandwidth connections to be able to exchange parameters of the machine learning model. However, the technology also avoids data communication, which can require significant resources before starting centralized machine learning. Nevertheless, the devices typically employed in federated learning are communication-constrained, for example IoT devices or smartphones are generally connected to Wi-Fi networks, thus, even if the models are commonly less expensive to be transmitted compared to raw data, federated learning mechanisms may not be suitable in their general form.
Federated learning raises several statistical challenges:
Heterogeneity between the different local datasets: each node may have some bias with respect to the general population, and the size of the datasets may vary significantly;
Temporal heterogeneity: each local dataset's distribution may vary with time;
Interoperability of each node's dataset is a prerequisite;
Each node's dataset may require regular curations;
Hiding training data might allow attackers to inject backdoors into the global model;
Lack of access to global training data makes it harder to identify unwanted biases entering the training e.g. age, gender, sexual orientation;
Partial or total loss of model updates due to node failures affecting the global model;
Lack of annotations or labels on the client side.
Federated learning variations
In this section, the notation of the paper published by H. Brendan McMahan and al. in 2017 is followed.
To describe the federated strategies, let us introduce some notations:
: total number of clients;
: index of clients;
: number of data samples available during training for client ;
: model's weight vector on client , at the federated round ;
: loss function for weights and batch ;
: number of local updates;
Federated stochastic gradient descent (FedSGD)
Deep learning training mainly relies on variants of stochastic gradient descent, where gradients are computed on a random subset of the total dataset and then used to make one step of the gradient descent.
Federated stochastic gradient descent is the direct transposition of this algorithm to the federated setting, but by using a random fraction of the nodes and using all the data on this node. The gradients are averaged by the server proportionally to the number of training samples on each node, and used to make a gradient descent step.
Federated averaging
Federated averaging (FedAvg) is a generalization of FedSGD, which allows local nodes to perform more than one batch update on local data and exchanges the updated weights rather than the gradients. The rationale behind this generalization is that in FedSGD, if all local nodes start from the same initialization, averaging the gradients is strictly equivalent to averaging the weights themselves. Further, averaging tuned weights coming from the same initialization does not necessarily hurt the resulting averaged model's performance.
Federated Learning with Dynamic Regularization (FedDyn)
Federated learning methods suffer when the device datasets are heterogeneously distributed. Fundamental dilemma in heterogeneously distributed device setting is that minimizing the device loss functions is not the same as minimizing the global loss objective. Recently, Acar et. al. introduced FedDyn method as a solution to heterogenous dataset setting. FedDyn dynamically regularizes each devices loss function so that the modified device losses converges to the actual global loss. Since the local losses are aligned, FedDyn is robust to the different heterogeneity levels and it can safely perform full minimization in each device. Theoretically, FedDyn converges to the optimal (a stationary point for nonconvex losses) by being agnostic to the heterogeneity levels. These claims are verified with extensive experimentations on various datasets.
Minimizing the number of communications is the gold-standard for comparison in federated learning. We may also want to decrease the local computation levels per device in each round. FedDynOneGD is an extension of FedDyn with less local compute requirements. FedDynOneGD calculates only one gradients per device in each round and update the model with a regularized version of the gradient. Hence, the computation complexity is linear in local dataset size. Moreover, gradient computation can be parallelizable within each device which is different from successive SGD steps. Theoretically, FedDynOneGD achieves the same convergence guarantees as in FedDyn with less local computation.
Properties of federated learning
Privacy
The main advantage of using federated approaches to machine learning is to ensure data privacy or data secrecy. Indeed, no local data is uploaded externally, concatenated or exchanged. Since the entire database is segmented into local bits, this makes it more difficult to hack into it.
With federated learning, only machine learning parameters are exchanged. In addition, such parameters can be encrypted before sharing between learning rounds to extend privacy and homomorphic encryption schemes can be used to directly make computations on the encrypted data without decrypting them beforehand. Despite such protective measures, these parameters may still leak information about the underlying data samples, for instance, by making multiple specific queries on specific datasets. Querying capability of nodes thus is a major attention point, which can be addressed using differential privacy and secure aggregation.
It was found that the privacy issues of federated learning is often due to running estimates, which hinders the usage of advanced deep learning models. A Static Batch Normalization (sBN) for optimizing privacy constrained deep neural networks was developed. During the training phase, sBN does not track running estimates but simply normalizes batch data. Only the statistics of hidden representations from local data after the model converges are calculated. This method is suitable for the FL framework as local models do not need to upload running estimates during training. Local models only upload their statistics once after optimization, which significantly reduces data leakage risk.
Personalization
The generated model delivers insights based on the global patterns of nodes. However, if a participating node wishes to learn from global patterns but also adapt outcomes to its peculiar status, the federated learning methodology can be adapted to generate two models at once in a multi-task learning framework. In addition, clustering techniques may be applied to aggregate nodes that share some similarities after the learning process is completed. This allows the generalization of the models learned by the nodes according also to their local data.
In the case of deep neural networks, it is possible to share some layers across the different nodes and keep some of them on each local node. Typically, first layers performing general pattern recognition are shared and trained all datasets. The last layers will remain on each local node and only be trained on the local node's dataset.
Early personalization methods often introduce additional computation and communication overhead that may not be necessary. To significantly reduce computation and communication costs in FL, a “Masking Trick” approach was developed. The “Masking Trick” allows local clients to adaptively contribute to the training of global models much more flexibly and efficiently compared with classical federated learning.
Personalization through meta learning
Meta learning can be incorporated in personalizing federated learning methods to the edge users. Recently, PFL method was introduces as a way to combine popular MAML and Proto meta learning frameworks with the heterogeneity agnostic federated learning methods. Extensive experiments show that PFL methods are superior compared to combining meta learning frameworks with FedAvg.
Legal upsides of federated learning
Western legal frameworks emphasize more and more on data protection and data traceability. White House 2012 Report recommended the application of a data minimization principle, which is mentioned in European GDPR. In some cases, it is illegal to transfer data from a country to another (e.g., genomic data), however international consortia are sometimes necessary for scientific advances. In such cases federated learning brings solutions to train a global model while respecting security constraints.
Current research topics
Federated learning has started to emerge as an important research topic in 2015 and 2016, with the first publications on federated averaging in telecommunication settings. Another important aspect of active research is the reduction of the communication burden during the federated learning process. In 2017 and 2018, publications have emphasized the development of resource allocation strategies, especially to reduce communication requirements between nodes with gossip algorithms as well as on the characterization of the robustness to differential privacy attacks. Other research activities focus on the reduction of the bandwidth during training through sparsification and quantization methods, where the machine learning models are sparsified and/or compressed before they are shared with other nodes. Developing ultra-light DNN architectures is essential for device-/edge- learning and recent work recognises both the energy efficiency requirements for future federated learning and the need to compress deep learning, especially during learning.
Recent research advancements are starting to consider real-word propagating channels as in previous implementations ideal channels were assumed. Another active direction of research is to develop Federated learning for training heterogeneous local models with varying computation complexities and producing a single powerful global inference model.
A learning framework named Assisted learning was recently developed to improve each agent's learning capabilities without transmitting private data, models, and even learning objectives. Compared with Federated learning that often requires a central controller to orchestrate the learning and optimization, Assisted learning aims to provide protocols for the agents to optimize and learn among themselves without a global model.
Use cases
Federated learning typically applies when individual actors need to train models on larger datasets than their own, but cannot afford to share the data in itself with other (e.g., for legal, strategic or economic reasons). The technology yet requires good connections between local servers and minimum computational power for each node.
Transportation: self-driving cars
Self-driving cars encapsulate many machine learning technologies to function: computer vision for analyzing obstacles, machine learning for adapting their pace to the environment (e.g., bumpiness of the road). Due to the potential high number of self-driving cars and the need for them to quickly respond to real world situations, traditional cloud approach may generate safety risks. Federated learning can represent a solution for limiting volume of data transfer and accelerating learning processes.
Industry 4.0: smart manufacturing
In Industry 4.0, there is a widespread adoption of machine learning techniques to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of industrial process while guaranteeing a high level of safety. Nevertheless, privacy of sensitive data for industries and manufacturing companies is of paramount importance. Federated learning algorithms can be applied to these problems as they do not disclose any sensitive data. In addition, FL also implemented for PM2.5 prediction to support Smart city sensing applications.
Medicine: digital health
Federated learning seeks to address the problem of data governance and privacy by training algorithms collaboratively without exchanging the data itself. Today’s standard approach of centralizing data from multiple centers comes at the cost of critical concerns regarding patient privacy and data protection. To solve this problem, the ability to train machine learning models at scale across multiple medical institutions without moving the data is a critical technology. Nature Digital Medicine published the paper "The Future of Digital Health with Federated Learning" in September 2020, in which the authors explore how federated learning may provide a solution for the future of digital health, and highlight the challenges and considerations that need to be addressed. Recently, a collaboration of 20 different institutions around the world validated the utility of training AI models using federated learning. In a paper published in Nature Medicine "Federated learning for predicting clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19", they showcased the accuracy and generalizability of a federated AI model for the prediction of oxygen needs in patients with COVID-19 infections. Furthermore, in a published paper "A Systematic Review of Federated Learning in the Healthcare Area: From the Perspective of Data Properties and Applications", the authors trying to provide a set of challenges on FL challenges on medical data-centric perspective.
References
34. Zhou, C., Zhao, Y., & Kotak, C. (2009). The Collaborative Learning Agent (CLA) in Trident Warrior 08 exercise. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Information Retrieval - Volume 1: KDIR, (IC3K 2009) ISBN 978-989-674-011-5, pages 323-328. DOI: 10.5220/0002332903230328. Madeira, Portugal. https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2009/23329/23329.pdf.
External links
"Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016" at eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved October 18, 2019.
"Data minimisation and privacy-preserving techniques in AI systems" at UK Information Commissioners Office. Retrieved July 22, 2020
Machine learning
Distributed algorithms
Multi-agent systems |
61008495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing%20Orders | Killing Orders | Killing Orders: Talat Pasha's Telegrams and the Armenian Genocide ( "Memoir of Naim Efendi and Talat Pasha Telegrams: Krikor Gergeryan Archive") is a 2016 book from Taner Akcam about the veracity of the primary source evidence of the Armenian genocide, particularly telegrams sent by Talaat Pasha. He addresses dismissal of the authenticity of evidence as a form of Armenian genocide denial. The original Turkish version was published in Istanbul by İletişim yayınları. The English version, published by Palgrave Macmillan, came in 2018.
Akcam addresses claims made in a 1983 Turkish Historical Society book that Naim Effendi was not a real person; he obtained copies of the individual's memoirs to prove his existence.
Mark Mazower of The New York Review of Books wrote that Akcam's book is "less a conventional history than a kind of forensic exercise designed to lay to rest once and for all any dispute regarding the authenticity of the Naim-Andonian documents, and to demonstrate their importance in helping to understand the state structures that allowed the genocide to take place." Mazower stated that herefore it is "not an easy read".
Content
Much of the content is on following claims and counterclaims in accusations of authenticity or lack thereof from recognition and denialist camps. Mazower stated "The reader feels rather like someone who has stumbled into a fiercely argued courtroom drama."
Akçam responded to Şinasi Orel and Süreyya Yuca's statements that The Memoirs of Naim Bey was fabricated and that Naim didn't exist. Orel and Yuca stated that the Ottomans used 4 and 5 digit encryption codes rather than the 2 and 3 ones used by the documents: Akçam stated that the memoirs are in fact real. He also stated that as the Turkish Armed Forces ATASE archive revealed a document with the signature of Naim, there was proof that Naim was real, and that the Ottoman archives in fact had 2 and 3 digit archival codes.
Akcam came upon photographs of the original telegram in New York, where they were in the possession of Armenian monk Krikor Guerguerian. This can be considered as the "smoking gun" evidence of the Armenian genocide, in which there is talk of deportation "without giving neither food, nor water", no mercy for "agony cries and despair", "deport the orphans, not build orphanages". Also for this reason Eric D. Weitz, a history professor at the City College of New York and an expert on the Armenian genocide, called Mr. Akcam "the Sherlock Holmes of Armenian genocide."
See also
Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide
References
Further reading
- Review of the original Turkish version, in English
External links
Killing Orders - Palgrave Macmillan
Killing Orders - At SpringerLink
- Alternate link:
https://commons.trincoll.edu/historyblog/2018/03/19/killing-order-talaat-pashas-telegrams-and-the-armenian-genocide-a-lecture-by-professor-taner-akcam/
Videos
at Archive.org
2016 non-fiction books
History books about the Armenian genocide |
61025655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20encryption | Dynamic encryption | Dynamic Encryption is a cryptographic principle that enables two parties to change the encryption algorithm for every transaction.
Introduction
The principle of Dynamic Encryption was invented by Professor Lars R. Knudsen at the Technical University of Denmark. The Dynamic Encryption principle is patented.
In traditional cryptosystems a specific cipher is chosen thus security of the system relies on the frequency of key changes and the key agreement scheme. Dynamic Encryption enhance such a system by defining a set of ciphers such that not only the key but also the cipher changes on every new data transaction. Which follows the motivation of the Moving Target Defense paradigm.
In order to establish an encrypted channel using the Dynamic Encryption principle the sender and receiver first negotiates a key and then the sender picks a cipher from a large pool of ciphers and sends that together with the encrypted message.
It is possible to construct a dynamic encryption system, from known ciphers (such as AES, DES, etc.), such that all encryption algorithms generated from this system are at least as secure as the static underlying cipher.
Details
The exchanged cryptosystems do not have to be kept secret, but to avoid attackers modifying the transmitted encryption systems, the system should be transmitted over an authenticated channel.
Applications
Dynamic Encryption is deployed by Dencrypt Talk, a voice communication and live-chat application for iOS and Android. Dencrypt Talk applies the principle by wrapping standard AES encryption with a dynamic layer which is changed for every phone call between two clients.
Awards
In 2017, Dencrypt won NATO's Defence Innovation Challenge award in recognition of their deployment of Dynamic Encryption for voice communication.
References
Cryptographic algorithms |
61042800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramor%20C4EYE | Bramor C4EYE | The Bramor C4EYE is a tactical reconnaissance UAV classified as a NATO class 1 mini tactical drone with less than 5 kg MTOW. It was developed and built by C-Astral Aerospace Ltd from Ajdovščina in Slovenia.
It is equipped with an EO/IR/LI gyro-stabilized micro-gimbal with optical and infrared sensor, laser illuminator. The radio control and live audio / video transmission is carried over a MANET mesh network with AES encryption. The simultaneous transmission of metadata allows the integration of tactical data into situational awareness software suites (i.e. proprietary battle management system or Android Team Awareness Kit). It is also equipped with the latest generation of autopilot with GPS navigation system.
It can be used by 2 operators for surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) missions, target acquisition ISTAR, close air support JTAC i.e. missions for special operations, convoy tracking, target detection, search and rescue, first aid missions, civil defense, infrastructure control and security missions.
The Bramor C4EYE has a basic operational radius of 42km (extendable) and an endurance of 3.5 hours with daytime and nighttime flight capability.
Operational history
The BRAMOR C4EYE UAS has been operational since mid-2010s.
Specifications (BRAMOR C4EYE)
& other payloads
Operators
External links
Official Manufacturer website
www.droneprovide.com
References
Unmanned aerial vehicles of Slovenia |
61203368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive%20security | Automotive security | Automotive security refers to the branch of computer security focused on the cyber risks related to the automotive context. The increasingly high number of ECUs in vehicles and, alongside, the implementation of multiple different means of communication from and towards the vehicle in a remote and wireless manner led to the necessity of a branch of cybersecurity dedicated to the threats associated with vehicles. Not to be confused with automotive safety.
Causes
The implementation of multiple ECUs (Electronic Control Units) inside vehicles began in the early '70s thanks to the development of integrated circuits and microprocessors that made it economically feasible to produce the ECUs on a large scale. Since then the number of ECUs has increased to up to 100 per vehicle. These units nowadays control almost everything in the vehicle, from simple tasks such as activating the wipers to more safety-related ones like brake-by-wire or ABS (Anti-lock Braking System). Autonomous driving is also strongly reliant on the implementation of new, complex ECUs such as the ADAS, alongside sensors (lidars and radars) and their control units.
Inside the vehicle, the ECUs are connected with each other through cabled or wireless communication networks, such as CAN bus (Controller Area Network), MOST bus (Media Oriented System Transport), FlexRay or RF (Radio Frequency) as in many implementations of TPMSs (Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems). It is important to notice that many of these ECUs require data received through these networks that arrive from various sensors to operate and use such data to modify the behavior of the vehicle (e.g., the cruise control modifies the vehicle's speed depending on signals arriving from a button usually located on the steering wheel).
Since the development of cheap wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth, LTE, Wi-Fi, RFID and similar, automotive producers and OEMs have designed ECUs that implement such technologies with the goal of improving the experience of the driver and passengers. Safety-related systems such as the OnStar from General Motors, telematic units, communication between smartphones and the vehicle's speakers through Bluetooth, Android Auto and Apple CarPlay.
Threat Model
Threat models of the automotive world are based on both real-world and theoretically possible attacks. Most real-world attacks aim at the safety of the people in and around the car, by modifying the cyber-physical capabilities of the vehicle (e.g., steering, braking, accelerating without requiring actions from the driver), while theoretical attacks have been supposed to focus also on privacy-related goals, such as obtaining GPS data on the vehicle, or capturing microphone signals and similar.
Regarding the attack surfaces of the vehicle, they are usually divided in long-range, short-range, and local attack surfaces: LTE and DSRC can be considered long-range ones, while Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are usually considered short-range although still wireless. Finally, USB, OBD-II and all the attack surfaces that require physical access to the car are defined as local. An attacker that is able to implement the attack through a long-range surface is considered stronger and more dangerous than the one that requires physical access to the vehicle. In 2015 the possibility of attacks on vehicles already on the market has been proven possible by Miller and Valasek, that managed to disrupt the driving of a Jeep Cherokee while remotely connecting to it through remote wireless communication.
Controller Area Network Attacks
The most common network used in vehicles and the one that is mainly used for safety-related communication is CAN, due to its real-time properties, simplicity, and cheapness. For this reason the majority of real-world attacks have been implemented against ECUs connected through this type of network.
The majority of attacks demonstrated either against actual vehicles or in testbeds fall in one or more of the following categories:
Sniffing
Sniffing in the computer security field generally refers to the possibility of intercepting and logging packets or more generally data from a network. In the case of CAN, since it is a bus network, every node listens to all communication on the network.
It is useful for the attacker to read data to learn the behavior of the other nodes of the network before implementing the actual attack. Usually, the final goal of the attacker is not to simply sniff the data on CAN, since the packets passing on this type of network are not usually valuable just to read.
Denial of Service
Denial of service (DoS) in information security is usually described as an attack that has the objective of making a machine or a network unavailable. DoS attacks against ECUs connected to CAN buses can be done both against the network, by abusing the arbitration protocol used by CAN to always win the arbitration, and targeting the single ECU, by abusing the error handling protocol of CAN. In this second case the attacker flags the messages of the victim as faulty to convince the victim of being broken and therefore shut itself off the network.
Spoofing
Spoofing attacks comprise all cases in which an attacker, by falsifying data, sends messages pretending to be another node of the network. In automotive security usually spoofing attacks are divided in Masquerade and Replay attacks. Replay attacks are defined as all those where the attacker pretends to be the victim and sends sniffed data that the victim sent in a previous iteration of authentication. Masquerade attacks are, on the contrary, spoofing attacks where the data payload has been created by the attacker.
Real Life Automotive Threat Example
Security researchers Charlie Miller and Chris Valasek have successfully demonstrated remote access to a wide variety of vehicle controls using a Jeep Cherokee as the target. They were able to control the radio, environmental controls, windshield wipers, and certain engine and brake functions.
The method used to hack the system was implementation of pre-programmed chip into the controller area network (CAN) bus. By inserting this chip into the CAN bus, he was able to send arbitrary message to CAN bus. One other thing that Miller has pointed out is the danger of the CAN bus, as it broadcasts the signal which the message can be caught by the hackers throughout the network.
The control of the vehicle was all done remotely, manipulating the system without any physical interaction. Miller states that he could control any of some 1.4 million vehicles in the United States regardless of the location or distance, the only thing needed is for someone to turn on the vehicle to gain access.
Security Measures
The increasing complexity of devices and networks in the automotive context requires the application of security measures to limit the capabilities of a potential attacker. Since the early 2000 many different countermeasures have been proposed and, in some cases, applied. Following, a list of the most common security measures:
Sub-networks: to limit the attacker capabilities even if he/she manages to access the vehicle from remote through a remotely connected ECU, the networks of the vehicle are divided in multiple sub-networks, and the most critical ECUs are not placed in the same sub-networks of the ECUs that can be accessed from remote.
Gateways: the sub-networks are divided by secure gateways or firewalls that block messages from crossing from a sub-network to the other if they were not intended to.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): on each critical sub-network, one of the nodes (ECUs) connected to it has the goal of reading all data passing on the sub-network and detect messages that, given some rules, are considered malicious (made by an attacker). The arbitrary messages can be caught by the passenger by using IDS which will notify the owner regarding with unexpected message.
Authentication protocols: in order to implement authentication on networks where it is not already implemented (such as CAN), it is possible to design an authentication protocol that works on the higher layers of the ISO OSI model, by using part of the data payload of a message to authenticate the message itself.
Hardware Security Modules: since many ECUs are not powerful enough to keep real-time delays while executing encryption or decryption routines, between the ECU and the network it is possible to place a hardware security module that manages security for it.
Legislation
In June 2020, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations released two new regulations, R155 and R156, establishing "clear performance and audit requirements for car manufacturers" in terms of automotive cybersecurity and software updates.
Notes
Automotive design
Computer security |
61217173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Freedom%20Foundation | Internet Freedom Foundation | Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF) is an Indian non-governmental organisation that conducts advocacy on digital rights and liberties, based in New Delhi. IFF files petitions and undertakes advocacy campaigns to defend online freedom, privacy, net neutrality, and innovation.
Background
The Internet Freedom Foundation was formed out of the SaveTheInternet.in campaign which was a volunteer-driven campaign. The campaign in support of net neutrality garnered over 1.2 million signatures and led the TRAI to prohibit discriminatory practices by companies on the internet. To enable structured engagement, the volunteers of the SaveTheInternet.in campaign established IFF to work on issues of privacy, free speech, net neutrality, and innovation on the internet.
Activities
IFF undertakes advocacy campaigns against blocking of websites, technology related interference in elections, free speech violations, internet censorship, and defends encryption.
Projects
Zombie Tracker
Zombie Tracker is a tool built by IFF in partnership with Civic Data labs to track cases under Section 66A as a "data-driven evidence-based solution" to highlight the continued use of Section 66A, which was struck down by the Supreme Court of India in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India.
Project Panoptic
Project Panoptic tracks the development and implementation of facial recognition technology projects in India with an aim to increase transparency and accountability around the use of Facial recognition technology in India. The tracker was built by IFF along with volunteers from Datakind and Frappe. As of November 2021, Project Panoptic has been tracking 78 FRT projects across the country, with an estimated cost of 9.6 billion rupees.
IFF's Project Panoptic along with Amnesty International and Article 19, launched the Hyderabad leg of BanTheScan campaign. Hyderabad is one of the most surveilled cities in the world, with 600,000 cameras monitoring its citizens all the time.
Digital Patrakar Defence Clinic
Digital Patrakar Defense Clinic ( DPDC) offers pro-bono legal assistance and representation to Indian journalists, cartoonists, bloggers, and any individuals who use the medium of the internet to report on daily affairs.
Campaigns and Legislative Work
In March 2017, IFF drafted a law to reform India's defamation law which was introduced in Lok Sabha as a Private Member's Bill by Tathagata Satpathy. The bill garnered more than 2000 signatures and 54 organisational supporters, including India's largest publishing houses.
In April 2017, IFF launched a campaign against internet shutdowns in India called KeepUsOnline. They petitioned the Prime Minister and the Union Minister for Electronics and Information Technology to introduce credible measures to stop arbitrary internet shutdowns in India.
Save Our Privacy
Launched in 2018, SaveOurPrivacy is a public initiative launched by a collective of 35 organizations including IFF, which put across a model draft law called "Indian Privacy Code, 2018". The code has seven core principles, one of which calls for surveillance reform. It advocates for a law that limits mass or 'dragnet' surveillance, and lays down clear rules governing individual surveillance. It also seeks the strengthening and protection of the right to information.
After going through multiple revisions, the draft was filed as a private member's bill in the parliament, twice. The collective creates resources for public awareness and continuously engages with government representatives.
Litigation
IFF has petitioned or intervened in cases relating to Whatsapp Privacy, the Right to be Forgotten, CCTV surveillance, PUBG bans, Section 66A arrests, Aadhaar Social-Media Linking.
Publications
IFF publishes open working papers from fellows. The first research paper by Nakul Nayak studied the law and impact of internet shutdowns in India, and the second research paper by Apar Gupta and Abhinav Sekhri called attention to the continued use of Section 66A of the IT Act, despite the Supreme Court striking it down.
Support
IFF is a donor-driven organisation with recurring monthly payment subscriptions for members. It is also organisationally supported by Indian startups such as Zerodha and Sharechat. It also publishes monthly transparency reports.
See also
Article 19
Digital rights
Censorship in India
European Digital Rights (EDRi)
Electronic Frontier Canada
Electronic Frontiers Australia
Electronic Privacy Information Center
Freedom of information
Internet censorship
Internet censorship in India
Internet in India
Privacy International
People's Union for Civil Liberties
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
References
External links
2016 establishments in India |
61303349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET%20encryption%20devices | ARPANET encryption devices | The ARPANET pioneered the creation of novel encryption devices for packet networks in the 1970s and 1980s, and as such were ancestors to today's IPsec architecture, and High Assurance Internet Protocol Encryptor (HAIPE) devices more specifically.
DuPont and Fidler provide a historical perspective of ARPANET encryption devices in the broader evolution of computer networks and cybersecurity. They focus primarily on the first such ARPANET device, the Private Line Interface (PLI). That said, the PLI was just the first in a series of devices created during the 1970s and 1980s in ARPANET-related research and development:
Private Line Interface (PLI)
Black-Crypto-Red (BCR)
Blacker
Internet Private Line Interface (IPLI)
Private Line Interface (PLI)
The Private Line Interface (PLI) was the first packet encryptor, sponsored by the Advanced Research Projects Agency and implemented by BBN Technologies as part of the creation of the ARPANET. It was in an early ideation phase by 1973, with a stated goal of providing users with the equivalent of a private, leased line through the ARPANET. In that early phase, the PLI was envisioned to provide two distinct capabilities: transferring a continuous bit steam over the ARPANET, and possibly encrypting the bit stream while it was within the ARPANET.
As design progressed, it evolved into a packet encryption device, which was approved starting in 1975 by the National Security Agency for limited deployment on the ARPANET, to protect classified data as it passed through the network. Each PLI device incorporated a KG-34 encryption device, and as a result was a manually keyed system.
Black-Crypto-Red (BCR)
Black-Crypto-Red (BCR) was an experimental, end-to-end, network packet encryption system developed in a working prototype form by BBN and the Collins Radio division of Rockwell between 1975-1980. BCR was the first network security system to support TCP/IP traffic for IPv3, and it incorporated the first Data Encryption Standard (DES) chips that were validated by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now called NIST). It provided automated, KDC-based key management and access control (as later adopted by Kerberos and Blacker), and supported IP header bypass.
Blacker
The first Blacker program began in the late 1970s, with a follow-on eventually producing fielded devices in the late 1980s. It was sponsored by the National Security Agency as a very high assurance (A1), multi-level security system, and developed by SDC (software) and Burroughs (hardware), and after their merger, by the resultant company Unisys.
Internet Private Line Interface (IPLI)
The Internet Private Line Interface (IPLI) was created by BBN as a successor to the PLI. It was updated to use TCP/IP (IPv4) and newer COMSEC technology (KG-84), but still manually keyed. They were intended for use in the Defense Data Network and also in DARPA Low-Cost Packet Radios in the SURAN project.
References
Encryption devices
Encryption devices |
61308323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance%20of%20Th%C3%A9o%20Hayez | Disappearance of Théo Hayez | Théo Hayez is an 18-year old Belgian man who disappeared in the Cape Byron area. He was last sighted leaving Cheeky Monkey’s bar in Byron Bay at approximately 11:00 pm on 31 May 2019.
Disappearance
Hayez arrived in Australia in late 2018 on a working holiday visa. He disappeared a week before he was due to fly home to Belgium. His family called New South Wales police on 6 June 2019, concerned about his lack of contact and that he had failed to return to his accommodation. The Wake Up! hostel where Hayez was staying also called the police on that same day, three days after Hayez failed to check out. His personal belongings, including his passport, were still in his room.
Investigation
Australian police conducted searches along with helicopters, drones, cadaver dogs, trackers, divers, and rock climbers. Hayez's parents, Laurent Hayez and Vinciane Delforge, travelled to Australia to assist in the searches in June 2019. His father made a plea to the Australian people to help in the searches; "When I left Belgium I promised Théo's little brother, Lucas, I would bring his brother home, please help me keep my promise to him".
Hayez's final phone signal was determined to be in the proximity of Cape Byron on 1 June 2019. Investigations in conjunction with Hayez's family and Google suggest a last possible whereabouts in the vicinity of Cosy Corner, Tallow Beach. Messaging platform Whatsapp cooperated with NSW Police in the endeavour to recover chat logs from the night. However, the information Whatsapp could provide was limited due to encryption.
The Hayez family continued to push the authorities to maintain a focus on the case and to follow up leads. In July, a grey Puma hat, similar to the one Hayez was wearing when he was last seen, was found in bushland at Tallow Beach by community search volunteers who had responded to the family’s plight in the months afterwards.
As the case slowed down, the official police theory became that Hayez fell from the cliffs near the lighthouse as a “misadventure”. The reason for Hayez to be there after midnight are various: he was lost; he was misdirected by Google Maps; he was under the effect of alcohol or drugs; he was suicidal; he was taken there by a local (given the knowledge needed to travel the bush route at night); he was heading for a party; or, he was hurt or attacked by someone. The absence of a body could be explained by human intervention, being lost in the bush, taken by a shark, or swept away by tides. A coroner’s inquest is set for November 2021.
Media
The case soon became well known in Australia and Europe and interest continues more than two years later.
Per Hayez's family's request, The Australian national crime correspondent David Murray joined the searches. Murray spent three months with the unofficial search party and documented the case in late 2019 in a 6-part Australian crime podcast called The Lighthouse.
See also
List of people who disappeared
References
2010s missing person cases
Missing person cases in Australia |
61319525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber%20hose | Rubber hose | Rubber hose or Rubberhose may refer to:
A hose, a flexible hollow tube
Rubber hose animation, the first animation style that became standardized in the American animation industry
Rubberhose (file system), a deniable encryption archive containing multiple file systems whose existence can only be verified using the appropriate cryptographic key
Rubber-hose cryptanalysis, a euphemism for the extraction of cryptographic secrets from a person by coercion or torture
See also
Rubber (disambiguation)
Hose (disambiguation) |
61325885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PURB%20%28cryptography%29 | PURB (cryptography) | In cryptography, a padded uniform random blob or PURB is a discipline for encrypted data formats designed to minimize unintended information leakage either from its encryption format metadata or from its total length.
Properties of PURBs
When properly created, a PURB's content is indistinguishable from a uniform random bit string to any observer without a relevant decryption key. A PURB therefore leaks no information through headers or other cleartext metadata associated with the encrypted data format. This leakage minimization "hygiene" practice contrasts with traditional encrypted data formats such as Pretty Good Privacy, which include cleartext metadata encoding information such as the application that created the data, the data format version, the number of recipients the data is encrypted for, the identities or public keys of the recipients, and the ciphers or suites that were used to encrypt the data. While such encryption metadata was considered non-sensitive when these encrypted formats were designed, modern attack techniques have found numerous ways to employ such incidentally-leaked metadata in facilitating attacks, such as by identifying data encrypted with weak ciphers or obsolete algorithms, fingerprinting applications to track users or identify software versions with known vulnerabilities, or traffic analysis techniques such as identifying all users, groups, and associated public keys involved in a conversation from an encrypted message observed between only two of them.
In addition, a PURB is padded to a constrained set of possible lengths, in order to minimize the amount of information the encrypted data could potentially leak to observers via its total length. Without padding, encrypted objects such as files or bit strings up to bits in length can leak up to bits of information to an observer - namely the number of bits required to represent the length exactly. A PURB is padded to a length representable in a floating point number whose mantissa is no longer (i.e., contains no more significant bits) than its exponent. This constraint limits the maximum amount of information a PURB's total length can leak to bits, a significant asymptotic reduction and the best achievable in general for variable-length encrypted formats whose multiplicative overhead is limited to a constant factor of the unpadded payload size. This asymptotic leakage is the same as one would obtain by padding encrypted objects to a power of some base, such as to a power of two. Allowing some significant mantissa bits in the length's representation rather than just an exponent, however, significantly reduces the overhead of padding. For example, padding to the next power of two can impose up to 100% overhead by nearly doubling the object's size, while a PURB's padding imposes overhead of at most 12% for small strings and decreasing gradually (to 6%, 3%, etc.) as objects get larger.
Experimental evidence indicate that on data sets comprising objects such as files, software packages, and online videos, leaving objects unpadded or padding to a constant block size often leaves them uniquely identifiable by total length alone. Padding objects to a power of two or to a PURB length, in contrast, ensures that most objects are indistinguishable from at least some other objects and thus have a nontrivial anonymity set.
Encoding and decoding PURBs
Because a PURB is a discipline for designing encrypted formats and not a particular encrypted format, there is no single prescribed method for encoding or decoding PURBs. Applications may use any encryption and encoding scheme provided it produces a bit string that appears uniformly random to an observer without an appropriate key, provided the appropriate hardness assumptions are satisfied of course, and provided the PURB is padded to one of the allowed lengths. Correctly-encoded PURBs therefore do not identify the application that created them in their ciphertext. A decoding application, therefore, cannot readily tell before decryption whether a PURB was encrypted for that application or its user, other than by trying to decrypt it with any available decryption keys.
Encoding and decoding a PURB presents technical efficiency challenges, in that traditional parsing techniques are not applicable because a PURB by definition has no metadata markers that a traditional parser could use to discern the PURB's structure before decrypting it. Instead, a PURB must be decrypted first obliviously to its internal structure, and then parsed only after the decoder has used an appropriate decryption key to find a suitable cryptographic entrypoint into the PURB.
Encoding and decoding PURBs intended to be decrypted by several different recipients, public keys, and/or ciphers presents the additional technical challenge that each recipient must find a different entrypoint at a distinct location in the PURB non-overlapping with those of the other recipients, but the PURB presents no cleartext metadata indicating the positions of those entrypoints or even the total number of them. The paper that proposed PURBs also included algorithms for encrypting objects to multiple recipients using multiple cipher suites. With these algorithms, recipients can find their respective entrypoints into the PURB with only a logarithmic number of trial decryptions using symmetric-key cryptography and only one expensive public-key operation per cipher suite.
A third technical challenge is representing the public-key cryptographic material that needs to be encoded into each entrypoint in a PURB, such as the ephemeral Diffie-Hellman public key a recipient needs to derive the shared secret, in an encoding indistinguishable from uniformly random bits. Because the standard encodings of elliptic-curve points are readily distinguishable from random bits, for example, special indistinguishable encoding algorithms must be used for this purpose, such as Elligator and its successors.
Tradeoffs and limitations
The primary privacy advantage that PURBs offer is a strong assurance that correctly-encrypted data leaks nothing incidental via internal metadata that observers might readily use to identify weaknesses in the data or software used to produce it, or to fingerprint the application or user that created the PURB. This privacy advantage can translate into a security benefit for data encrypted with weak or obsolete ciphers, or by software with known vulnerabilities that an attacker might exploit based on trivially-observable information gleaned from cleartext metadata.
A primary disadvantage of the PURB encryption discipline is the complexity of encoding and decoding, because the decoder cannot rely on conventional parsing techniques before decryption. A secondary disadvantage is the overhead that padding adds, although the padding scheme proposed for PURBs incurs at most only a few percent overhead for objects of significant size.
The Padme padding proposed in the PURB paper only creates files of specific very distinct sizes. Thus, an encrypted file may often be identified as PURB encrypted with high confidence, as the probability of any other file having exactly one of those padded sizes is very low. Another padding problem occurs with very short messages, where the padding does not effectively hide the size of the content.
One critique of incurring the complexity and overhead costs of PURB encryption is that the context in which a PURB is stored or transmitted may often leak metadata about the encrypted content anyway, and such metadata is outside of the encryption format's purview or control and thus cannot be addressed by the encryption format alone. For example, an application's or user's choice of filename and directory in which to store a PURB on disk may indicate allow an observer to infer the application that likely created it and to what purpose, even if the PURB's data content itself does not. Similarly, encrypting an E-mail's body as a PURB instead of with traditional PGP or S/MIME format may eliminate the encryption format's metadata leakage, but cannot prevent information leakage from the cleartext E-mail headers, or from the endpoint hosts and E-mail servers involved in the exchange. Nevertheless, separate but complementary disciplines are typically available to limit such contextual metadata leakage, such as appropriate file naming conventions or use of pseudonymous E-mail addresses for sensitive communications.
References
Cryptography
Padding algorithms |
61354187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20interference%20in%20the%202020%20United%20States%20elections | Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections | Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections was a matter of concern at the highest level of national security within the United States government, in addition to the computer and social media industries. In February and August 2020, United States Intelligence Community (USIC) experts warned members of Congress that Russia was interfering in the 2020 presidential election in then-President Donald Trump's favor. USIC analysis released by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) in March 2021 found that proxies of Russian intelligence promoted and laundered misleading or unsubstantiated narratives about Joe Biden "to US media organizations, US officials, and prominent US individuals, including some close to former President Trump and his administration." The New York Times reported in May 2021 that federal investigators in Brooklyn began a criminal investigation late in the Trump administration into possible efforts by several current and former Ukrainian officials to spread unsubstantiated allegations about corruption by Joe Biden, including whether they had used Trump personal attorney Rudy Giuliani as a channel.
Reports of attempted interference
Overview
In response to Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, special counsel Robert Mueller conducted a two-year-long investigation. The resulting report concluded that Russia interfered in "sweeping and systematic fashion". In his July 2019 congressional testimony, Mueller stated that the Russians continue to interfere in U.S. elections "as we sit here", and that "many more countries" have developed disinformation campaigns targeting U.S. elections, based partly on the Russian model.
Also in July 2019, the Senate Intelligence Committee released the first volume of a bipartisan report on Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, a report that included recommendations for securing the 2020 elections. The second volume of that report noted, based on social-media data from October 2018, that "Russian disinformation efforts may be focused on gathering information and data points in support of an active measures campaign targeted at the 2020 U.S. presidential election."
In a highly classified report, the Central Intelligence Agency stated: "We assess that President Vladimir Putin and the senior most Russian officials are aware of and probably directing Russia's influence operations aimed at denigrating the former U.S. Vice President, supporting the U.S. president and fueling public discord ahead of the U.S. election in November." The existence of this report, published at the end of August 2020, was made public knowledge on September 22 in reports from The Washington Post and The New York Times.
U.S. officials have accused Russia, China and Iran of trying to influence the 2020 elections. Between January and late July 2017, Twitter identified and shut down over 7,000 phony accounts created by Iranian influence operations. According to Christopher A. Wray, the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Russia is attempting to interfere with the 2020 United States elections. Speaking to the Council on Foreign Relations in July 2019, Wray stated, "We are very much viewing 2018 as just kind of a dress rehearsal for the big show in 2020." Dan Coats, the former Director of National Intelligence, believes that Russia and China will both attempt to influence the elections. As of September 2020, intelligence officials point to Russia as the more "acute threat" to the election, saying that China has been expressing its preferences by public rhetoric rather than engaging in covert operations to denigrate a candidate or otherwise interfere in the election itself. Wray testified to the House Committee on Homeland Security on September 17, 2020 that Russian efforts to damage the Biden campaign were "very active".
According to United States intelligence officials interviewed by The New York Times, Russian "operations would be intended to help President Trump, potentially by exacerbating disputes around the results, especially if the race is too close to call." The FBI and the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency have stated that Russian cyberattacks have targeted "U.S. state, local, territorial, and tribal government networks, as well as aviation networks".
Social-media disinformation and voting infrastructure
Various disinformation campaigns on social media have targeted the Democratic Party candidates running in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. This has prompted considerable concern regarding the ability of social media companies to cope with disinformation and manipulation. By August 2019, Facebook and Twitter had banned advertisements that use misinformation to attempt the suppression of voter turnout.
Microsoft developed an open source software called ElectionGuard to help safeguard the 2020 elections. In mid-July 2019, Microsoft announced that it had, over the prior year, "notified nearly 10,000 customers they've been targeted or compromised by nation-state attacks". Based on attacks that had targeted political organizations, and on experience from 2016 and 2018, Microsoft anticipated "attacks targeting U.S. election systems, political campaigns or NGOs that work closely with campaigns". Of the "nation-state attacks" that had originated from Russia, Microsoft claimed that they followed the "same pattern of engagement" as Russian operations in 2016 and 2018. On September 20, 2019, Microsoft announced that it would provide free security updates for Windows 7, which reached its end-of-life on January 14, 2020, on federally-certified voting machines through the 2020 United States elections. On October 4, 2019, Microsoft announced that "Phosphorus", a group of hackers linked to the Iranian government, had attempted to compromise e-mail accounts belonging to journalists, prominent Iranian expatriates, U.S. government officials and the campaign of a U.S. presidential candidate. While Microsoft did not disclose which campaign had been the target of the cyber attack, unnamed sources informed Reuters that it had been that of Donald Trump.
On October 21, 2019, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg announced that his company has detected a "highly sophisticated" set of campaigns to interfere with the 2020 elections. These campaigns originated from Russia and from Iran. Fake accounts based in Russia posed as Americans of varied political backgrounds and worked to undermine the campaign of Joe Biden, aiming to sow discontent with Biden from both the left and the right.
A September 2019 report from The Washington Post demonstrated that due to bad default passwords and weak encryption, hackers with physical access can easily get into voting machines designed for use in the 2020 United States elections, and remote hacking was possible if the machines were accidentally misconfigured.
On February 21, 2020, The Washington Post reported that, according to unnamed US officials, Russia was interfering in the Democratic primary in an effort to support the nomination of Senator Bernie Sanders. Sanders issued a statement after the news report, saying in part, "I don't care, frankly, who Putin wants to be president. My message to Putin is clear: stay out of American elections, and as president I will make sure that you do." Sanders acknowledged that his campaign was briefed about Russia's alleged efforts about a month prior. Sanders suggested that Russians were impersonating people claiming to be his supporters online in order to create an atmosphere of toxicity and give "Bernie Bros" a bad reputation, a suggestion that Twitter rejected. According to election-security expert Laura Rosenberger, "Russian attempts to sow discord in the Democratic primary would be consistent with its strategy of undermining Americans' faith in democratic institutions and processes."
In March 2020, the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the Brennan Center for Justice published a report indicating that Russia-linked social media accounts have been spreading Instagram posts calculated to sow division among American voters. According to the report, Russian operatives were increasingly impersonating real political candidates and groups rather than creating fictional groups. According to Twitter's head of site integrity, Russian agents also attempted in 2018 to create the impression of more election interference than is actually happening to undermine confidence in the process. Shortly thereafter, the New York Times reported that according to American intelligence officials Russian operatives have been stoking via private Facebook groups anger among African Americans, emphasizing allegations of police brutality in the United States, highlighting racism in the United States against African Americans, and promoting and pressuring hate groups, including white and black extremist groups, in order to create strife within American society, though American intelligence officials provided few details about the alleged operations. A CNN investigation found that Russian efforts had partly been outsourced to troll farms in Ghana and Nigeria. In May 2020, Twitter suspended 44 accounts that exhibited behavior plausibly, but not definitively, indicative of Russian election interference tactics, including association with a Ghana troll farm.
Although government officials and American corporate security officers braced for a repeat of 2016's election infrastructure hacking and similar twenty-first century attacks, and in fact conducted what were characterized as pre-emptive counter-strikes on botnet infrastructure which might be used in large-scale coordination of hacking, and some incidents earlier in the year appeared to foreshadow such possibilities, after his dismissal, in a December 2020 interview Chris Krebs, the Trump administration's director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), described monitoring Election Day from CISA's joint command center along with representatives from the military's United States Cyber Command, the National Security Agency (NSA), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States Secret Service (USSS), the Election Assistance Commission (EAC), representatives of vendors of voting machine equipment, and representatives of state and local governments, as well as his agency's analysis preceding and subsequent to that day, saying,Responding to spurious claims of foreign outsourcing of vote counting as a rationale behind litigation attempting to stop official vote counting in some areas, Krebs also affirmed that, "All votes in the United States of America are counted in the United States of America."
However, acts of foreign interference did include Russian state-directed application of computational propaganda approaches, more conventional state-sponsored Internet propaganda, smaller-scale disinformation efforts, "information laundering" and "trading up the chain" propaganda tactics employing some government officials, Trump affiliates, and US media outlets, as described below.
Briefings to Congress
On February 13, 2020, American intelligence officials advised members of the House Intelligence Committee that Russia was interfering in the 2020 election in an effort to get Trump re-elected. The briefing was delivered by Shelby Pierson, the intelligence community's top election security official and an aide to acting Director of National Intelligence Joseph Maguire. Trump allies on the committee challenged the findings, and Trump was angered to learn of the briefing as he believed Democrats might "weaponize" the information against him. He chastised Maguire for allowing the briefing to occur, and days later he appointed Richard Grenell to replace Maguire.
William Evanina, director of the National Counterintelligence and Security Center told members of Congress during a classified briefing on July 31, 2020, that Russia was working to boost the campaign of Trump and undermine that of Biden. Details of Evanina's report were not made public. The Biden campaign confirmed to the Associated Press that they had "faced multiple related threats" but were "reluctant to reveal specifics for fear of giving adversaries useful intelligence". Evanina later stated in a press release, "We assess that Russia is using a range of measures to primarily denigrate former Vice President Biden and what it sees as an anti-Russia 'establishment.'" On August 7, 2020, CNN reported that intelligence officials had provided senators, representatives and both the Biden and Trump campaigns with information "indicating Russia is behind an ongoing disinformation push targeting" Biden. That same day, Democratic congressman Eric Swalwell, a member of the House Intelligence Committee, asserted that Republican senators investigating Biden and his son were "acting as Russian launderers of this information."
Johnson, Derkach, and Giuliani
In late 2019, the chairman of the Senate committee investigating the matter, Ron Johnson, was warned by American intelligence officials of a risk he could be playing into the hands of Russian intelligence to spread disinformation. During this period, Richard Burr (R-NC), chair of the Senate Intelligence Committee, also warned Johnson that Johnson's investigation could aid Russian efforts to promote distrust in the United States' political system. Senators had also been briefed in late 2019 about Russian efforts to frame Ukraine for 2016 election interference. Johnson initially said he would release findings in spring 2020, as Democrats would be selecting their 2020 presidential nominee, but instead ramped up the investigation at Trump's urging in May 2020, after it became clear Biden would be the nominee. In March 2020, Johnson decided to postpone the issuing of a subpoena for former Ukrainian official and employee of a Democratic lobby firm Blue Star Strategies Andrii Telizhenko, a close ally of Rudy Giuliani who had made appearances on the pro-Trump cable channel One America News, after Senator Mitt Romney backed away on voting for Mr. Telizhenko, as the Senators from the Democratic Party pressured Senator Romney on Mr. Telizhenko's vote. Trump tweeted a press report about the investigations, later stating that he would make allegations of corruption by the Bidens a central theme of his re-election campaign. The State Department revoked Telizhenko's visa in October 2020, and CNN reported the American government was considering sanctioning him as a Russian agent.
In May 2020, Ukrainian lawmaker Andrii Derkach, a Giuliani associate whom Evanina had named as a key participant in Russian interference, released snippets of alleged recordings of Joe Biden speaking with Petro Poroshenko, the Ukrainian president during the years Biden's son, Hunter, worked for Burisma Holdings. The Bidens had been accused without evidence of malfeasance relating to Burisma. The recordings, which were not verified as authentic and appeared heavily edited, depicted Biden linking loan guarantees for Ukraine to the ouster of the country's prosecutor general. The recordings did not provide evidence to support the ongoing conspiracy theory that Biden wanted the prosecutor fired to protect his son. Poroshenko denied In June 2020 that Joe Biden ever approached him about Burisma. In September 2020, the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Derkach, stating he "has been an active Russian agent for over a decade, maintaining close connections with the Russian Intelligence Services." The Treasury Department added Derkach "waged a covert influence campaign centered on cultivating false and unsubstantiated narratives concerning U.S. officials in the upcoming 2020 Presidential Election," including by the release of "edited audio tapes and other unsupported information with the intent to discredit U.S. officials."
Giuliani, Trump's personal attorney, had spent significant time working in Ukraine during 2019 to gather information about the Bidens, making frequent American television appearances to discuss it. Attorney general Bill Barr confirmed in February 2020 that the Justice Department had created an "intake process" to analyze Giuliani's information. This information included a September 2019 statement by former Ukrainian prosecutor general Viktor Shokin falsely claiming he had been fired at Biden's insistence because Shokin was investigating Biden's son. The statement disclosed that it had been prepared at the request of attorneys for Ukrainian oligarch Dmitry Firtash, which since July 2019 included Joseph diGenova and his wife Victoria Toensing — both close associates of Trump and Giuliani. Firtash, fighting extradition to the United States where he was under federal indictment, is believed by the Justice Department to be connected to high levels of Russian organized crime, which allegedly installed him as a broker for Ukrainian imports of Russian natural gas. He is also reportedly close to the Kremlin to support Russian interests in Ukraine.
According to officials interviewed by The Daily Beast, then-National Security Advisor John Bolton told his staff not to meet with Giuliani, as did his successor Robert C. O'Brien, because Bolton had been informed that Giuliani was spreading conspiracy theories that aligned with Russian interests in disrupting the 2020 election. These officials were also concerned that Giuliani would be used as a conduit for disinformation, including "leaks" of emails that would mix genuine with forged material in order to implicate Hunter Biden in corrupt dealings.
The New York Times reported in November 2019 that Giuliani had directed associate Lev Parnas to approach Firtash about hiring the couple, with the proposition that Firtash could help to provide compromising information on Biden, which Parnas's attorney described was "part of any potential resolution to [Firtash's] extradition matter." Giuliani denied any association with Firtash, though he told CNN he met with a Firtash attorney for two hours in New York City at the time he was seeking information about the Bidens. As vice president, Biden had urged the Ukrainian government to eliminate brokers such as Firtash to reduce the country's reliance on Russian gas. After his October 2019 indictment, Parnas asserted that he, Giuliani, diGenova and Toensing had a deal with Firtash in which the oligarch would provide information to discredit Biden in exchange for Giuliani persuading the Justice Department to drop its efforts to extradite Firtash.
The Washington Post reported in October 2019 that after they began representing Firtash, Toensing and diGenova secured a rare face-to-face meeting with Barr to argue the Firtash charges should be dropped. Prior to that mid-August meeting, Barr had been briefed in detail on the initial Trump–Ukraine whistleblower complaint within the CIA that had been forwarded to the Justice Department, as well as on Giuliani's activities in Ukraine. Bloomberg News reported that its sources told them Giuliani's high-profile publicity of the Shokin statement had greatly reduced the chances of the Justice Department dropping the charges against Firtash, as it would appear to be a political quid pro quo. Barr declined to intervene in the Firtash case. Firtash denied involvement in collecting or financing damaging information on the Bidens.
According to Jane Mayer in October 2019, John Solomon, a contributor to Fox News, was pivotal for the dissemination of disinformation about Biden. She stated "No journalist played a bigger part in fueling the Biden corruption narrative than John Solomon."
Developments in summer and fall 2020
By the summer of 2020, Russian intelligence had advanced to "information laundering" in which divisive propaganda was reported on Russia-affiliated news websites with the expectation the stories would be picked-up and spread by more legitimate news outlets. In August 2020, The New York Times reported that a video published by RT's Ruptly video platform, of Black Lives Matter protesters apparently burning a bible in Portland, Oregon, edited in a misleading way, "went viral" after it being shared with an inaccurate caption on social media by a far-right personality and then conservative politicians. The Times said the clip "appear[ed] to be one of the first viral Russian disinformation hits of the 2020 presidential campaign”. An NBC report in the wake of this incident found that Ruptly edited user-generated protest videos to highlight violence over peaceful protest.
In September 2020, Facebook and Twitter announced that they had been alerted to the existence of Peace Data, a website set up by Russia's Internet Research Agency to interfere with the 2020 election. The social-media companies deleted accounts that had been used in an operation to recruit American journalists to write articles critical of Joe Biden and his running mate Kamala Harris. On September 3, the intelligence branch of the Department of Homeland Security issued a warning to state and federal law enforcement that Russia was "amplifying" concerns about postal voting and other measures taken to protect voters during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to DHS analysts, "Russian malign influence actors" had been spreading misinformation since at least March. Trump had repeatedly asserted without evidence that voting by mail would result in widespread fraud.
ABC News reported in September 2020 that the Homeland Security Department had withheld the July release of an intelligence bulletin to law enforcement that warned of Russian efforts to promote “allegations about the poor mental health” of Joe Biden. DHS chief of staff John Gountanis halted the release pending review by secretary Chad Wolf. The bulletin stated that analysts had “high confidence” of the Russian efforts, which were similar to efforts by Trump and his campaign to depict Biden as mentally unfit. A DHS spokesperson said the bulletin was “delayed” because it did not meet the department's standards. The bulletin had not been released as of the date of the ABC News report. Later in September, Brian Murphy — a former DHS undersecretary for intelligence and analysis — asserted in a whistleblower complaint that Wolf told him “the intelligence notification should be ‘held’ because it ‘made the President look bad.’” Murphy also claimed Wolf told him to "cease providing intelligence assessments on the threat of Russian interference in the US, and instead start reporting on interference activities by China and Iran.” Murphy said Wolf told him this directive came from White House national security advisor Robert O'Brien.
On September 10, 2020, Reuters reported that hackers had tried and failed to breach the systems of SKDKnickerbocker, a political consulting firm that specializes in working for Democratic Party politicians and that had been working with the Biden campaign for two months. Microsoft, who detected the cyberattack, informed SKDKnickerbocker that Russian state-backed hackers were the likely perpetrators.
Analysts and officials interviewed by The New York Times in September 2020 indicated that a primary tactic of Russian disinformation campaigns was to amplify misleading statements from Trump, chiefly about postal voting. Russia's Internet Research Agency also created a fictitious press organization, the "Newsroom for American and European Based Citizens", in order to feed propaganda to right-wing social media users. NAEBC accounts were blocked or suspended by Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, but their content "got more traction" on Gab and Parler, according to a Reuters report.
H.R. McMaster, Trump's former national security advisor, said on October 1 that Trump was "aiding and abetting Putin’s efforts by not being direct about this. This sustained campaign of disruption, disinformation and denial is aided by any leader who doesn’t acknowledge it."
On October 5, The Washington Post reported that the State Department had revoked the travel visa of Giuliani associate Andrii Telizhenko.
On October 21, threatening emails were sent to Democrats in at least four states. The emails warned that "You will vote for Trump on Election Day or we will come after you." Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe announced that evening that the emails, using a spoofed return address, had been sent by Iran. He added that both Iran and Russia are known to have obtained American voter registration data, possibly from publicly available information, and that "This data can be used by foreign actors to attempt to communicate false information to registered voters that they hope will cause confusion, sow chaos and undermine your confidence in American democracy." A spokesman for Iran denied the allegation. In his announcement Ratcliffe said that Iran's intent had been "to intimidate voters, incite social unrest, and damage President Trump", raising questions as to how ordering Democrats to vote for Trump would be damaging to Trump. It was later reported that the reference to Trump had not been in Ratcliffe's prepared remarks as signed off by the other officials on the stage, but that he added it on his own.
New York Post story
In October 2020, the FBI reportedly launched an investigation into whether a story published in the tabloid journal New York Post on October 14 might be part of a Russian disinformation effort targeting Biden. The story, titled "Biden Secret Emails", displayed an email supposedly showing that Hunter Biden had arranged for his father, then-vice-president Joe Biden, to meet with a top advisor to Burisma. The Biden campaign said that no such meeting ever happened. The Post's source for the data was Giuliani, who says he got it from the hard drive of a laptop that was allegedly dropped off at a Delaware repair shop in April 2019 and never picked up. The shop owner told reporters that he thought the person who dropped it off was Hunter Biden but wasn't sure. He said he eventually gave the laptop to the FBI, keeping a copy of the hard drive for himself that he later gave to Giuliani. A year and a half earlier, in early 2019, White House officials had been warned that the Russians were planning to leak forged emails in the weeks before the election, and that Giuliani could be the conduit for such a leak.
Most of the New York Post story was written by a staff reporter who did not allow his name to be used on it because he doubted the story's credibility. According to an investigation by The New York Times, editors at the New York Post "pressed staff members to add their bylines to the story", and at least one refused, in addition to the original author. Of the two writers eventually credited on the article, the second did not know her name was attached to it until after it was published. Giuliani was later quoted as saying he had given the hard drive to the New York Post because "either nobody else would take it, or if they took it, they would spend all the time they could to try to contradict it before they put it out." Several days after the story was published, more than 50 former senior intelligence officials signed a letter saying that while they have no evidence, the story "has all the classic earmarks of a Russian information operation." The New York Times reported that no solid evidence has emerged that the laptop contained Russian disinformation.
Hall County, Georgia
On October 7, 2020, the government of Hall County, Georgia had all its election-related information released by Russian hackers using DoppelPaymer ransomware.
2021 DNI report
According to a declassified DNI report released on March 16, 2021, there was evidence of broad efforts by both Russia and Iran to shape the election's outcome. However, there was no evidence that any votes, ballots, or voter registrations were directly changed. While Iran sought to undermine confidence in the vote and harm Trump's reelection prospects, the report found that Russia's efforts had been aimed at "denigrating President Biden's candidacy and the Democratic Party, supporting former President Trump, undermining public confidence in the electoral process, and exacerbating sociopolitical divisions in the US", central to Moscow's interference effort having been reliance on Russian intelligence agencies′ proxies “to launder influence narratives” by using media organizations, U.S. officials and people close to Trump to push “misleading or unsubstantiated” allegations against Biden. As an example of such activity by Russia the report cited a documentary aired on One America News Network in January 2020, which was identified by news media as The Ukraine Hoax: Impeachment, Biden Cash, and Mass Murder.
The report specifically identified individuals controlled by the Russian government as having been involved in Russia's interference efforts, such as Konstantin Kilimnik and Andrii Derkach. The report said that Putin was likely to have had "purview" over the activities of Andrii Derkach. According to the report, Putin had authorized the Russian influence operations. Following the publication of the DNI report, House Intelligence Committee Chairman Adam Schiff issued a statement that said, "Through proxies, Russia ran a successful intelligence operation that penetrated the former president’s inner circle."
Government reaction
Dan Coats appointed Shelby Pierson as the U.S. election security czar in July 2019, creating a new position in a move seen as an acknowledgment that foreign influence operations against U.S. elections will be ongoing indefinitely. Election-security task forces established before the 2018 midterm elections at the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, the National Security Agency and the United States Cyber Command have been expanded and "made permanent". The Department of Homeland Security indicated that the threat of ransomware attacks upon voter registration databases was a particular concern.
Prior to resigning as U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security, Kirstjen Nielsen attempted to organize a meeting of the U.S. Cabinet to discuss how to address potential foreign interference in the 2020 elections. Mick Mulvaney, the White House Chief of Staff, reportedly warned her to keep the subject away from Trump, who views the discussion as questioning the legitimacy of his victory in 2016. Mitch McConnell, the Senate Majority Leader, has blocked various bills intended to improve election security from being considered, including some measures that have had bipartisan support. Election-security legislation remains stalled in the Senate as of February 2020. However, various states have implemented changes, such as paper ballots. Florida has expanded its paper-ballot backup system since 2016, but experts warn that its voting systems are still vulnerable to manipulation, a particular concern being the electronic poll books that store lists of registered voters. All 67 election supervisors in Florida have been required to sign nondisclosure agreements, and consequently, information such as the identity of which four counties had been hacked by Russian intelligence in 2016 remains unknown to the public. Democratic members of Congress cited the lack of effort to secure U.S. elections against foreign interference, particularly from Russia, as among grounds to begin an impeachment inquiry.
On September 30, 2019, the United States issued economic sanctions against seven Russians affiliated with the Internet Research Agency, an organization that manipulates social media for misinformation purposes. The sanctions were described as a warning against foreign interference in United States elections.
On December 9, 2019, FBI Director Christopher A. Wray told ABC News: "as far as the [2020] election itself goes, we think Russia represents the most significant threat." According to William Evanina, director of the National Counterintelligence and Security Center, Russia is "using social media and many other tools to inflame social divisions, promote conspiracy theories and sow distrust in our democracy and elections."
Bloomberg News reported in January 2020 that American intelligence and law enforcement were examining whether Russia was involved in promoting disinformation to undermine Joe Biden as part of a campaign to disrupt the 2020 election. The following month, the Estonian Foreign Intelligence Service warned that Russia would attempt to interfere in the Georgian parliamentary election in October 2020 as well as the US election in November.
On July 13, 2020, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer wrote to FBI Director Wray, requesting a briefing on a "concerted foreign interference campaign" targeting the United States Congress. The request for an all-Congress briefing, also signed by Rep. Adam Schiff and Sen. Mark Warner, was made public one week later, save for a classified addendum that was not released to the media.
Trump administration reaction
The Trump administration reacted to the briefing by American intelligence officials to the House Intelligence Committee that Russia was interfering in the 2020 election in an effort to get Trump re-elected by rejecting the efforts were in favor of Trump and by firing Joseph Maguire, who was involved in those reports.
By contrast, Trump and his national security adviser Robert O'Brien accepted reports the Russians were supporting the nomination of Bernie Sanders.
Three weeks after Trump loyalist Richard Grenell was appointed acting Director of National Intelligence, intelligence officials briefed members of Congress behind closed doors that they had "not concluded that the Kremlin is directly aiding any candidate’s re-election or any other candidates’ election," which differed from testimony they had provided the previous month indicating that Russia was working to aid Trump's candidacy. Two intelligence officials pushed back on suggestions the new testimony was politically motivated. One intelligence official asserted the earlier testimony had overreached and that Democrats had mischaracterized it. Kash Patel, a former aide to congressman Devin Nunes who joined Grenell at the ODNI, imposed limits on what intelligence officials could tell Congress about foreign influence operations. The briefers reportedly did not intend to contradict their previous testimony, though they avoided repeating it.
Trump and his surrogates asserted that China, rather than Russia, posed the greater risk to election security and was trying to help Biden win. In August 2020, Trump tweeted that "Chinese State Media and Leaders of CHINA want Biden to win ‘the U.S. Election."” Donald Trump Jr. asserted at the August Republican convention that "Beijing Biden is so weak on China that the intelligence community recently assessed that the Chinese Communist Party favors Biden.” Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe stated during an August Fox News appearance, "China is using a massive and sophisticated influence campaign that dwarfs anything that any other country is doing." Attorney general Bill Barr and national security advisor Robert O'Brien made similar assertions. Intelligence community officials have publicly and privately said that the underlying intelligence indicates that while China would prefer Trump not be reelected, the nation had not been actively interfering and that Russia remained the far greater threat, working to undermine Biden. Trump also asserted that China was trying to stoke race protests in an effort to help Biden, which was also not supported by the intelligence community's assessment. The United States intelligence community released analysis in March 2021 finding that China had considered interfering with the election but decided against it on concerns it would fail or backfire.
Following Joe Biden's apparent win—which Trump was actively disputing through numerous lawsuits—Chris Krebs, the director of the Department of Homeland Security's Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, issued a statement on November 12: "There is no evidence that any voting system deleted or lost votes, changed votes, or was in any way compromised." Trump tweeted on November 17 that he had fired Krebs as a result of this statement.
Putin administration reaction
Russian officials denied that it had interfered in the 2016 election or that it was interfering in the 2020 election. On September 25, 2020, Putin released a formal statement seeking mutual "guarantees of non-interference" in U.S. and Russian elections and asking the United States "to approve a comprehensive program of practical measures to reset our relations in the use of information and communication technologies (ICT)."
Interference from the administration
In a June 2019 interview with George Stephanopoulos, Donald Trump said that he would accept information from other nations about his opponents in the 2020 United States presidential election.
According to reporting by The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post and The New York Times, Trump and his personal attorney Rudy Giuliani repeatedly pressed the Ukrainian government to investigate Hunter Biden, the son of Joe Biden, leading to the Trump–Ukraine scandal. Biden was viewed as a potentially strong Trump challenger in the 2020 presidential election, and the purpose of the requested investigation was alleged to be to damage Biden's election campaign for president. Reports suggested that Trump threatened to withhold military aid from Ukraine unless they investigated Biden. The controversy triggered the commencement of the formal process of impeachment inquiries against Trump on September 24, with House speaker Nancy Pelosi directing six House committee chairmen to proceed "under that umbrella of impeachment inquiry".
On October 3, 2019, while discussing negotiations on a possible agreement in the ongoing China–United States trade war, he said that "if they [China] don't do what we want, we have tremendous power." He then said that "China should start an investigation" into presidential candidate Joe Biden and his son Hunter Biden. Chair of the Federal Election Commission Ellen Weintraub then retweeted a June statement explaining that "it is illegal for any person to solicit, accept, or receive anything of value from a foreign national in connection with a U.S. election".
, there is evidence President Trump, Vice President Mike Pence, U.S. Attorney General William Barr, as well as Trump's personal attorney Giuliani solicited help from Ukraine and China for assistance in discrediting Trump's political opponents. Trump also dispatched Barr to meet with Italian officials as part of Trump's efforts to discredit the Mueller investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election. Trump also pressed Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison of Australia to give Barr information that Trump hoped would discredit the Mueller inquiry, in a call that (like Trump's earlier call with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky), used diplomatic contacts to advance Trump's "personal political interests." According to a report in the Times of London, Trump also personally contacted British Prime Minister Boris Johnson to seek help to discredit the Mueller investigation.
A Department of Homeland Security intelligence bulletin, warning about Russian interference in the 2020 election, was planned for release on July 9 but was blocked by acting Secretary of Homeland Security Chad Wolf's chief of staff. The bulletin, intended to be distributed among law-enforcement agencies, indicated that Russian disinformation operations would denigrate the mental health of Joe Biden.
Aftermath
Russian interference in the 2020 election was significantly less severe than it had been in 2016. Experts suggested a variety of possible explanations, not mutually exclusive. These include a hardening of American cyber defenses, reluctance on Russia's part to risk reprisals, and the fact that misinformation intended to delegitimize the election was already prevalent within the United States thanks to unfounded claims by Trump and others.
On April 15, 2021 the Biden administration expelled 10 Russian diplomats and sanctioned six Russian companies that support Russia's cyber activities, in addition to 32 individuals and entities for its role in the interference and the 2020 United States federal government data breach.
The New York Times reported in May 2021 that federal investigators in Brooklyn began a criminal investigation late in the Trump administration into possible efforts by several current and former Ukrainian officials to spread unsubstantiated allegations about corruption by Joe Biden. Investigators were examining whether the Ukrainians used Giuliani as a channel for the allegations, though he was not a specific subject of the investigation, in contrast to a long-running investigation of Giuliani by the US attorney's office in Manhattan.
See also
Cold Civil war
Cold War II
Cyberwarfare and Iran
Cyberwarfare by Russia
Cyberwarfare by China
Democratic National Committee cyber attacks
Foreign electoral intervention
Presidency of Donald Trump
Russian espionage in the United States
Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election
Social media in the 2020 United States presidential election
Timelines related to Donald Trump and Russian interference in United States elections
1996 United States campaign finance controversy
References
External links
2020 controversies in the United States
2020 elections in the United States
Russia–United States relations
Foreign electoral intervention
Internet manipulation and propaganda
Trump administration controversies
Information operations and warfare |
61366469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kon-Boot | Kon-Boot | Kon-Boot (aka konboot, kon boot) is a software utility that allows users to bypass Microsoft Windows passwords and Apple macOS passwords (Linux support has been deprecated) without lasting or persistent changes to system on which it is executed. It is also the first reported tool capable of bypassing Windows 10 online (live) passwords and supporting both Windows and macOS systems. It is also a widely used tool in computer security, especially in penetration testing. Since version 3.5 Kon-Boot is also able to bypass SecureBoot feature.
History
Kon-Boot was originally designed as a proof of concept, freeware security tool, mostly for people who tend to forget their passwords. The main idea was to allow users to login to the target computer without knowing the correct password and without making any persistent changes to system on which it is executed.
First Kon-Boot release was announced in 2008 on DailyDave mailing list. Version 1.0 (freeware) allowed users to login into Linux based operating systems and to bypass the authentication process (allowing access to the system without knowing the password).
In 2009 author of this software announced Kon-Boot for Linux and 32-bit Microsoft Windows systems. This release provided additional support for bypassing Windows systems passwords on any Windows operating system starting from Windows Server 2008 to Windows 7. This version is still available as freeware
Newest Kon-Boot releases are available only as commercial products and are still maintained. The commercial licenses licenses out the software to one USB pendrive per license purchased.
Current version is able to bypass passwords on the following operating systems:
Technology
Kon-Boot works like a bootkit (thus it also often creates false positive alerts in antivirus software). It injects (hides) itself into BIOS memory. Kon-Boot modifies the kernel code on the fly (runtime), temporarily changing the code responsible for verification user's authorization data while the operating system loads.
In contrast to password reset tools like CHNTPW (The Offline NT Password Editor), Kon-Boot does not modify system files and SAM hive, all changes are temporary and they disappear after system reboots.
Additional Features
While by default Kon-Boot bypasses Windows passwords it also includes some additional features that are worth noting:
Kon-Boot can change Windows passwords due to embedded Sticky-Keys feature. For example after successful Windows boot with Kon-Boot user can tap SHIFT key 5 times and Kon-Boot will open a Windows console window running with local system privileges. Fully working console can be used for a variety of purposes. For example in case of changing Windows password following command can be used: net user [username] [newpassword](selected user can be later added as new Windows administrator by typing: net localgroup administrators [username] /add). Similarly following command: net user [username] * will erase current Windows password for selected user. Obviously many other actions are available since the Windows console is running with system privileges.
In the commercial Kon-Boot editions it is possible to use Automatic PowerShell Script Execution feature which automatically executes (after Windows boot) given PowerShell script with full system privileges. This feature can be used to automatize various tasks for example performing forensics data gathering task etc. To use this feature Windows needs to be installed in UEFI mode.
Limitations (prevention)
Users concerned about tools like Kon-Boot should use disk encryption (FileVault, Bitlocker, Veracrypt etc.) software as Kon-Boot is not able to bypass disk encryption. BIOS password and enabled SecureBoot feature is also a good prevention measure. However Kon-Boot since version 3.5 is able to bypass SecureBoot feature. Kon-Boot does not support virtualization and instructs users to turn it off in the bios. Kon-Boot does not support ARM devices such as Apple's M1 chip.
References
External links
Official website
Password cracking software |
61367364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Kent%20%28network%20security%29 | Stephen Kent (network security) | Stephen Thomas Kent (born January 25, 1951) is an American computer scientist, noted for his contributions to network security.
Kent was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1969 he graduated from Ridgewood Preparatory School in Metairie, Louisiana, and in 1973 from Loyola University New Orleans with a B.S. degree in mathematics. From 1973 to 1974 he attended Tulane University as graduate student in mathematics, then moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a graduate student in computer science from 1974 to 1980. He received his master's degree from MIT in 1976, and his PhD in 1980.
While a graduate student, Kent spent two summers at BBN Technologies, which he joined full-time in 1980 after receiving his doctorate degree. He ultimately became BBN's Chief Scientist for Security Technologies. Kent is best known for his role in developing Internet standards. He served as a member of the Internet Architecture Board (1983-1994), and chaired the Privacy and Security Research Group of the Internet Research Task Force (1985-1998) and the Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM) working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) from 1990 to 1995, during which time he also co-chaired the Public Key Infrastructure Working Group. He was the primary author of the "core" IPsec standards: RFCs 2401, 2402 & 2406, and active in efforts to secure the Border Gateway Protocol. He also chaired the Federal Advisory Committee to Develop a FIPS for Federal Key Management Infrastructure (1996-1998), and was active in a number of National Research Council studies.
Kent is an ACM Fellow and a member of the Internet Society. He was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame in 2013, where he is recognized as "a pioneer in the architecture of network security systems, including the design and development of network layer encryption and access-control systems and standards; secure transport layer protocols; secure e-mail technology; Public Key Infrastructure standards and certification authority systems."
References
American computer scientists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Internet Society people
1951 births
Living people
Loyola University New Orleans alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni |
61455482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Running%20Man%20%28video%20game%29 | The Running Man (video game) | The Running Man is a 1989 beat 'em up video game based on the 1987 film of the same name. It was developed by Emerald Software and published by Grandslam Entertainments for Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum.
Gameplay
The Running Man is a side-scrolling beat 'em up game based on the 1987 film of the same name. Set in Los Angeles in 2019, the player takes control of former policeman Ben Richards, who was framed for the murder of innocent civilians. He is chosen by host Damon Killian to compete for his survival on the television game show known as The Running Man. The player can crawl, kick, and run. The game is played across five levels, each one featuring a primary enemy. The first four enemies are "stalkers," who are tasked with killing Richards. As in the film, the stalkers include Subzero, Buzzsaw, Dynamo, and Fireball. The final enemy is Killian, who is confronted by Richards in the TV studio. Other enemies throughout the game include dogs and guards. Energy can be regained by kicking the dogs. In between levels is a time-limited puzzle game, which restores full energy if it is solved. The puzzle game presents two images side by side, with the left one being jumbled. The player is tasked with arranging the image on the left side to match the image shown on the right.
Development and release
The Running Man was developed by Emerald Software and published by Grandslam Entertainments. The game includes an introduction sequence that makes use of digitized images. The sequence is set before Richards starts The Running Man as he tells Killian "I'll be back", suggesting he will succeed in surviving the game. The Amiga version of the game was released as a two-disk set, with the introduction sequence getting its own disk of the two. For the ZX Spectrum version, each character has a minimum of 20 frames, and some use up to 30; to overcome memory constraints, special encryption methods were used. The game was released in Europe in 1989, for Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64 (C64), and ZX Spectrum.
Reception
Tony Dillon of Commodore User wrote that the game "is fun for a while. But behind all the glitz is still a run of the mill beat em' up." Julian Rignall of Computer and Video Games also considered it "a barely average beat 'em up", expressing disappointment with the game considering its film license. Gordon Hamlett of Your Amiga considered it a "substandard" beat 'em up, while Zzap!64 stated that the game consisted of "repetitive beat-'em up action with very few moves to choose from."
Crash praised the game and considered it to be a good film tie-in, while mentioning its difficulty, particularly during the puzzle aspect. Mark Higham of ST/Amiga Format stated that because the game has only five levels, "the whole thing can get ridiculously hard ridiculously quickly." Rignall also criticized the difficulty, writing that the first two opponents "are relatively easy, and then the difficulty is hoisted right up and the third one is very difficult to beat, resulting in frustration and annoyance." Hamlett wrote that when a dog knocks the player down and inflicts damage, "there is a fair chance that it will turn and do the same again before you have a chance to respond." Some were critical that only a small portion of the screen is used for gameplay.
The graphics received some praise, along with the sound. The game's introduction sequence was mostly praised. Dillon wrote that it was "probably the most impressive part of the game," calling it "nothing short of amazing." Rignall considered the sequence to be among the best he had seen on a computer, but wrote that "from then on things go downhill alarmingly swiftly." Zzap!64 criticized the game's "dull" graphics and wrote, "Following the impressive intro sequence the game itself comes as something of a disappointment." Higham felt that the graphics and gameplay speed needed improvement, writing, "An opening sequence of brilliant sampled music and digitised pictures just isn't enough to sustain your interest when you get into the game."
Several critics disliked the controls and sluggish gameplay. Reviewing the Amiga version, The Games Machine wrote, "The makings of a good game are there, but they have been spoiled by frustrating gameplay and poor control." The Games Machine later wrote that the Atari ST version "plays just as badly as the Amiga game." The magazine stated that the ZX Spectrum version had slightly improved control but negatively noted that it was still the same basic game. Hamlett criticized the Amiga version for its poor joystick response. Zzap!64 stated that the C64 version had slightly better playability than the Amiga version but that it was just as sluggish.
References
External links
The Running Man at MobyGames
1989 video games
Video games based on adaptations
Video games set in 2019
Side-scrolling beat 'em ups
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
ZX Spectrum games
Video games about death games
Video games developed in Ireland |
61476522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compute%20Express%20Link | Compute Express Link | Compute Express Link (CXL) is an open standard for high-speed central processing unit (CPU)-to-device and CPU-to-memory connections, designed for high performance data center computers. CXL is built on the PCI Express (PCIe) physical and electrical interface and includes PCIe-based block input/output protocol (CXL.io) and new cache-coherent protocols for accessing system memory (CXL.cache) and device memory (CXL.mem).
History
The standard was primarily developed by Intel. The CXL Consortium was formed in March 2019 by founding members Alibaba Group, Cisco, Dell EMC, Facebook, Google, Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE), Huawei, Intel and Microsoft, and officially incorporated in September 2019. As of January 2022, AMD, NVidia, Samsung and Xilinx joined the founders on the board of directors, while ARM, Broadcom, Ericsson, IBM, Keysight, Kioxia, Marvell, Mellanox, Microchip, Micron, Oracle, Qualcomm, Rambus, Renesas, Seagate, SK Hynix, Synopsys, and Western Digital, among others, joined as contributing members. Industry partners include the PCI-SIG, Gen-Z, SNIA, and DMTF.
On April 2, 2020, the Compute Express Link and Gen-Z Consortiums announced plans to implement interoperability between the two technologies, with initial results presented in January 2021. On November 10, 2021, Gen-Z specifications and assets were transferred to CXL, to focus on developing a single industry standard moving forward. At the time of this announcement, 70% of Gen-Z members already joined the CXL Consortium, which now includes companies behind memory coherent interconnect technologies such as OpenCAPI (IBM), CCIX (Xilinx), and Gen-Z (HPE) open standards, and proprietary InfiniBand / RoCE (Mellanox), Infinity Fabric (AMD), Omni-Path and QuickPath/Ultra Path (Intel), and NVLink/NVSwitch (Nvidia) protocols.
Specifications
On March 11, 2019, the CXL Specification 1.0 based on PCIe 5.0 was released. It allows host CPU to access shared memory on accelerator devices with a cache coherent protocol. The CXL Specification 1.1 was released in June, 2019.
On November 10, 2020, the CXL Specification 2.0 was released. The new version adds support for CXL switching, to allow connecting multiple CXL 1.x and 2.0 devices to a CXL 2.0 host processor, and/or pooling each device to multiple host processors, in distributed shared memory and disaggregated storage configurations; it also implements device integrity and data encryption. There is no bandwidth increase from CXL 1.x, because CXL 2.0 still utilizes PCIe 5.0 PHY.
Next version of CXL specifications is expected in H1 2022, to be based on PCIe 6.0 PHY.
Implementations
On April 2, 2019, Intel announced their family of Agilex FPGAs featuring CXL.
On May 11, 2021, Samsung announced a DDR5 based memory expansion module that allows for terabyte level memory expansion along with high performance for use in data centres and potentially next generation PCs.
In 2021, CXL 1.1 support was announced for Intel Sapphire Rapids processors and AMD Zen 4 EPYC "Genoa" and "Bergamo" processors.
CXL devices were shown at the SC21 conference by Intel, Astera, Rambus, Synopsys, Samsung, and Teledyne LeCroy, among others.
Protocols
The CXL standard defines three separate protocols:
CXL.io - based on PCIe 5.0 with a few enhancements, it provides configuration, link initialization and management, device discovery and enumeration, interrupts, DMA, and register I/O access using non-coherent loads/stores.
CXL.cache - allows peripheral devices to coherently access and cache host CPU memory with a low latency request/response interface.
CXL.mem - allows host CPU to coherently access cached device memory with load/store commands for both volatile (RAM) and persistent non-volatile (flash memory) storage.
CXL.cache and CXL.mem protocols operate with a common link/transaction layer, which is separate from the CXL.io protocol link and transaction layer. These protocols/layers are multiplexed together by an Arbitration and Multiplexing (ARB/MUX) block before being transported over standard PCIe 5.0 PHY using fixed-width 528 bit (66 byte) Flow Control Unit (FLIT) block consisting of four 16-byte data 'slots' and a two-byte cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value. CXL FLITs encapsulate PCIe standard Transaction Layer Packet (TLP) and Data Link
Layer Packet (DLLP) data with a variable frame size format.
Device types
CXL is designed to support three primary device types:
Type 1 (CXL.io and CXL.cache) – specialised accelerators (such as smart NIC with no local memory. Devices rely on coherent access to host CPU memory .
Type 2 (CXL.io, CXL.cache and CXL.mem) – general-purpose accelerators (GPU, ASIC or FPGA) with high-performance GDDR or HBM local memory. Devices can coherently access host CPU's memory and/or provide coherent or non-coherent access to device local memory from the host CPU.
Type 3 (CXL.io and CXL.mem) – memory expansion boards and storage-class memory. Devices provide host CPU with low-latency access to local DRAM or non-volatile storage.
Type 2 devices implement two memory coherence modes, managed by device driver. In device bias mode, device directly accesses local memory and no caching is performed by the CPU; in host bias mode, the host CPU's cache controller handles all access to device memory. Coherence mode can be set individually for each 4 KB page, stored in a translation table in local memory of Type 2 devices. Unlike other CPU-to-CPU memory coherency protocols, this arrangement only requires the host CPU memory controller to implement the cache agent; such asymmetric approach reduces implementation complexity and reduces latency.
See also
Cache coherent interconnect for accelerators (CCIX)
Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI)
Gen-Z
Omni-Path
References
External links
Computer-related introductions in 2019
Peripheral Component Interconnect
Serial buses
Motherboard expansion slot |
61503243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia%20Denz | Cornelia Denz | Cornelia Denz (born May 23, 1963) is a German Professor of Physics at the University of Münster. She works in nonlinear optics and nanophotonics, and is a Fellow of The Optical Society and The European Optical Society.
Early life and education
Denz was born in Frankfurt. She studied physics at the Technische Universität Darmstadt, where she earned her diploma in nonlinear optics in 1988. She remained there for her PhD, working on optical neural network and optical data storage. During her doctorate she worked at the École supérieure d'optique. In her early career she worked alongside Margit Zacharias, a Professor of Physics at the Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies.
Research and career
In 1993 Denz was made Head of the Photorefractive Group at Technische Universität Darmstadt. She moved to the University of Münster in 2001, where she leads the Nonlinear Photonics Group. She founded the Centre for Nonlinear Science (CeNoS) at the WWU University of Münster. She became Chair of Applied Physics and Head of the Institute in 2003.
Denz develops modern optical methods for structuring light and matter; which includes optical data storage and systems for information processing. She developed a compact holographic data storage system in which data is imprinted on a liquid crystal display onto a laser beam. The laser beam is superimposed on a separated reference beam, with the information being encoded on a hologram. The information is read in parallel and can permit high data transfer rates. For digital data, holographic storage allows for improved security and encryption. She is interested in developing single crystal data storage systems, and uses them an switching elements such as optical transistors.
She has worked on photonic crystals that use non-linear photorefractive materials. She demonstrated that optical induction could be used to produce quasicrystals, a chemical structure that has three-dimensional crystalline groups with spiral structures and defined defects. In CeNoS Denz uses nonlinear dynamics and chaos control, such as the control of cavity solitons and generation of slow light.
In 2008 Denz began working with complex light fields; including non-diffractive and accelerating light fields, for the creation of holographic optical tweezers. She has used these light fields to manipulate nano and micro-scale particles.
Academic service
Denz has worked on activities promoting women in physics throughout her career. In 1993 she coordinated a travelling exhibition on women in physics, which started at Technische Universität Darmstadt. She organised a three-year program called Light Up Your Life, which introduced girls to science projects and career options. Denz founded the Minster Experimental Laboratory (MExLAb), through which she took part in science programs in schools as well as a research oriented school lab. In 2011 Denz planned a university-wide MExLab, MExLab ExperiMINTe, MINT being the German equivalent of the acronym STEM.
She organised the German Physical Society German Conference on Physics in 2009. In 2010, she was made Vice Rector for International and Young Academics. Denz is an editor for Physik Journal, Annalen der Physik and Advanced Optical Materials. In 2012, the selected her as the Professor of the Year. In 2015 Denz was awarded for the Lise-Meitner-Lecture in Berlin. She serves on the board of the German Society for Applied Optics. She is a Fellow of The Optical Society and European Optical Society.
Selected publications
Her publications include;
Personal life
Denz is married with two sons.
References
1963 births
Living people
German women physicists
Fellows of SPIE
Technische Universität Darmstadt alumni
Technische Universität Darmstadt faculty |
61512666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash%20Core%20Module | Flash Core Module | IBM FlashCore Modules (FCM) are solid state technology computer data storage modules using PCI Express attachment and the NVMe command set. The raw storage capacities are 4.8 TB, 9.6 TB, 19.2 TB and 38.4 TB. The FlashCore modules support hardware self-encryption and real-time inline hardware data compression without performance impact. They are used in selected arrays from the IBM FlashSystem family.
History
On September 17, 2007, Texas Memory Systems (TMS) announced the RamSan-500, the world's first enterprise-class flash-based solid state disk (SSD). The Flash Modules were designed from the ground up by Texas Memory Systems using proprietary form-factors, physical connectivity, hard-decision ECC algorithm, and flash translation layer (FTL) contained completely inside the SSD. The flash controllers used a hardware only data path that enabled lower latency than any other commodity controllers could achieve. This product marked the beginning of development of the RamSan All Flash Arrays (AFA) and hybrid DRAM and Flash Arrays, which included custom designed flash management and storage infrastructure management suite implemented in both software and hardware. TMS aggressively developed six more generations of flash controllers (for a total of seven generations) using SLC Nand Flash and adopting MLC Nand flash for the later generations. These flash controllers were offered in a variety of configurations and form factors that included embedded PowerPC processors, FPGAs, and daughter cards with additional flash nodes.
Over 15 TMS products were offered utilizing these flash controllers, including 4 PCIe drives, RamSan-10/20/70/80, that could be installed in off the shelf servers.
TMS was eventually acquired by IBM in 2012.
On January 16, 2014, IBM announced the FlashSystem 840 product, which was the first FlashSystem designed entirely by IBM post-acquisition of TMS. IBM branded the flash controller technology IBM MicroLatency technology, and touted how the technology lowered data access times from milliseconds to microseconds.
On February 19, 2015 IBM announced the FlashSystem 900 and V9000 products and re-branded the flash controller technology as IBM FlashCore technology, and described it as the suite of innovations and capabilities that can enable FlashSystem to help deliver better performance than enterprise disk systems. The flash modules themselves continued to be branded the IBM MicroLatency Modules. This version of the technology supported Micron's MLC flash chip technology. This was also the first generation of FlashCore and first enterprise AFA to offer at speed, inline hardware compression and decompression.
With the announcement of the FlashSystem 9100 on July 10, 2018, FlashCore technology was re-implemented into a standard 2 1/2 inch U.2 NVMe SSD form factor and rebranded as FlashCore Modules (FCM). This marks the first time that the original technology developed by TMS was packaged in such a way that conformed to an industry specification and was interchangeable with industry-standard SSDs used inside of an AFA.
Technology
IBM FlashCore Modules utilize an FPGA and NAND flash memory chips from off-the-shelf vendors to implement the entire data path in hardware. Each FCM contains a single FPGA with an NVMe gateway and multi-core ARM processors. Other major components inlcude DRAM, MRAM, and of course NAND Flash.
As with all FlashCore technology, the FTL is contained completely inside the FCM and the data path includes at speed, inline hardware compression and decompression. The controller design for IBM FCM uses techniques such as health binning, heat segregation, read voltage shifting, and hard-decision error correction codes to avoid re-reads and lower write amplification to provide consistent low latency.
There are currently 3 generations of FCM:
FCM1 - U.2 NVMe PCIe gen 3, TLC NAND Flash, available in 3 different capacities, 4.8TBu / 21.99TBe, 9.6TBu / 21.99 TBe, and 19.2TBu / 43.98TBe
FCM2 - U.2 NVMe PCIe gen 3, QLC NAND Flash, available in 4 capacities, 4.8TBu / 21.99TBe, 9.6TBu / 21.99 TBe, 19.2TBu / 43.98TBe, and 38.4TBu / 87.96TBe
The Introduction of FCM2 was the industry's largest capacity enterprise SSD as well as the first enterprise SSD to offer exclusively QLC NAND Flash!
FCM3 - U.2 NVMe PCIe gen 3 and gen 4, QLC NAND Flash, available in 4 capacities, 4.8TBu / 21.99TBe, 9.6TBu / 21.99 TBe, 19.2TBu / 43.98TBe, and 38.4TBu / 87.96TBe
This version of FCM is a performance and infrastructure optimized enterprise QLC SSD.
The larger 2 capacities double the compressor performance and increase decompressor performance by over 50%.
Using the latest cutting edge FPGA technology, the larger capacities pick up gen 4 PCIe and a speed bump for the ARM cores.
All capacities include an optimized infrastructure for a more efficient data path with reduced components.
In April 2017, IBM's flash portfolio represented more than 380 patents.
References
Computer data storage
IBM hardware |
61514054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AES-GCM-SIV | AES-GCM-SIV | AES-GCM-SIV is a mode of operation for the Advanced Encryption Standard which provides similar performance to Galois/Counter Mode as well as misuse resistance in the event of the reuse of a cryptographic nonce. The construction is defined in RFC 8452.
About
AES-GCM-SIV is designed to preserve both privacy and integrity even if nonces are repeated. To accomplish this, encryption is a function of a nonce, the plaintext message, and optional additional associated data (a.k.a. AAD). In the event a nonce is misused (i.e. used more than once), nothing is revealed except in the case that same message is encrypted multiple times with the same nonce. When that happens, an attacker is able to observe repeat encryptions, since encryption is a deterministic function of the nonce and message. However, beyond that, no additional information is revealed to the attacker. For this reason, AES-GCM-SIV is an ideal choice in cases that unique nonces cannot be guaranteed, such as multiple servers or network devices encrypting messages under the same key without coordination.
Operation
Like Galois/Counter Mode, AES-GCM-SIV combines the well-known counter mode of encryption with the Galois mode of authentication. The key feature is the use of a synthetic initialization vector which is computed with Galois field multiplication using a construction called POLYVAL (a little-endian variant of Galois/Counter Mode's GHASH). POLYVAL is run over the combination of nonce, plaintext, and additional data, so that the IV is different for each combination.
POLYVAL is defined over GF(2128) by the polynomial:
Note that GHASH is defined over the "reverse" polynomial:
This change provides efficiency benefits on little-endian architectures.
Implementations
Implementations of AES-GCM-SIV are available, among others, in the following languages:
C
C#
Go
Java
PHP
Python
Rust
See also
Authenticated encryption
Galois/Counter Mode
Stream cipher
External links
: AES-GCM-SIV: Nonce Misuse-Resistant Authenticated Encryption
BIU: Webpage for the AES-GCM-SIV Mode of Operation
References
Block cipher modes of operation
Finite fields
Message authentication codes
Authenticated-encryption schemes |
61526531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity%20information%20technology%20list | Cybersecurity information technology list | This is a list of cybersecurity information technology. Cybersecurity is security as it is applied to information technology. This includes all technology that stores, manipulates, or moves data, such as computers, data networks, and all devices connected to or included in networks, such as routers and switches. All information technology devices and facilities need to be secured against intrusion, unauthorized use, and vandalism. Additionally, the users of information technology should be protected from theft of assets, extortion, identity theft, loss of privacy and confidentiality of personal information, malicious mischief, damage to equipment, business process compromise, and the general activity of cybercriminals. The public should be protected against acts of cyberterrorism, such as the compromise or loss of the electric power grid.
Cybersecurity is a major endeavor of the IT industry. There are a number of professional certifications given for cybersecurity training and expertise. Although billions of dollars are spent annually on cybersecurity, no computer or network is immune from attacks or can be considered completely secure. The single most expensive loss due to a cybersecurity exploit was the ILOVEYOU or Love Bug email worm of 2000, which cost an estimated 8.7 billion American dollars.
This article attempts to list all the important Wikipedia articles about cybersecurity. There are a number of minor articles that can be reached by means of links in the listed articles.
General
Introductory articles about cybersecurity subjects:
Security
Computer security
Internet security
Network security
Information security, Data security
List of computer security certifications
Cryptography
The art of secret writing or code. A "plaintext" message is converted by the sender to "ciphertext" by means of a mathematical algorithm that uses a secret key. The receiver of the message then reverses the process and converts the ciphertext back to the original plaintext.
History of cryptography
Enigma machine
Alan Turing
Cipher
Substitution cipher
One-time pad
Beale ciphers
The Codebreakers
Cryptanalysis
Cryptographic primitive
Cryptographic Service Provider
Data Encryption Standard
Advanced Encryption Standard
International Data Encryption Algorithm
HMAC
HMAC-based One-time Password algorithm
Cryptographic hash function
Hash collision
List of hash functions
Comparison of cryptographic hash functions
Hash-based cryptography
SHA-1
SHA-2
SHA-3
SHA-3 competition
Cryptographic nonce
Salt (cryptography)
Cryptographic strength
Block cipher
Block cipher mode of operation
Stream cipher
Key (cryptography)
Key size
Cryptographic key types
Symmetric-key algorithm
Public-key cryptography
Public-Key Cryptography (conference)
Digital signature
Non-repudiation
Public key certificate
Certificate authority
X.509
Public key fingerprint
RSA (cryptosystem)
Secret sharing
Internet key exchange
Pretty Good Privacy
Strong cryptography
Steganography
The art of hidden writing. The secret message is hidden within another object, such as a digital photograph.
Steganography
BPCS-Steganography
Steganography tools
Steganalysis
OpenPuff
Kristie Macrakis
Authentication and access
The process by which a potential client is granted authorized use of an IT facility by proving its identity.
Authentication
Login
Password
Passphrase
Password strength
One-time password
Multi-factor authentication
Identity management
Identity management theory
Identity management system
Encrypting PIN Pad
Shared secret
Authorization
Access control
Principle of least privilege
Cryptographic protocol
Authentication protocol
Public key infrastructure
RADIUS
Kerberos (protocol)
OpenID
OAuth
Active Directory Federation Services
Security Assertion Markup Language
SAML-based products and services
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
A framework for managing digital certificates and encryption keys.
Public key infrastructure
X.509
Root certificate
Public key certificate
Certificate authority
Digital signature
Certificate policy
Certificate Practice Statement
Certificate revocation list
Online Certificate Status Protocol
Tools
Computerized utilities designed to study and analyze the security of IT facilities and/or break into them on an unauthorized and potentially criminal basis.
List of security assessment tools
Kali
Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks
Nessus (software)
Vulnerability scanner
Nessus Attack Scripting Language
OpenVAS
Yasca
Metasploit project
John the Ripper
Smeg Virus Construction Kit
Virus Creation Laboratory
Exploit kit
Threats
Modes of potential attacks on IT facilities.
Cyberattack
STRIDE (security)
Vulnerability (computing)
Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures
Privilege escalation
Social engineering (security)
Malware
Spyware
Backdoor (computing)
Computer virus
Computer worm
Macro virus
Keystroke logging
Trojan horse
Hardware Trojan
Eavesdropping
Zombie
Botnets
Advanced persistent threat
Man-in-the-middle attack
Man-on-the-side attack
Meet-in-the-middle attack
Length extension attack
Replay attack
Pre-play attack
Dictionary attack
Biclique attack
Denial-of-service attack
Resource exhaustion attack
Brute-force attack
Watermarking attack
Mangled packet
Reverse connection
Polymorphic code
Password cracking
Spoofing attack
POODLE
Exploits
Violations of IT facilities.
Exploit (computer security)
Timeline of computer viruses and worms
Comparison of computer viruses
Malware analysis
XML denial-of-service attack
Distributed denial-of-service attacks on root nameservers
Linux malware
Zero-day (computing)
Virus hoax
Pegasus
Rogue security software
List of rogue security software
MS Antivirus (malware)
AntiVirus Gold
Spysheriff
SpywareBot
TheSpyBot
ByteDefender
Security Essentials 2010
Email spam
Phishing
Tiny Banker Trojan
Melissa (computer virus)
Brain (computer virus)
CIH (computer virus)
ILOVEYOU
Anna Kournikova (computer virus)
Michelangelo (computer virus)
Simile (computer virus)
Stoned (computer virus)
Acme (computer virus)
AIDS (computer virus)
AI (computer virus)
Cascade (computer virus)
Flame (computer virus)
Abraxas (computer virus)
1260 (computer virus)
SCA (computer virus)
ReDoS
SYN flood
Billion laughs attack
UDP flood attack
Wi-Fi deauthentication attack
Smurf attack
Mydoom
IP address spoofing
Fork bomb
WinNuke
Criminal activity
Violation of the law by means of breaking into and/or misusing IT facilities. Laws that attempt to prevent these crimes.
Computer misuse act
Cyber-security regulation
China Internet Security Law
Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section
Cyber criminals
Cybercrime
Security hacker
White hat (computer security)
Black hat (computer security)
Industrial espionage #Use of computers and the Internet
Phreaking
RDP shop
Market for zero-day exploits
2600 magazine
Phrack, Google search on “hacker magazine”
Identity theft
Identity fraud
Cyberstalking
Cyberbullying
Nation states
Countries and their governments that use, misuse, and/or violate IT facilities to achieve national goals.
Cyber-arms industry
Computer and network surveillance
List of government surveillance projects
Clipper chip
Targeted surveillance
United States Cyber Command
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency
National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center
Bletchley Park
NSO Group
Hacking Team
Unit 8200
NSA
Room 641A
Narus (company)
Equation group
Tailored Access Operations
XKeyscore
PRISM (surveillance program)
Stuxnet
Carnivore (software)
End-point protection
The securing of networked computers, mobile devices and terminals.
Antivirus software
Comparison of antivirus software
Lookout (IT security)
Windows Defender
Kaspersky Lab
Malwarebytes
Avast Antivirus
Norton AntiVirus
AVG AntiVirus
McAfee
McAfee VirusScan
Symantec Endpoint Protection
Microsoft Safety Scanner
Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool
VirusTotal
Application firewall
Personal firewall
SentinelOne
Network protection
The protection of the means by which data is moved from one IT facility to another.
Virtual private network
IPsec
Internet Key Exchange
Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol
Kerberized Internet Negotiation of Keys
Firewall (computing)
Stateful firewall
HTTPS
HTTP Public Key Pinning
Transport Layer Security
TLS acceleration
Network Security Services
Off the record messaging
Secure Shell
Circuit-level gateway
Intrusion detection system
Intrusion Detection Message Exchange Format
Security information management
Security information and event management
Security event manager
Router (computing) #Security
Security log
Intranet #Enterprise private network
Proxy server
Processing protection
The securing of IT facilities that manipulate data, such as computer servers, often by means of specialized cybersecurity hardware.
Hardware security module
Secure cryptoprocessor
Trusted Platform Module
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface #Secure Boot
Executable space protection
Storage protection
The protection of data in its non-moving state, usually on magnetic or optical media or in computer memory.
Disk encryption
Disk encryption theory
Disk encryption software
Comparison of disk encryption software
BitLocker
Encrypting File System
Filesystem-level encryption
Disk encryption hardware
Hardware-based full disk encryption
Personal data
General Data Protection Regulation
Privacy policy
Information security audit
Information technology audit
Information technology security audit
Management of security
The processes by which security technology is monitored for faults, deployed and configured, measured for its usage, queried for performance metrics and log files, and/or monitored for intrusions.
Information security management
FCAPS #Security management
Standards, frameworks, & requirements
Officially agreed architectures and conceptual structures for designing, building, and conducting cybersecurity.
NIST Cybersecurity Framework
National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education
Center for Internet Security
The CIS Critical Security Controls for Effective Cyber Defense
Cyber Risk Quantification
Risk management framework
IT risk
Risk IT
ISO/IEC 27000-series
Cyber-security regulation
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act #Security Rule
Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002
See also
Outline of computer security
References
Information technology
Internet security |
61582803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.234 | H.234 | In cryptography, H.234 is an international standard that defines popular encryption systems used to secure communications, specifically Diffie-Hellman key exchange and RSA. It also defines ISO 8732 key management.
History
H.234 was first defined by the International Telecommunications Union's Standardization sector (ITU-T) in 1994 by Study Group 15.
Subsequently, the standard was revised by Study Group 16 in November 2002, which remains in force to date.
At the time of first publication of H.234, RSA was covered by a patent in the United States (but not elsewhere), the US patent expired in 2000.
Specification
The standard describes three methods of encryption key management:
Diffie-Hellman
RSA
ISO 8732
References
ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T H Series Recommendations
Cryptography standards |
61585454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ire%20O%27Neill | Máire O'Neill | Máire O'Neill (née McLoone) (born 1978) is an Irish Professor of Information Security and inventor based at the Centre for Secure Information Technologies Queen's University Belfast. She was named the 2007 British Female Inventors & Innovators Network Female Inventor of the Year. She was the youngest person to be made a professor of engineering at Queen's University Belfast and youngest person to be inducted into the Irish Academy of Engineering.
Early life and education
O'Neill is from Glenties. Her father, John McLoone, built a hydroelectric scheme on the Oweneda river, which was close to O'Neill's house, providing the family with free electricity. He was a vice-principal and maths teacher at Glenties Comprehensive School. She has lived in Belfast since she was a teenager. At Strathearn School she studied mathematics, physics and technology. She studied electronic engineering at Queen's University Belfast, and was sponsored by a local company to work on data security. She decided to stay on for a PhD in the architectures of data encryption. She was a PhD student working under the supervision of John McCanny at Queen's University Belfast. During her PhD she worked at a university spin-out company, Amphion Semiconductor, where she designed electronic circuits. Her first interaction with entrepreneurship was during her doctoral training, when her PhD project on high speed Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) was successfully commercialised by an American semiconductor company for use in set-top boxes. The AES circuit design developed by O'Neill improved hardware efficiency six-fold. She earned her PhD in 2002, and was awarded a Royal Academy of Engineering Research Fellowship in 2003. Together with John McCanny O'Neill wrote a book about system on-chip architectures for private-key data encryption.
Research and career
In 2004 O'Neill was made a lecturer in Electronics, Communications and Information Technology at Queen's University Belfast. She worked on security systems to protect users from cyber threats, and was made Head of the Cryptography Research Team. She works on improving hardware security. She has also worked with Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute on a new type of security system to protect electric vehicle charging systems, which was licensed by LG CNS. O’Neill was awarded an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Leadership Grant to develop research into next generation data security and has since been awarded a Horizon 2020 grant. Her research has considered the data security requirements that are associated with emerging applications of mobile computing. She worked on quantum dot cellular automata circuit design techniques, which are being considered as alternates to CMOS and have lower power dissipation. She also developed PicoPUF , a physical unclonable function (PUF) device that contained a semiconductor IP core to provide authentication for microchips, which was awarded the INVENT2015 prize. In 2013 O'Neill wrote the academic text book Design of Semiconductor QCA Systems, which was published by Artech House.
There is a region of China that produces 95% of the world's cultured freshwater pearls. Differentiating a real from a fake pearl can be challenging, and increasing numbers of counterfeit pearls are bankrupting Chinese pearl farmers. O'Neill devised an approach to determine whether or not a pearl is real using Radio-Frequency IDentification tags. These RFID tags could be embedded into each pearl that the farmer's collect, guaranteeing their authenticity. They could encode other information about the pearl onto the RFID tag, which could be collected by a simple scanner. Equivalent to the damages caused by fake pearls; hacked and cloned devices acting on a network can be dangerous. O'Neill is also investigating ways to secure connected devices, the so-called internet of things. In 2017 she was made Director of the United Kingdom Research Institute in Secure Hardware and Embedded Systems, a £5 million centre in Belfast.
O'Neill is currently investigating post-quantum cryptography algorithms.
Academic service
At the age of 32 O'Neill was the youngest person ever to be appointed a professor of engineering at Queen's University Belfast. In 2018 O'Neill was named the Principal Investigator of the Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT) in the Northern Ireland Science Park. She delivered a TED talk on the future of internet of things security at Queen's University Belfast in 2019. She has appeared on BBC World Service. She was elected to join the UK Artificial Intelligence council in May 2019.
In August 2019 O'Neill was appointed Acting Director of ECIT, the Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology at Queen's University Belfast.
O'Neill has worked on improving gender balance in engineering throughout her career. She was the 2006 Belfast Telegraph schools lecturer, sharing her work on data encryption with hundreds of school children. O'Neill led the successful Queen's University Belfast silver Athena SWAN application. She has described Wendy Hall as one of her role models.
Awards and honours
Her awards and honours include;
2003 Royal Academy of Engineering Research Fellowship
2004 Vodafone Award at Britain's Younger Engineers Event
2006 Women's Engineering Society prize at the IET Young Woman Engineer of the Year
2007 British Female Inventors & Innovators Network Female Inventor of the Year
2007 European Union Women Inventors & Innovators Innovator of the Year
2015 Fellow of the Irish Academy of Engineering
2014 Royal Academy of Engineering Silver Medal
2015 INVENT 2015
2017 Elected to Royal Irish Academy
2019 Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists
2019 Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering
2020 Regius Professorship
Personal life
O'Neill is married to an electronic engineer, and they have three children. Her two brothers are both electronic engineers and her two sisters are medical doctors.
References
1978 births
Living people
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Academics of Queen's University Belfast
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Female Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Members of the Royal Irish Academy
Irish women engineers
Irish inventors |
61677706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Meet | Google Meet | Google Meet (formerly known as Hangouts Meet) is a video-communication service developed by Google. It is one of two apps that constitute the replacement for Google Hangouts, the other being Google Chat.
History
After being invite-only and quietly releasing an iOS app in February 2017, Google formally launched Meet in March 2017. The service was unveiled as a video conferencing app for up to 30 participants, described as an enterprise-friendly version of Hangouts. It has launched with a web app, an Android app, and an iOS app.
While Google Meet introduced the above features to upgrade the original Hangouts application, some standard Hangouts features were deprecated, including viewing attendees and chat simultaneously. The number of video feeds allowed at one time was also reduced to 8 (while up to 4 feeds can be shown in the "tiles" layout), prioritizing those attendees who most recently used their microphone. Additionally, features such as the chatbox were changed to overlay the video feeds, rather than resizing the latter to fit. Hangouts is scheduled to cease operation in the first half of 2021.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of Meet grew by a factor of 30 between January and April 2020, with 100 million users a day accessing Meet, compared to 200 million daily uses for Zoom as of the last week of April 2020. Google suspended its usual 60-minute limit for unpaid accounts.
Features
Features of Google Meet include:
Two-way and multi-way audio and video calls with a resolution up to 720p
An accompanying chat
Call encryption between all users
Noise-canceling audio filter
Low-light mode for video
Ability to join meetings through a web browser or through Android or iOS apps
Integration with Google Calendar and Google Contacts for one-click meeting calls
Screen-sharing to present documents, spreadsheets, presentations, or (if using a browser) other browser tabs
Ability to call into meetings using a dial-in number in the US
Hosts being able to deny entry and remove users during a call.
Ability to raise and lower hand
Video filters, effects and augmented reality masks.
Google Meet uses proprietary protocols for video, audio and data transcoding. However, Google has partnered with the company Pexip to provide interoperability between Google Meet and SIP/H.323-based conferencing equipment and software.
Google Workspace accounts
Features for users who use Google Workspace accounts include:
Up to 100 members per call for Google Workspace Starter users, up to 150 for Google Workspace Business users, and up to 250 for Google Workspace Enterprise users.
Ability to call into meetings with a dial-in number from selected countries.
Password-protected dial-in numbers for Google Workspace Enterprise edition users.
Real-time closed captioning based on speech recognition.
Background blurring and virtual backgrounds.
In March 2020, Google temporarily extended advanced features present in the enterprise edition to anyone using Google Workspace or G Suite for Education editions.
Real-time translations of the automatically generated closed captions are planned to arrive some time in 2021.
Gmail accounts
In March 2020, Google rolled out Meet to personal (free) Google accounts.
Free Meet calls can only have a single host and up to 100 participants, compared to the 250-caller limit for Google Workspace users and the 25-participant limit for Hangouts. Unlike business calls with Meet, consumer calls are not recorded and stored, and Google states that consumer data from Meet will not be used for advertisement targeting. While call data is reportedly not being used for advertising purposes, based on an analysis of Meet's privacy policy, Google reserves the right to collect data on call duration, who is participating, and participants' IP addresses.
Users need a Google account to initiate calls and like Google Workspace users, anyone with a Google account is able to start a Meet call from within Gmail.
Hardware
In May 2020, Asus unveiled videoconferencing hardware designed for use with Google Meet in conference room settings, which includes a "Meet Compute System" mini PC, and a dedicated camera and microphone.
On September 15, 2020, Google unveiled Meet Series One, in partnership with Lenovo, which includes a Meet Compute System with Edge TPU, "Smart Camera", "Smart Audio Bar" with noise reduction, and a choice of remote control or touchscreen that supports the Google Assistant.
See also
Google Chat
Google Duo
Microsoft Teams
Zoom
References
Google instant messaging software
Telecommunication services
VoIP services
VoIP software
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
Cross-platform software
2017 software
Web conferencing
Meet |
61775490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelimkhan%20Khangoshvili | Zelimkhan Khangoshvili | Zelimkhan Sultanovich Khangoshvili (, ; 15 August 1979 – 23 August 2019) was an ethnic Chechen Georgian who was a former platoon commander for the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria during the Second Chechen War, and a Georgian military officer during the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Later on, he allegedly turned into a useful source of information for Georgian intelligence by identifying Russian spies and jihadists operating on domestic and foreign soil through a connection with Georgian intelligence agents. Khangoshvili continued to be considered a terrorist by the Russian security service, the Federal Security Service (FSB RF), and wanted in Russia. On 23 August 2019, Khangoshvili was assassinated in a Berlin park by Vadim Krasikov, Russian FSB operative.
Life
Zelimkhan Khangoshvili was born into the family of Sultan Khangoshvili on 15 August 1979, in the Duisi village of the Pankisi Gorge, a region of Georgia home to a large ethnic Chechen population known as the Kists. He is the nephew of Chechen and Kist historian Khaso Khangoshvili. Zelimkhan finished school in Pankisi and later went to work in Chechnya, the residence of his elder brother Zurab, in the late 1990s. Chechnya was at the time known as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, a de facto independent break-away republic of Russia.
In 2001, after the outbreak of the Second Chechen War, Khangoshvili joined the armed resistance of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in their fight against Russia. He was a field commander and had close ties to former Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov, who was killed in March 2005 in a raid by the Federal Security Service (FSB RF). According to Khangoshvili's brother, Zurab, Zelimkhan participated in the June 2004 attack on security, military and police forces in the Russian Republics of Ingushetia and Dagestan, in which 88 police officials and civilians were killed. Zelimkhan was reportedly wounded in the leg during the operation. Russian president Vladimir Putin claimed that he was one of the perpetrators of a Moscow metro bombing. Zelimkhan denied that he was ever responsible for war crimes, telling Georgian media, "The Russians are blaming me for many things, including terrorist attacks. This is a lie. No one can provide any evidence that a single civilian was injured or killed in any of my actions!"
After returning to Georgia, Khangoshvili commanded an anti-terror military unit in South Ossetia during the 2008 war, but his unit was never deployed. In 2016, Khangoshvili, his wife, and four children sought refuge in Germany after several attempts on his life in Georgia, which his brother believes were orchestrated by Russian intelligence, although the accusation has been denied by Russian authorities.
Assassination
On 23 August 2019, at around midday in the Kleiner Tiergarten park in Berlin, Khangoshvili was walking down a wooded path on his way back from the mosque he attended when he was shot three times—once in the shoulder and twice in the head—by a Russian assassin on a bike with a suppressed Glock 26. The bicycle, a plastic bag with the murder weapon, and a wig the perpetrator was using were dumped into the Spree. The suspect, identified as 56-year-old Russian national "Vadim Sokolov" by German police, was apprehended soon after the assassination. The Russian government and Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov have both been linked to the killing.
The victim's body was later transported to Duisi, Georgia, to be buried on 29 August 2019.
Identifying Khangoshvili's assassin
Khangoshvili's assassin, detained by German police, traveled on a valid Russian passport issued under the fake identity of Vadim Sokolov. Reports by Der Spiegel and other media disclosed that the suspect traveled from Moscow to Paris to Warsaw, where he rented a hotel room for five days, during which he traveled to Berlin. Sokolov's passport was issued without any biometric data, the inclusion of which has been the default option for all Russian passports since 2009, except "in emergency situations when the applicant has no time to wait for the fingerprint encryption and printing process". The Daily Beast noted that "20 GRU operatives outed by Bellingcat in recent years, including those suspected of poisoning Skripal, have used these 'old-style' passports in ultimately futile attempts to hide their cover identities."
The investigative research network Bellingcat and the investigative authorities concluded that Sokolov was actually Vadim Krasikov, born in August 1965 in the then Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Krasikov was also named as a suspect in the murder of a Russian businessman on 19 June 2013 in Moscow. The murder was recorded by a surveillance camera and had a similar pattern: a cyclist murdered the businessman from behind with a head shot. The Russian Interpol red notice on 23 April 2014 against Krasikov was withdrawn on 7 July 2015 without a reason. Investigations by Bellingcat suggest that Krasikov was a member of the elite unit Vympel. Police investigations in connection with the murder in Berlin revealed that Sokolov and Krasikov are the same person. No personal connections between him and Khangoshvili were found to exist.
On 4 December 2019, the Federal Attorney General took over the investigation into the case. This was justified by the fact that "there were sufficient factual indications that the killing of Tornike K. [Zelimkhan Khangoshvili's alias] was either commissioned by government agencies of Russia or those of the Chechen Republic as part of the Russian Federation. On the same day, two members of the military intelligence service GRU in the Russian Embassy in Berlin were expelled from the country in connection with the investigation."
On 6 December 2019, several media outlets reported that the Federal Intelligence Service received credible information that a Russian secret service agent was attempting to kill Krasikov while in remand to prevent possible statements from him; as a result, he was moved from the JVA Moabit to the high-security wing of the JVA Tegel.
In February 2020, Bellingcat suspected that the operation, both with training and with a false ID, was supported by the FSB RF.
In June 2020, the federal prosecutor general brought charges against a Russian citizen, called the act a contract killing, and referred to the Government of the Russian Federation as the mastermind behind the contract killing. According to the prosecution, the background to the killing order was Khangoshvili's opposition to the Russian central state, the governments of its autonomous republics Chechnya and Ingushetia, and the pro-Russian government of Georgia. This was followed by a conversation between the Russian ambassador to Germany with the Foreign Office. The prosecution also named "Roman D." as a possible accomplice, which confirmed Bellingcat's suspicions that more than one person was involved in the murder, and identified one of them. Bellingcat pointed out that deliberately false references to the identity of the suspect had been circulated.
Diplomatic repercussions
On 4 December 2019, the German Federal Foreign Office accused Russia of refusing to cooperate in the investigation of the Khangoshvili murder and expelled two Russian foreign office diplomatic employees working in Berlin. An official request for assistance in the case was submitted to Russia two days after the expulsion. In response, Russia expelled two German diplomats on 12 December.
On 10 August 2020, the Slovak Foreign Ministry announced that three diplomats from the Russian embassy in Bratislava were to be expelled from the country by 13 August. Slovak authorities noted information provided by Slovak intelligence services that "[the diplomats'] activities were in contradiction with the Vienna convention on diplomatic relations," according to a Slovak foreign ministry spokesman. He also added that "there had been an abuse of visas issued at the Slovak general consulate in St Petersburg, and in this connection a serious crime was committed on the territory of another EU and NATO member state".
In December 2021, two Russian diplomats were expelled after a Berlin court determined that the murder was a state-ordered killing. Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock called the murder a “grave breach of German law and the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany” and summoned Russia’s ambassador in Berlin to discuss the court’s conclusion.
Trial and verdict
On 15December 2021, a Berlin court found Krasikov guilty of murder and sentenced him to life imprisonment without automatic parole. The court also determined that the murder was ordered by the Russian government as a "state-contracted killing".
See also
List of Soviet and Russian assassinations
Amina Okueva
Sulim Yamadayev
Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev
Umar Israilov
References
External links
Pro-Kremlin sources target the BBC for report on murdered Chechen commander. Russian officials, news sites, and social network users accused the BBC of glorifying Zelimkhan Khangoshvili, medium.com, 29 October 2019
1979 births
2019 deaths
Assassinated Chechen people
Assassinated people from Georgia (country)
Chechen field commanders
Deaths by firearm in Germany
Islamists from Georgia (country)
People from Georgia (country) murdered abroad
People from Kakheti
People murdered in Germany
People of the Chechen wars
People of the Russo-Georgian War
People attacked in FSB or SVR operations |
61803616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REIT%20India | REIT India | REIT or REIT India, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Indian Telephone Industries Limited (ITI Limited), India's first public sector unit under Ministry of Communications, Government of India. Founded in 2017, today REIT has corporate offices in Bangalore, Amritsar, and Jammu. The tagline of REIT is ‘’’Ek REIT Suraksha Ki’’’ (Hindi: एक रीत सुरक्षा की). Implying the tradition of Security and Safety.
Jammu Suraksha Yojana
Jammu Municipal Corporation is the first government body in the world concerning personal security of citizens. Jammu Suraksha Yojana is a collaborative initiative by REIT under ITI Limited and Jammu Municipal Corporation. It is intended to provide digital security and surveillance products to the citizen of Jammu at subsidized prices. The citizens can also avail life insurance in case of death.
Smart School Program
REIT's Smart School Program helps schools in India to upgrade their technology, including smart classrooms, broadcast systems for every class, digital entry at reception, integrated control rooms in campus, Wi-Fi campus, and school management Software.
Personal & Commercial Security
REIT provides surveillance cameras in both wired and wireless configurations. Surveillance cameras can be accessed remotely on computers, smartphones, and tablets.
GPS Tracking System
REIT created an web-enabled "Online Tracking System" to track and monitor the required devices, peoplem and transportation. REIT has launched tracking systems for various uses as Vehicle tracking system (VTS), Kids Tracking system, Cargo Tracking system, and transport tracking system (for professional transporters)
Vehicle tracking System, manufactured by REIT, is used to track all the normal vehicles like cars, buses, School vans, Army Vehicles, and other Lightweight and Heavy Weight Vehicles.
To take significant steps towards automating cargo transit facilitation, REIT has introduced a cargo tracking system to track the cargo container anywhere in the world.
REIT India has also started GPS based transporter services to transform the transportation industry with GPS technology to provide various services with ease of payment.
REIT has developed a Kid tracking system to track and keep the children secure and away from any mishappening. The Kid tracking system not only shows the current location but also provides area details and safe zones.
IOT Solutions
REIT has deployed the Internet of things (IoT) to create safe cities, homes, businesses to remotely monitor private and public places by using smart surveillance devices. Surveillance devices, powered by IoT, also help determine the movements in the premises and false alarm recognition. REIT IOT Devices also play a significant role in preventing the loss of critical assets. REIT provides many security-related services like encryption, secure networking, session management, permissions, authentication, auditing, and validation.
IT Services and Maintenance
REIT has introduced latest-generation security services for corporate and government organizations. The main services provided by REIT are Cloud computing, customized software, database security, maintenance and free technical assistance to the services.
References
External links
Indian Telephone Industries Limited
Companies based in Bangalore
Government-owned companies of India
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)
2017 establishments in India |
61975455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athene%20%28research%20center%29 | Athene (research center) | ATHENE, formerly Center for Research in Security and Privacy (CRISP), is the national research center for IT security and privacy in Germany and the largest research center for IT security in Europe. The research center is located in Darmstadt and deals with key issues of IT security in the digitization of government, business and society.
ATHENE established a new research area in IT security research, the IT security of large systems, which is the focus of its research. Up to now, isolated aspects such as individual protocols or encryption methods have mostly been investigated. Research into the IT security of large systems should lead to a measurable increase in IT security. The research spectrum ranges from basic research to application.
Director of ATHENE is Michael Waidner.
Organisation
ATHENE is an institution of the Fraunhofer Society and an alliance of the Fraunhofer Institute for Secure Information Technology (Fraunhofer SIT), the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research (Fraunhofer IGD), the Technische Universität Darmstadt (TU Darmstadt) and the Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences (h_da). All institutions are based in Darmstadt.
ATHENE is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the Hessian Ministry of Higher Education, Research and the Arts (HMWK).
Research themes
The following research themes have emerged under the main topic IT security of large systems. The institute conducts research on analysis techniques for large software systems and the design of mechanisms for securing sensitive data. The idea behind the latter is privacy by design. In addition, the institute conducts research on fundamental engineering issues of securing critical infrastructures and develops analysis techniques for increasing the security of mobile platforms and methods for measuring IT security and data protection.
History
ATHENEs history dates back to 1961, when the German Data Center (German: Deutsches Rechenzentrum (DRZ)) was founded in Darmstadt. At that time, the German Data Center was equipped with one of the most powerful mainframe computers in Germany and thus became the first mainframe computer center in Germany that could be used for research purposes by universities and scientific institutions. After the ARPANET succeeded in connecting computers with each other, communication between the machines became the focus of research at the DRZ. The DRZ had merged in 1973 with other research institutions in this field to form the Society for Mathematics and Data Processing (German: Gesellschaft für Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung (GMD)). As a result, resources were pooled and working groups networked and the society established the Institute for Remote Data Processing, which was renamed the Institute for Telecooperation Technology in 1992. Under the leadership of Heinz Thielmann, the institute became more and more involved with IT security issues and with the rise of the Internet, IT security became increasingly important, so that in 1998 it was renamed the Institute for Secure Telecooperation. In 2001, GMD merged with the Fraunhofer Society into the Fraunhofer Institute for Secure Information Technology (Fraunhofer SIT).
In 1975, José Luis Encarnação established the Interactive Graphics Systems (GRIS) research group within the Institute for Information Management and Interactive Systems of the Department of Computer Science of the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt (TH Darmstadt), now called Technische Universität Darmstadt. GRIS later collaborated with the Center for Computer Graphics in 1984. A working group, which emerged from this collaboration, was taken up by the Fraunhofer Society and in 1987 the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research (Fraunhofer IGD) was established. Founding Director of the Fraunhofer IGD was José Luis Encarnação.
In 1996, Johannes Buchmann was appointed Professor of Theoretical Computer Science at the Department of Computer Science of TH Darmstadt. His appointment is regarded as the birth of IT security at TH Darmstadt. In 2001, Claudia Eckert, who also headed Fraunhofer SIT from 2001 to 2011, was appointed Professor of Information Security at TU Darmstadt.
In 1999, Darmstadt's universities and research institutions founded the Competence Center for Applied Security (CAST), the largest network for cyber security in German-speaking countries.
In 2002, the Darmstadt Center for IT-Security (German: Darmstädter Zentrum für IT-Sicherheit (DZI)) was founded, which in 2008 became the Center for Advanced Security Research Darmstadt (CASED). Founding Director of CASED was Buchmann. In 2010, Michael Waidner became Director of Fraunhofer SIT. In response to Buchmann and Waidners efforts, the European Center for Security and Privacy by Design (EC SPRIDE) was founded in 2011. CASED and EC SPRIDE were part of LOEWE, the research excellence programm of the state Hesse. Buchmann and Waidner developed the centers into the largest research institutions for IT security in Europe. In 2015, CASED and EC SPRIDE merged into Center for Research in Security and Privacy (CRISP).
In 2012, Intel founded the Intel Collaborative Research Institute for Secure Computing at the Technische Universität Darmstadt. It was the first Intel collaborative research center for IT security outside of the United States. In 2014, the German Research Foundation (DFG) also established the Collaborative Research Centre Cryptography–Based Security Solutions (CROSSING), which deals with cryptography-based security solutions. In 2016, the Federal Ministry of Finance decided to make the region around Darmstadt the pre-eminent hub for the digital transformation of the economy. The Federal Ministry of Finance set up the "Digital Hub Cybersecurity" and "Digital Hub FinTech" centres in the region to help start-ups in Germany commercialise, scale and internationalise their solutions and companies.
Researchers at ATHENE played a major role in establishing the field of post quantum cryptography internationally. In 2018, the stateful hash-based signature scheme XMSS developed by a team of researchers under the direction of Buchmann became the first international standard for post-quantum signature schemes. XMSS is the first future-proof secure and practical signature scheme with minimal security requirements. The work began in 2003. Since 1 January 2019, CRISP has been the national research centre for IT security in Germany. CRISP was later renamed ATHENE.
References
External links
Website of Fraunhofer Institute for Secure Information Technology
Website of the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research
Website of the Technische Universität Darmstadt
Website of the Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences
Computer security organizations
Information technology research institutes
Fraunhofer Society
Technische Universität Darmstadt
Darmstadt |
61990441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa%20Teague | Vanessa Teague | Vanessa Joy Teague is an Australian cryptographer, known for her work on secret sharing, cryptographic protocols, and the security of electronic voting. She was an associate professor of computing and information systems at the University of Melbourne, until resigning in February 2020 and is an Adjunct Associate Professor at the ANU College of Engineering and Computer Science. She is a member of the Board of Advisors of the Verified Voting Foundation.
Education
Teague did her undergraduate studies at the University of Melbourne. In 2005 she completed a Ph.D. in computer science at Stanford University. Her dissertation, Combining Cryptography and Game Theory in Distributed Algorithms, was supervised by John C. Mitchell. Her time as a graduate student in the US overlapped with the 2000 United States presidential election between George W. Bush and Al Gore, and the controversy over the vote recount sparked her interest in the integrity of elections.
Contributions
In 2017, Teague showed that historical data from the Australian Medicare Benefits Scheme that had supposedly been stripped of identifying details could be re-associated with the names of individual patients.
In 2018, she and Chris Culnane found a security flaw in the New Zealand census, in which the personal data of New Zealanders, supposedly confidential to the New Zealand government, were actually routed through and visible to a company in New York.
In 2019, Teague was part of a team that discovered a flaw in the Swiss national internet voting system that would allow undetected alteration of vote outcomes. The same flaw was later discovered to be present in voting systems in New South Wales, whose electoral commission nevertheless declared them to be safe to use.
Teague also became an outspoken critic of Australia's 2019 anti-encryption laws, at the same time that a change in Australian defence policy severely limited her ability to discuss matters related to cryptography with researchers in other countries.
Recognition
In 2016 the Election Verification Network recognized Teague as the winner of their Election Integrity Research Excellence Award.
References
External links
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Australian cryptographers
University of Melbourne alumni
Stanford University alumni
University of Melbourne faculty
Australian women computer scientists
Women cryptographers |
62008969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic%20media | Synthetic media | Synthetic media (also known as AI-generated media, generative media, personalized media, and colloquially as deepfakes) is a catch-all term for the artificial production, manipulation, and modification of data and media by automated means, especially through the use of artificial intelligence algorithms, such as for the purpose of misleading people or changing an original meaning. Synthetic media as a field has grown rapidly since the creation of generative adversarial networks, primarily through the rise of deepfakes as well as music synthesis, text generation, human image synthesis, speech synthesis, and more. Though experts use the term "synthetic media," individual methods such as deepfakes and text synthesis are sometimes not referred to as such by the media but instead by their respective terminology (and often use "deepfakes" as a euphemism, e.g. "deepfakes for text" for natural-language generation; "deepfakes for voices" for neural voice cloning, etc.)
Significant attention arose towards the field of synthetic media starting in 2017 when Motherboard reported on the emergence of pornographic videos altered with the use of AI algorithms to insert the faces of famous actresses. Fears of synthetic media include the potential to supercharge fake news, the spread of misinformation, distrust of reality, mass automation of creative and journalistic jobs, and potentially a complete retreat into AI-generated fantasy worlds. Synthetic media is an applied form of artificial imagination.
History
Pre-1950s
Synthetic media as a process of automated art dates back to the automata of ancient Greek civilization, where inventors such as Daedalus and Hero of Alexandria designed machines capable of writing text, generating sounds, and playing music. The tradition of automaton-based entertainment flourished throughout history, with mechanical beings' seemingly magical ability to mimic human creativity often drawing crowds throughout Europe, China, India, and so on. Other automated novelties such as Johann Philipp Kirnberger's "Musikalisches Würfelspiel" (Musical Dice Game) 1757 also amused audiences.
Despite the technical capabilities of these machines, however, none were capable of generating original content and were entirely dependent upon their mechanical designs.
Rise of artificial intelligence
The field of AI research was born at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956, begetting the rise of digital computing used as a medium of art as well as the rise of generative art. Initial experiments in AI-generated art included the Illiac Suite, a 1957 composition for string quartet which is generally agreed to be the first score composed by an electronic computer. Lejaren Hiller, in collaboration with Leonard Issacson, programmed the ILLIAC I computer at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (where both composers were professors) to generate compositional material for his String Quartet No. 4.
In 1960, Russian researcher R.Kh.Zaripov published worldwide first paper on algorithmic music composing using the "Ural-1" computer.
In 1965, inventor Ray Kurzweil premiered a piano piece created by a computer that was capable of pattern recognition in various compositions. The computer was then able to analyze and use these patterns to create novel melodies. The computer was debuted on Steve Allen's I've Got a Secret program, and stumped the hosts until film star Henry Morgan guessed Ray's secret.
Before 1989, artificial neural networks have been used to model certain aspects of creativity. Peter Todd (1989) first trained a neural network to reproduce musical melodies from a training set of musical pieces. Then he used a change algorithm to modify the network's input parameters. The network was able to randomly generate new music in a highly uncontrolled manner.
In 2014, Ian Goodfellow and his colleagues developed a new class of machine learning systems: generative adversarial networks (GAN). Two neural networks contest with each other in a game (in the sense of game theory, often but not always in the form of a zero-sum game). Given a training set, this technique learns to generate new data with the same statistics as the training set. For example, a GAN trained on photographs can generate new photographs that look at least superficially authentic to human observers, having many realistic characteristics. Though originally proposed as a form of generative model for unsupervised learning, GANs have also proven useful for semi-supervised learning, fully supervised learning, and reinforcement learning. In a 2016 seminar, Yann LeCun described GANs as "the coolest idea in machine learning in the last twenty years".
In 2017, Google unveiled transformers, a new type of neural network architecture specialized for language modeling that enabled for rapid advancements in natural language processing. Transformers proved capable of high levels of generalization, allowing networks such as GPT-3 and Jukebox from OpenAI to synthesize text and music respectively at a level approaching humanlike ability. There have been some attempts to use GPT-3 and GPT-2 for screenplay writing, resulting in both dramatic (the italian short film Frammenti di Anime Meccaniche, written by GPT-2) and comedic narratives (the short film Solicitors by Youtube Creator Calamity AI written by GPT-3).
Branches of synthetic media
Deepfakes
Deepfakes (a portmanteau of "deep learning" and "fake") are the most prominent form of synthetic media. They are media that take a person in an existing image or video and replace them with someone else's likeness using artificial neural networks. They often combine and superimpose existing media onto source media using machine learning techniques known as autoencoders and generative adversarial networks (GANs). Deepfakes have garnered widespread attention for their uses in celebrity pornographic videos, revenge porn, fake news, hoaxes, and financial fraud. This has elicited responses from both industry and government to detect and limit their use.
The term deepfakes originated around the end of 2017 from a Reddit user named "deepfakes". He, as well as others in the Reddit community r/deepfakes, shared deepfakes they created; many videos involved celebrities’ faces swapped onto the bodies of actresses in pornographic videos, while non-pornographic content included many videos with actor Nicolas Cage’s face swapped into various movies. In December 2017, Samantha Cole published an article about r/deepfakes in Vice that drew the first mainstream attention to deepfakes being shared in online communities. Six weeks later, Cole wrote in a follow-up article about the large increase in AI-assisted fake pornography. In February 2018, r/deepfakes was banned by Reddit for sharing involuntary pornography. Other websites have also banned the use of deepfakes for involuntary pornography, including the social media platform Twitter and the pornography site Pornhub. However, some websites have not yet banned Deepfake content, including 4chan and 8chan.
Non-pornographic deepfake content continues to grow in popularity with videos from YouTube creators such as Ctrl Shift Face and Shamook, reaching millions of views. The Reddit community /SFWdeepfakes was created specifically for the sharing of videos created for entertainment, parody, and satire. A mobile application, Impressions, was launched for iOS in March 2020. The app provides a platform for users to deepfake celebrity faces into videos in a matter of minutes.
Image synthesis
Image synthesis is the artificial production of visual media, especially through algorithmic means. In the emerging world of synthetic media, the work of digital-image creation—once the domain of highly skilled programmers and Hollywood special-effects artists—could be automated by expert systems capable of producing realism on a vast scale. One subfield of this includes human image synthesis, which is the use of neural networks to make believable and even photorealistic renditions of human-likenesses, moving or still. It has effectively existed since the early 2000s. Many films using computer generated imagery have featured synthetic images of human-like characters digitally composited onto the real or other simulated film material. Towards the end of the 2010s deep learning artificial intelligence has been applied to synthesize images and video that look like humans, without need for human assistance, once the training phase has been completed, whereas the old school 7D-route required massive amounts of human work. The website This Person Does Not Exist showcases fully automated human image synthesis by endlessly generating images that look like facial portraits of human faces. The website was published in February 2019 by Phillip Wang.
Audio synthesis
Beyond deepfakes and image synthesis, audio is another area where AI is used to create synthetic media. Synthesized audio will be capable of generating any conceivable sound that can be achieved through audio waveform manipulation, which might conceivably be used to generate stock audio of sound effects or simulate audio of currently imaginary things.
Music generation
The capacity to generate music through autonomous, non-programmable means has long been sought after since the days of Antiquity, and with developments in artificial intelligence, two particular domains have arisen:
The robotic creation of music, whether through machines playing instruments or sorting of virtual instrument notes (such as through MIDI files)
Directly generating waveforms that perfectly recreate instrumentation and human voice without the need for instruments, MIDI, or organizing premade notes.
In 2016, Google DeepMind unveiled WaveNet, a deep generative model of raw audio waveforms that could learn to understand which waveforms best resembled human speech as well as musical instrumentation. Other networks capable of generating music through waveform manipulation include TacoTron (by Google) and DeepVoice (by Baidu).
Speech synthesis
Speech synthesis has been identified as a popular branch of synthetic media and is defined as the artificial production of human speech. A computer system used for this purpose is called a speech computer or speech synthesizer, and can be implemented in software or hardware products. A text-to-speech (TTS) system converts normal language text into speech; other systems render symbolic linguistic representations like phonetic transcriptions into speech.
Synthesized speech can be created by concatenating pieces of recorded speech that are stored in a database. Systems differ in the size of the stored speech units; a system that stores phones or diphones provides the largest output range, but may lack clarity. For specific usage domains, the storage of entire words or sentences allows for high-quality output. Alternatively, a synthesizer can incorporate a model of the vocal tract and other human voice characteristics to create a completely "synthetic" voice output.
Virtual assistants such as Siri and Alexa have the ability to turn text into audio and synthesize speech. WaveNet, DeepMind's a deep generative model of raw audio waveforms, specialized on human speech. TacoTron and LyreBird are other networks capable of generating believably-human speech.
Natural-language generation
Natural-language generation (NLG, sometimes synonymous with text synthesis) is a software process that transforms structured data into natural language. It can be used to produce long form content for organizations to automate custom reports, as well as produce custom content for a web or mobile application. It can also be used to generate short blurbs of text in interactive conversations (a chatbot) which might even be read out by a text-to-speech system. Interest in natural-language generation increased in 2019 after OpenAI unveiled GPT2, an AI system that generates text matching its input in subject and tone. GPT2 is a transformer, a deep machine learning model introduced in 2017 used primarily in the field of natural language processing (NLP).
Interactive media synthesis
AI-generated media can be used to develop a hybrid graphics system that could be used in video games, movies, and virtual reality, as well as text-based games such as AI Dungeon 2, which uses either GPT-2 or GPT-3 to allow for near-infinite possibilities that are otherwise impossible to create through traditional game development methods. Computer hardware company Nvidia has also worked on developed AI-generated video game demos, such as a model that can generate an interactive game based on non-interactive videos. Through procedural generation, synthetic media techniques may eventually be used to "help designers and developers create art assets, design levels, and even build entire games from the ground up."
Concerns and controversies
Deepfakes have been used to misrepresent well-known politicians in videos. In separate videos, the face of the Argentine President Mauricio Macri has been replaced by the face of Adolf Hitler, and Angela Merkel's face has been replaced with Donald Trump's.
In June 2019, a downloadable Windows and Linux application called DeepNude was released which used neural networks, specifically generative adversarial networks, to remove clothing from images of women. The app had both a paid and unpaid version, the paid version costing $50. On June 27 the creators removed the application and refunded consumers.
The US Congress held a senate meeting discussing the widespread impacts of synthetic media, including deepfakes, describing it as having the
"potential to be used to undermine national security, erode
public trust in our democracy and other nefarious reasons."
In 2019, voice cloning technology was used to successfully impersonate a chief executive's voice and demand a fraudulent transfer of €220,000. The case raised concerns about the lack of encryption methods over telephones as well as the unconditional trust often given to voice and to media in general.
Starting in November 2019, multiple social media networks began banning synthetic media used for purposes of manipulation in the lead-up to the 2020 US Presidential Election.
Potential uses and impacts
Synthetic media techniques involve generating, manipulating, and altering data to emulate creative processes on a much faster and more accurate scale. As a result, the potential uses are as wide as human creativity itself, ranging from revolutionizing the entertainment industry to accelerating the research and production of academia. The initial application has been to synchronise lip-movements to increase the engagement of normal dubbing that is growing fast with the rise of OTTs. In the broader picture, synthetic media will democratize media production cost and limit the need for expensive cameras, recording equipment and visual effects. Big news organizations are already exploring how they can use video synthesis and other synthetic media technologies to become more efficient and engaging. Potential future hazards include the use of a combination of different subfields to generate fake news, natural-language bot swarms generating trends and memes, false evidence being generated, and potentially addiction to personalized content and a retreat into AI-generated fantasy worlds within virtual reality.
In 2019, Elon Musk warned of the potential use of advanced text-generating bots to manipulate humans on social media platforms. In the future, even more advanced bots may be employed for means of astroturfing or demonizing apps, websites, and political movements, as well as supercharging memes and cultural trends— including those generated for the sole purpose of being promoted by bots until humans perpetuate them without further assistance.
Deep reinforcement learning-based natural-language generators have the potential to be the first AI systems to pass the Turing Test and potentially be used as advanced chatbots, which may then be used to forge artificial relationships in a manner similar to the 2013 film Her and spam believable comments on news articles.
One use case for natural-language generation is to generate or assist with writing novels and short stories, while other potential developments are that of stylistic editors to emulate professional writers. The same technique could then be used for songwriting, poetry, and technical writing, as well as rewriting old books in other authors' styles and generating conclusions to incomplete series.
Image synthesis tools may be able to streamline or even completely automate the creation of certain aspects of visual illustrations, such as animated cartoons, comic books, and political cartoons. Because the automation process takes away the need for teams of designers, artists, and others involved in the making of entertainment, costs could plunge to virtually nothing and allow for the creation of "bedroom multimedia franchises" where singular people can generate results indistinguishable from the highest budget productions for little more than the cost of running their computer. Character and scene creation tools will no longer be based on premade assets, thematic limitations, or personal skill but instead based on tweaking certain parameters and giving enough input.
A combination of speech synthesis and deepfakes has been used to automatically redub an actor's speech into multiple languages without the need for reshoots or language classes.
An increase in cyberattacks has also been feared due to methods of phishing, catfishing, and social hacking being automated by new technological methods.
Natural-language generation bots mixed with image synthesis networks may theoretically be used to clog search results, filling search engines with trillions of otherwise useless but legitimate-seeming blogs, websites, and marketing spam.
There has been speculation about deepfakes being used for creating digital actors for future films. Digitally constructed/altered humans have already been used in films before, and deepfakes could contribute new developments in the near future. Amateur deepfake technology has already been used to insert faces into existing films, such as the insertion of Harrison Ford's young face onto Han Solo's face in Solo: A Star Wars Story, and techniques similar to those used by deepfakes were used for the acting of Princess Leia in Rogue One.
GANs can be used to create photos of imaginary fashion models, with no need to hire a model, photographer, makeup artist, or pay for a studio and transportation. GANs can be used to create fashion advertising campaigns including more diverse groups of models, which may increase intent to buy among people resembling the models or family members. GANs can also be used to create portraits, landscapes and album covers. The ability for GANs to generate photorealistic human bodies presents a challenge to industries such as fashion modeling, which may be at heightened risk of being automated.
In 2019, Dadabots unveiled an AI-generated stream of death metal which remains ongoing with no pauses.
Musical artists and their respective brands may also conceivably be generated from scratch, including AI-generated music, videos, interviews, and promotional material. Conversely, existing music can be completely altered at will, such as changing lyrics, singers, instrumentation, and composition. In 2018, using a process by WaveNet for timbre musical transfer, researchers were able to shift entire genres from one to another. Through the use of artificial intelligence, old bands and artists may be "revived" to release new material without pause, which may even include "live" concerts and promotional images.
Neural network-powered photo manipulation has the potential to abet the behaviors of totalitarian and absolutist regimes. A sufficiently paranoid totalitarian government or community may engage in a total wipe-out of history using all manner of synthetic technologies, fabricating history and personalities as well as any evidence of their existence at all times. Even in otherwise rational and democratic societies, certain social and political groups may utilize synthetic to craft cultural, political, and scientific cocoons that greatly reduce or even altogether destroy the ability of the public to agree on basic objective facts. Conversely, the existence of synthetic media will be used to discredit factual news sources and scientific facts as "potentially fabricated."
See also
Algorithmic art
Artificial imagination
Automated_journalism
Computational creativity
Computer music
DALL-E
Deepfakes
Generative art
Generative adversarial network
GPT-3
Human image synthesis
Transformer (machine learning model)
WaveNet
References
Artificial intelligence
Mass media |
62084317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20sequencing%20of%20endangered%20species | Genome sequencing of endangered species | Genome sequencing of endangered species is the application of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies in the field of conservative biology, with the aim of generating life history, demographic and phylogenetic data of relevance to the management of endangered wildlife.
Background
In the context of conservation biology, genomic technologies such as the production of large-scale sequencing data sets via DNA sequencing can be used to highlight the relevant aspects of the biology of wildlife species for which management actions may be required. This may involve the estimation of recent demographic events, genetic variations, divergence between species and population structure. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are useful to examine the role of natural selection at the genome level, to identify the loci associated with fitness, local adaptation, inbreeding, depression or disease susceptibility. The access to all these data and the interrogation of genome-wide variation of SNP markers can help the identification of the genetic changes that influence the fitness of wild species and are also important to evaluate the potential respond to changing environments. NGS projects are expected to rapidly increase the number of threatened species for which assembled genomes and detailed information on sequence variation are available and the data will advance investigations relevant to the conservation of biological diversity.
Methodology
Non-computational methods
The traditional approaches in the preservation of endangered species are captive breeding and the private farming. In some cases those methods led to great results, but some problems still remain. For example, by inbreeding only few individuals, the genetic pool of a subpopulation remains limited or may decrease.
Phylogenetic analysis and gene family estimation
Genetic analyses can remove subjective elements from the determination of the phyliogenetic relationship between organisms. Considering the great variety of information provided by living organisms, it is clear that the type of data will affect both the method of treatment and validity of the results: the higher the correlation of data and genotype, the greater is the validity likely to be. The data analysis can be used to compared different sequencing database and find similar sequences, or similar protein in different species. The comparison can be done using informatic software based on alignment to know the divergence between different species and evaluate the similarities.
NGS/Advanced sequencing methodologies
Since whole-genome sequencing is generally very data-intensive, techniques for reduced representation genomic approaches are sometimes used for practical applications. For example, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) and double digest RADseq are being developed. With those techniques researchers can target different numbers of loci. With a statistical and bioinformatic approach scientists can make considerations about big genomes, by just focusing on a small representative part of it.
Statistical and computational methods
While solving biological problems, one encounters multiple types of genomic data or sometimes an aggregate of same type of data across multiple studies and decoding such huge amount of data manually is unfeasible and tedious. Therefore, integrated analysis of genomic data using statistical methods has become popular. The rapid advancement in high throughput technologies allows researchers to answer more complex biological questions enabling the development of statistical methods in integrated genomics to establish more effective therapeutic strategies for human disease.
Genome crucial features
While studying the genome, there are some crucial aspects that should be taken in consideration. Gene prediction is the identification of genetic elements in a genomic sequence. This study is based on a combination of approaches: de novo, homology prediction, and transcription. Tools such as EvidenceModeler are used to merge the different results. Gene structure also have been compared, including mRNA length, exon length, intron length, exon number, and non-coding RNA.
Analysis of repeated sequences has been found useful in reconstructing species divergence timelines.
Application and case studies
Genomic approach in gender determination
In order to preserve a specie, knowledge of the mating system is crucial: scientists can stabilize wild populations through captive breeding, followed by the release in the environment of new individuals. This task is particularly difficult by considering the species with homomorphic sex chromosomes and a large genome. For example, in the case of amphibians, there are multiple transitions among male and/or female heterogamety. Sometimes even variation of sex chromosomes within amphibian populations of the same specie were reported.
Japanese giant salamander
The multiple transitions among XY and ZW systems that occur in amphibians determine the sex chromosome systems to be labile in salamanders populations. By understanding the chromosomal basis of sex of those species, it is possible to reconstruct the phylogenetic history of those families and use more efficient strategies in their conservation.
By using the ddRADseq method scientists found new sex-related loci in a 56 Gb genome of the family Cryptobranchidae. Their results support the hypothesis of female heterogamety of this species. These loci were confirmed through the bioinformatic analysis of presence/absence of that genetic locus in sex-determined individuals. Their sex was established previously by ultrasound, laparoscopy and measuring serum calcium level differences. The determination of those candidate sexual loci was performed so as to test hypotheses of both female heterogamety and male hetegogamety. Finally to evaluate the validity of those loci, they were amplified through PCR directly from samples of known-sex individuals. This final step led to the demonstration of female heterogamety of several divergent populations of the family Cryptobranchidae.
Genomic approach in genetic variability
Dryas monkey and golden snub-nosed monkey
A recent study used whole-genome sequencing data to demonstrate the sister lineage between the Dryas monkey and vervet monkey and their divergence with additional bidirectional gene flow approximately 750,000 to approximately 500,000 years ago. With <250 remaining adult individuals, the study showed high genetic diversity and low levels of inbreeding and genetic load in the studied Dryas monkey individuals.
Another study used several techniques such as single-molecule real time sequencing, paired-end sequencing, optical maps, and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture to obtain a high quality chromosome assembly from already constructed incomplete and fragmented genome assembly for the golden snub-nosed monkey. The modern techniques used in this study represented 100-fold improvement in the genome with 22,497 protein-coding genes, of which majority were functionally annotated. The reconstructed genome showed a close relationship between the species and the Rhesus macaque, indicating a divergence approximately 13.4 million years ago.
Genomic approach in preservation
Plants
Plants species identified as PSESP ("plant species with extremely small population") have been the focus of genomic studies, with the aim of determining the most endangered populations. The DNA genome can be sequenced starting from the fresh leaves by doing a DNA extraction. The combination of different sequencing techniques together can be used to obtain a high quality data that can be used to assembly the genome. The RNA extraction is essential for the transcriptome assembly and the extraction process start from stem, roots, fruits, buds and leaves. The de novo genome assembly can be performed using software to optimize assembly and scaffolding. The software can also be used to fill the gaps and reduce the interaction between chromosome. The combination of different data can be used for the identification of orthologous gene with different species, phylogenetic tree construction, and interspecific genome comparisons.
Limits and future perspectives
The development of indirect sequencing methods has to some degree mitigated the lack of efficient DNA sequencing technologies. These techniques allowed researchers to increase scientific knowledge in fields like ecology and evolution. Several genetic markers, more or less well suited for the purpose, were developed helping researchers to address many issues among which demography and mating systems, population structures and phylogeography, speciational processes and species differences, hybridization and introgression, phylogenetics at many temporal scales. However, all these approaches had a primary deficiency: they were all limited only to a fraction of the entire genome so that genome-wide parameters were inferred from a tiny amount of genetic material.
The invention and rising of DNA sequencing methods brought a huge contribution in increasing available data potentially useful to improve the field of conservation biology. The ongoing development of cheaper and high throughput allowed the production of a wide array of information in several disciplines providing conservation biologists a very powerful databank from which was possible to extrapolate useful information about, for example, population structure, genetic connections, identification of potential risks due to demographic changes and inbreeding processes through population-genomic approaches that rely on the detection of SNPs, indel or CNV. From one side of the coin, data derived from high throughput sequencing of whole genomes were potentially a massive advance in the field of species conservation, opening wide doors for future challenges and opportunities. On the other side all these data brought researchers to face two main issues. First, how to process all these information. Second, how to translate all the available information into conservation's strategies and practice or, in other words, how to fill the gap between genomic researches and conservation application.
Unfortunately, there are many analytical and practical problems to consider using approaches involving genome-wide sequencing. Availability of samples is a major limiting factor: sampling procedures may disturb an already fragile population or may have a big impact in individual animals itself putting limitations to samples' collection. For these reasons several alternative strategies where developed: constant monitoring, for example with radio collars, allow us to understand the behaviour and develop strategies to obtain genetic samples and management of the endangered populations. The samples taken from those species are then used to produce primary cell culture from biopsies. Indeed, this kind of material allow us to grow in vitro cells, and allow us to extract and study genetic material without constantly sampling the endangered populations. Despite a faster and easier data production and a continuous improvement of sequencing technologies, there is still a marked delay of data analysis and processing techniques. Genome-wide analysis and big genomes studies require advances in bioinformatics and computational biology. At the same time improvements in the statistical programs and in the population genetics are required to make better conservation strategies. This last aspect work in parallel with prediction strategies which should take in consideration all features that determine fitness of a species.
See also
Endangered species
References
Genetics
Endangered species
Conservation biology
Extinction events
Biotechnology
Ecology |
62142521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atta%20ur%20Rehman%20Khan | Atta ur Rehman Khan | Atta ur Rehman Khan (Urdu: عطا الرحمن خان) is a computer scientist and academician who has contributed to multiple domains of the field. According to a Stanford University report, he is among World's Top 2% Scientists. He is the founder of National Cyber Crime Forensics Lab Pakistan. The Cyber Crime Forensics Lab operates in partnership with NR3C. He has published numerous research articles and books. He is a Senior Member of IEEE (SMIEEE) and ACM (SMACM).
Education
Atta ur Rehman Khan was a Bright Sparks scholar and received his PhD degree in Computer Science from University of Malaya. He received his Masters and Bachelor's degree (with honors) in Computer Science from COMSATS University under COMSATS scholarship. He has also attended a summer camp on Advance Wireless Networks at Technische Universität Ilmenau under DAAD scholarship.
Experience
Atta ur Rehman Khan is currently working as an Associate Professor at the College of Engineering and Information Technology, Ajman University, United Arab Emirates. He has vast experience of teaching and research at different positions and has served at seven universities in five countries, namely Sohar University, Air University, King Saud University,COMSATS University, University of Malaya and Qurtuba University.
He was the founding director of National Cyber Crime Forensics Lab Pakistan and the Head of Air University Cybersecurity Center. He also developed Pakistan's first BS cybersecurity program approved by HEC.
Editorial Boards
Atta ur Rehman Khan is an editor of the following journals:
Associate Technical Editor, IEEE Communications Magazine.
Editor, Elsevier Journal of Network and Computer Applications.
Associate Editor, IEEE Access.
Associate Editor, Springer Journal of Cluster Computing.
Editor, SpringerPlus.
Editor, Ad hoc & Sensor Wireless Networks.
Editor, Oxford Computer Journal.
Editor, KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems.
Associate Editor, Springer Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences.
Awards
Atta ur Rehman Khan has received the following awards:
Best Paper Award, SPECTS, 2018.
Research Productivity Award, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan, 2016.
GoT Award, University of Malaya, Malaysia, 2014.
Research Productivity Award, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan, 2012.
Best Research Poster Award, Vision ICT, Pakistan, 2010.
Best Project Award, Vision ICT, Pakistan, 2009.
Best Project Award, Frontiers of Information Technology (FIT) Conference, Pakistan, 2008.
Books
Following is the list of books authored/co-authored/edited by Atta ur Rehman Khan:
"Internet of Things: Challenges, Advances, and Applications" by Chapman and Hall/CRC, , 2018.
Research Publications
Following is the list of some research papers authored/co-authored by Atta ur Rehman Khan:
"Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET) Localization Techniques: A Survey, " in Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, .
"DGRU based human activity recognition using channel state information," in Measurement, Vol. 167, 2021.
"Real-Time Fuel Truck Detection Algorithm Based on Deep Convolutional Neural Network," in IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 118808–118817, 2020.
"An energy, performance efficient resource consolidation scheme for heterogeneous cloud datacenters," in Journal of Network and Computer Applications, .
"A lightweight and compromise‐resilient authentication scheme for IoTs," in Transactions on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies, .
"Optimal Content Caching in Content-Centric Networks," in Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing,
"A Systems Overview of Commercial Data Centers: Initial Energy and Cost Analysis," in International Journal of Information Technology and Web Engineering, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 41–65, 2019.
"CPU–RAM-based energy-efficient resource allocation in clouds," in The Journal of Superomputing, vol. 75, no. 11, pp. 7606–7624, 2019.
"A fog-based security framework for intelligent traffic light control system," in Multimedia Tools and Applications, vol. 78, no. 17, pp. 24595–24615, 2019.
"Anonymous and formally verified dual signature based online e-voting protocol," in Cluster Computing, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1703–1716, 2019.
"Identification of Yeast's Interactome using Neural Networks," in IEEE Access, 2019.
"Secure-CamFlow: A Device Oriented Security Model to Assist Information Flow Control Systems in Cloud Environments for IoTs," in Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, vol. 31, no. 8, pp. 1–22, 2019.
"SocialRec: A Context-aware Recommendation Framework with Explicit Sentiment Analysis," in IEEE Access, 2019.
"A load balanced task scheduling heuristic for Large-scale Computing Systems," in International Journal of Computer Systems Science and Engineering, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 1–12, 2019.
"Masquerading Attacks Detection in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks," in IEEE Access, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 55013–55025, 2018.
"Performance Assessment of Dynamic Analysis Based Energy Estimation Tools," in International Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems, pp. 1–12, July 2018, France.
"An Optimal Ride Sharing Recommendation Framework for Carpooling Services," in IEEE Access, vol 6, no. 1, pp. 62296–62313, 2018.
“An Investigation of Video Communication over Bandwidth Limited Public Safety Network,” in Malaysian Journal of Computer Science, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 85–107, 2018.
"There's No Such Thing as Free Lunch but Envy among Young Facebookers, " in KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems, vol. 12, no. 10, 2018.
"Salat Activity Recognition using Smartphone Triaxial Accelerometer," in 5th International Multi-Topic ICT Conference (IMTIC), April 2018.
"Computation Offloading Cost Estimation in Mobile Cloud Application Models," in Wireless Personal Communications, Springer, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 4897–4920, 2017.
"Review and Performance Analysis of Position Based Routing in VANET," in Wireless Personal Communications, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 559–578, 2017.
"Execution Models for Mobile Data Analytics," in IEEE IT Professional, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 24–30, 2017.
"Formal Verification and Performance Evaluation of Task Scheduling Heuristics for Makespan Optimization and Workflow Distribution in Large-scale Computing Systems," in International Journal of Computer Systems Science and Engineering, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 227–241, 2017.
" RedEdge: A Novel Architecture for Big Data Processing in Mobile Edge Computing Environments, " in Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks, vol. 6, no. 3, 2017.
"A Comparative Study and Workload Distribution Model for Re-encryption Schemes in a Mobile Cloud Computing Environment, " in International Journal of Communication Systems, vol. 30, no. 16, 2017.
"Diet-Right: A Smart Food Recommendation System" in KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 2910–2925, 2017.
"A Survey of Mobile Virtualization: Taxonomy and State of the Art, " in ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 49, no. 1, 2016.
"Big Data Analytics in Mobile and Cloud Computing Environments," in Innovative Research and Applications in Next-Generation High Performance Computing, IGI Global, pp. 349–367, 2016.
"Code Offloading Using Support Vector Machine", in Proceedings of the Sixth IEEE International Conference on Innovative Computing Technology (INTECH), August 2016, pp. 98–103.
"Context-Aware Mobile Cloud Computing & Its Challenges," in IEEE Cloud Computing, vol. 2, no 3, pp. 42–49, May/June 2015.
"MobiByte: An Application Development Model for Mobile Cloud Computing," in Journal of Grid Computing, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 605–628, 2015.
"Impact of Mobility on Energy and Performance of Clustering-Based Power-Controlled Routing Protocols," in Proceedings of the IEEE Frontiers of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 2015.
"Merging of DHT-based Logical Networks in MANETs," in Transactions on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies, vol. 26, no. 12, pp. 1347–1367, 2015.
"Resource Management in Cloud Computing: Taxonomy, Prospects and Challenges, " in Computers & Electrical Engineering, vol. 47, pp. 186–203, 2015.
"A Cloud-Manager-based Re-encryption Scheme for Mobile Users in Cloud Environment: A Hybrid Approach, " in Journal of Grid Computing, vol. 13, no. 4, 2015.
"3D-RP: A DHT-based Routing Protocol for MANETs," The Computer Journal, vol. 58, no. 2, 258-279, 2015.
"A Survey of Mobile Cloud Computing Application Models" in IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 393–413, 2014.
"Pirax: Framework for Application Piracy Control in Mobile Cloud Environment," in Journal of Super Computing, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 753–776, 2014.
"Road Oriented Traffic Information System for Vehicular Ad hoc Networks," in Wireless Personal Communications, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 2497–2515 , 2014.
"BSS: Block Based Sharing Scheme for Secure Data Storage Services in Mobile-Cloud Environment", in Journal of Super Computing, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 946–976, 2014.
"Routing Protocols for Mobile Sensor Networks: A Comparative Study," in International Journal of Computer Systems Science and Engineering, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2014.
"Incremental Proxy Re-encryption Scheme for Mobile Cloud Computing Environment," in Journal of Super Computing, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 624–651, 2014.
"A Study of Incremental Cryptography for Security Schemes in Mobile Cloud Computing Environments," in Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Wireless Technology and Applications, Kuching, Malaysia, September 2013, pp. 62–67.
"Enhanced Dynamic Credential Generation Scheme for Protection of User Identity in Mobile Cloud Computing," in Journal of Super Computing, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 1687–1706, 2013.
"Clustering-based Power-Controlled Routing for Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks," in International Journal of Communication Systems, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 529–542, 2012.
"Impact of Mobility Models on Clustering based Routing Protocols in Mobile WSNs," in Proceedings of the IEEE Frontiers of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 2012, pp. 366–370.
"A Performance Comparison of Open Source Network Simulators for Wireless Networks," in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Control System, Computing and Engineering, Penang, Malaysia, November 2012, pp. 34–38.
"Routing Proposals for Multipath Interdomain Routing," in Proceedings of the IEEE International Multi Topic Conference, Lahore, Pakistan, December 2012, pp. 331–337.
"Source Routing Proposals for Multipath Inter-domain Routing," in Proceedings of the International Conference on Future Trends in Computing and Communication Technologies, Malacca, Malaysia, December 2012, pp. 124–132.
References
Pakistani computer scientists
Living people
Senior Members of the ACM
Senior Members of the IEEE
Year of birth missing (living people) |
62161864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Brookins | Richard Brookins | Richard W. Brookins (1922 October 11, 2018) was an American man who, as a soldier during World War II, was chosen to portray Saint Nicholas for the children of Wiltz, Luxembourg. He then became known as "The American St. Nick" and came to represent all of the Americans who helped defend Luxembourg from German forces.
Personal life
Brookins was born in Rochester, New York, and returned there after the war. Before the war, he worked at Ritter Dental; after the war, he worked for Rochester Telephone.
Background
In 1944, the village of Wiltz had been under German occupation for about four years; among the many negative effects of the occupation, they had been forbidden from holding their traditional St. Nicholas Day celebrations. After landing at Normandy on June 6, 1944, Allied forces were pushing the Germans back, and American troops arrived in Wiltz in the fall. Members of the 28th Infantry Division decided to do what they could for the children of Wiltz and organized a holiday celebration to lift their spirits.
Corporal Harry Stutz came up with the idea of a Christmas party, sought permission up the chain of command, and was finally given approval by commanding General Norman Cota. Soldiers pooled their rations to provide candy and chocolate for the children. The Signal Company's cooks were asked to prepare cakes and donuts for the children. Stutz recruited his buddy Corporal Richard Brookins, a tall encryptionist and projectionist assigned to the 28th Signal Company Message Center, to portray St. Nicholas himself (Kleeschen in Luxembourgish).
On December 5, 1944, at the local church, the nuns helped Brookins put on his disguise making use of the local priest's vestments, a beard of rope, and a bishop's miter constructed by the nuns. "St. Nick" and two young girls dressed as angels were driven through town in a jeep, rather than the traditional carriage, and brought to the party at the local castle where St. Nick gave out candy to the children.
The role only lasted a few hours, and in less than two weeks the German forces had pushed back into Wiltz as part of the Battle of the Bulge. But the people of Wiltz did not forget what the Americans had done for them.
After the war
In 1947, Wiltz reinstated their Saint Nicholas Day celebrations, but the goal was not just to honor St. Nicholas, but also to honor the "American St. Nick", as a representative of all of the American forces who had fought to liberate Luxembourg. His identity remained a mystery until 1977, when Brookins' fellow infantryman Frank McClelland tracked him down and delivered a handwritten message from the people of Wiltz inviting Brookins back to town. Brookins had had no idea his brief role had been remembered after all that time.
Brookins would return to Wiltz six times, the last in 2014. He was granted honorary citizenship of Wiltz, and in 2009 they erected a monument in his honor. In 2016, the government of Luxembourg awarded him the Luxembourg Military Honor Medal.
References
Military personnel from Rochester, New York
1922 births
2018 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers |
62272698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everykey | Everykey | Everykey designs and builds a patented universal smart key that can unlock devices and log into online accounts on those devices. The idea began as an entrepreneurship class project at Case Western Reserve University.
Crowdfunding Campaign
Everykey launched its Kickstarter campaign on October 29, 2014. Within 48 hours, the campaign had reached trending status and raised over $25,000 in pre-orders. The project quickly gained attention, and Everykey launched another crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo with John McAfee on December 7, 2015. While some media outlets such as Wired and TechCrunch were excited about the traction, they also expressed concern over the security versus convenience factor of the product. Writers at Business Insider focused more on the vision of the company, exploring Everykey’s future plans and classroom origin story.
Products
The company's debut product was an electronic wristband designed to replace keys and passwords. Development of the prototype into a working product was funded by a Kickstarter campaign.
The current product, resembling a USB thumb drive that can be inserted into a wristband accessory, was funded by an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign. The software enables Everykey to work with a variety of computer and mobile platforms. Everykey currently offers the hardware thumb-drive style product as well as a Key Ring Accessory, Band Accessory, Charging Cable, and Bluetooth Dongle.
Technology
Everykey is a Bluetooth device that can communicate securely with an unlimited number of other Bluetooth devices, simultaneously. The Everykey device employs a patented method including AES and RSA encryption to allow the user to unlock their devices and login to online accounts without having to type passwords. When the user leaves with Everykey, the app can lock everything back down and log out of online accounts. Everykey’s patented method allows it to perform unlocking and locking actions without plugging in the device.
Reception
Many were skeptical about Everykey’s legitimacy due to the company’s delayed shipment to early adopters. John McAfee’s involvement as the company’s brand ambassador was controversial, with some being concerned and others elated regarding his involvement. The company hosted an r/IAmA style open forum on Reddit so anyone could ask about topics ranging from security to late delivery.
Everykey has since addressed many of the initial concerns, and is now selling their products with retailers such as Best Buy, Newegg, and Office Depot.
Competitors
In the password managers market, Everykey competes with LastPass, 1Password and Dashlane.
In the hardware security key market, Everykey's competitors include Nymi and YubiKey.
Awards
Everykey has been recognized by many local and state organizations for the CEO’s flashy pitch style and grassroots backstory:
ProtoTech 1st Place
LaunchTown 1st Place
North Coast Opportunities Technologies Fund Award
FUND Conference 1st Place
Best Startup Culture in Ohio, Finalist
Morgenthaler-Pavey Startup Competition 1st Place
References
External links
Everykey Website
Password managers
Cryptographic software
Kickstarter-funded products
Indiegogo projects
Computer access control
Security technology
Security software
Advanced Encryption Standard |
62293527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium%20%28malware%29 | Titanium (malware) | Titanium is a very advanced backdoor malware APT, developed by PLATINUM, a cybercrime collective. The malware was uncovered by Kaspersky Lab and reported on 8 November 2019. According to Global Security Mag, "Titanium APT includes a complex sequence of dropping, downloading and installing stages, with deployment of a Trojan-backdoor at the final stage." Much of the sequence is hidden from detection in a sophisticated manner, including hiding data steganographically in a PNG image. In their announcement report, Kaspersky Lab concluded: "The Titanium APT has a very complicated infiltration scheme. It involves numerous steps and requires good coordination between all of them. In addition, none of the files in the file system can be detected as malicious due to the use of encryption and fileless technologies. One other feature that makes detection harder is the mimicking of well-known software. Regarding campaign activity, we have not detected any current activity [as of 8 November 2019] related to the Titanium APT."
See also
Serial over LAN
Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms
References
External links
Kaspersky Lab
Common trojan horse payloads
Cybercrime
Hacking in the 2010s
2019 in computing |
62381867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALTS | ALTS | Application Layer Transport Security (ALTS) is a Google developed authentication and encryption system used for securing Remote procedure call (RPC) within Google machines. Google started its development in 2007, as a tailored modification of TLS.
Background
The ALTS whitepaper was published in December 2017.
According to it, development started in 2007. At that time the dominant Application layer protocols were SSL and TLS 1.1 (TLS 1.2 was only published as an RFC in 2008), those supported many legacy algorithms and had poor security standards. As Google was in full control over the machines that needed secure transport of RPCs, deployment of systems was relatively easy, and so Google developers could afford designing their own system from scratch.
Another requirement that deemed a new system necessary is different trust models:
in TLS, the server side is committed to its own domain name (and corresponding naming scheme), while Google needed the same identity (i.e. RPC) to be used with multiple naming schemes, in order to simplify microservice replication, load balancing and rescheduling between hosts.
Details
Handshake protocol
The ALTS handshake protocol is based on authenticated Diffie-Hellman key exchange scheme, enjoying both perfect forward secrecy (access to current keys does not compromise future security) and session resumption (noticeable speedups in the protocol after the first session between the parties).
Unlike TLS, in ALTS both parties — server and client — have a certificate proving their respective identities. The certificate chains to a trusted signing service verification key, with the leaf being an Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key, that is eventually used for key exchange. The elliptic curve used in the key exchange is Curve25519.
The handshake protocol consists of four messages, sent in plaintext:
ClientInit, initiated by the client, and contains the client's certificate, list of available cipher suites, and a session resumption attempt;
ServerInit, sent by the server as a response, and contains its own certificate, chosen cipher suite, and optionally an encrypted resumption ticket;
ServerFinished, sent by the server (concatenated to the previous message in ALTS default implementation), and contains a handshake authenticator, i.e. HMAC over a known bitstring using the calculated session key;
ClientFinished, sent by the client, and contains a handshake authenticator, similarly to the one in ServerFinished.
Once both parties computed the session key (record protocol in the whitepaper), they can start encrypting traffic with the symmetric encryption algorithm 128-bit AES, using mostly GCM as its mode of operation. On older machines, a Google developed VCM was used.
The handshake protocol was verified using the ProVerif formal verification tool.
Session resumption
In order to avoid repeating computationally expensive operations, ALTS supports session resumption.
The resumption tickets are created by either the server or the client, and may be used in the handshake protocol, if both parties hold the same resumption ticket, indexed by a resumption identifier.
The resumption secret is used to derive the next session key, authenticator and encapsulated (independent) resumption ticket/identifier.
Perfect forward secrecy
Perfect forward secrecy (PFS) is not enabled by default in ALTS; however, it is supported. Instead of using an inherent PFS algorithm, ALTS achieves PFS by frequently rotating the certificates, which have a short lifespan (6, 20, or 48 hours; see ). Moreover, if PFS is enabled, it is also enabled for session resumption, by deriving the encryption keys from the resumption ticket using a pseudorandom function.
See also
Transport Layer Security
QUIC
Google Cloud Platform
References
Google
Remote procedure call
Cryptographic protocols
Application layer protocols
Transport Layer Security |
62392383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20SEAL | Microsoft SEAL | Simple Encrypted Arithmetic Library or SEAL is a free and open-source cross platform software library developed by Microsoft Research that implements various forms of homomorphic encryption.
History
Development originally came out of the Cryptonets paper, demonstrating that artificial intelligence algorithms could be run on homomorphically encrypted data.
It is open-source (under the MIT License) and written in standard C++ without external dependencies and so it can be compiled cross platform. An official .NET wrapper written in C# is available and makes it easier for .NET applications to interact with SEAL.
Features
Algorithms
Microsoft SEAL supports both asymmetric and symmetric (added in version 3.4) encryption algorithms.
Scheme types
Microsoft SEAL comes with two different homomorphic encryption schemes with very different properties:
BFV: The BFV scheme allows modular arithmetic to be performed on encrypted integers. For applications where exact values are necessary, the BFV scheme is the only choice.
CKKS: The CKKS scheme allows additions and multiplications on encrypted real or complex numbers, but yields only approximate results. In applications such as summing up encrypted real numbers, evaluating machine learning models on encrypted data, or computing distances of encrypted locations CKKS is going to be by far the best choice.
Compression
Data compression can be achieved by building SEAL with Zlib support. By default, data is compressed using the DEFLATE algorithm which achieves significant memory footprint savings when serializing objects such as encryption parameters, ciphertexts, plaintexts, and all available keys: Public, Secret, Relin (relinearization), and Galois. Compression can always be disabled.
Availability
There are several known ports of SEAL to other languages in active development:
C++
Microsoft SEAL (Microsoft's source)
C#/F#
NuGet (Microsoft's official package)
Python
PySEAL
SEAL-Python
tf-seal
Pyfhel
JavaScript
node-seal
sealjs
TypeScript
node-seal
References
External links
Homomorphic encryption
Cryptographic software
Free and open-source software
Microsoft free software
Microsoft Research
Free software programmed in C++
Software using the MIT license
2018 software |
62393372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HElib | HElib | Homomorphic Encryption library or HElib is a free and open-source cross platform software developed by IBM that implements various forms of homomorphic encryption.
History
HElib was primarily developed by Shai Halevi and Victor Shoup, shortly after Craig Gentry was a researcher at IBM, with the initial release being on May 5th 2013.
Features
The library implements i.a. the Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan (BGV) homomorphic encryption scheme, as well as optimizations such as Smart-Vercauteren ciphertext packing techniques.
HElib is written in C++ and uses the NTL mathematical library.
References
Homomorphic encryption
Cryptographic software
Free and open-source software
IBM software |
62398615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PALISADE%20%28software%29 | PALISADE (software) | PALISADE is an open-source cross platform software library that provides implementations of lattice cryptography building blocks and homomorphic encryption schemes.
History
PALISADE adopted the open modular design principles of the predecessor SIPHER software library from the DARPA PROCEED program. SIPHER development began in 2010, with a focus on modular open design principles to support rapid application deployment over multiple FHE schemes and hardware accelerator back-ends, including on mobile, FPGA and CPU-based computing systems. PALISADE began building from earlier SIPHER designs in 2014, with an open-source release in 2017 and substantial improvements every subsequent 6 months.
PALISADE development was funded originally by the DARPA PROCEED and SafeWare programs, with subsequent improvements funded by additional DARPA programs, IARPA, the NSA, NIH, ONR, the United States Navy, the Sloan Foundation and commercial entities such as Duality Technologies. PALISADE has subsequently been used in commercial offerings, such as by Duality Technologies who raised funding in a Seed round and a later Series A round led by Intel Capital.
Features
PALISADE includes the following features:
Post-quantum public-key encryption
Fully homomorphic encryption (FHE)
Brakerski/Fan-Vercauteren (BFV) scheme for integer arithmetic with RNS optimizations
Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan (BGV) scheme for integer arithmetic with RNS optimizations
Cheon-Kim-Kim-Song (CKKS) scheme for real-number arithmetic with RNS optimizations
Ducas-Micciancio (FHEW) scheme for Boolean circuit evaluation with optimizations
Chillotti-Gama-Georgieva-Izabachene (TFHE) scheme for Boolean circuit evaluation with extensions
Multiparty extensions of FHE
Threshold FHE for BGV, BFV, and CKKS schemes
Proxy re-encryption for BGV, BFV, and CKKS schemes
Digital signature
Identity-based encryption
Ciphertext-policy attribute-based encryption
Availability
There are several known git repositories/ports for PALISADE:
C++
PALISADE Stable Release (official stable release repository)
PALISADE Preview Release (official development/preview release repository)
PALISADE Digital Signature Extensions
PALISADE Attribute-Based Encryption Extensions (includes identity-based encryption and ciphertext-policy attribute-based encryption)
JavaScript / WebAssembly
PALISADE WebAssembly (official WebAssembly port)
Python
Python Demos (official Python demos)
FreeBSD
PALISADE (FreeBSD port)
References
Homomorphic encryption
Cryptographic software
Free and open-source software |
62436026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20strategy%20%28computing%29 | Defense strategy (computing) | In computing, defense strategy is a concept and practice used by computer designers, users, and IT personnel to reduce computer security risks.
Common Strategies
Boundary protection
Boundary protection employs security measures and devices to prevent unauthorized access to computer systems (referred to as controlling the system border). The approach is based on the assumption that the attacker did not penetrate the system. Examples of this strategy include using gateways, routers, firewalls, and password checks, deleting suspicious emails/messages, and limiting physical access.
Boundary protection is typically the main strategy for computing systems; if this type of defense is successful, no other strategies are required. This is a resource-consuming strategy with a known scope. External information system monitoring is part of boundary protection.
Information System Monitoring
Information System Monitoring employs security measures to find intruders or the damage done by them. This strategy is used when the system has been penetrated, but the intruder did not gain full control. Examples of this strategy include antivirus software, applying a patch, and network behavior anomaly detection.
This strategy's success is based on competition of offence and defence. This is a time and resource-consuming strategy, affecting performance. The scope is variable in time. It cannot be fully successful if not supported by other strategies.
Unavoidable actions
Unavoidable actions employ security measures that cannot be prevented or neutralized. This strategy is based on the assumption that the system has been penetrated, but an intruder cannot prevent the defensive mechanism from being employed. Examples of this strategy include rebooting, using physical unclonable functions, and using a security switch.
Secure enclave
Secure enclave is a strategy that employs security measures that prevent access to some parts of the system. This strategy is used when the system has been penetrated, but an intruder cannot access its special parts. Examples of this strategy include using the Access level, using a Trusted Platform Module, using a microkernel, using Diode (unidirectional network device), and using air gaps.
This is a supporting strategy for boundary protection, information system monitoring and unavoidable action strategies. This is a time and resource-consuming strategy with a known scope. Even if this strategy is fully successful, it does not guarantee the overall success of the larger defense strategy.
False target
False target is a strategy that deploys non-real targets for an intruder. It is used when the system has been penetrated, but the intruder does not know the system architecture. Examples of this strategy include honeypots, virtual computers, virtual security switches, fake files, and address/password copies.
This is a supporting strategy for information system monitoring. It is a time-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. It cannot be fully successful if not supported by other strategies.
Moving target
Moving target is a security strategy based on frequent changes of data and processes. This strategy is based on the assumption that the system has been penetrated, but the intruder does not know the architecture of the system and its processes. Examples of this strategy are regular changes of passwords or keys (cryptography), using a dynamic platform, etc.
This is a supporting strategy for information system monitoring. It is a time-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. It cannot be fully successful if not supported by other strategies. Actions are activated on a scheduled basis or as a response to a detected threat.
Useless information
Useless information comprises security measures to turn important information into useless data for an intruder. The strategy is based on the assumption that the system has been penetrated, but the intruder is not able to decrypt information, or does not have enough time to decrypt it. For example, encrypting the file system or using encryption software can render the data useless even if an attacker gets access to the file system, or using data masking, where sensitive data is hidden in non-sensitive data with modified content.
This is a supporting strategy for information system monitoring. It is a time and resource-consuming strategy, affecting performance. The scope is known. It cannot be successful if not supported by other strategies. Claude Shannon's theorems show that if the encryption key is smaller than the secured information, the information-theoretic security can not be achieved. There is only one known unbreakable cryptographic system: the one-time pad. This strategy is not generally possible to use because of the difficulties involved in exchanging one-time pads without the risk of being compromised. Other cryptographic systems are only buying time or can be broken (see Cryptographic hash function#Degree_of_difficulty). This strategy needs to be supported by the moving target or deletes strategies.
Deletion
Deletion is a strategy using security measures to prevent an intruder from gaining sensitive information at all costs. The strategy is based on the assumption that the damage from information disclosure would be greater than the damage caused by deleting the information or disabling the system required to gain access to the information. The strategy is part of the data-centric security approach. Examples of this strategy include information deletion as a response to a security violation (such as unauthorized access attempts) and password resets.
This is a supporting strategy for information system monitoring. It is a resource-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. It cannot be fully successful on its own since the detected intrusion is not quarantined.
Information redundancy
Information redundancy is a strategy performing security measures to keep redundancy for information and using it in case of damage. The strategy is based on the assumption that finding and repairing the damage is more complicated than the restoration of the system. Examples of this strategy include using system restoration, keeping backup files, and using a backup computer.
This is a supporting strategy for information system monitoring. This strategy consumes considerable resources, and the scope is known. It can be fully successful in its part.
Limiting of actions made by a robot
Limiting of actions made by a robot is a strategy performing security measures to limit a robot's (software bot) actions. The strategy is based on the assumption that a robot can take more actions, or create damage that a human cannot create. Examples of this strategy include using anti-spam techniques, using CAPTCHA and other human presence detection techniques, and using DDS-based defense (protection from Denial-of-service attack).
This is a supporting strategy for boundary protection and information system monitoring. It is a time and resource-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. This strategy cannot be fully successful on its own.
Active defense
Active defense is a strategy performing security measures attacking the potential intruders. The strategy is based on the assumption that a potential intruder under attack has fewer abilities. Examples of this strategy include creating and using lists of trusted networks, devices, and applications, blocking untrusted addresses, and vendor management.
This is a supporting strategy for boundary protection and information system monitoring. It is a time and resource-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. This strategy cannot be fully successful on its own.
Unavoidable actions
This strategy can support any other strategy. This is a resource-consuming strategy, and the scope is determined by the designer. An implementation may have a wide impact on devices. This strategy can be fully successful, but in most cases, there is a trade-off of full system functionality for security. This strategy can be used proactively or reactively. Actions done in response to an already detected problem may be too late. Any implementation needs to be supported by the secure enclave strategy in order to prevent neutralizing action by unauthorized access to the protection mechanism.
Actions can be of the following types:
Preventive actions - blocking certain functions, signals, peripheral devices, memory parts, and/or data transfers. For example: blocking audio/video recording, the sending of long messages, or secret memory access.
Creative actions - activating certain functions, sending signals, messages, and/or data. For example: sending an alarm signal or message, or activating data copying or transfer.
Modification actions - modifying a peripheral device's functioning, or modifying the data, signals or processes of the defended system. For example, independent hardware encryption/decryption, changing accelerometer accuracy, filtering messages or words, or changing state diagram or algorithm by independent hardware.
See also
Strong cryptography
References
Computer security |
62478736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Internet%20in%20Russia | History of the Internet in Russia | The Russian internet (also known as the runet) is a part of the Internet with its main content in Russian. According to data from August 2019 and studies conducted by W3Techs, 6.5% of the 10 million most popular Internet sites in the world use Russian. In 2013, according to these studies, the Russian language became the second most popular on the Internet after English.
Background
In the USSR, the first computer networks appeared in the 1950s in missile defense system at Sary Shagan (first they were tested in Moscow at Lebedev Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Engineering). In the 1960s, the massive computer network project called OGAS was proposed but failed to be implemented. Apollo–Soyuz USA–USSR joint space program (1972–1975) used digital data for spaceships transmitted between two countries.
Since the late 1970s, X.25 Soviet networks began to appear and Akademset emerged in Leningrad in 1978. By 1982 VNIIPAS institute was created in Moscow to serve as Akademset's central node, which established X.25 regular connection to IIASA in Austria (which allowed access to other worldwide networks). In 1983, VNIIPAS together with USA government and George Soros created Soviet X.25 service provider called SFMT ("San Francisco — Moscow Teleport") that later became Sovam Teleport ("Soviet-American Teleport"). VNIIPAS also provided X.25 services, including over satellite, to Eastern bloc countries together with Mongolia, Cuba and Vietnam. At the time, Western users of Usenet were generally unaware of that, and considered such networking in USSR unexistent, so one of them on April 1, 1984 made an "April fool" hoax about "Kremvax" ("Kremlin VAX") that gained some popularity for subsequent years. USSR nominally joined private Fidonet network in October 1990 when first node of Region 50 appeared in Novosibirsk.
Some of the early Soviet/Russian networks were also initiated as parts of BITNET.
Foundation of the Russian Internet
Sovam Teleport
Sovam Teleport is a Russian telecommunications company that was founded in 1990. The company was established as a joint venture of the San Francisco Moscow Teleport network and the All-Russian Research Institute of Automated Application Systems (ВНИИПАС). The name stands for "Short sOViet-AMerican Teleport".
San Francisco Moscow Teleport (SFMT) was launched in 1983 by financier George Soros and American Joel Schatz with the support of the US government. It was a non-profit project with a goal to expand the Internet to the USSR. In 1986, the project changed its status and became a commercial enterprise. The All-Russian Research Institute of Automated Application Systems provided a data transmission network with some countries in Eastern Europe, as well as Cuba, Mongolia, and Vietnam, almost all of the data traffic was scientific and technical information, and in 1983 organized a non-state email network. By the beginning of the 1990s, almost half of the VNII traffic amounted to operational data from electronic mail systems.
The company's first network was built on the X.25 protocol in 1990. In 1992, Sovam Teleport began to build a UUCP mail and terminal access system through American servers. Johnson & Johnson, Coca-Cola, DuPont, Estee Lauder, Time magazine, and France Presse were among the first corporate clients of the company. Since 1992, the British company Cable & Wireless, which has its own fiber-optic channels in Europe, has become the third co-founder of the company. On June 4, 1992, the company was re-registered as a limited liability partnership, and all three co-founders - Cable & Wireless, All-Russian Research Institute of Automated Application Systems and SFMT - received almost equal shares. On July 28, 1993, a communications center in Tashkent began servicing customers. The provider domain sovam.com, which opened on February 24, 1994, became the first public Internet site in Russia.
Sovam Teleport in early 1990s became a first SWIFT network provider for emerging Russian banks (over x.25).
DEMOS-based network
After invading Afghanistan, the Soviet Union found itself under sanctions. However, a group of developers made a Russian version of the Unix operating system, secretly brought from America, and called it DEMOS. Some Unix developers, working at the Kurchatov Nuclear Energy Research Institute created a network that used DEMOS, namely RELCOM. The main feature of this network was that it was a fully horizontal network, i.e. each networked computer could directly communicate with other computers on the network. Many labs took part in joint experiments, so rapid communication was very much needed. Therefore, the first network users were mainly Soviet research institutes, so they could exchange scientific information more rapidly.
Cityline
Cityline was one of the first internet providers in Russia. It was founded in 1996 by Emelyan Zakharov, Demyan Kudryavcev, Egor Shuppe, Dmitriy Bosov and Rafael Filinov. The realization of the fact that the Internet was not appealing for Russian users without content led to content-oriented services. Cityline approached Anton Nosik, a journalist, and Anton would later create content for them. It led to a portal named 'Vechernii Internet' (Вечерний Интернет), where Anton Nosik published his articles. In addition, the very first Russian web designer was Artemy Lebedev, who designed websites for Cityline. One of the most popular websites on the Russian internet was Anekdot.ru, a website dedicated to humour and stories. Anekdot.ru was founded by astrophysicist Dmitrii Verner.
Search engines
Rambler
In 1996, the first Russian search engine, Rambler was launched. It was created by Sergey Lysakov, Dmitry Kryukov and others, who worked as scientists in Pushchino research facility. The algorithm that served as a basis for Rambler initially was used for registering and searching for microorganisms. One of the key features was the so-called Rambler Top-100, that showed the one hundred top searched websites on the Russian internet. In the beginning of 1999, 53% of Rambler's shares were sold to investors Russian Fonds (Русские Фонды) and Orion Capital Advisors. As a result, the founders of the company became less important in the company. In 2000, as a result of the conflict between investors and the founders, Sergey Lysakov and Dmitry Kryukov left the company. Rambler later became a media company that included its own TV channel.
Yandex
In the early 90s, Ilya Segalovich and Arkadii Volozh developed a search algorithm that was based on the morphology of Russian language. Initially this algorithm was proposed to Rambler for approximately 15K dollars, but was rejected. After the rejection, Ilya and Arkadii decided to found their own company, Yandex. Key figures in the company: Ilya Segalovich, Arkadii Volash and Elena Kolmanovskaya, editor-in-chief until 2012. Initially, it was a small company - employees at Yandex were friends of Arkadii Volash. Gradually Yandex became one of the leading Russian internet companies, and today, it includes several sub-companies, including Yandex.Taxi and news aggregator Yandex.News.
Social Networks
mail.ru
Alexei Krivenkov created Russia's first e-mail service, while working for an American IT company. Mail.ru, that is based on a free web mail system created by Alexei Krivenkov, became the main asset of Port.ru, a company he co-founded with his American partner, Eugene Goland. Mail.ru was able to become the top three most visited Russian websites. In 1999, they attracted the first investment in the history of the Russian Internet - 1000000 dollars. One of the top Russian businessman, Yuri Milner - billionaire, global investor, one of co-owners and chairman of Mail.ru Group during the period from 2001 to 2012. He pursued the degree in physics from Moscow State University. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, he later studied to become an investment banker. In 1999, Yuri Milner was looking for a project in which to invest his first capital. After studying several industries, he came across a young and growing sector called Internet, that required minimal startup capital and had an enormous potential. Milner raised some investment money and started a company called Netbridge. Among its first acquisitions were entertainment website Fomenko.ru and Herman Klimenko's web directory List.ru. Later Netbridge merged with Port.ru and was renamed after its main asset - Mail.ru. The merger was, in fact, an acquisition - nobody from the old Port.ru team remained in the company. One of the new directions that appeared after merger was online gaming. Dmitry Grishin, the main integration ideologist, became Mail.ru's technical director at the age of 22, later company's CEO. He realized that people in that time in Russia weren't ready to pay for games. Therefore, he decided to make games free. People would play, have fun, and then service offered players to buy something that will make them feel better.
VKontakte
VK (VKontakte) is a social network, that was founded in 2006 by Pavel Durov with the help of Russian-Israeli investors Yitzchak Mirilashvili and Lev Leviev. Nikolai Durov, the elder brother of Pavel Durov and a winner of multiple awards in mathematics and coding, was the lead software engineer of VKontakte. In 2010 the main office of VK was placed in the Singer building in Saint-Petersburg. Soon after its launch, VK gained massive attention among Russian-speaking users. It was free, in contrast to odnoklasniki.ru. In addition to being a social network, it also functioned as a file sharing network: users had a possibility to upload films, music, pictures, etc. In 2014 Pavel Durov resigned and left Russia. On 16 September 2014, Mail.ru Group became the sole owner of VK.
Odnoklasniki.ru
Odnoklasniki.ru is a social network that was launched in 2006 and created by Albert Popkov. The concept was similar to the social network Classmates.com, a website that was used for classmates to chat. As a result of losing users to VK, Odnoklasniki.ru focused on a more mature and more provincial audience. In 2008, Popkov's former British employer sued him, claiming that he'd stolen the code for Odnoklassniki.ru. Eventually, Popkov won the trial, however he lost his position as CEO. After that, access to Odnoklasniki.ru became fee-based, which cost Odnoklasniki.ru some users. Ilya Shirokov, the new CEO of Odnoklasniki.ru, rebranded the network, and it became the second most popular social network in Russia. In order to stay relevant, the company added a streaming service that enabled users to stream their own life moments to their friends.
Mail.ru Group
Mail.ru Group is a Russian technology company. They own many companies, including VKontakte, Odnoklassniki.ru, YouDrive, Delivery Club, etc. In May 2017, Forbes put the Mail.ru Group in 97th place out of 100 most innovative companies in the world. In February 2017, Forbes estimated that the company's value was about 4 billion dollars. The company calls its communication development strategy "Communitainment" (communication + entertainment) and focuses on the development of communication and entertainment Internet services. All the main assets of the Mail.ru Group belong to four main lines of business:
Social networks. Mail.ru Group owns three Russian social networks: VKontakte, Odnoklassniki, and My World.
Mail, portal and instant messaging. This direction includes Mail.ru Mail and the Mail.ru portal, which includes the main page of the site and the Auto Mail.ru, Cinema Mail.ru, Children Mail.ru, Health Mail.ru, Lady Mail.ru, News Mail.ru, Sport Mail.ru, Hi-Tech Mail.ru, Cars Mail.ru, Real Estate Mail.ru and Welcome Mail.ru [6], as well as the instant messaging services ICQ and Agent Mail.ru.
The gaming division of Mail.ru Games develops and publishes client and browser-based massively multiplayer online games, games for social networks and mobile devices, and the gaming portal Games Mail.ru.
Search, e-commerce and more: Mail.ru Search, the Mail.ru Goods information and reference system, available information about goods and services, their cost in various online stores, the MAPS.ME service, which carries offline maps and navigation for mobile devices based on OpenStreetMap data, the mobile advertising service Yula and the ridesharing service BeepCar.
Mail.ru Group is developing a direction of work in the field of Big data, which includes the creation of predictive mathematical models, conducting market research, consulting in the field of infrastructure development and methodology for working with big data. The Mail.ru brand also operates the Mail.ru platform for business, combining all B2B services of the company, a Q&A system, called Mail.ru answers and other Internet projects.
Messengers
Telegram
After leaving VKontakte, Pavel Durov founded Telegram, a cross-platform messaging service. It includes general chats, secret chats, group chats, channels and chat-bots.
The service is cloud-based, which means that all chats can be available on all devices, except for secret chats.
The main emphasis was put on anonymity and encryption. Secret chats use end-to-end encryption, where only the sender and receiver have an encryption key. In contrary to general chats, messages are not decrypted on the server and message history is stored on the client devices. It is also possible to set a timer for secret chat, where all messages and files in the chat will be permanently deleted after a certain amount of time.
In 2018, Roskomnadzor required Pavel Durov to give access to the encryption keys, otherwise Telegram would be blocked in Russia. As a response, Pavel Durov stated that it is was not possible to transfer encryption keys, as they were being created on a user's device every time that user connects with someone. On April 13, 2018, the Tagansky court of Moscow ruled in favor of Roskomnadzor, allowing them to block Telegram in Russia. As a response to the block, Pavel Durov created Digital Resistance. On April 30, 2018, more than 12 thousand people gathered on Moscow streets to support Telegram. Those events increased interest in Telegram among Russian users.
Russian bloggers
LiveJournal
With the emergence of Facebook, LiveJournal's popularity in the United States began to wane. In Russia, it continued to grow. LiveJournal became a platform for the formation of civil society.
The first to unite were car drivers campaigning against the excessive use of flashing lights on the roads. The community received the name of "Blue Buckets".
Civil activists on LiveJournal were soon followed by politicians. Aleksei Navalny's corruption investigations made his blog the most popular one on LiveJournal. The politician is still referred to as a blogger in pro-government media. According to Aleksei Navalny, "After 2005 or 2006, when mass media had been cleaned up and there remained only a couple of independent newspapers, the entire political debate moved to LiveJournal."
In 2007, LiveJournal was acquired by SUP Media, co-owned by a Russian businessman named Aleksandr Mamut.
Spasibo, Eva
Yry Degtyaryov was one of the first content creators on YouTube. He made videos featuring his friend, Sam Nickel. Degtyaryov soon became a producer on RuTube, a Russian copycat of YouTube. But he didn't produce videos on that platform for long. After he found out that YouTube would start paying for videos through ads, he left RuTube. After that, he created Spasibo, Eva!(Thanks, Eva), a platform for aspiring Russian video bloggers. Among them, Ruslan Usachev, Danila Poperechny, Ilya Madysson, Ilya Prusikin and others. In 2013, hackers from the Anonymous group released internal Spasibo, Eva! emails, from which it became known that Spasibo, Eva! bloggers were paid by the Kremlin. This came as a shock for the majority of Spasibo, Eva! bloggers, as they didn't know where the money came from.
KlikKlak
After leaving Thanks, Eva!, Prusikin, Usachev and their friends founded KlikKlak, Russia's first independent community of video bloggers. Today, it's one of the biggest production companies on the Russian-language segment of YouTube. In the beginning, they shot their videos in the living room, and as the platform grew, the videos became more and more professional.
Nowadays in Russia there are several production teams on YouTube similar to KlikKlak, for instance Chiken Curry and Big Russian Boss. The evolution of online platforms and streaming services makes it possible to monetize and promote web content without involvement by producers or the state. For example, Yuri Dud, journalist and blogger, is gaining around 7 million rubles just with integrated advertising.
Bloggers in politics
The first Russian politician to start a channel on YouTube was Aleksei Navalny, an opposition figure. In the summer of 2019, Moscow saw protests: first, against not allowing independent candidates to run in local election, and then against police excesses against protesters. Russian Youtubers have been described as one of the driving forces of the Moscow protests. Danila Poperechny, Eldar Dzharakhov and Restaurateur came to St. Petersburg to take part in the rallies. Nikolai Sobolev, a vlogger, covered the protests and the criminal cases against demonstrators.
Governmental control
League for a Safe Internet
Konstantin Malofeyev, founder of the League for a Safe Internet, initiated the first restrictive Internet law in Russia. The so-called filtration law makes it mandatory to block websites containing harmful information, like pedophilia, propaganda of suicide, etc. As Malofeyev stated, the League's main task was to prepare a bill to protect children from negative content. The bill was supported by Yelena Mizulina, a Russian politician. Russian internet leaders, including Yandex, LiveJournal and VKontakte, spoke out against the Internet filtration law, seeing it as a censorship tool. The Russian Wikipedia went on a one-day strike. After that, the Russian State Duma has since passed more than 20 laws restricting the Internet.
Yarovaya law
Two bills declared by their authors as having an anti-terrorism focus were adopted in Russia in July 2016. As far as internet restriction is concerned, the law has two aspects:
Internet traffic storage. The bill obliges telecom operators to store calls and messages of subscribers for a period determined by the Government of the Russian Federation(but no more than 6 months).
Encryption tools. The bill establishes a ban on the use of non-certified means of encoding (encryption). For violation of this prohibition, the violator faces a fine of 3,000 to 5,000 rubles with confiscation of encryption. Also, the law obliges the organizers of the dissemination of information on the Internet to decode user messages. At the request of the FSB, companies will need to provide keys to encrypted traffic.
Sovereign Internet Act
The official law implies creation of independent network infrastructure, in order to maintain Internet connection in the case of foreign root servers becoming unavailable. According to an official statement, the Sovereign Internet Act will increase internet security in case of a cyber attack. According to experts, Sovereign Internet Act will create a possibility to isolate the Russian segment of the Internet, in addition it could be possible to switch off the Internet connection to certain areas of Russia. Among the public, the Sovereign Internet Act was considered to be an instrument of censorship and control over the Internet. On March 10th, 2019, approximately 15 thousand people gathered on Sakharov Avenue to support free internet. The law was enacted on November 1, 2019.
See also
Internet in Russia
History of the Internet
Reference
History of the Internet
Internet in Russia |
62533819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases%20of%20Operation%20Car%20Wash | Phases of Operation Car Wash | A long series of criminal investigations have occurred in Brazil associated with Operation Car Wash. The first investigation was launched in March 2014, and is now known as of the investigation, with subsequent inquiries numbered sequentially and having code names such as (Operation Bidone), (Operation Casablanca), and so on. By September 2020, there were 74 announced phases of Operation Car Wash.
Besides these, there were other investigations that are considered offshoots of Operation Car Wash.
Background
Operation Car Wash () was an investigation into money laundering and political corruption in Brazil, which has been led by investigative judges, and carried out by the Federal Police.
Since its initiation, many investigations have been conducted by the Public Prosecutor's Office, the Attorney General's Office and the Federal Police from documents collected from search warrants, condução coercitiva warrants, and documents and testimonials obtained in cases of sovereign immunity. The goal of the investigation is to ascertain the extent of the money laundering scheme, estimated to be (US$– billion), largely through embezzlement of Petrobras funds. At least eleven other countries, mostly in Latin America, were involved, and the Brazilian company Odebrecht was deeply implicated. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission announced that the $853 penalty assessed by the DOJ was in addition to an agreed total of $933 million in disgorgement and prejudgment interest, in connection with a $2.5 billion overstatement of assets in a US$10 billion stock offering completed in 2010.
It has resulted in more than a thousand judicial warrants being served for three investigative judges. Politicians from Brazil's largest parties, including former presidents of Brazil, presidents of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate, and state governors are involved, as well as businessmen from large Brazilian companies. Originally a money laundering investigation, it expanded to cover allegations of corruption at the state-controlled oil company Petrobras, where executives allegedly accepted bribes in return for awarding contracts to construction firms at inflated prices.
The investigation is called "Operation Car Wash" because it was first uncovered at a car wash in Brasília. The Federal Police have called it the largest corruption investigation in the country's history. Petrobras later agreed to an $853 million settlement with the US Department of Justice on charges its executives violated the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, "paying hundreds of millions of dollars in bribes", then covering them up.
In Brazil
2014
Phase 1 — Operation Car Wash
On 17 March 2014, the Federal Police of Brazil (PF) initiated Operation Car Wash () with the temporary and pre-trial detention of seventeen people in seven states, including money changer Alberto Youssef. Five million reals ($ million) were seized in cash, 25 luxury cars, jewelry, paintings and weapons.
Phase 2 — Operation Bidone
On 20 March 2014, the Federal Police launched the second phase of Operation Car Wash, called Operation Bidone, serving six search and seizure warrants and one temporary arrest warrant, namely for former Petrobras Director of Procurement
Phase 3 — Operation Dolce Vita
On 11 April 2014, the Federal Police launched phase 3, Operation Dolce Vita, serving sixteen search and seizure warrants, three temporary arrest warrants and six condução coercitiva warrants. The lawsuit sought to gather evidence about the connection between and black marketeer Alberto Youssef at the company Ecoglobal Ambiental. The company had at least one contract of 443 million reals with Petrobras.
He is suspected of offering a R$110,000 ($) bribe from Youssef to Deputy , depositing the money in the accounts of a cattle trader (Júlio Gonçalves de Lima Filho) and a transportation company (União Brasil Transporte e Serviços ) at the Deputy's request. The into Petrobras and the Joint Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry (; CPMI) of Petrobras were established in the Senate.
Phase 4 — Operation Casablanca
On 11 June 2014, the Federal Police launched Operation Casablanca with a search warrant and a warrant for remand against Paulo Roberto Costa, who was again arrested.
Phase 5 — Operation Bidone II
On 1 July 2014, the Federal Police launched phase 5, Operation Bidone II, serving seven search warrants, one temporary arrest warrant and one condução coercitiva warrant. The executive João Procópio Junqueira Pacheco de Almeida Prado was arrested in São Paulo as manager of the Swiss bank accounts of money changer Youssef. Five million reais ($ million) were frozen in the Swiss accounts.
Phase 6 — Operation Bidone III
On 22 August 2014, the Federal Police launched phase 6, Operation Bidone III, serving eleven search and seizure warrants and one for condução coercitiva at companies with ties to Costa. First arrested in March 2014 on a charge of concealing documents, Costa was released 59 days later, then again arrested days later when authorities discovered he had failed to mention a Portuguese passport and US$23 million in Swiss bank accounts.
Phase 7 — Operation Doomsday
On 14 November 2014, the Federal Police launched Operation Doomsday, () mobilizing 300 officers to serve 49 search warrants, six pre-trial detention warrants, 21 temporary arrest and nine condução coercitiva compulsory appearance detentions, arresting presidents and directors of large Brazilian companies such as Construtora OAS, , Camargo Corrêa Construções, , and Construtora , which had a combined R$59 billion ($ billion) in contracts with Petrobras between 2003 or 2014. In addition to Youssef and Costa, the accused included , a former international director at Petrobras, Dalton Santos Avancini, president of Camargo Corrêa, Jean Alberto Luscher Castro, CEO of , José Adelmário Pinheiro Filho, president of OAS, and , president of .
Camargo Corrêa was the lead contractor on a R$24 billion ($ billion) construction project, the Abreu e Lima refinery in Pernambuco, at the time the most expensive in the country. According to CEO , the construction companies entered into consulting agreements with front companies which between them received millions in payment.
Dario de Queiroz Galvão Filho was sentenced to 20 years and six months imprisonment for active corruption, money laundering and criminal association. Erton Medeiros Fonseca received 13 years and five months of imprisonment for active corruption, money laundering and criminal association. Convicted of active corruption and criminal association, Jean Alberto Luscher Castro was given fourteen years and four months in prison. The men appealed their sentences.
Executives of Mendes Junior were also implicated in this phase, over contracts connected to the Paulínia Refinery (Replan), the Getúlio Vargas Refinery (Repar), the Rio de Janeiro Petrochemical Complex (Comperj), the Barra do Riacho Waterway Terminal, the Gabriel Passos Refinery (Regap), and at the Ilha Comprida and Redonda Waterway Terminals. Former vice-president Sergio Cunha Mendes was sentenced to 19 years and four months for his part in the kickback scheme. Paulo Roberto Costa was also among those convicted, and remained under house arrest at his home in Rio de Janeiro.
2015
Phase 8 — unnamed
On 14 January 2015, the Federal Police (PF) served a preventive arrest warrant against Nestor Cerveró, accused of disposing of possibly illegally-obtained assets. Cerveró was arrested on landing at Tom Jobim International Airport in Rio de Janeiro.
Phase 9 — Operation My Way
On 5 February 2015, Federal Police launched the ninth phase of Car Wash, called "My Way". It has served 62 search and seizure warrants, temporary and preventive arrests and enforcement orders in four states of Brazil, to gather evidence about operators who intermediated the payment of bribes and kickbacks under Petrobras. Evidence was also collected regarding payments under BR Distribuidora, a subsidiary of Petrobras. During this phase forty-eight works of art were seized at 's house and taken to the Oscar Niemeyer Museum. Zwi Skornicki was named as one of the operators of the corruption scheme.
Phase 10 — Operation What country is this?
On 16 March 2015, around 40 police officers carried out 18 arrests in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. The operation was codenamed "Operation what country is this?" () after comments made by to his lawyer as he was being detained by the police in 2014. The ex-director of Petrobras, Renato Duque, was arrested in his Rio de Janeiro home, and businessman was arrested in São Paulo. Individuals detained in this action were taken to Curitiba. On 27 March, the federal police arrested Dário Queiroz Galvão, one of the partners of the firm . Guilherme Esteves de Jesus, one of the suspects investigated in phase 9 of Operation Car Wash, was arrested in Rio de Janeiro for bribes paid to the Jurong Shipyard. Both Queiroz Galvão and Esteves de Jesus were wanted under pre-trial arrest warrants and were taken to police headquarters in Curitiba. On 8 April 2015, the Federal Justice Court of Paraná seized 163.5 million reals ($) from company, a figure corresponding to the amount of money that was due them from a writ of payment () from the state of Alagoas.
Phase 11 — Operation In the beginning
On 10 April 2015, the Federal Police began the phase called "In the beginning", () fulfilling 32 warrants, including seven for arrest, sixteen search and seizure and nine Condução coercitiva warrants. This phase had operations in six states: Paraná, Bahia, Ceará, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. In this phase, former federal deputy , Leon Vargas (brother of ), former deputy , Élia Santos da Hora (secretary of Argôlo), former federal deputy Pedro Corrêa, Ivan Mernon da Silva Torres and Ricardo Hoffmann were arrested.
Phase 12 — unnamed
On 15 April 2015, PF served two arrest warrants, one of condução coercitiva and one of search and seizure in São Paulo. João Vaccari Neto, PT treasurer, was arrested. Vaccari's sister-in-law, Marice Correa de Lima, was on the run until 17 April 2015. She later surrendered to the police. Vaccari's wife, Gisela Lima, had a warrant for condução coercitiva, and was released after making a statement. The Federal Police forwarded to the Federal Public Prosecution Service (MPF) on 11 May 2015, thirty indictments against 22 people, investigated in the 11th phase, to investigate corruption crimes, contract fraud, money laundering and criminal organization, among others.
Phase 13 — unnamed
On 21 May 2015, Federal Police carried out the 13th phase of Operation Lava Jet in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. An arrest warrant was served on ; in addition one warrant for was served, and four for search and seizure. The warrants for search and seizure in São Paulo were made at the residence of , Milton's brother. The other two were served in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. According to MPF, , a company owned by José Dirceu, received more than 1.4 million reals ($) from Jamp Engenheiros Associados Ltd, a company owned by Milton Pascowitch.
Phase 14 — Operation Erga Omnes
On 19 June 2015, the Federal police launched the 14th phase of Operation Car Wash, code-named "Erga Omnes", a Latin expression meaning "valid for all". The targets were the contractors Odebrecht and Andrade Gutierrez. The two company presidents Marcelo Odebrecht and Otávio Azevedo, were arrested in the operation. Odebrecht directors Marcio Faria, Rogério Araújo and Alexandrino Alencar were also arrested. Thirty-eight search warrants were served, eight were for preventive detention, four were temporary detention, and nine were condução coercitiva warrants. Judicial warrants were served in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul.
Phase 15 — Operation Monaco Connection
On 2 July 2015, the Police launched the 15th phase, code named Monaco Connection (), serving five court orders, four of which were for search and seizure and one for pre-trial detention. , former director of the international department of Petrobras, was arrested in the city of Rio de Janeiro and sent to prison in Curitiba, due to kickbacks of more than 10 million euros ($ million) in company business. Zelada had previously been cited by two whistleblowers, and , as the beneficiary of the corruption scheme. He was the successor of , acting in the international department of Petrobras from 2008 to 2012.
Phase 16 — Operation Radioactivity
The Federal Police on 28 July 2015, the phase launched Operation Radioactivity () with the arrest of , former CEO of Eletronuclear, and , president of global AG Energy. The two were arrested in Rio de Janeiro and taken to the Federal Police in Curitiba. In addition to bribery the 16th phase investigated the formation of a cartel and previous price-fixing on the Angra 3 construction project.
On 28 July 2015, federal judge Sérgio Moro, who ran the Lava Jato investigations in Paraná, froze 60 million reais ($ million), 20 million from former president of Eletronuclear Othon Luiz Pinheiro da Silva, 20 million from Andrade Gutierrez executive Flavio David Barra, and another 20 million from Aratec Engenharia, Consultoria & Representacoes Ltda, which belongs to Othon Luiz.
Phase 17 — Operation Pixuleco
On 3 August 2015, the Federal Police launched Operation Pixuleco, named after the term that the former treasurer of the Workers' Party, João Vaccari Neto, had used to refer to "bribe". 40 court warrants were carried out: three preventive detention, five temporary pre-trial detention, 26 search and seizure and six condução coercitiva warrants. José Dirceu and his brother Luiz Eduardo de Oliveria e Silva were arrested in the operation for corruption, money laundering and criminal conspiracy. About 200 police officers took part in the operation.
Phase 18 — Operation Pixuleco II
Operation Pixuleco II was launched on 13 August 2015. In the operation, 70 officers carried out search and seizure warrants, as well as arrest warrants, in Brasília, São Paulo, Porto Alegre and Curitiba. The operation was an offshoot of the previous phase, Pixuleco, which arrested José Dirceu. Former city councilor (Worker's Party) was caught in the São Paulo–Congonhas Airport and arrested. Romano was suspected of receiving illicit funds () of at least fifty million reals ($ million). The payments happened via front companies.
Phase 19 — Operation Nessun Dorma
The Federal Police launched, on 21 September, Operation Nessun Dorma (Italian for "no sleep") with eleven court orders. Engevix executive, José Antunes Sobrinho, had his preventive detention warrant issued, and was arrested in the city of Florianópolis. According to the investigations, a company received about 20 million reais ($ million), between 2007 and 2013, from construction companies already investigated by Lava Jato. The money, investigators claim, was bribery obtained via Petrobras contracts. In addition, Sobrinho paid bribes even when the operation was already in progress. The recipient of the bribes was Othon Luiz Pinheiro da Silva, former director of Eletronuclear, who is currently in a prison in Curitiba. "Financial transactions were made by Sobrinho in January 2015, including, when another Engevix director was already in prison. That shows how much they have no limits in their operations", said Carlos Fernandes Santos Lima, the persecutor of the task-force.
Phase 20 — Operation Corrosion
On 16 November 2015, the Federal Police launched the 20th phase of Lava Jato, Operation Corrosion (), named after the daily struggle to fight corrosion in oil drilling platforms. The objective was to seize documentary evidence of crimes committed at Petrobras, which were revealed by Operation Car Wash. Roberto Gonçalvez, former executive manager of Petrobras, and Nelson Martins Ribeiro, who investigations revealed as the bag man, were arrested.
Phase 21 — Operation Free Pass
On 24 November 2015, the Federal Police launched a phase code named "Free Pass" (). The investigation was based on an examination of the circumstances in which Petrobras hired a drilling vessel with concrete evidence of fraud in the bidding procedure. In all, 32 judicial warrants were issued, one of which was for preventive detention of cattle rancher José Carlos Bumlai, in addition to 25 search and seizure warrants and six Condução coercitiva warrants. The operation was carried out in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso do Sul and the Federal District. Among the crimes investigated were fraud related to bidding, fraudulent misrepresentation, forgery of documents, active and passive corruption, influence peddling, money laundering, among others.
On 21 March, Bumlai left the prison in Curitiba. His preventive detention was converted to house arrest due to his bladder cancer. Bumlai's lawyers claimed that their client was 71 and had other chronic diseases.
2016
Phase 22 — Operation Triple X
After the 21st phase, the Federal Police arrested banker André Esteves, once the 13th richest Brazilian, on suspicion of obstructing Lava investigations. On 27 January 2016 the Federal Police launched the Triple X operation () in São Paulo and Santa Catarina. Eighty police officers served six temporary arrest warrants, fifteen search and arrest warrants and two of condução coercitiva. The operation took place in three São Paulo cities -- São Paulo, Santo André and São Bernardo do Campo --- as well as in Joaçaba, Santa Catarina—and investigated criminal networks designed to open offshore companies and accounts abroad to hide and conceal the proceeds of corruption crimes, notably funds from crimes at Petrobras, as well conceal wealth through real estate ventures. Nelci Warken, Ricardo Honório Neto and Renata Pereira Brito were arrested, and warrants issued for Maria Mercedes Riano Quijano, Ademir Auada and Luiz Fernando Hernadez Rivero.
PF suspects that one of the contractors investigated in Operation Lava Jato disguised bribes in the Petrobras criminal scheme. Charges included corruption, fraud, currency evasion and money laundering.
Phase 23 — Operation Acarajé
Operation Acarajé targeted Labor Party publicist and marketer and engineer , official representative in Brazil of the Keppel Fels shipyard conglomerate. In testimony given in a plea agreement, former Petrobras manager stated that Skornicki continued to pay bribes to even after the former director left Petrobras, US $14 million in all.
Odebrecht was also targeted by the operation. The Federal Public Prosecutor stated that the Odebrecht Group was already under investigation for paying bribes to Renato Duque, , and , transferred by fraudulent invoices for US$3 million between 13 April 2012 and 8 March 2013, "an amount which indicates that it consisted of a bribe from Petrobras transferred to the marketers for the benefit of PT".
Preventive arrests
Zwi Skornicki
Fernando Migliaccio da Silva
Temporary detentions
Phase 24 — Operation Aletheia
On 4 March 2016 the Federal Police launched , serving eleven condução coercitiva warrants and 33 search and seizure warrants. Among those targeted by the operation were former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, his two sons, and , a friend of Lula. The Police also carried out search and seizure warrants in addresses associated with some of Lula's relatives, such as his institute, known as Instituto Lula, presided over by Okamotto, his properties in São Bernardo do Campo, the city where Lula lived, as well as Atibaia and Guarujá, both located in the state of São Paulo, where Lula and his wife allegedly had a triplex apartment renovated by building contractor OAS. The Police reported that they were investigating crimes of corruption and money laundering. Warrants were also served in Salvador, Rio de Janeiro and in the São Paulo cities of Diadema, Santo André and Manduri. The condução coercitiva of Lula reverberated in the international press.
Lula was taken under the power of a condução coercitiva warrant to the São Paulo–Congonhas Airport to testify. The name of the operation is a Greek word meaning "pursuit of truth".
Phase 25 — Operation Polishing in Portugal
On 21 March 2016 the Judicial Police of Portugal carried out (). The financial operator Raul Schmidt Felippe Junior, a fugitive since July 2015, was preventively detained. This was the first international operation carried out by Operation Car Wash. Schmidt had been targeted by the 10th phase of the operation and considered to be associated with Jorge Luiz Zelada, who was arrested in the Médico-Penal Complex, in Pinhais, Paraná. The investigations pointed to Raul being suspected of involvement in bribe payments to Zelada, Renato de Souza Duque, and Nestor Cerveró. According to the Federal Public Ministry, in addition to being the operator, Schmidt also acted as an agent for international companies for obtaining contracts for the exploitation of Petrobras oil platforms. Schmidt had dual nationality, Brazilian and Portuguese, and moved to Portugal soon after Operation Car Wash was launched.
Phase 26 — Operation Xepa
Phase 27 — Operation Carbon 14
On 1 April, the Federal Police launched Operation Carbon 14 (), with 12 court orders, including two temporary arrests, eight search and seizure warrants in the companies DNP Eventos, Expresso Santo André and Diário do Grande ABC, and two condução coercitiva warrants. The temporary arrest warrants were issued against Ronan Maria Pinto e Silvio Pereira. Former Workers' Party treasurer Delúbio Soares and Breno Altman were the targets of condução coercitiva. The operation investigates crimes such as extortion, fraudulent misrepresentation, fraud, active and passive corruption, and money laundering.
Phase 28 — Operation Vitória de Pirro
On 12 April 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation Vitoria de Pirro, with the arrest of the former senator Gim Argello, suspected of avoiding crucial testimony at (CPMI) in 2014.
Phase 29 — Operation Playoff
On 23 May, the Federal Police launched Operation Playoff (), which investigated crimes of criminal association, money laundering and passive and active corruption involving embezzled funds associated to the Progressive Party (PP). The party's former treasure, João Cláudio Genu, was arrested in the operation. Six search and seizure, one preventive detention and two temporary arrest warrants were issued in the states of Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro and the Federal District.
Phase 30 — Operation Addiction
On 24 May Federal Police launched Operation Addiction (), with 39 court orders, which include two arrests, 28 search and seizure warrants and nine condução coercitiva warrants in the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The name of the operation has to do with the systematic and repeated practice of corruption perpetrated by certain employees of the state company and politicians who seem to not be able to act in any other way that doesn't harm the State.
Phase 31 — Operation Abyss
On 4 July 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation Abyss () in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and the Federal District. One of the targets was former Workers' Party treasurer , arrested on 24 June, when he was the target of Operation Brazil Cost, an offshoot of Operation Car Wash that investigated fraud in Law 10.820 loans () to civil servants. Ferreira was the target of a preventive detention warrant. A further 35 judicial warrants were issued, four of which were for temporary detention, 24 for search and seizure, and seven condução coercitiva warrants.
Phase 32 — Operation Ghostbusters
On 7 July 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation Ghostbusters (), which investigated crimes against the national financial system, money laundering and international criminal organizations. About 60 police officers executed 10 search warrants and 7 conduções coercitivas (forced appearance in court to provide clarifications) in three cities: São Paulo, São Bernardo do Campo and Santos. The targets were the Panamanian bank FPB Bank, which operated in Brazil illegally, and the Mossack Fonseca law firm, which specialized in opening and managing offshore bank accounts. Paulo Fanton, FPB Bank's representative in Brazil, faced a search warrant and a condução coercitiva. The bank and the firm had opened and maintained bank accounts in Brazil to enable the flow of undeclared cash abroad.
Phase 33 — Operation One Left
On 2 August 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation One Left (, which investigated the activities of the construction company Queiroz Galvão and its former executives Idelfonso Collares and Othon Zanoide Filho for corruption and fraud in operations of the Petrochemical Complex in Rio de Janeiro, the Abreu e Lima Refinery and several refineries, such as Vale do Paraíba, Landulpho Alves and Duque de Caxias.
Phase 34 — Operation X-Files
On 22 September 2016, the Federal Police opened Operation X-Files () in Minas Gerais, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo and the capital.
Phase 35 — Operation Omertà
On 26 September 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation Omertà, which resulted in the arrest of former Finance Minister and Chief of Staff Antonio Palocci in the São Paulo capital.
Phase 36 — Operation Dragon
On 10 November, the Federal Police launched (), with the preventive detention of and the operator Rodrigo Tacla Duran. Adir had already been arrested in a previous phase of Car Wash. In total, 18 court orders were carried out, including 16 search and seizure warrants and two preventive detention warrants in cities in the states of Paraná, São Paulo, and Ceará. According to the Public Prosecutor's Office (MPF), the investigations brought to light evidence that the operators used sophisticated money-laundering mechanisms, involving bank accounts in the name of offshore companies outside of Brazil, the use of front companies, and the execution of phony contracts. Companies involved in the scheme used the front companies to generate resources for bribery payments, such as UTC Engenharia and Mendes Júnior, to the financial operator.
Phase 37 — Operation Calicute
On 17 November 2016, the Federal Police launched Operation Calicute, and arrested former Rio de Janeiro Governor Sérgio Cabral on charges of bribery in government contracts. The lawsuit aimed to investigate the diversion of federal public funds from public works projects works carried out by the state government of Rio de Janeiro, with an estimated loss (at the time) of over R$224 million ($) . The investigation stemmed from the depositions of the owner of Delta Engenharia, contractor , and executives from Carioca Engenharia and Andrade Gutierrez, in the investigation called Radioactivity, launched on 28 July 2015, with the arrests of , former CEO of Eletronuclear, and , president of global AG Energy in Rio de Janeiro. They were then taken to the Federal Police in Curitiba. In addition to bribery, the 16th phase investigated the Angra 3 construction project.
Executives of them government contractors gathered at the , official residence of the Rio de Janeiro governor, to discuss the illicit payments, and invoice padding and kickbacks in major public works construction contracts. Only Carioca Engenharia proved the payment of more than R$176 million ($) in bribes to the group. In all, the Federal Police served 38 search and seizure warrants, eight for pre-trial detention, two for temporary detention and 14 for condução coercitiva warrants.
2017
Phase 38 — Operation Blackout
On 23 February 2017, PF launched Operation Blackout, referring to the surname of two of the scheme's financial operators: Jorge Luz and Bruno Luz, father and son. Both were linked to the PMDB and paid $40 million in bribes over ten years. According to the investigations, among the beneficiaries there were senators and other politicians, as well as Petrobras directors and managers. According to the MPF, the two brokered bribes and bribes involving contracts with the state using accounts in Switzerland and the Bahamas. They were mainly active in the Petrobras International Area, but also started to solicit bribes for the PMDB from the diretoria de Abastecimento, the Progressive Party (PP), and the diretoria de Serviços, and the Workers Party (PT). The warrants filed by the task force were based primarily on testimony from cooperating witnesses, reinforced by documents, as well as evidence raised through international legal cooperation. Fifteen search and seizure warrants were issued.
Phase 39 — Operation Parallel
On 28 March 2017, the Federal Police launched Operation Parallel (), serving warrants in the city of Rio de Janeiro: one of preventive custody and five others for search and seizure.
Phase 40 — Operation Asphyxia
On 4 May 2017, the Federal Police launched Operation Asphyxia, serving sixteen search and seizure warrants, two preventive custody, two temporary custody and five Condução coercitiva. They arrested four suspects and served warrants in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
Phase 41 — Operation Dry Well
On 26 May 2017, the Federal Police launched Operation Dry Well ) targeting the complex financial operations negotiated during Petrobras' acquisition of oil exploration rights in Benin.
Phase 42 — Operation Cobra
On 27 July 2017, the Federal Police launched Operation Cobra (), arresting the former president of Banco do Brasil and Petrobras Aldemir Bendine.
Phase 43 — Operation Without Borders
On 18 August 2017, the Federal Police launched two new phases of the operation in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, serving 46 judicial orders, including the arrest of the former leader of Lula's government and Dilma Rousseff's government and former federal deputy Cândido Vaccarezza.
Phase 44 — Operation Slaughter
Operation Slaughter targeted a criminal organization sponsored by a former federal deputy, who used his influence to obtain Petrobras contracts with a foreign company. In this illegal activity, illicit funds were directed to executives of the state oil company, public officials, and politicians, in addition to the former congressman himself, according to the Federal Police.
Phase 45 — Operation Slaughter II
On 23 August 2017, the Federal Police launched a new phase named Operation Slaughter II (). Court orders were carried out in the Federal District, and in the states of Bahia and São Paulo, totalizing four search and seizure warrants. The attorney Tiago Cedraz, son of the Federal Court of Accounts minister, Aroldo Cedraz, was one of the targets of the search warrants. According to the investigations, the lobbyist Jorge Luz, arrested in Curitiba, stated that Cedras intermediated talks betweens the north-American company Sargeant Marine and Petrobras, receiving 20 thousand dollars in bribes for the job in bank accounts kept in Switzerland, in the name of offshore companies.
Phase 46 — unnamed
In October 2017, an unnamed phase was launched with the arrest of Luís Carlos Moreira da Silva, Petrobras' former manager. The investigations indicate illicit payments of 95 million reals ($). The phase has two investigation fronts: Petroquisa's projects (petrochemical branch of Petrobras) and contracts involving drillship Vitórioa 10,000.
Phase 47 — Operation Sothis
On 21 November 2017, Operation Sothis was launched with the arrest of a former manager at Transpetro, a Petrobras subsidiary. Fourteen court orders were issued in the states of Bahia, Sergipe, Santa Catarina and São Paulo. According to the Public Prosecutor's Office (MPF), the former manager, his relatives, and intermediaries are suspected of receiving 7 million reals ($) in bribes paid by construction companies between September 2009, and March 2014. The amount, according to the persecutors, was paid in monthly installments for the benefit of the Workers' Party. Eight search and seizure warrants and five condução coercitiva warrants were also served.
The code name "Sothis" is an allusion to the company "Sirius", which is one of the ones that was investigated. The star Sirius was named Sothis by the Egyptians.
2018
Phase 48 — Operation Integration
On 22 February 2018, a phase 48, Operation Integration () was initiated, investigating corruption in the concession of federal highways in the state of Paraná, of crimes related to bid rigging and asset laundering.
Phase 49 — Operation Buona Fortuna
On 9 March 2018, police served ten search and seizure warrants in Curitiba, São Paulo, Guarujá and Jundiaí. A kickback was found to favor the consortium that won the bid for the construction of the Belo Monte Plant, in Pará.
Phase 50 — Operation Sothis II
On 23 March 2018, a new operation called Sothis II served three search and seizure warrants in Salvador, Bahia, and Paulínia. The new phase was a follow-up to phase 47, which investigated corruption and money laundering in Transpetro contracts. One of the targets of the operation was the engineering company Meta Manutenção e Instalações Industriais, suspected of having paid more than 2,325,000 reals ($) in bribes to the former manager of the state company. According to the MPF, the goal of the searches was to collect evidence to help bring the investigations to a conclusion.
Phase 51 — Operation Déjà vu
On 8 May 2018, the Federal Police (PF) served judicial orders in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo and São Paulo, four of which were preventive custody, two temporary custody and 17 search and seizure.
Phase 52 — Operation Greenwich
On 21 June 2018, the Federal Police initiated a new operation investigating crimes committed against Petrobras' subsidiaries, such as Petrobras Química S.A. (Petroquisa).
Phase 53 — Operation Pilot
On 11 September 2018, the Federal Police launched a new phase, with Beto Richa as the target of search and seizure.
Phase 54 — unnamed
On 25 September 2018, phase 54 (no code name) of Operation Car Wash was launched in Portugal. According to the Brazilian Public Prosecutor's Office (MPF), five search and seizure warrants were served in Lisbon related to a financial operator that was already the target of Phase 51 (Déjà vu): Mário Ildeu de Miranda. The purpose of the searches was to seize documents and electronic devices hidden in Portugal that could identify evidence of other crimes not yet reported. The Federal Police said that material seized would be shared with Brazil for the ongoing investigations. The Portuguese Public Prosecutor's Office was given judicial authorization to serve the search and seizure warrants thanks to an international cooperation agreement with the Brazilian Public Prosecutor's Office. It was the second phase of Operation Car Wash to be carried out abroad.
Phase 55 — Operation Integration II
Phase 56 — Operation Overdraft
According to the Federal Police, the 56th phase, dubbed Operation Overdraft (), found overbilling in the construction of Petrobras' headquarters in Salvador, Bahia. Police officers served 68 search and seizure, 14 temporary detention, and eight pre-trial detention warrants. Judicial mandates were served in São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. This was the first stage of investigations authorized by Sérgio Moro's substitute judge, . The crimes involved active and passive corruption, fraudulent pension fund management, money laundering, and organized crime. and Odebrecht built Petrobras' headquarters in Salvador, the Pituba Tower, and made illicit payouts of at least R$68,295,866 ($), almost 10% of the value of the work, according to the MPF. Amounts were later transferred as illicit payments to Petrobras' public employees, the Brazilian Workers Party, and Petros' managers. The scheme of fraudulent hiring and payment of illicit funds occurred between 2009 and 2016.
Phase 57 — Operation No Limits
On 5 December 2018 Federal Police launched phase 57 of Operation Car Wash, code named Operation No Limits (), to investigate business activity in Petrobras' sector activities. In the states of Paraná and Rio de Janeiro, 190 police officers served 37 court orders (search and seizure warrants, preventive custody, and subpoenas for depositions). Orders were also issued for seizure of real estate, freezing of bank accounts of those under investigation, and blockage of funds up to the limit of the losses identified to that point. The investigation uncovered a scheme at the Petrobras trading division involving the purchase and sale of petroleum and petroleum derivatives between the state-owned company and foreign companies. The scheme was characterized as "organized and active". There were indications of irregularities in the lease of storage tanks to or by Petrobras and the same companies under investigation. The "trading division" activities (purchase and sale) of fuel oil and derivatives at Petrobras were under the supervision of the Supply Directorate. Such operations did not require prior authorization from the directorate, a circumstance that made it much easier to utterly crush the illicit schemes in the hands of several lower-ranking employees linked to the directorate and who performed their functions both in Brazil and in the company's offices abroad. Those under investigation were allegedly responsible for the practice, among other things, of corruption, criminal conspiracy, financial crimes and money laundering.
2019
Phase 58 — unnamed
On 25 Jan., the Federal Public Ministry requested a warrant of preventive custody, search and seizure against the former governor of Paraná Beto Richa and his accountant Dirceu Pupo Ferreira which was granted by the 23rd Federal Court of Curitiba, and served by the Federal Police. Toll road concessionaires and other companies allegedly bribed the former governor with a R$2.7 million ($) payoff, laundered by the company on behalf of his wife and children, but which he controlled, partly directly and partly by his accountant. Attempted obstruction of the investigations led to the request for the arrest warrant.
Phase 59 — Operation Fifth Year
On 31 January, a bribe was discovered at Transpetro, with sixty federal police officers and sixteen federal tax auditors serving fifteen search and seizure warrants, three temporary arrests in São Paulo and Araçatuba. The Supreme Federal Tribunal approved agreements which indicated that from 2008 to 14 companies systematically paid a percentage of up to 3% of 36 contracts with the state-owned company totaling 682 million reals ($ million), to politicians and to the whistleblower through a law firm, constituting passive and active corruption, money laundering, and criminal conspiracy.
Phase 60 — Operation Ad Infinitum
On 19 February 2019 twelve search and seizure warrants and one preventive detention order were served in the cities of São Paulo, São José do Rio Preto, Guarujá and Ubatuba in the 60th phase of Operation Car Wash, code named Ad Infinitum.
The operation investigated money laundering, including Odebrecht's payment of a bribe to former senator Aloysio Nunes. Paulo Vieira de Souza, also known as , was identified as a key figure and arrested.
According to the Federal police, Odebrecht used the money to help fund election campaigns and to pay kickbacks to public officials and political actors in Brazil. In 2010 and 2011, one of the suspects under investigation held about R$100 million in cash ($) on Brazilian soil and managed to pass it on to the Structured Operations Division of the company. With this, it was possible to gather funds for campaign financing and for payment of kickbacks to public officials.
Phase 61 — Operation Mammon's Disguises
On 8 May 2019 three preventive custody warrants were served on three executives of (Paulo Cesar Haenel Pereira Barreto, Tarcísio Rodrigues Joaquim, and Gerson Luiz Mendes de Brito) and 41 search and seizure warrants were served at the headquarters of companies that traded with Banco Paulista in money laundering operations related to members of the Odebrecht S.A.'s "Structured Operations Division" . The investigations revealed that an amount of at least 48 million reals ($ million) was laundered abroad by the contractor and transferred to six executives of the Division between 2009 and 2015 through fraudulent misrepresentation () in contracts with the bank in Brazil. Other suspicious transfers to apparently unstructured companies, on the order of 280 million reals ($ million), were also a subject of the investigation.
Phase 62 — Operation Rock city
On 31 July, five preventive custody and 33 search and seizure warrants were served in fifteen cities in five states, related to the Grupo Petrópolis's operation of a bribery system in favor of Odebrecht, moving almost half a billion reals ($ million). The investigations of Operation Car Wash involving the Petropolis Group date back to 2016, when a spreadsheet with then names of politicians and a reference to Itaipava beer was found in the house of the construction company's executive Benedicto Junior. According to the documents, 255 donations were made in the 2010 and 2012 campaigns alone, totaling over R$68 million ($ million USD).
Phase 63 — Operation Carbonara Chimica
On 21 Aug., two arrest warrants were served in two states in connection with the bribery of two former ministers by two companies.
According to the MPF, the operation sought to identify final beneficiaries of 118 million reails ($ million) paid by the company through Odebrecht's "bribery department" () between 2005 and 2013. The operation also examined the payment of bribes to former ministers Antônio Palocci and Guido Mantega. In addition, four encryption keys were seized that could give access to system folders of the Odebrecht kickback system with contents unknown to the Federal Police. The name of the operation was based on the Odebrecht nicknames "Italian" and "Post-Italian" for two of the ex-ministers who were targets of the operation.
Phase 64 — Operation Pentiti
On 23 August twelve arrest warrants and search and seizure warrants were served in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, focusing on BTG Pactual and Petrobras. The investigation was based on the (plea-bargained investigative cooperation) of former minister Antonio Palocci. Besides the identification of beneficiaries of the so-called "Italian Special Program" and the method of delivering illegal funds to authorities, the phase also clarified the existence of corruption involving federal and state-owned oil finance institutions in exploration of the Brazilian pre-salt layer and in a project to divest assets on the African continent.
Phase 65 — Operation Gallery
On 10 September, search and seizure warrants were served in Rio de Janeiro. The investigation targeted corruption and money laundering at Transpetro and Belo Monte Dam, with bribery payments of 50 million reals ($ million) from Estre and Odebrecht S.A. to Edison Lobão and Márcio Lobão and money laundering continuing to 2019. Profits were allegedly involved in forty contracts, worth a total of one billion reals ($ million), with Estre, Polidutos, NM dutos and Estaleiro Tietê (Tietê River Shipyards). Márcio Lobão allegedly earned more than R$30 million ($ million), involving art galleries, offshore companies, and financiers.
Phase 66 — Operation Minimum Alert
On 27 September, investigations discovered money laundering by money exchangers () and employees of Banco do Brasil. Seven search and seizure warrants were served in São Paulo, and one in Natal. Federal police officers served court orders at the homes of employees of financial institutions, and at a currency exchange. According to the MPF, this Car Wash phase investigated three managers and one former manager of Banco do Brasil, who facilitated money laundering operations between 2011 and 2014. Transfers exceeded 200 million reals ($ million). According to the police, the suspects acted on behalf of companies that contracted with Petrobras and needed cash to pay illicit funds () to public agents.
Phase 67 — Operation Tango & Cash
On 23 October, the Federal Police launched a new phase against the Italian-Argentinian Techint group and its Brazilian subsidiaries for fraud against Petrobras' bids, serving 23 search and seizure warrants in three states (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Paraná) and decreeing the blocking of 1.7 billion reals in financial assets belonging to the suspects. The group is accused of being part of a cartel of nine companies, called "" ("The Club"), suspected of defrauding bids for major constructions by the state-owned company. The other suspected companies are Odebrecht, Camargo Correa, UTC, Andrade Gutierrez, Mendes Júnior, Setal-SOG, Promon and MPE. Former employees of the state-owned company who received kickbacks were also investigated for corruption and the company's intermediaries were investigated for money laundering, including two consulting companies. The federal police suspect that the company paid 2% of the value of each contract signed with the oil company in kickbacks, generating R$60 million ($ million) in improper payments. To make the illicit payments appear lawful, Techint is suspected of passing on amounts via offshore companies to former directors and managers of Petrobras through fraudulent consulting contracts.
Phase 68 — Operation Appium
On 7 November, a bribe was discovered to cover up
Antônio Palocci accused an ex-president of the Supreme Federal Court of accepting $R 5 million ($ million) from Camargo Correia.
Phase 69 — Operation Mine Map
On 10 December, the Federal Police and Public Prosecutor's Office launched a new operation that investigated payments of R$132 million ($ million) from Oi telecommunications company to companies belonging to the son of former president Lula da Silva. According to the findings, a portion of these funds may have been used to purchase the Atibaia site, pivotal to one of the two convictions already imposed on the former president in Operation Car Wash. The new phase served 47 search and seizure warrants in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia and the Federal District. It was an offshoot of Phase 24, which took depositions from former President Lula. It involved investigations of crimes of active and passive corruption, criminal conspiracy, international influence peddling, and money laundering. According to the Federal Prosecutor's Office, such payments were made without any plausible economic justification while the Oi/Telemar group benefited from several acts performed by the Federal Government.
Phase 70 — Operation Óbolo
On 18 December, the Federal Police launched a new phase to serve twelve search and seizure warrants. The operation investigated suspicions that three companies had obtained privileged information and had benefited from at least 200 ship chartering contracts signed by Petrobras totaling more than 6 billion reals ($ billion). Warrants were sent to São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Niterói. According to the police, this new stage is a continuation of investigations dating back to the beginning of Operation Car Wash in 2014, and included investigation of corruption of public officials, criminal organization and money laundering. The irregularities are the responsibility of the ().
2020
Phase 71 — Operation No Limits II
Operation No Limits II was launched 18 June 2020, as a spinoff of phase 57. It involved the investigation of the payment of bribes to Petrobras employees by companies that deal in the purchase and sale of oil and oil derivatives.
Phase 72 — Operation To sail is necessary
On 19 August 2020, the 72nd phase was launched, code-named "To sail is necessary", which resulted in the imprisonment of the entrepreneur brothers Germán and José Efromovich.
Phase 73 — Operation Shoulder to Shoulder
On 25 August 2020, the Federal Police, in cooperation with the MPF, launched phase 73Operation Shoulder to Shoulder involving bribes to Petrobrás' in the amount of 4 million reals ($ million) to cover up corruption in the bidding process at Petrobras.
Phase 74 — Operation Sovrapprezzo
On 10 September 2020, Operation (Italian for "Surcharge") was launched in the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro involving fraud by overcharges to Petrobras by employees of and kickbacks in the amount of 100 million reals ($ million).
Federal Police issues 25 search warrants for foreign exchange transactions at Petrobras between 2008 and 2011. Petrobras said it was the victim, and that they were actively cooperating and provided the information to prosecutors that led to the warrants being issued. Also involved was Banco Paulista's forex transactions during the same period. Officials there said their forex division was "extinct" and that nobody there now knew the objective of the current investigation. The investigation found that Banco Paulista had handled 7.7 billion reals ($1.45 billion) worth of transactions during the 2008-2011 period.
Phase 75 — BOEMAN
Operation BOEMAN was launched 23 September 2020.
Phase 76 — Operation No Limits III
Operation No Limits III was launched by the Federal Police on 7 October 2020.
Phase 77 — Operation No Limits IV
Operation No Limits IV was launched by the Federal Police on 20 October 2020.
Phase 78 — Operation No Limits V
Operation No Limits V was launched by the Federal Police on 26 November 2020.
2021
Phase 79 — Operation Vernissage
Operation Vernissage was launched by the Federal Police on 12 January 2021.
Phase 80 — Operation Pseudea
Operation Pseudea was launched by the Federal Police on 11 February 2021.
Abroad
11 December 2016: Due to allegations against Brazilian companies involved in Operation Lava Jato, the National Bank for Economic and Social Development (BNDES) suspended funding of $3.6 billion for 16 construction projects in Latin America. These projects were in the hands of construction companies Odebrecht, Andrade Gutiérrez, Camargo Corrêa, Queiroz Galvão and OAS. The five contractors were investigated for bribing politicians in exchange for contracts and other favors. These projects total $5.7 billion USD, 58 percent of the BNDES budget for engineering services in the region between 2003 and 2015. In total, the development bank's loan portfolio abroad has 47 projects worth $13.5 billion USD, mostly in Latin America.
See also
Brazilian currency
Cabinet of Brazil
Chamber of Deputies
Corruption in Brazil
Crime in Brazil
Economy of Brazil
Electricity sector in Brazil
Federal government of Brazil
Industry in Brazil
J&F Investimentos
JBS S.A.
Joesley Batista
Judiciary of Brazil
Law enforcement in Brazil
Law of Brazil
List of companies of Brazil
Mining in Brazil
Odebrecht–Car Wash leniency agreement
Penal Code of Brazil
Politics of Brazil
President of Brazil
President of Brazil
States of Brazil
States of Brazil
Timeline of Brazilian history
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Lava Jato official Brazilian website for Operation Car Wash
Constituição Da República Federativa Do Brasil De 1988
Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil pdf; 432 pages
Official Senate legislation search engine for Brazilian law
Unofficial translations of Brazilian law into English
Legislação brasileira traduzida para o Inglêsofficial English translations of the Constitution, and dozens of other Brazilian laws
2014 in Brazil
2014 scandals
2015 in Brazil
2015 scandals
2016 in Brazil
2016 scandals
2017 in Brazil
2017 scandals
2018 in Brazil
2018 scandals
2019 in Brazil
2019 scandals
Anti-corruption measures
Corruption in Brazil
Government of Michel Temer
Odebrecht
Petrobras
Law enforcement in Brazil
Political history of Brazil
Political scandals in Brazil |
62622869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Gentoo%20Linux%20derivatives | List of Gentoo Linux derivatives | This is a list of Gentoo Linux derivatives.
Calculate Linux
Chromium OS and Chrome OS
Container Linux (formerly CoreOS)
FireballISO
FireballISO (or "Fireball") is a VMware virtual appliance that builds a security-hardened Live CD containing a stripped-down custom version of Gentoo Linux. The original intent of the project is focused on providing firewall and networking services to a network, but the appliance can be customized in almost limitless ways to build bootable ISOs that can do many different things. When burned to a CD-ROM, it will allow a perhaps otherwise unused, old computer to boot it and act as a network security device. It may also be used in a virtual environment as a secure cloud appliance. Notable features in the generated ISO include:
(Version 1.4) Encryption is now truly optional (there were issues with how 1.3 handled unencrypted builds). Many updates to Gentoo Hardened files, including compiler-provided increased stack protection. Extensive cleanups to build script; now supports "test" build which can be customized to make a different ISO than the "deployment" build, suitable for testing or other purposes. Many features removed (tunnels, DSL support, etc.) to make appliance more generic.
(Version 1.3) Except for the files required early in the boot process (such as the kernel and initramfs), the contents can now be optionally encrypted, which makes it much more difficult and time-consuming for someone that may steal the ISO to access the contents. Default encryption is 256-bit AES. See the documentation for issues related to encryption.
(Version 1.2) All programs updated and recompiled with Hardened Gentoo kernel and compiler toolchain, resulting in increased protection from several kinds of overflows and other security vulnerabilities.
IPv4 and IPv6 support
iptables and ip6tables firewalls
SSH server for full command-line access
DNS cache and DHCP server
tcpdump & other networking utilities
Perl and Python scripting languages
NTP client
Extremely customizable, just like a regular Gentoo Linux system
Unnecessary programs removed from generated ISO; can be customized for even smaller size
Low hardware requirements for ISO: Pentium computer with a CD-ROM drive capable of booting, and two network interface cards, or equivalent virtual environment. No hard disk, monitor, or keyboard is needed for the unencrypted configuration (though a monitor and keyboard might be useful for troubleshooting configurations as needed). A keyboard and monitor are required at start-up if encryption is used.
The virtual appliance can be updated just like a normal Gentoo system, allowing new Live CD images to be generated with the latest security fixes, bug corrections, additional features, and updated configurations. The Live CD should be re-generated as often as important changes are released by the authors of the various software packages it contains.
Release history
Fireball Release 1 - March 3, 2009
Fireball Release 1.1 - June 22, 2009
Fireball Release 1.2 - December 30, 2010
Fireball Release 1.3 - January 13, 2012
Fireball Release 1.4 - March 6, 2015
Fireball Release 1.5 - June 9, 2017
Funtoo
Funtoo Linux( ) is a Linux distribution based on Gentoo Linux, created by Daniel Robbins (the founder and former project leader of Gentoo Linux) in 2008. It's developed by a core team of developers, and built around a basic vision of improving the core technologies previously used by Gentoo Linux.
History
In early 2008, Daniel Robbins proposed to resolve the Gentoo Foundation problems. But he had left the project in 2004, and his offer was refused. The Funtoo project was born as an initiative to implement his vision, with aims to share innovations.
Features
Funtoo is a source based Linux distribution.
Core technologies
Funtoo features in addition to native UTF-8 by default include:
Kits
In July 2017 Funtoo switched from plain portage approach to splitting the portage tree into kits. This should tie software updates together and help with the dependency problems of a rolling release distribution. Kits also are gaining maturity status as they are tested and as patches are applied.
Git
Funtoo uses Git to store the Portage tree. The tree is split into kits now with meta-repo being the repo holding all the kits as submodules.
Metro
Metro is an automatable software package for building stages used in installing Funtoo.
boot-update
boot-update provides a unified mechanism for configuring the GNU GRUB2 and GRUB Legacy boot loader versions.
Core networking
Funtoo has its own core networking solution to allow users to simplify the creation of complex network interfaces based on pre-created profiles.
Kernel
Since May 2015 Funtoo offers a pre-build generic kernel with stage3 Although Funtoo is a source-based distribution, it should be possible to use a prebuilt Linux kernel. Funtoo no longer encourages the use of the Sabayon kernel; however, with many improvements to Funtoo's design and init process, one should be able to load a binary kernel plus initrd from a preferred distribution hosting a precompiled/preconfigured kernel. Ubuntu's kernel linux-3.2.0-17-generic has been tested and is known to work. This can benefit those who like to avoid building custom kernels. Using a generic kernel from another distribution should be straightforward if using boot-update.
Other differences
There are multitude of users blog posts or discussions about difference between Gentoo and Funtoo.
The most marked difference between the two would be no systemd support in Funtoo, but still delivering for example a working Gnome desktop without the systemd need.
Incognito
Nova
Pentoo
Sabayon Linux
Redcore Linux
Tin Hat Linux
Tin Hat is a Security-focused Linux distribution derived from Hardened Gentoo Linux. It aims to provide a very secure, stable, and fast desktop environment that lives purely in RAM. Tin Hat boots from CD, or optionally from USB flash drive, but it does not mount any file system directly from the boot device. Instead, Tin Hat employs a large SquashFS image from the boot device which expands into tmpfs upon booting. This makes for long boot times, but fast speeds during use.
Design goal
The central design consideration in Tin Hat is to construct an operating system that can hide data from an attacker even if he has physical access to the computer. Physical access to a computer with unencrypted filesystems does not secure the data and an attacker could easily retrieve the data. Encrypting the filesystem provides protection from such an attack, but many implementations of encryption do not hide the fact that data is encrypted on the filesystem. For example, the LUKS encryption system includes metadata which detail the block cipher and block cipher mode used in encryption. This information does not help the attacker decrypt the filesystem, but it does reveal that it contains encrypted data and not random data. However, Tin Hat stores its filesystem in the RAM, leaving no data in the computer's hard drive. If the user stores any data via a more permanent means than RAM, the encrypted data is indiscernible from random data.
Tin Hat's preferred method of encryption is via loop-aes v3.
Beyond these considerations, Tin Hat has to also protect against more common exploits based on networking or security holes in software. The hardening model chosen is PaX/Grsecurity which is already provided by the Hardened Gentoo project. Hardening of the kernel and the toolchain make most code born exploits less likely. A non-modular compiled kernel further frustrates the insertion of malicious kernel modules.
References
This article uses content from this page, where it is licensed under the GNU General Public License.
Ututo
Hroontoo
Hroontoo is a Gentoo based homemade (LiveCd) console distro for linux administrators.
It's created in 2010.
VidaLinux
VidaLinux (VLOS) was an operating system based on Gentoo Linux. A GNOME-based OS, VidaLinux installs with the Red Hat Anaconda installer. VidaLinux tries to provide most appropriate tools and support for home and office use, such as PPC support and RealPlayer.
History
As of December 3, 2009, VLOS has been rebuilt with Daniel Robbins' fork of Gentoo Linux called Funtoo.
Versions
Vidalinux comes in two different flavors; one can be downloaded, while the other must be purchased. While the downloaded version technically has all the same software packages as the purchased version, the difference is that the purchased version (which can be bought for 25 USD) contains many binaries of often used programs, while the downloaded version forces the user to download ebuilds of these packages and build the binaries themselves, which requires more time.
Version History
1.0 October 4, 2004
1.1 December 20, 2004
1.2 August 1, 2005
1.2.1 January 18, 2006
1.2.1-r2 January 30, 2006
1.3 18 October 2006
References
External links
List of distributions based on Gentoo on the Gentoo wiki.
Gentoo Linux |
62668243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messages%20%28Google%29 | Messages (Google) | Messages is an instant messaging application developed by Google for the Android operating system.
Overview
It supports SMS, MMS and RCS messaging. A web interface and a Wear OS interface are also available.
Launched in 2014, it has supported RCS messaging since 2018. By April 2020, the app had more than a billion installs. It includes a variety of integrations with Google Calendar, Google Assistant, and Google Duo.
History
The original code for Android SMS messaging was released in 2009 integrated into the Operating System. It was released as a standalone application independent of Android with the release of Android 5.0 Lollipop in 2014, replacing Google Hangouts as the default SMS app on Google's Nexus line of phones.
In 2018 the system evolved to send larger data files, sync with other apps, and even create mass messages. This was in preparation for when Google launched messages for web.
In December 2019, Google rolled out support for RCS messaging (under the name chat features) in the United States, United Kingdom, France and Mexico. This was followed by a wider global rollout throughout 2020.
The app surpassed 1 billion installs in April 2020, doubling its number of installs in less than a year.
Initially, the app did not support end-to-end encryption. In June 2021 Google introduced end-to-end encryption in Messages, supported only if two users are on Messages in a 1:1 chat (not group chat), both with RCS turned on. All one-to-one RCS-based conversations between users of Messages are end-to-end encrypted by default using the Signal Protocol.
Beginning with the Samsung Galaxy S21, Messages replaces Samsung's in-house Messages app as the default messaging app for One UI in selected markets. In April 2021, the app began to receive a modification to its user interface in markets outside of the U.S. when running on recent Samsung phones, which adheres to its use of larger headers within in-house apps to improve ergonomics.
Features
The app supports Rich Communication Services (RCS) using Google Jibe Platform servers, which use RCS's Universal Profile, marketed to consumers as "chat features". It also integrates with the video calling app Google Duo. Messages is also available via the Web, which allows messages to be sent and received over the Internet, using a phone or computer connected to it.
See also
Messages (Apple)
iMessage
Google Allo
Google Chat
References
Google instant messaging software
Instant messaging protocols |
62736316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk%20Ransomware | Kirk Ransomware | Kirk Ransomware, or Kirk, is malware. It encrypts files on an infected computer and demands payment for decryption in the cryptocurrency Monero. The ransomware was first discovered in 2017, by Avast researcher Jakub Kroustek.
Description
Kirk Ransomware is a trojan horse program that masquerades as Low Orbit Ion Cannon, an application used for stress testing and denial-of-service attacks. Once activated, Kirk Ransomware searches the infected computer's hard drive for files with certain filename extensions, and encrypts and renames them, adding .kirked to the end of their filenames. When the encryption is finished, a window pops up, displaying an ASCII art image of Captain James T. Kirk and Spock from Star Trek: The Original Series, and informing the user that files have been "encrypted using military grade encryption." "SPOCK TO THE RESCUE!" the ransom note continues, and demands payment in order to receive a decryptor program named Spock. The ransom demanded is initially 50 Monero (worth about $1,175 as of March 2017); if not paid within 48 hours, the demand begins increasing, reaching 500 Monero after two weeks. If the ransom remains unpaid after 30 days, the decryption key is deleted, essentially rendering the encryption irreversible. The ransom note includes a spurious quotation from Spock ("Logic, motherfucker"), and ends with "LIVE LONG AND PROSPER".
Kirk Ransomware is the first known ransomware to demand payment in Monero; most other ransomware has demanded bitcoins. Monero has significantly greater privacy protection than bitcoin, making transactions much more difficult to trace.
A variant of Kirk Ransomware, named Lick Ransomware, was also discovered; it does not contain Star Trek references.
References
2017 in computing
Ransomware
Star Trek
Hacking in the 2010s |
62841408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%20SingHealth%20data%20breach | 2018 SingHealth data breach | The 2018 SingHealth data breach was a data breach incident initiated by unidentified state actors, which happened between 27 June and 4 July 2018. During that period, personal particulars of 1.5 million SingHealth patients and records of outpatient dispensed medicines belonging to 160,000 patients were stolen. Names, National Registration Identity Card (NRIC) numbers, addresses, dates of birth, race, and gender of patients who visited specialist outpatient clinics and polyclinics between 1 May 2015 and 4 July 2018 were maliciously accessed and copied. Information relating to patient diagnosis, test results and doctors' notes were unaffected. Information on Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong was specifically targeted.
Discovery
The database administrators for the Integrated Health Information Systems (IHIS), the public healthcare IT provider, detected unusual activity on one of SingHealth's IT databases on 4 July, and implemented precautions against further intrusions. Network traffic monitoring was enhanced; additional malicious activity was detected after 4 July, but did not result in the theft of any data. Having ascertained that a cyberattack occurred, administrators notified the ministries and brought in the Cyber Security Agency (CSA) on 10 July to carry out forensic investigations. The agency determined that perpetrators gained privileged access to the IT network by compromising a front-end workstation, and obtained login credentials to assess the database, while hiding their digital footprints. The attack was made public in a statement released by the Ministry of Communications and Information and Ministry of Health on 20 July. The ten-day delay between the discovery of the attack and the public announcement was attributed to time needed to fortify the IT systems, conduct preliminary investigations, identify affected patients and prepare the logistics of the announcement. Text messages were subsequently sent to patients whose data was affected.
Investigation
On 6 August 2018 in Parliament, S. Iswaran, Minister for Communications and Information, attributed the attack to sophisticated state-linked actors who wrote customized malware to circumvent SingHealth's antivirus and security tools. Iswaran did not name any state in the interest of national security.
A Committee of Inquiry was convened on 24 July 2018 to investigate the causes of the attack and identify measures to help prevent similar attacks. The four-member committee is chaired by former chief district judge Richard Magnus, and comprise leaders of a cyber-security firm, a healthcare technology firm and the National Trades Union Congress respectively. The committee called on the Attorney-General's Chambers to lead evidence, and the Attorney-General's Chambers appointed the Cyber Security Agency to lead the investigations with the support of the Criminal Investigation Department. The committee held closed-door and public hearings from 28 August, with another tranche of hearings from 21 September to 5 October. In addition, the Personal Data Protection Commission investigated into possible breaches of the Personal Data Protection Act in protecting data and hence determine possible action.
Committee of Inquiry hearings
The Committee of Inquiry hearings began on 21 September 2018. In the first hearing, Solicitor-General Kwek Mean Luck said that a series of staff missteps and gaps in the system contributed to the breach. Some examples mentioned are the EMR system, which was in place since 1999. In addition, it was mentioned that the cyberattacker behind the incident started infecting workstations as early as August 2017 using a hacking tool. The version of Microsoft Outlook being used did not have a patch that prevents attacks by that hacking tool. Between December 2017 and May 2018, the cyberattacker moved sideways and gained access to a workstation to infect other computers with malware. Other inadequacies identified include not being able to identify multiple failed attempts to log into the system, which was done with non-existent accounts or accounts that do not have much privileges in the system. Eventually, the cyberattacker successfully gained entry through a coding vulnerability on 26 June, and hence sent SQL queries until 4 July when it was stopped by an administrator. In addition, there were three periods where staff failed to respond or responded after a few days when knowledge of the cyberattack was first known. On the same day, two staff members said that while a framework was in place to report cyberattacks, there is insufficient training on what to do, hence it was unclear to staff about what actions should be taken.
At the next hearing on 24 September, it was revealed that Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong's personal data and outpatient records along with two other unnamed people were searched by hackers who infiltrated into the servers using NRIC numbers. The rest of the queries were generally done on patient demographic data, like one that involved the first 20,000 records of such data from Singapore General Hospital. An assistant lead analyst who detected unusual activity investigated further even through that was not his scope, and sent alerts to different divisions to find the staff who can make sense of those queries. The analyst's supervisor told the analyst to continue monitoring the situation and that he assumed there was no medical data until being informed that there was such a leak. As the analyst informed a reporting officer, there was no point in reporting the query himself, asking the analyst to follow up on the queries. Details about reporting procedures and containment measures were mentioned.
On the third day, a cybersecurity employee at Integrated Health Information Systems (IHiS), who was on holiday when the incident happened, did not follow up after having read the emails as it was thought to have been collection of data from workstations for investigation. In addition, only one computer at IHiS was used to carry out forensic examinations, resulting in delays diagnosing the issue. This is confirmed by the fourth day of the trial, where failings of judgement and organisational processes are exposed. For instance, meetings with the security management department were not conducted regularly, and no framework was created to set out appropriate responses to cybersecurity risks or to appoint covering officers if any staff go on leave. A clarification on processes was provided, where a standard operating procedure to escalate incidents was approved by the management in March 2018. It was also revealed the same day that staffers took six more days after 4 July to confirm the data breach as an IHiS employee mistakenly informed colleagues that no data was stolen, only confirmed after further tests are run by the superior finding that data was stolen. The queries were later recreated.
It was also revealed on the fifth day that a server exploited by hackers did not receive security updates in more than a year since May 2017 due to the WannaCry ransomware attacks, compared to the normal duration where patches were done several times a month. Besides that, the computer's anti-virus software was too old and must be reinstalled. The manager was not supposed to manage the server on paper, but in practice, was given the role in 2014 as the server was located at the National Cancer Centre Singapore, thereby being convenient for staff members to approach him in case help was needed. Once the counterparts resigned, there was no one at IHiS present to take over managing the server. In fact, the IHiS director was not aware that the server was not managed by the firm in practice, only giving a directive in 2014 that IHiS will not manage research servers. The next day, a security loophole that was not plugged was scruntised. Even though the loophole was flagged by an IHiS employee, there was no action taken. In fact, the employee was dismissed after sending details of the flaw to a rival company.
Towards the end of the second tranche of hearings on 5 October 2018, it was revealed a second attempt to hack into the servers was done on 19 July via another server as the attackers are skilled. This was stopped immediately as soon as it began. In addition, malware used was customised for the system and evaded detection from top anti-virus software. A tool called PowerShell was used in the process, being disabled on 13 July. Meanwhile, IHiS stepped up security with changing passwords, removing compromised accounts and rebooting servers.
The third tranche of hearings started on 31 October 2018. Evidence was shown that managers were reluctant to report the incidents as that would mean an increased amount of work, thereby creating a bottleneck. Meanwhile, the chief information officer told the team to escalate the incident, saying a bottleneck is not acceptable, adding that there was no written protocol on how to report SingHealth-related cybersecurity incidents should IHiS staff discover any incident. Another pointed out that annual cybersecurity exercises are mandated for critical information infrastructure (CII) operators, so staff should be able to identify advanced persistent threats (APTs). However, these tests were for classroom settings and may not necessarily apply to the SingHealth case, thus defeating the purpose of these exercises if situational awareness was not there. There were also plans for secure Internet browsing in the healthcare sector by 2018, but it had to be delayed by a year due to technical issues.
The following day, a 2016 audit that found systemic weaknesses in the network link between Singapore General Hospital and cloud-based systems was brought up, showing more inadequacies in the systems managed by IHiS. The incident was reported by the operations team as "plugged" to the management without anyone verifying that works to fix these vulnerabilities were done. The Cyber Security Agency also found similar vulnerabilities in its investigation. Due to this, there will be "three lines of defence", where compliance checks are performed by the operations team, technology team and internal audit team, and training will be stepped up in IHiS so that early detection of attacks are ensured. As pointed out the next day that even if the weaknesses were found, they may not be fixed as quickly as expected as public healthcare institutions operate around the clock resulting in little downtime.
Later in the hearings, SingHealth executives said that they will enhance cyber safety awareness for all employees, as well as roll out new systems to capture patients' data rigorously. It will also allow patients to update their particulars instead of only doing it over the counter. More townhalls will be held to update employees about the latest cyber threats, with log-in messages strengthened to hone the importance of data protection. Storytelling formats will also be used to explain these concepts. More cyber security exercises simulating data breaches were called for in a subsequent hearing, with these allowing professionals to be more familiar with what to do in case a similar incident happens again. In addition, the expert recommended all data within the system to be encrypted including inactive data. As full encryption would be unfeasible due to operational concerns, personal data could be anonymised instead with 2-factor authentication to de-anonymise it. That same hearing, it was updated that many of the written submissions were found to be useful.
Towards the final hearings, a former National Security Agency director suggested having the Government and industry partners work together and share information to learn and update each other about new threats that pop up. That is so as current protection measures are insufficient against ever evolving vulnerabilities. In the same hearing, the Ministry of Health's chief data advisor pointed out that Internet separation resulted in longer wait times for patients, declined productivity, increased staff fatigue and new cyber risks, especially when anti-virus software updates are done only on some computers instead of all within the network. Hence, to continue ISS, these factors would need to be considered. The next day, a security expert recommended having a centralised incident management and tracking system that logs all incidents that occur during a breach to reduce miscommunication, which is one of the causes for delayed reporting. In addition, the usage of different chat platforms meant that crucial details about the attack were lost and hence there was not many linkages to the incident.
On the final day, Cyber Security Agency chief David Koh suggested changing the way IT staff in the healthcare sector report incidents so that faster response can be ensured during a cyberattack, along with a review of the sector's IT processes and staff training carried out. It was also suggested that cybersecurity processes be considered as a key instead of it merely existing as an afterthought. The hearings thus concluded on 14 November 2018.
The closing submissions were held on 30 November 2018. Proposals to improve cybersecurity were shared, including the "assume breach" mindset in organisations thus taking necessary measures, having the right people and processes to complement those measures. It was also pointed out that administrator passwords are supposed to be 15 characters long, but one had an problematic password of eight characters which was unchanged since 2012. Lastly, even if measures were put in place to slow down cyberattacks, it is important to note that the attack was done via an advanced persistent threat (APT). Subsequently, the report was submitted to S. Iswaran on 31 December 2018 with the public version released on 10 January 2019.
Release of report
On 10 January 2019, the Committee of Inquiry released a report on the SingHealth breach. The report found that staff are inadequately trained in cybersecurity, thus they are unable to stop the attacks. The key staff did not take immediate action to stop the attacks fearing pressure. To make things worse, vulnerabilities in the network and systems are not patched quickly, coupled with the fact that the attackers are well-skilled. As a result, the attackers found it easy to break in. The report did point that if the staff had been adequately trained and vulnerabilities fixed quickly, this attack could have been averted. The report also found that this is the work of an Advanced Persistent Threat group.
In the same report, the Committee of Inquiry made 16 recommendations to boost cybersecurity, separated into priority and additional recommendations. They are:
Priority:
Adopting an enhanced security structure and readiness by iHiS and public health institutions
Review online security processes to assess ability to defend and respond to cyberattacks
Improving staff awareness on cyberattacks
Perform enhanced security checks, especially on critical information infrastructure (CII) systems
Subject privileged administrator accounts to tighter control and greater monitoring
Improve incident response processes
Forge partnerships between industries and the Government to achieve higher cybersecurity
Additional:
IT security risk assessments and audits must be treated seriously and carried out regularly
Enhanced safeguards must be put in place to protect confidentiality of electronic medical records
Improve domain security against attacks
Implement a robust patch management process
Implement a software upgrade policy with a focus on cybersecurity
Implement an Internet access strategy that limits exposure to external threats
Clearer guidelines on when and how to respond to cybersecurity incidents
Improve competence of computer security incident response personnel
Consider a post-breach independent forensic review of the network
On 15 January 2019, S. Iswaran, Minister for Communications and Information announced in Parliament that the Government accepted the recommendations of the report and will fully adopt them. It has also sped up the implementation of the Cybersecurity Act to increase security of CIIs. Separately, Gan Kim Yong, Minister for Health announced that changes to enhance governance and operations in Singapore's healthcare institutions and IHiS will be made. The dual role of Ministry of Health's chief information security officer (MOH CISO) and the director of cybersecurity governance at IHiS will be separated, where the MOH CISO has a dedicated office and reports to the Permanent Secretary of MOH, while IHiS will have a separate director in charge of cybersecurity governance, with changes at the cluster level. This will help boost operations and governance of the IT systems. In addition, MOH will establish an enhanced "Three Lines of Defence" system for public healthcare, and pilot a "Virtual Browser" for the National University Health System. All public healthcare staff will remain on Internet Surfing Separation, which was implemented immediately after the cyberattack, and the mandatory contribution of patient medical data to the National Electronic Health Record (NEHR) system will continue to be deferred.
Aftermath
Following the cyberattack, Internet access was temporarily removed from all public healthcare IT terminals with access to the healthcare network, and additional system monitoring and controls were implemented.
The attack led to a two-week pause in Singapore's Smart Nation initiatives and a review of the public sector's cyber-security policies during that time. The review resulted in implementation of additional security measures, and urged public sector administrators to remove Internet access where possible and to use secure Information Exchange Gateways otherwise. The attack also renewed concerns among some healthcare practitioners regarding ongoing efforts to centralize electronic patient data in Singapore. Plans to pass laws in late 2018 making it compulsory for healthcare providers to submit data regarding patient visits and diagnoses to the National Electronic Health Record system were postponed. In addition, the Ministry of Health announced on 6 August 2018 that the National Electrical Health Record (NEHR) will be reviewed by an independent group made up of Cyber Security Agency and PricewaterhouseCoopers before asking doctors to submit all records to the NEHR, even though it was not affected by the cyberattack.
On 24 July 2018, the Monetary Authority of Singapore told banks in Singapore to tighten customer verification processes in case leaked data was used to impersonate customers, with additional information requested. Banks are also told to conduct risk assessments and mitigate risks from misuse of information.
The Integrated Health Information Systems (IHiS) has since strengthened public health systems against data breaches. All suspicious IT incidents will have to be reported within 24 hours. 18 other measures are also put in place, including two-factor authentication for all administrators, proactive threat hunting and intelligence, allowing only computers with latest security updates on hospital networks, and a new database activity monitoring. Studies are done to keep Internet Separation Scheme (ISS) permanent in some parts of the healthcare system with a virtual browser being piloted as an alternative.
After the report was released, on 14 January 2019, Integrated Health Information Systems (IHiS) dismissed two employees and demoted one for being negligent in handling and misunderstanding the attack respectively, with financial penalties imposed on two middle management supervisors, and five members of the senior management including CEO Bruce Liang. Three employees were commended by IHiS for handling the incident diligently even when not part of their job scope. IHiS has since fast-tracked a suite of 18 measures for enhancing cybersecurity. The next day, the Personal Data Protection Commission fined IHiS $750,000 and SingHealth $250,000 for not doing enough to safeguard personal data under the Personal Data Protection Act, making it the largest fine imposed for data breaches.
Subsequently, on 6 March 2019, cybersecurity company Symantec identified a state-sponsored group, known as Whitefly, behind the cyberattack. Although the country is not identified, that group has been found to be behind several related cyberattacks against Singapore-based entities since 2017.
References
Hacking in the 2010s
Cyberwarfare
SingHealth
Internet events
Internet in Singapore
2018 in Singapore
Health in Singapore
Data breaches |
63063610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center%20for%20Research%20on%20Computation%20and%20Society | Center for Research on Computation and Society | The Center for Research on Computation and Society (CRCS, commonly pronounced "circus") is a research center at Harvard University that focuses on interdisciplinary research combining computer science with social sciences. It is based in Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. It is currently directed by Milind Tambe.
History
The center was officially founded in 2005, although there are appearance of CRCS affiliation back in 1996. The center name mimics the name of the centers for Internet and Society such as Stanford's or Harvard's.The Privacy Tools Project was one of the most important efforts led by CRCS. It received funding from multiple sources from 2009 throughout 2020 in order to research and build tools to enhance privacy, in a common effort with Harvard's Berkman Klein Center, Harvard's Data Privacy Lab, and MIT Libraries. The CRCS founding director was Stuart M. Shieber. After him, the center was directed by Greg Morrisett and later by Salil Vadhan until 2015, when Margo Seltzer was named new director. In 2018, after her departure to Columbia University, she was replaced as director by Jim Waldo. When Milind Tambe joined Harvard in September 2019 he became the new center director.
The center has a yearly fellowship program, and relevant past fellows include Simson Garfinkel or Ariel Procaccia. It also hosts regular public talks ("seminars") with distinguished invited speakers, which are usually video recorded. Some speakers include Susan Crawford, Bruce Schneier or Megan Price.
Research
The center has covered a broad spectrum of research lines within computer science, typically with social aspects. These include social computing, privacy-enhancing technologies, encryption and data security, misinformation, machine learning fairness, internet of things, or a citizen-science platform.
See also
Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society
References
Research institutes in Massachusetts
Technology in society
Research institutes established in 2005
2005 establishments in Massachusetts
Harvard University
Computer science institutes in the United States
Scientific organizations established in 2005
Information technology research institutes |
63075711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20U.%20Lemke | James U. Lemke | James (Jim) U. Lemke (December 26, 1929 - February 22, 2019) was an American physicist and entrepreneur who lived in San Diego. He developed magnetic recording and internal combustion engine technologies.
Lemke started six high-tech research & development companies, owned and flew multiple airplanes and was awarded more than 114 U.S. and foreign patents in the fields of information theory, magnetic materials, information storage devices, aviation, and internal combustion engines.
He was a member of the National Academy of Engineering, Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Fellow of Eastman Kodak Research Laboratories, Senior Fellow of the California Council on Science and Technology, and a Member of the American Physical Society.
Background and education
Lemke was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan on December 26, 1929. He was the son of Andrew Lemke, a Congregationalist minister.
Lemke earned his undergraduate degree in physics from Illinois Institute of Technology in 1959, his master's degree in physics (Woodrow Wilson Fellow) from Northwestern University in 1960, and his Ph.D. in theoretical physics from U.C. Santa Barbara in 1966.
Career
In 1948, Lemke joined the new IBM Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University and spent three years working on plated drum memories for IBM computers. He joined T.E.M.C.O, working on high-speed teletype encryption devices before moving to AV Manufacturing Company in New York as the vice-president of engineering, developing multi-track instrumentation recorders. In 1957, he joined Armour Research Foundation to coordinate the work on magnetic recording.
In 1960, Lemke joined the Bell and Howell Research Center in Pasadena, California as the director of magnetic research. He worked on the development of high-density instrumentation and PCM recorders and in magnetics research.
In 1968, Lemke founded Spin-Physics in San Diego to develop magnetic recording heads for broadcast TV tape recorders. Once 50 percent of the broadcast hours on television worldwide were recorded on Spin Physics’ magnetic heads. In 1973, Lemke sold the company to Eastman Kodak and became a fellow of the Kodak Research Laboratories. He founded Recording Physics, Inc. and VISqUS, Corp. VISqUS offered a technology based on a head-disk air bearing, but with the air replaced by a liquid.
In 1978, Lemke founded Aerolift to manufacture a through-the-propeller radar for single-engine airplanes that he had invented.
Four years later, in 1982, Lemke was pivotal in establishing the Center for Magnetic Recording Research (CMRR) at UC San Diego. Lemke obtained corporate donations for a new building for the center and could secure funding for four endowed professorships and for scientific equipment.
From 1982, Lemke served as an adjunct professor at the University of California, San Diego.
In 2004, Lemke founded Achates Power to pursue the development of the two-cycle, opposed-piston internal combustion engine.
Lemke authored several scientific papers and wrote a book chapter on instrumentation recording. He was a prolific inventor with over 100 U.S. patents to his name.
Awards and Memberships
Member of the American Physical Society, he also was a Fellow of the IEEE.
Senior Fellow of the California Council on Science and Technology
1988, Member of the National Academy of Engineering for lifelong leadership in magnetic recording theory and practice
1992, IEEE Magnetics Society Distinguished Lecturer.
1993, Revelle medal for distinguished and sustained service to UCSD.
1995, IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Storage Award for "contributions to advancing the science and technology of high-density magnetic data storage."
2004, Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Personal Interests
Lemke owned and flew several planes. In 1981, in Ted Gildred's recreation of his father's 1942 flight from San Diego to Quito, Ecuador, Lemke flew as the safety "chaser" in his twin-engined Beech Baron. Achates Power was founded with the aim of building an opposed-piston aircraft engine.
Lemke was married to Ann Stickley who he met in Greenwich Village in New York City in 1953. He had two daughters, Catherine and Susan, and a son, Michael. He was predeceased by his parents, Andrew and Frances Lemke, and by his sister Lois Dahl.
References
Fellow Members of the IEEE
1929 births
2019 deaths
Businesspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan
Illinois Institute of Technology alumni
Northwestern University alumni
20th-century American businesspeople |
63121209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult%20chat%20%28television%29 | Adult chat (television) | Adult chat television channels and programs (also known as babe channels or babeshows) are a format of phone-in live television programming that has developed in Europe since 2002, often having elements similar to webcam modelling and softcore pornography.
Adult chat channels were noted in Screen as "challenges to conventional notions" of television – viewers can make premium-rate phone calls to the channel's presenters, but the calls are not heard on screen during the program. Thus, the channels' format and content is openly influenced by the pursuit of revenue, "pay-to-participate", without the traditional "audience subscription, advertising or sponsorship".
Broadcast live from a studio, the shows usually feature female presenters advertising a phone sex line or chat line, speaking on the phone, promoting extra online content and photos, or responding to viewers' online messages, text messages and photos.
Formats
Many adult chat programs have been established in mainland Europe (mainly on Hot Bird) and in the United Kingdom (mainly on Sky) since the beginning of SexySat TV and Babestation in 2002. These programs and channels mainly aim for profits drawn from phone calls, at the expense of production values, which are rarely high. The presenters of the shows are often glamour models, fetish models or porn stars, and have included Cathy Barry and Dani Thompson.
Some eventual channels began as shorter shows on unrelated TV stations; for example, Babestation was initially a 2-hour phone-in on Game Network. Some babe channels broadcast for part of the day, and some for 24 hours a day. A typical night show, when content is more sexually explicit, may run from 9pm or 10pm until 5.30am (in the UK). Many of the same channels also run daytime shows. Adult chat companies have also operated various extra online streams and web shows.
Analysis
While television usually "address[es] itself to an overhearing audience", babe channels were noted in Screen as "challenges to conventional notions" of television" due to their novel format, which prioritises revenue from phone calls that are seen but unheard in the broadcast. As well as this, Stephanie Marriott identified the channels' promise of a "fully bilateral engagement" with the host as an unusual idea in television. De Montfort University professor of film studies, I.Q. Hunter, names adult chat television as representative of how "commercialised erotic representation" changed radically in the digital age.
The rise of adult chat was linked to that of similar "participation television" programs, quiz, psychic and dating channels in the early 21st century. An independent Ofcom report highlighted the contradiction in the nature of the channels: "‘Babe’ TV was treated as ‘advertising’ by non-viewers but among viewers it was felt to provide engaging programming that could be enjoyed without calling in." According to viewers, "All respondents implied that the purpose of watching or calling ‘Babe’ channels was normally sexual gratification, although the channels were also seen as entertaining or amusing."
Photographer Bronia Stewart spoke of the good relationship between presenters and producers, after a nine-month photography project at Babestation as part of the 2013 art exhibition, FreshFaced + WildEyed. She said she was surprised that the hosts' motivation was less about fame and "more about a working life. So while some of them had 20,000 followers on Twitter, it was about being able to provide for their family and earn good money." Stewart also described babe channels as sympomatic of the media's sexualisation of women, and said many of the presenters have changed their bodies seeking to become "the perceived ideal woman".
Testimonials
Among the presenters working on the channels, Rebecca Emslie talked about the shows' environment: “To be honest I really didn’t find it competitive at all. I think every channel I have worked for had their favourites but we all used to get along it wasn’t bitchy or anything like that! It was a relaxed, fun environment.” Sports broadcaster and writer Amy Christophers said the channels, where she used to present, contributed to many men's unrealistic expectations about women.
Former producer Kathryn Vinclaire said the channels were not as she had expected: "It was a world entirely led by the girls on camera, and they were always in complete control." A former office runner on a babeshow said he wouldn't recommend that job as a way of starting out in TV.
Controversy
In the UK, Ofcom classes TV programs that encourage viewers to call presenters live on a premium rate telephone number as advertisements. The regulations applicable to advertisements apply to these channels, rather than the rules for editorial content. This restricts what may be said and shown on-air on unencrypted channels more stringently than if the content were a normal program. However, regulation of adult TV channels has not been devolved to the Advertising Standards Authority. Ofcom regulates these channels directly.
Adult chat channels have periodically been fined or punished by regulators. In 2006, ICSTIS fined a variety of daytime chat line service providers for breaches of phone line regulations.
In 2008 in Austria, Eurotic TV parent company Franz Ressl Handels GmbH was criticised by the KOA regulator for broadcasting nudity on its daytime programs.
In 2010, Bang Media were fined £157,250 by Ofcom for screening “inappropriate explicit material” with “manifest recklessness” in the UK.
In 2013, the UK Babestation switched to a channel license in the Netherlands, which led Ofcom to make a formal complaint to the Dutch regulator.
History
1995
In the US, Playboy TV started Night Calls, a phone-in show where viewers could 'direct' the presenters (all female porn stars) in sexual acts on the air. However, this was not quite the same format as the one currently used in Europe, where the focus is more on the phone calls, and profit made from them.
2002
December 3: Babestation was first broadcast from 11pm-1am on Game Network UK, initially with a show host and two other presenters.
SexySat TV began in the Netherlands, broadcasting from 14:00 to 02:00. According to Interia Biznes, "It probably started in December 2002 (the first mentions of tests in the satkurier.pl news archive come from early January 2003)."
2003
Other programs such as Babecast (on Friendly TV, UK) and Fast Girls (Motors TV UK) began in late-night timeslots. These were usually on channel nos 150–250 on the Sky EPG, and gradually became more daring in portraying nudity and masturbation (although they were by no means hardcore).
Babestations running time was extended to include a "late babe" hour, with only one girl taking calls on full screen; to avoid the conversation being heard by viewers, background music was played, as continues to be the case on other programs.
2004In the UK:A number of the "true" or dedicated adult channels (whose channel no. was around 900, such as Live XXX TV) started to run up to 2½ hours of free-to-view live phone-ins, encouraging viewers to sign up to the subscription for the channel, before becoming encrypted. Then, the porn stars from the earlier show would engage in acts including oral sex, and use dildos.Outside the UK:August 4: SexySat TV moved from the Netherlands to Prague, Czech Republic, which reduced the explicitness of broadcasts.
August: Diva Futura went on-the-air in Italy.
October 22: Eurotic TV began in Austria, with production site and models based in Sofia, Bulgaria. Its role was "to sell subscriptions for encrypted channels including Inxtc.tv and Xplus tv".Liveshow-TV.com "eUrotic TV" article – Retrieved July 13, 2007
2006
By this time, Game Network had allowed Babestation (and other profitable non video game-related programs like Psychic Interactive) to dominate its schedule. On February 20, Game Network ceased to exist, and the channel was renamed "Babestation". On February 28, Sky moved all adult or predominantly-adult channels to channel nos 900–970, so all channels showing late-night babe shows are now alongside established adult channels such as Television X.
During the daytime, some channels show teleshopping or quiz channels, while many of the newly moved channels decided to start showing "softer" daytime babe shows, with some of the same presenters as at night (e.g., Babedate). They still take premium-rate phone calls, but usually wear bikinis (and keep them on), and cannot make sexual gyrations.
Television X's TVX Callgirls Live became the first "babe show" to introduce male porn stars on-screen. They co-presented a free-to-view preview for two hours, with an alternating female presenter (two other girls take calls), then, in the live finale for subscribing viewers, had sex with one of the female presenters on air after encryption.
November 9: ICSTIS fined a variety of daytime chat line service providers for breaches of phone line regulations – LiveLines UK Ltd, who ran daytime show Housebabes Live (and Office Babe and Hospital Reception until September 28, 2006) were fined a total of £85,000; Datapro Services Ltd, £3,000 for Office Babe; Com & Tel Ltd, £25,000 (lowered after appeal) and 2ergo, £5,000, for Babedate and Mobibabes; and Eckoh Technologies, £10,000 for Babeworld (daytime version, which still contained sexually-explicit phone conversations).
November 24: British television regulator Ofcom imposed a £175,000 fine on Look4Love, owners of Babestar TV. In 2006, Babestar had become one of the most explicit free-to-view nighttime channels, containing use of sex toys and oral sex between female presenters, although the content could still just be considered "softcore". Ofcom's problem was actually with Babestar's concentration on the "barely-legal" status of an 18-year-old presenter.
2007
SportXXXbabes and House of Fun TV introduced 'live pixelisation' – blurring of a part of the screen. This allowed them to feature explicit content (masturbation and oral sex between presenters) without breaking rules, because aroused genitals were not seen.
February: House Of Fun TV also introduced Boys Next Door, the first all-male gay porn on a British adult chat program, broadcast only twice (on Tuesday nights). This featured simulated anal sex, and (pixelised) real masturbation and oral sex between three male presenters.
2008
The websites of Babestation, Babecast and Sex Station began to simulcast content. Although most of this was repeated material previously televised on Sex Station, there was also the introduction of a daytime webcast from 11:00 until 20:30, with sexually-explicit content and language that would be too strong to be televised, featuring up to three female presenters.
3G technology was introduced to adult chat channels, which allows some presenters to see some of the callers who are talking to them.
2011
Sex Station extended its web show to 24 hours a day. As of 2017, Sex Station had since ceased trading.
Daytime chat lines
Austria
Eurotic TV, a channel operating under an Austrian licence on Astra and Hotbird, had been allowed to broadcast large amounts of female nudity, softcore porn and moderate sexual content with female models from 2004 to 2009. Regulations forced the channel to remove nudity from its daytime shows in May 2009. Thereafter the adult program began at 11 pm CET and lasted until 3 am. The channel closed in 2016.
United Kingdom
During the daytime, most Sky adult channels broadcast "chat line" or "date line" programs, where viewers can call female presenters, still at the premium rate, but rarely including sexual content or conversation so they cannot be classed as "sex lines". As of 2019, many daytime programs featured extra online camera angles. The presenters are sometimes the same as on nighttime sex lines; some made the 'transition' from daytime to nighttime.
During the 2010s, the 8–9 pm hour (before the watershed) featured fewer phone-ins on the adult channels.
List of adult chat broadcasts
Austria
Brazil
Czech Republic
France
Germany
Italy
NetherlandsDefunct:United Kingdom
Some channels have included (past or present):
On Sky:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Channel (no.)
| Show title
| Format
|-
| Adult Channel (901)
| Chat Girl TV
| 6am-10pm, 3 or 4 girls rotating, presenting varied sets with themes
|-
| Babestation (906)
| Babestation
| 1 or 2 girls rotating, presenting Split-screen
|-
| Friendly TV (907)
| Bang Babes
| As Babestation
|-
| Babeworld TV (908) Babeworld XXXtra (949)
| Babeworld
| 3 or 4 girls presenting All on same bed
|-
| Get Lucky TV (909)
| Babestation 2
| As Babestation
|-
| Lucky Star (910)
| Sex Station (formerly LiveXXX)
| 2 or 3 girls taking calls on same bed Rotating with ''XXX 4 U Sometimes features "strips" if enough viewers text
|-
| Tease Me (912) Tease Me 2 (948)
| Bangbabes| 2 girls taking calls on same bed
|-
| Television X4 (913) Dirty Talk (964)
| TVX Callgirls| 2 girls taking calls on same bed
|-
| Over 18 TV (914)
| Hotel Voyeur (formerly McQueen's Angels)
| 4 girls taking calls on same bed
|-
| sportXXXbabes (918) Northern Birds (954)
| Live & European| 2 or 3 girls taking calls Formerly featured sex (pixelised) and was encrypted at 0:00
|-
| Live XXX Babes (950) Blue Kiss TV (951) The Other Side (952) Babe Central (953) Essex Babes (955)
| Live XXX Babes, Real Wives Live, etc.
| Female presenters taking calls
|-
| HappyHourGirlsTV (956)
| Happy Hour Girls|
|-
| Studio 66 TV (912, 940, 941)
| Studio 66 Nights''
|
|}
On Freeview:
Daytime chat lines:
Defunct adult chat broadcasts:
References
Television genres |
63175406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%204769 | IBM 4769 | The IBM 4769 PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor is a hardware security module (HSM) that includes a secure cryptoprocessor implemented on a high-security, tamper resistant, programmable PCIe board. Specialized cryptographic electronics, microprocessor, memory, and random number generator housed within a tamper-responding environment provide a highly secure subsystem in which data processing and cryptography can be performed. Sensitive key material is never exposed outside the physical secure boundary in a clear format.
The IBM 4769 is designed to meet FIPS PUB 140-2 Level 4, the highest level of certification achievable for commercial cryptographic devices. The 4769 is part of IBM's pervasive encryption and enterprise security schemes. The IBM 4769 data sheet describes the coprocessor in detail.
IBM supplies two cryptographic-system implementations:
The PKCS#11 implementation, called IBM Enterprise PKCS11 (EP11), creates a high-security solution for application programs developed for this industry-standard API.
The IBM Common Cryptographic Architecture (CCA) implementation provides many functions of special interest in the finance industry, extensive support for distributed key management, and a base on which custom processing and cryptographic functions can be added.
Applications may include financial PIN transactions, bank-to-clearing-house transactions, EMV transactions for integrated circuit (chip) based credit cards, and general-purpose cryptographic applications using symmetric key algorithms, hashing algorithms, and public key algorithms.
The operational keys (symmetric or asymmetric private (RSA or Elliptic Curve)) are generated in the coprocessor and are then saved either in a keystore file or in application memory, encrypted under the master key of that coprocessor. Any coprocessor with an identical master key can use those keys. See elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) for more information about ECC. New hardware in the 4769 adds support to accelerate the Elliptic Curves 25519 and Ed448, as well as the format preserving encryption (FPE) algorithms FF1, FF2, FF2.1, FF3, and FF3.1.
IBM supports the 4769 on certain IBM Z mainframes as Crypto Express7S (CEX7S) - feature codes 0898 and 0899. The 4769 / CEX7S is part of IBM's support for pervasive encryption and drive to encrypt all data.
References
External links
General overview of cryptography: https://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html
These links point to various relevant cryptographic standards.
ISO 13491 - Secure Cryptographic Devices: https://www.iso.org/standard/61137.html
ISO 9564 - PIN security: https://www.iso.org/standard/68669.html
ANSI X9.24 Part 1: Key Management using Symmetric Techniques: https://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI+X9.24-1-2017
ANSI X9.24 Part 2: Key Management using Asymmetric Techniques: https://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI+X9.24-2-2016
FIPS 140-2: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/FIPS/NIST.FIPS.140-2.pdf
Payment Card Industry (PCI) PIN Transaction Security (PTS): Hardware Security Module (HSM) Modular Security Requirements: search this site: https://www.pcisecuritystandards.org/document_library
Cryptographic hardware
Banking technology
4768
IBM hardware |
63208508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20security%20awareness | Internet security awareness | Internet security awareness or Cyber security awareness refers to how much end-users know about the cyber security threats their networks face, the risks they introduce and mitigating security best practices to guide their behavior. End users are considered the weakest link and the primary vulnerability within a network. Since end-users are a major vulnerability, technical means to improve security are not enough. Organizations could also seek to reduce the risk of the human element (end users). This could be accomplished by providing security best practice guidance for end users' awareness of cyber security. Employees could be taught about common threats and how to avoid or mitigate them.
Cyber security awareness, training, education
A cyber security risk mitigating end user program could consist of a combination of multiple approaches including cyber security awareness, cyber security training, and cyber security education. According to, and adopted from, see the below table that provides a comparison of the approaches.
Threats
Threat agents or threat actors are the perpetrators of the threat and usually look for the easiest way to gain access into a network, which is often the human element. However, these cyber threats can be mitigated. Some common threats include but are not limited to below.
Social engineering is when someone uses a compelling story, authority, or other means to convince someone to hand over sensitive information such as usernames and passwords. An end user with cyber security awareness will have the ability to recognize these types of attacks which improves their ability to avoid them.
Phishing is a form of social engineering. It is a popular attack that attempts to trick users into clicking a link within an email or on a website in hopes that they divulge sensitive information. This attack generally relies on a bulk email approach and the low cost of sending phishing emails. Few targets are fooled, but so many are targeted that this is still a profitable vector.
Spear phishing is an email crafted and sent to a specific person to whom it may appear to be legitimate. It is a form of phishing, but it is more convincing and more likely to succeed than traditional phishing emails because it tailors the email to the victim. Its deployment can range from a bulk automated process, such as accessing the address book of a past victim and sending simple phishing attacks to their contacts (thus appearing to come from a recognized past contact), to more sophisticatedly hand-written communications to target specific recipients.
Vishing or voice phishing is a form of social engineering that involves contacting individuals via traditional landlines, telephony (i.e., Voice over IP), automated text-to-speech systems, or other forms of voice communications to trick them into divulging sensitive information like credit card data.
Smishing or SMS phishing is social engineering that leverages SMS or text messages as the vector to trick end users into divulging sensitive information.
Tailgating is a physical security social engineering attack in which an unauthorized individual can access a location by following an authorized user into the location without the authorized user's knowledge.
Piggybacking is a physical security social engineering attack in which an unauthorized individual can access a location by following an authorized user into the location with the authorized user's knowledge.
Malware is software created and used for malicious intent. It includes a range of software to include but is not limited to viruses, trojan horses, worms, rootkits, spyware, and crypto-jacking.
Ransomware is another cyber threat where attacks are carried out on the computer system but are often the result of a social engineering attack. This type of malware encrypts data and holds it for ransom which could paralyze the whole computer system.
Internet of Things (IoT) based attacks are a form of cyber threat in the 21st century and beyond that leverage vulnerabilities in the embedded devices found in, i.e., cars, refrigerators, and smart speakers or digital assistants.
Topics
There are various approaches within the cyber security risk mitigating end user program (see table above). And while this article is geared towards cyber security awareness, the following topics could also be leveraged for cybersecurity training, and cyber security education.
As reflected in the above table, there are several different delivery methods that can be taken to provide cyber security awareness. Some of which include using posters, guides, tips or even video and newsletters. Some possible Cyber security awareness topics according to include but are not limited to the following.
Anti-Malware Protection: Anti-malware is sometimes referred to as anti-virus. This type of application is used to protect systems against malicious software by preventing, detecting, and deleting the malware. Some popular malware includes computer viruses, ransomware, rootkit, trojan horses, and worms. Security end user awareness guidelines include device scans for malware and updating the anti-malware application definitions.
Data Protection and Privacy: There are various types of data that might be mandated to be protected from unauthorized disclosure, including personally identifiable information (PII), protected health information (PHI), intellectual property (IP), and other sensitive information. Security awareness guidelines include teaching related to data classification, encryption, data anonymization, and data masking or data obfuscation. Permissions and who can access data, which includes file sharing via email attachments, are additional safeguards that could be discussed. Another data protection control that could be included is backing up data as it could be restored if the original becomes unavailable.
Device Management: involves knowing how to protect mobile devices and computers. Device Management is also concerned with security related to Bring Your Own Device (BYOD). Security awareness guidelines include encryption, protecting the system with a password, PIN, or multi-factor authentication, and other forms of credential. Additional awareness tips include end-users downloading, installing, and reviewing applications and the requested permissions from unknown sources. According to, another awareness tip is to read reviews and comments about the application before installing it. Additionally, the use of public WIFI is another discussion point. Device management also relates to maintaining an accurate inventory of assets from purchase to disposition. This includes knowing when to wipe a device and media sanitization.
Incident Response: An incident is any observable event of malicious intent. Security awareness guidelines for end-users include what types of events are considered suspicious or malicious, who should be contacted if an incident occurs, and what actions should be taken in the event of an incident.
Internet of Things Security: are remotely controlled capable, resource constrained devices with embedded sensor chips that interact with people and objects to collect data and provide it to remote sources on the Internet for additional analysis in an effort to personalize and customize a user's experience. These devices include but are not limited to smart speakers, wearable devices like smart watch, surveillance cameras, lights, door locks, thermostats, appliances and cars. Guidelines include maintaining an asset inventory, patch control, and changing default credentials.
Password Management: A password is a string of secret characters used to authenticate a user's account. Security awareness guidelines suggest presenting requirements for creating a strong password or Passphrase, how frequently passwords should be changed, and how to protect passwords. Additionally, guidelines suggest the need to change all default passwords and to not share passwords with others. Additional protection options could include making end-users aware of using multi-factor authentication, password managers, and awareness of various password-related threats like password cracking.
Patching: Software and system changes to update, improve, or resolve weaknesses are usually released via a patch. Security awareness guidelines include the timely installation of security patches as well as implementing vulnerability assessment and vulnerability management.
Removable Media: are storage devices that could be added or removed from a running computer, such as CDs, DVDs, removable SD cards, and USB drives (including flash drives, thumb drives, external hard drives). Security awareness guidelines include drive encryption and following the policy and guidelines presented at the organizational level regarding the use of personal removable media on organizational systems.
Safe Web Browsing: Security awareness guidelines regarding securely navigating websites include looking for the padlock icon on the URL bar before entering sensitive information like credentials, credit card information, or personally identifiable information. Another visual indicator is "https" reflecting in the web address. The padlock and "https" indicate that the entered information will be secure. Lastly, guidance could be shared to set privacy options on the browser or use the incognito option to limit the information shared. Yet another guideline is to consider using a virtual private network (VPN).
Social Engineering involves interacting with humans in hopes that they will disclose sensitive information. Security awareness guidelines include not opening suspicious emails from unrecognized senders, not clicking on suspicious links in emails or on websites, not opening attachments in emails, not disclosing information, and not responding to suspicious emails or contacts provided therein.
See also
Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity standards
Cybercrime
Countermeasure (computer)
Social engineering (security)
Threat (computer)
Malware
References
Internet security
Cybercrime
Cyberwarfare
Cyber security awareness |
63321830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text-based%20email%20client | Text-based email client | A text-based email client is an email client with its user interface being text-based, occupying a whole terminal screen. Other kind of email clients are GUI-based (cf. email client) or Web-based, see Webmail.
Text-based email clients may be useful for users with visual impairment or partial blindness allowing speech synthesis or text-to-speech software to read content to users. Text-based email clients also allow to manage communication via simple remote sessions, e. g. per SSH, for instance when it is not possible to install a local GUI-client and/or access mail via Web interface. Also users may prefer text-based user interfaces in general.
Typical features include:
Editing various emails via tab support
Configurable rendering of various MIME types, for instance OpenPGP encryption or HTML email
Vim-style keybindings
Support for multiple accounts and protocols, e. g. IMAP, Maildir, SMTP, and sendmail
UTF-8 support
List of text-based email clients
Notable clients include:
aerc
cone
Elm
Emacs: Gnus, mu4e, rmail, Wanderlust
Lumail
mblaze
meli
Mutt
NeoMutt
pine
alpine
sup
vim (using a plugin for himalaya)
Email software for the command line that does not occupy the whole screen (cf. TUI) include e. g. Cleancode eMail, CURL, himalaya, mail (Unix), mailx, MH, procmail, sendmail, and many others.
See also
Text-based web browser
Comparison of email clients
References
Text mode
Email clients
Accessible information |
63338420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EARN%20IT%20Act | EARN IT Act | The EARN IT Act (S. 3538) is proposed legislation first introduced in 2020 in the United States Congress. It aims to amend Section 230 of the Communications Act of 1934, which allows operators of websites to remove user-posted content that they deem inappropriate, and provides them with immunity from civil lawsuits related to such posting. Section 230, the only surviving portion of the Communications Decency Act passed in 1996, has been credited for allowing the Internet to flourish without fear of legal repercussions since its passage.
A number of events in the 2010s led lawmakers to question the legal freedom that website operators have, and among other legislation options, the EARN IT Act was proposed to alter Section 230's protections and put more responsibility on website operators. While it initially failed to pass in 2020, it was reintroduced in 2022.
Background
Section 230 was introduced as an amendment with the 1996 Communications Decency Act (CDA) that sought to amend the Communications Act of 1934. Section 230 was introduced by Senators Christopher Cox and Ron Wyden after seeing news of a pair of lawsuits, Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe Inc. and Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy Services Co., which ruled very differently for two Internet service providers (ISP) on the matter of their liability for user content. The intent of Section 230 was to provide the same metaphor that ISPs were simply distributors of materials like booksellers, rather than publishers, and thus should not be responsible for the content they distribute for fear of creating a chilling effect on free speech.
Section 230 contained two primary clauses that apply to any "interactive computer service" such as a website, an ISP, or similar content provider.
Section 230(c)(1) states simply that "No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider."
Section 230(c)(2) is considered the "Good Samaritan clause," that as long as the service provider has no role in creating content provided by a user of their service, they are otherwise immune from tort-based lawsuits related to that content. However, providers are still required to remove content that is deemed criminally-infringing.
The CDA passed and was signed into law, but it was immediately challenged in the court system under Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union. The case concluded in 1997, ruling that all of the CDA excluding Section 230 was unconstitutional.
Section 230 itself was challenged in other cases, but case law established its constitutionality, primarily with Zeran v. America Online, Inc. in 1997, in which the Fourth Circuit stated that Congress had recognized the threat of tort-based challenges to the growing Internet and properly provided the liability protections that ISPs needed to sustain operations. Since then, Section 230 has generally survived all subsequent legal challenges, and the ability for the Internet to grow at a great pace has been attributed to it. Congress has passed one law that has impacted Section 230, the FOSTA-SESTA Act in 2018 that specifically removed liability protection from services that did not take actions against users knowingly involved in sex exploitation of children or sex trafficking.
Events leading to EARN IT
The 2016 United States presidential election drew concerns about possible Russian interference in the elections. In the wake of various allegations, the U.S. government, then with a Republican leadership, started questioning the role of the Big Tech companies—Google, Apple, Microsoft, and Facebook—as well as other social media sites like Twitter in moderating content. They faced increased pressure to address misinformation, hate, and violent content on their sites. Social media sites took steps to moderate content and, under their Section 230 allowance, blocked accounts they had deemed to violate their terms of service, most of which had come out of alt- and far-right groups. This led Republican lawmakers to claim that these sites were using Section 230 immunity to create a bias. Senator Ted Cruz argued that section 230 should only apply to providers that are politically "neutral", suggesting that a provider "should be considered to be a liable 'publisher or speaker' of user content if they pick and choose what gets published or spoke." Senator Josh Hawley alleged that Section 230 immunity was a "sweetheart deal between big tech and big government".
Legislation
The bill, as amended, would create a National Commission On Online Child Sexual Exploitation Prevention, a 19-member panel. The Attorney General, the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, and the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission (or their representatives) would serve as three of the members, while the remaining 16 are selected by the majority and minority leaders of both the House and Senate from experts in investigating child exploitation, assisting those that have been exploited as children, consumer protections, and computer security, including representatives from computer services. The Commission once formed will develop and continually update a Best Practices document aimed to provide guidance to service providers to help them to prevent child exploitation and aid in investigation of such crimes.
The bill also crafts two additional changes to Section 230(c)(2)'s liability, allows any state to bring a lawsuit to service providers if they fail to deal with child sexual abuse material on their service.
Finally, the bill replaces nearly all instances of the wording "child pornography" in existing laws with "child sexual abuse material".
Legislative history
Senator Lindsey Graham introduced the EARN Act in the Senate on March 5, 2020, with co-sponsors Richard Blumenthal, Kevin Cramer, Dianne Feinstein, Josh Hawley, Doug Jones, Robert Casey, Sheldon Whitehouse, Richard Durbin and Joni Ernst; Senators John Kennedy, Ted Cruz, Chuck Grassley, and Rob Portman co-sponsored the bill later. The bill was reviewed in the Committee on the Judiciary, and passed out of that committee on July 20, 2020 with an amended version to be voted by the Senate. The bill was introduced to the House on October 2, 2020.
The bill was reintroduced by Lindsey Graham and Richard Blumenthal in February 2022 and passed unanimously by the Senate Judiciary Committee.
Reception
Non-governmental organizations
The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children endorsed the EARN IT Act on March 5, 2020, writing that "it provides ESPs [electronic service providers] with a roadmap to adopt specific, consistent best practices developed by industry and subject matter experts to prevent, reduce, and respond to the online sexual exploitation of children". On the same day, the National Center on Sexual Exploitation, an anti-pornography organization, praised the act as "the best piece of accountability in the tech space since the passage of FOSTA-SESTA in 2018, which makes it illegal for interactive computer services to knowingly facilitate sex trafficking". Most people employed in the sex work industry oppose FOSTA-SESTA.
A coalition of 25 organizations, including FreedomWorks and the Wikimedia Foundation, published an open letter on March 6, 2020, expressing "strong opposition" to the EARN IT Act, citing perceived conflicts with the First and Fourth Amendments. The EARN IT Act was also criticized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation as "a direct threat to constitutional protections for free speech and expression" on January 31, by Human Rights Watch as a bill that "falsely suggests that we must choose between protecting children and protecting other fundamental rights, including privacy and free expression" on June 1, and by the American Civil Liberties Union, which stated that "the EARN IT Act will undermine the privacy of every single American, stifle our ability to communicate freely online, and harm LGBTQ people, sex workers, and protesters" on July 1. Opponents of the EARN IT Act recognized that some of the "best practices" would most likely include a backdoor for law enforcement into any encryption used on the site, in addition to the dismantling of Section 230's approach, based on commentary made by members of the federal agencies that would be placed on this commission. For example, former Attorney General Barr has extensively argued that the use of end-to-end encryption by online services can obstruct investigations by law enforcement, especially those involving child exploitation and has pushed for a governmental backdoor into encryption services. The Senators behind EARN IT have stated that there is no intent to bring any such encryption backdoors with this legislation. However, according to The Washington Post, Richard Blumenthal said that "lawmakers wouldn't offer a blanket exemption to using encryption as evidence, arguing companies might use it as a 'get-out-of-jail-free card.'"
In February 2022, 60 privacy and human rights groups sent a letter to lawmakers expressing opposition to the EARN IT Act.
Members of Congress
In a statement following the Senate Judiciary Committee's unanimous passage of the bill, Graham praised the bipartisanship against the "scourge of child sexual abuse material and the exploitation of children on the internet." Further, he asserted that social media companies and internet service providers would be able to defend themselves in a civil suit as long as they employ "the best business practices."
Wyden was critical of the bill, calling it "a transparent and deeply cynical effort by a few well-connected corporations and the Trump administration to use child sexual abuse to their political advantage, the impact to free speech and the security and privacy of every single American be damned." Graham stated that the goal of the bill was "to do this in a balanced way that doesn't overly inhibit innovation, but forcibly deals with child exploitation." As an implicit response to EARN IT, Wyden along with House Representative Anna G. Eshoo proposed a new bill, the Invest in Child Safety Act, in May 2020 that would give to the Department of Justice to give additional manpower and tools to enable them to address child exploitation directly rather than to rely on technology companies to rein in the problem.
Media outlets
Kir Nuthi of Slate argued that obliging all internet services to proactively monitor for CSAM could make it inadmissible as evidence under the Fourth Amendment due to the Exclusionary rule, as it was not collected voluntarily.
References
Proposed legislation of the 116th United States Congress
Internet law in the United States
Mass media-related controversies in the United States |
63345448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mother%20of%20Exiles | The Mother of Exiles | "The Mother of Exiles" is the fourth episode in the third season of the HBO science fiction dystopian thriller television series Westworld. The episode aired on April 5, 2020. It was written by Jordan Goldberg and Lisa Joy, and directed by Paul Cameron.
Plot summary
William is tormented by nightmares of killing his daughter Emily in Westworld. Charlotte wakes William and tells him she needs him at a Delos board meeting to protect the company from Serac. William cleans himself up and wards off another vision of Emily by telling her it was a conscious decision to kill her. As he leaves, Charlotte comments on his visions of Emily, shocking him.
Believing Dolores has swapped Liam with a host, Bernard and Ashley prepare to infiltrate a private charity event in Los Angeles to abduct Liam. Dolores and Caleb make similar plans after transferring all of Liam's funds out of his account. At the masquerade party event, Bernard and Ashley grab Liam after he discovers his funds are gone, but quickly learn Liam is not a host. Bernard runs off with Liam as Caleb chases them, while Dolores fights Ashley. Bernard is approached by Martin and Liam's bodyguards, and Bernard realizes Martin is the host when Martin kills the guards. Martin instructs Liam to flee and for Caleb to follow him.
Serac again urges Maeve to help find Dolores, as not only does she hold the encryption key to the Delos data, but also to the Sublime to reunite Maeve with her daughter. He claims that Delos' secret project of mapping the human mind can prevent humanity from destroying itself. He reveals his native Paris was destroyed in a nuclear blast. He knows Dolores brought five host control modules, "pearls", and coerces an identity broker to reveal a lead to a Singapore organ trade doctor with ties to the Yakuza. The doctor directs Maeve to the Yakuza headquarters. After dispatching the guards, Maeve meets the Yakuza leader, Sato, recognizing him as the Musashi host from Shōgunworld.
William, Bernard, and Maeve all recognize that Charlotte, Martin, and Sato are all hosts with copies of Dolores' pearl. Dolores, via Sato, tells Maeve that she needs to duplicate herself to prevent Serac from stopping her. She then critically wounds Maeve. William lashes out at Charlotte and she has him committed to a mental institution, where he has a vision of Dolores as he remembered her from the park. She declares he has reached the end of his game. Martin takes Bernard to meet up with Caleb, who has cornered Liam. They are soon joined by Dolores, whom Liam recognizes as Lara, the girlfriend he thought was dead.
Production
This episode reveals that there are at least three additional copies of the Dolores host in addition to the one played by Evan Rachel Wood, with these residing in the hosts of Charlotte Hale (played by Tessa Thompson), Martin Conells (Tommy Flanagan) and Sato (Hiroyuki Sanada). Showrunner Jonathan Nolan said that they had purposely avoided the idea of digital clones in the first two seasons of Westworld, as they felt it would be too early to introduce how such copies would reflect on the nature of hosts while they were still exploring the nature of sentience. With the third season, they were ready to explore this more, and consider concepts such as the nature of how identity would develop and change based on the situation and environment around the host. Wood said that this was partially clued to the audience by the use of blue in the costuming for Charlotte, Martin, and Sato.
The masquerade party event sequence is loosely similar to Stanley Kubrick's 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut, which infiltrates a massive masked orgy with several sexual fantasies used for high-class sex workers beginning to auctioned off in a center of eroticism.
Thompson said that unlike with the end of the second season, where she also portrayed a host based on Charlotte but with Dolores' pearl within it, she had been told of the similar situation for her character early on. In the second season, Thompson had only been told the evening before her first scenes in the Charlotte-as-Dolores part, so did not have as much time to prepare. With the third season, she had the season's 'writing bible' early on and was able to study Wood's mannerisms to adopt better into her own acting to help with her performance. Similarly, Flanagan and Sanada only found out shortly before they were to perform their roles on their character's true identity but worked to incorporate Wood's manners she had brought into Dolores into their characters.
The episode title is referenced to "The New Colossus", a sonnet by the American poet Emma Lazarus, which is about the poem to raise money for the construction of a pedestal for the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) in New York City's Liberty Island, and it was the first entry read at the exhibit's opening on November 2, 1883. The poem was cast onto a bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal's lower level in 1903.
This episode is also the only one in this season doesn't have an official behind the scenes video after episode.
Music
An instrumental orchestral cover of The Weeknd's song "Wicked Games" was arranged and composed by series composer Ramin Djawadi used for the masquerade party event sequence in this episode. It was released as single by WaterTower Music on the same day as the episode's broadcast.
Reception
"The Mother of Exiles" received a positive critique from reviewers. On Rotten Tomatoes, it received an approval rating of 85% and an average score of 8/10, based on 20 ratings. The website's critical consensus reads: "Amid action-packed chases and ultraviolent showdowns, 'The Mother of Exiles' reintroduces a beloved key character and provides some well-deserved, shockingly twisty answers."
The original live broadcast received 779,000 viewers, which was slightly down in viewership from the previous episode which had 801,000 viewers.
References
External links
at HBO.com
2020 American television episodes
Westworld (TV series) episodes |
63369842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol%20ossification | Protocol ossification | Protocol ossification is a progressive reduction in the flexibility of network protocol design caused by the presence of middleboxes in the network which cannot easily be removed or upgraded to allow protocol changes. An example of this is the presence of firewalls and carrier-grade NAT proxies and other middleboxes in the Internet, where over-cautious checking of protocol fields has prevented the use of those fields for future protocol expansion, breaking the end-to-end principle of the Internet architecture.
For example, protocol ossification initially prevented the adoption of TLS 1.3, a problem which was fixed by a workaround which introduced elements into the TLS 1.3 handshake which appeared (falsely) to middleboxes to be a TLS 1.2 handshake.
Protocol ossification can be avoided by the use of encryption or tunnelling to hide the structure of new protocol extensions from older middleboxes. QUIC is an examples of a protocol which uses encryption to avoid middleboxes.
The Internet Engineering Task Force created the Transport Services Working Group (TAPS WG) in 2015 as an attempt to address the problem.
GREASE, described in , adds randomly generated unknown options to TLS connections to prevent middleboxes from blocking unknown values. It is an attempt to stop the TLS protocol from "rusting shut" in the future.
See also
Extensibility
References
External links
IETF TAPS Working Group |
63404543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prof%3A%20Alan%20Turing%20Decoded | Prof: Alan Turing Decoded | Prof: Alan Turing Decoded is a 2015 biography of Alan Turing, a 20th-century mathematician and computer scientist, authored by his nephew Dermot Turing. Written in a non-academic style, it begins with Turing's family history and early childhood, continuing with his contributions to Britain's cryptanalysis and encryption efforts in World War II and culminating with Turing's conviction for homosexuality and later suicide. It also discusses Turing's contributions to computer science both before and after the war, omitting technical details. It contains previously unpublished material such as photographs and letters, in particular describing the nature of Turing's work in World War II between 1942 and 1945, much of which was not public knowledge beforehand. Reviews of it are mostly positive.
History
Alan Turing (1912–1954) was a 20th-century mathematician and a significant early contributor to the fields of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. He is well known for his work on cryptanalysis of the Enigma during World War II, to help decode German military intelligence. Sir Dermot Turing is the nephew of Alan Turing and the twelfth of the Turing baronets. His father John Turing was Alan's elder brother. Whilst writing the book, Dermot Turing served as director of the Bletchley Park Trust, allowing him access to previously unpublished works.
Andrew Hodges' 1983 biography Alan Turing: The Enigma (new edition in 2012) is considered the standard reference work for Turing's life and works. Prof: Alan Turing Decoded is considerably shorter, not written in an academic style and does not cover technical details of Turing's work. Dermot Turing used The Enigma as a reference work. Other literature includes Alan M. Turing (1959, new edition in 2012), by his mother Ethel Sara Turing, and Turing: The Pioneer of the Information Age (2012) by Jack Copeland. In 2014, a movie about Turing entitled The Imitation Game had been released.
Prior to the book's release, little was known of Turing's war efforts between 1942 and 1945, after his work on code-breaking had ended. The book contains information on Turing's work on encryption of telegraph, radio and voice communication—including efforts to prevent eavesdropping on communications between UK prime minister Winston Churchill and US president Franklin D. Roosevelt. The information came from documents held by the UK government's intelligence organisation, GCHQ, which they were in the process of releasing publicly.
The book contains novel information which undermines suggestions that Turing's suicide was subject to an official cover-up. Dermot Turing found correspondence from his father indicating that Turing was having relationship issues with a man named Roy near to his death. He also published excerpts from letters Turing wrote to his friend Nick Furbank, relating to Turing's chemical castration and relationship with his mother after he was convicted for homosexuality. The book also contains previously unpublished photographs of Turing on holiday as a young boy. Dermot Turing disputed a popular perception of Alan Turing as solitary in nature. People found that Turing was difficult to understand rather than deliberately uncooperative, and though he may have been uncomfortable around new people, he was "vibrant, humorous, fun to be with and social" amongst his friends.
Synopsis
The book consists of eleven chapters, in addition to an introduction and epilogue. Its title's use of the word "prof" is a reference to a nickname given to Turing by Bletchley Park colleagues, though he never held a professorship role. The first chapter, "Unreliable Ancestors", details Turing's family history, particularly their role in Colonial India and the radiology accomplishments of two of the women. "Dismal Childhoods" is about Turing's early upbringing: his mother returned to India when he was four months old, and he and his older brother John were raised by the Ward family.
The chapters "Direction of Travel" and "Kingsman" document Turing's development to adulthood, from his attendance at the boarding school Sherborne School to his studies at King's College, Cambridge, where he was elected a fellow at the age of 22. "Machinery of Logic" follows Turing's graduate study under Alonzo Church at Princeton University.
In "Prof" and "Looking Glass War", Dermot Turing writes about his uncle's role in World War II, where he worked on code-breaking for Britain at Bletchley Park and then on encrypting voice communications. The book also details the cracking of German teleprinter ciphers with the codename "fish" and the research and development of the Colossus computers. "Lousy Computer" and "Taking Shape" follow Turing's work at the National Physical Laboratory and Victoria University of Manchester, respectively. In the latter, he worked on an early stored-program computer, the Manchester Mark 1, and became interested in overlap between mathematics and biology.
The focus of "Machinery of Justice" is the legal case and consequences of Turing's conviction for sexual relations with a man. The final chapter, "Unseen Worlds", describes Turing's ideas in the areas of biology and zoology. The epilogue, titled "Alan Turing Decoded", features condolences and messages of appreciation from family members and others.
Reception
Chris Christensen of Cryptologia reviewed that the book is a "good first choice" for a biography of Turing, whilst Nick Smith of Engineering & Technology praised that "no engineer's library is complete without it".
Clare Mulley of History Today complimented the book's "personable" tone and "stylistic flourishes", and both Mulley and Nick Smith of Engineering & Technology wrote positively of its anecdotal style. Mulley found that it contributes towards "a more nuanced picture of the human side of Turing". In comparison to other biographies, Mulley reviewed that the book "neither ignores nor elevates the importance of [Alan Turing's] sexuality".
David H. Hamer of Cryptologia praised the work's coverage of Bletchley Park and the development of the computer. However, Christensen noted some minor inaccuracies in the book. Group theory's invention was incorrectly attributed to John von Neumann, the controversy of Bayesian statistics is exaggerated and Christensen criticised an analogy of the bombe to Turing machines as defined in Turing's On Computable Numbers. Hamer and Christensen both express frustration at the lack of an index, but praise the book's frequent illustrations.
Release details
As well as in print, the book has been released in audiobook form, with a Chinese translation available and a special edition released for GCHQ.
References
2015 non-fiction books
Biographies about LGBT people
Biographies and autobiographies of mathematicians
Books about scientists
British biographies
Cultural depictions of Alan Turing
History books about World War II
2010s LGBT literature |
63435456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom%20%28software%29 | Zoom (software) | Zoom Meetings (commonly shortened to Zoom, and stylized as zoom) is a proprietary video teleconferencing software program developed by Zoom Video Communications. The free plan allows up to 100 concurrent participants, with a 40-minute time restriction. Users have the option to upgrade by subscribing to a paid plan. The highest plan supports up to 1,000 concurrent participants for meetings lasting up to 30 hours.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a major increase in the use of Zoom for remote work, distance education, and online social relations. The increase led to Zoom being the 5th most downloaded mobile app worldwide in 2020 at 477.3 million downloads.
History
Zoom was originally founded in 2011. Its headquarters are located in San Jose, California. Zoom also has offices in Europe, Asia, and Australia.
A beta version of Zoom—that could host conferences with only up to 15 video participants—was launched on August 21, 2012. On January 25, 2013, version 1.0 of the program was released with an increase in the number of participants per conference to 25. By the end of its first month, Zoom had 400,000 users, and rose to over one million users by May 2013. After the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, by February 2020, Zoom had gained 2.22 million users in 2020 – more users than it amassed in the entirety of 2019 with the company's share price spiking by 35 percent. In March 2020, the Zoom app was downloaded 2.13 million times. In April 2020, Zoom had more than 300 million daily meeting participants.
On August 24, 2020, Zoom experienced widespread outages for several hours before service was restored.
Features
Zoom is compatible with Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Chrome OS, and Linux. It is noted for its simple interface and usability, regardless of technological expertise. Features include one-on-one meetings, group video conferences, screen sharing, plugins, browser extensions, and the ability to record meetings and have them automatically transcribed. On some computers and operating systems, users are able to select a virtual background, which can be downloaded from different sites, to use as a backdrop behind themselves.
Use of the platform is free for video conferences of up to 100 participants at once, with a 40-minute time limit if there are more than two participants. For longer or larger conferences with more features, paid subscriptions are available, costing $15–20 per month. Features geared towards business conferences, such as Zoom Rooms, are available for $50–100 per month. Up to 49 people can be seen on a desktop or laptop screen at once, up to 4 people per screen in iPhone and Android mobile phones and tablet computers, and up to 16 people per screen on iPad. Zoom has several tiers: Basic, Pro, Business, and Enterprise. Participants do not have to download the app if they are using Google Chrome or Firefox; they can click on a link and join from the browser. Users have to download the software in tablet computers and mobile phones with Android and iOS.
Zoom security features include password-protected meetings, user authentication, waiting rooms, locked meetings, disabling participant screen sharing, randomly generated IDs, and the ability for the host to remove disruptive attendees. As of June 2020, Zoom began offering end-to-end encryption to business and enterprise users, with AES 256 GCM encryption enabled for all users. In October 2020, Zoom added end-to-end encryption for free and paid users. It's available on all platforms, except for the official Zoom web client.
Zoom also offers a transcription service using Otter.ai software that allows businesses to store transcriptions of the Zoom meetings online and search them, including separating and labeling different speakers.
As of July 2020, Zoom Rooms and Zoom Phone also became available as hardware as a service products. Zoom Phone is available for domestic telephone service in 40 countries as of August 2020. In January 2021, the company disclosed that it had sold 1 million seats for the Zoom Phone service. Zoom for Home, a category of products designed for home use, became available in August 2020.
In September 2020, Zoom added new accessibility features to make the app easier to use for those who are deaf, hard of hearing, or visually impaired. New features include the ability to move around video windows in gallery view, pin video windows to be spotlighted; improved keyboard shortcuts; new tools to adjust the size of closed captioning text; and sign language interpreters' windows can now sit directly next to the speaker.
In October 2020 at Zoomtopia, Zoom's annual user conference, the company unveiled OnZoom, a virtual event marketplace with an integrated payment system where users can host and promote free or paid live events. With OnZoom, users will be able to schedule and host one-time events or event series for up to 1,000 attendees, and sell tickets online. The company also announced Zoom Apps, a feature integrating third-party apps so they can be used within the Zoom interface during meetings. The first such apps were expected to be available around the end of 2020, from companies including Slack, Salesforce, Dropbox. and Qatalog. In October 2020, Zoom gave its users better security with an upgrade to end-to-end encryption for its online meetings network.
On March 22, 2021, Zoom announced that it would start selling its videoconferencing technology as a white-label product, so other companies can embed it in their own products, with the calls running over Zoom but not carrying the company's brand name.
In August 2021, Zoom launched a new feature called Focus Mode. It is designed for use in digital classrooms and other educational settings. When active, the mode will hide participants' screens from each other (though they can see each other's names) while the host retains the ability to see everyone's camera stream or screen share. The feature is available across all Zoom accounts, including free ones.
In September 2021 at Zoomtopia, the company announced that end-to-end encryption would now be available as an upgrade for Zoom Phone users. The company also announced Bring Your Own Key (BYOK) (for users to manage their own encryption keys that Zoom cannot access or see), Verified Identity (a multi-factor authentication feature working through Okta that allows users to confirm the identity of meeting participants), and Video Engagement Center (for businesses to digitally interact with customers). Other announced updates include revamped virtual whiteboard features, including touchscreen whiteboards that can be digitized for remote participants, and improved collaboration between Zoom Meetings and Zoom Chat.
In October 2021, the option to automatically generate closed captions in English for Zoom meetings was expanded to all accounts, including free ones. The feature had previously only been available for Premium users.
Usage
Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Zoom has been used by banks, schools, universities, and government agencies around the world, by the UK Parliament, by healthcare professionals for telemedicine, barbershops, and ceremonies such as birthday parties, funeral services, and bar and bat mitzvah services. Zoom formed a partnership with Formula One to create a virtual club where fans can go behind the scenes and take part in virtual activities through Zoom, beginning with the Hungarian Grand Prix on July 19, 2020. An article published in July 2020 in the San Francisco Chronicle noted a new real estate trend in San Francisco and Oakland where some listings include "Zoom rooms" with backdrops for Zoom calls. People were complaining about "zoom fatigue" (too many video calls) before they had their "zoom happy hour" (online social meeting with friends or colleagues).
Richard Nelson's play What Do We Need to Talk About? takes place on Zoom, with its main characters congregating online during the COVID-19 pandemic using Zoom. Written and directed by Nelson, it was commissioned by The Public Theater and premiered on YouTube on April 29, 2020, as a benefit performance. The New Yorker called it "the first great original play of quarantine". Oprah's Your Life in Focus: A Vision Forward was a live virtual experience hosted by Oprah Winfrey on Zoom from May 16 through June 6, 2020. In Source Material's play In These Uncertain Times, directed by Samantha Shay, characters communicate on Zoom. The play premiered on Zoom on July 25, 2020. In the 2020 British found-footage Zoom-based horror film Host, directed by Rob Savage, a group of young people have a remote séance in which they try contacting spirits over Zoom. It premiered on Shudder in July 2020. A live reading of Kristoffer Diaz's 2009 play The Elaborate Entrance of Chad Deity over Zoom streamed on Play-PerView from August 15–20, 2020. In the 2021 film Locked Down, directed by Doug Liman and starring Anne Hathaway and Chiwetel Ejiofor, characters communicate through Zoom conferences.
On July 3–4, 2020, using Zoom Webinar, the International Association of Constitutional Law and Alma Mater Europaea organized the first "round-the-clock and round-the-globe" event that traveled through time zones, featuring 52 speakers from 28 countries. Soon after, a format of conferences that "virtually travel the globe with the sun from East to West", became common, some of them running for several days.
On September 17, 2020, a live table read of the script for the 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High was hosted by Dane Cook, with performers including Brad Pitt, Jennifer Aniston, Julia Roberts, original cast member Sean Penn, Matthew McConaughey, Shia LaBeouf, Morgan Freeman (who served as the narrator), Jimmy Kimmel, Ray Liotta, and John Legend, to raise money for the charity CORE. The broadcast of the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards on September 20, 2020, hosted by Jimmy Kimmel, featured nominees participating through Zoom. On an alternate music video for the 2020 single "Ice Cream" by Blackpink featuring Selena Gomez, the artists appeared via Zoom from their homes. The series Zoom Where It Happens, airing on Zoom as a partnership between Zoom and Black female artists, launched in September 2020 with a virtual table read of an episode of The Golden Girls, reimagined with an all-Black cast. The second episode featured an all-Black cast in a table read of an episode of Friends, hosted by Gabrielle Union and featuring Sterling K. Brown and Uzo Aduba.
Reception
Zoom has been criticized for "security lapses and poor design choices" that have resulted in heightened scrutiny of its software. Many of Zoom's issues "surround deliberate features designed to reduce friction in meetings", which Citizen Lab found to "also, by design, reduce privacy or security". In March 2020, New York State Attorney General Letitia James launched an inquiry into Zoom's privacy and security practices, the inquiry was closed on May 7, 2020, with Zoom not admitting wrongdoing, but agreeing to take added security measures. In April 2020, CEO Yuan apologized for the security issues, stating that some of the issues were a result of Zoom's having been designed for "large institutions with full IT support", he noted that in December 2019, Zoom had a maximum of 10 million daily users, and in March 2020 the software had more than 200 million daily users, bringing the company increased challenges. Zoom agreed to focus on data privacy and issue a transparency report. In April 2020, the company released Zoom version 5.0, which addressed a number of the security and privacy concerns. It includes passwords by default, improved encryption, and a new security icon for meetings. In September 2020, Zoom added support for two-factor authentication to its desktop and mobile apps; the security feature was previously Web-only.
As of April 2020, businesses, schools, and government entities who have restricted or prohibited the use of Zoom on their networks include Google, Siemens, the Australian Defence Force, the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, SpaceX, and the New York City Department of Education. In May 2020, the New York City Department of Education lifted their ban on Zoom after the company addressed security and privacy concerns.
By September 2020, Zoom had 370,200 institutional customers with more than 10 employees, up about 458 percent from the same quarter to the year before. The company's revenue rose 355 percent to $663.5 million, topping analysts' average estimate of $500.5 million. They were able to raise their annual revenue forecast by more than 30 percent after many of their free users converted to paid subscriptions.
During the pandemic, Zoom's profit increased by 4000% despite paying zero taxes according to a report by the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, leading to controversies.
Privacy
Zoom has been criticized for its privacy and corporate data sharing policies, as well as enabling video hosts to potentially violate the privacy of those participating in their calls. There may also be issues with unauthorized surveillance of students and possible violations of students' rights under the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). According to the company, the video services are FERPA-compliant, and it collects and stores user data only for tech support.
In March 2020, a Motherboard article found that the company's iOS app was sending device analytics data to Facebook on startup, regardless of whether a Facebook account was being used with the service, and without disclosing it to the user. Zoom responded that it had recently been made aware of the issue and patched the app to remove the SDK after learning that it was collecting unnecessary device data. The company stated that the SDK was only collecting information on the user's device specifications (such as model names and operating system versions) in order to optimize its service and that it was not collecting personal information. In the same month, Zoom was sued by a user in U.S. Federal Court for illegally and secretly disclosing personal data to third parties including Facebook. Zoom responded that it "has never sold user data in the past and has no intention of selling users' data going forward".
In April 2020, a Zoom information gathering feature was found that automatically sent user names and email addresses to LinkedIn, allowing some participants to surreptitiously access LinkedIn profile data about other users without their express consent. The companies disabled their integration. In May 2020, the Federal Trade Commission announced that it was looking into Zoom's privacy practices. The FTC alleged in a complaint that since at least 2016, "Zoom maintained the cryptographic keys that could allow Zoom to access the content of its customers' meetings, did not provide advertised end-to-end encryption, falsely claimed HIPAA compliance, installed the ZoomOpener webserver without adequate consent, did not uninstall the web server after uninstalling the Zoom App, and secured its Zoom Meetings with a lower level of encryption than promised." On November 9, 2020, a settlement was reached, requiring the company to stop misrepresenting security features, create an information security program, obtain biannual assessments by a third party, and implement additional security measures.
Security
In November 2018, a security vulnerability was discovered that allowed a remote unauthenticated attacker to spoof UDP messages that allowed the attacker to remove attendees from meetings, spoof messages from users, or hijack shared screens. The company released fixes shortly after the vulnerability was discovered.
In July 2019, security researcher Jonathan Leitschuh disclosed a zero-day vulnerability allowing any website to force a macOS user to join a Zoom call, with their video camera activated, without the user's permission. Attempts to uninstall the Zoom client on macOS would prompt the software to re-install automatically in the background using a hidden web server that was set up on the machine during the first installation so that it remains active even after attempting to remove the client. After receiving public criticism, Zoom removed the vulnerability and the hidden webserver to allow complete uninstallation.
In April 2020, security researchers found vulnerabilities where Windows users' credentials could be exposed. Another vulnerability allowing unprompted access to cameras and microphones was made public. Zoom issued a fix in April 2020. In the same month, "Zoombombing", the phenomenon of unwanted participants joining a meeting to cause disruption, prompted a warning from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Motherboard reported that there were two Zoom zero-days for macOS and Windows respectively, selling for $500,000, on April 15, 2020. Security bug brokers were selling access to Zoom security flaws that could allow remote access into users' computers. Hackers also put up over 500,000 Zoom user names and passwords for sale on the dark web. In response to the multitude of security and privacy issues found, Zoom began a comprehensive security plan, which included consulting with Luta Security, Trail of Bits, former Facebook CSO Alex Stamos, former Google global lead of privacy technology Lea Kissner, BishopFox, the NCC Group, and Johns Hopkins University cryptographer Matthew D. Green. On April 20, 2020, the New York Times reported that Dropbox engineers had traced Zoom's security vulnerabilities back over two years, pushing Zoom to address such issues more quickly, and paying top hackers to find problems with Zoom's software. In the same article, the New York Times noted that security researchers have praised Zoom for improving its response times, and for quickly patching recent bugs and removing features that could have privacy risks. In April 2020, Zoom made many of its security settings default settings, and they advised users on ways to mitigate Zoombombing. In a blog post on April 1, 2020, Yuan announced a 90-day freeze on releasing new features, to focus on fixing privacy and security issues within the platform. The company created a new "report a user to Zoom" button, intended to catch those behind Zoombombing attacks. On July 1, 2020, at the end of the freeze, the company stated it had released 100 new safety features over the 90-day period. Those efforts include end-to-end encryption for all users, turning on meeting passwords by default, giving users the ability to choose which data centers calls are routed from, consulting with security experts, forming a CISO council, an improved bug bounty program, and working with third parties to help test security. Yuan also stated that Zoom would be sharing a transparency report later in 2020.
On 16 November 2020, Zoom announced a new security feature to combat disruptions during a session. The new feature was said to be a default for all free and paid users and made available on the Zoom clients for Mac, PC, and Linux, as well as Zoom mobile apps.
Encryption practices
Zoom encrypts its public data streams, using TLS 1.2 with AES-256 (Advanced Encryption Standard) to protect signaling, and AES-128 to protect streaming media.
Security researchers and reporters have criticized the company for its lack of transparency and poor encryption practices. Zoom initially claimed to use "end-to-end encryption" in its marketing materials, but later clarified it meant "from Zoom end point to Zoom end point" (meaning effectively between Zoom servers and Zoom clients), which The Intercept described as misleading and "dishonest". Alex Stamos, a Zoom advisor who was formerly security chief at Facebook, noted that a lack of end-to-end encryption is common in such products, as it is also true of Google Hangouts, Microsoft Teams, and Cisco Webex. On May 7, 2020, Zoom announced that it had acquired Keybase, a company specializing in end-to-end encryption, as part of an effort to strengthen its security practices moving forward. Later that month, Zoom published a document for peer review, detailing its plans to ultimately bring end-to-end encryption to the software.
In April 2020, Citizen Lab researchers discovered that a single, server-generated AES-128 key is being shared between all participants in ECB mode, which is deprecated due to its pattern-preserving characteristics of the ciphertext. During test calls between participants in Canada and United States, the key was provisioned from servers located in mainland China where they are subject to the China Internet Security Law.
On June 3, 2020, Zoom announced that users on their free tier will not have access to end-to-end encryption so that they could cooperate with the FBI and law enforcement. Later, they said that they do not "proactively monitor meeting content". On June 17, 2020, the company reversed course and announced that free users would have access to end-to-end encryption after all.
On September 7, 2020, cryptography researcher Nadim Kobeissi accused Zoom's security team of failing to credit his open-source protocol analysis research software, Verifpal, with being instrumental during the design phase of Zoom's new encryption protocol, as described in their whitepaper published in June 2020. Kobeissi published a week's worth of conversations with Zoom's security leadership in support of his claim, including Max Krohn, which included eight Verifpal models that Zoom's team asked for feedback on, promises of a citation to credit Kobeissi for his contributions and an admission that the Verifpal citation was pulled from the whitepaper at the last moment for unspecified reasons. Kobeissi also linked to a tweet by Zoom security consultant Lea Kissner which he described as a public character assassination attempt issued in response to his repeated requests to have his work cited in the research paper published by Zoom.
Data routing
Zoom admitted that some calls in early April 2020 and prior were mistakenly routed through servers in mainland China, prompting some governments and businesses to cease their usage of Zoom. The company later announced that data of free users outside of China would "never be routed through China" and that paid subscribers will be able to customize which data center regions they want to use. The company has data centers in Europe, Asia, North America, and Latin America.
Censorship
An April 2020 Citizen Lab report warned that having much of Zoom's research and development in China could "open up Zoom to pressure from Chinese authorities". Lee Cheuk Yan's (Chairman of Hong Kong Labour Party) account was also closed in early May 2020, and human rights activist Zhou Fengsuo's was closed in June after he held an event discussing the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. In June 2020, Zoom acknowledged that it had terminated two accounts belonging to U.S. users and one of a user from Hong Kong connected to meetings discussing 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, the accounts were later re-opened, with the company stating that in the future it "will have a new process for handling similar situations". Zoom also announced upcoming technology that could prevent participants from specific countries from joining calls that were deemed illegal in those areas.
In September 2020, Zoom blocked San Francisco State University from using its video conferencing software to host Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) militant and hijacker Leila Khaled in response to vigorous lobbying by the Jewish coalition group "End Jewish Hatred". In justifying its decision, Zoom cited the PFLP's designation as a terrorist organization by the United States Government and its efforts to comply with U.S. export control, sanctions, and anti-terrorism laws. Facebook and YouTube also joined Zoom in denying their platforms to the conference organizers. Professor Rabab Ibrahim Abdulhadi, one of the conference organizers, criticized Zoom, Facebook, and Google for allegedly censoring Palestinian voices.
Transparency
On December 18, 2020, Zoom announced it would be issuing its first transparency report. These reports will be published twice a year beginning in 2021. These reports are supposed to show how Zoom responds when user data is requested by law enforcement or government officials. Zoom states that it "only produces user data to governments in response to valid and lawful requests in accordance with our Government Requests Guide and relevant legal policies". The first report covers from May 1, 2020, to December 12, 2020.
Regulatory issues
In August 2021, the Data Protection regulatory body in Hamburg, Germany, ruled that Zoom is operating in the European Union in breach of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). This is due to the fact that, as per the Schrems II ruling, data that is being transferred out of the EU must be given the same protections that provided by GDPR. The data gathered by Zoom is being sent to the United States.
See also
List of video telecommunication services and product brands
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
Zoom fatigue
Zoom town
References
External links
2012 software
Videotelephony
Web conferencing
Internet properties established in 2012
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
Software associated with the COVID-19 pandemic |
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